WN82

WINTER 1982
Volume 18 Number 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EDITORIAL
185
FEATURE
ARTICLES
186
In Tribute to Robert M. Shipley, Jr.

The Chanthaburi-Trat Gem Field, Thailand
Peter C. Keller
197
Gemstones with Alexandrite Effect

E. Giibelin and K. Schmetzer
204
Gem-Quality Grossular Garnets

D. Vincent Manson and Carol M. Stockton
NOTES
AND NEW
TECHNIQUES
214
Artistryfin Rock Crystal: The Van Pelt Collection

John Sinkankcis
221
Gem-Quality Friedelite from the Kalahari Manganese

Field near Kuruman, South Africa
Herbert S . Pienaar
Tourmaline as an Inclusion in Zambian Emeralds

John I. Koivula
REGULAR
FEATURES
Gem Trade Lab Notes

Editorial Forum
Gemological Abstracts
Book Reviews
Gem News
Index to Volume 18, Numbers 1-4
ABOUT THE COVER: This unusual quartz egg, measuring 3 in. x 5 in. (7.6 c m x 12.7 cm) is
covered with 416 triangular facets and has been hollowed out so that the walls are only 3
m m thick. The techniques used b y Harold and Erica Van Pelt to fashion this unusual art
object are described by Dr. John Sinkankas in this issue. The egg is resting on a 363-ct
aquamarine pedestal, and the quartz base sits on four 5-ct aquamarine cabochons. Photograph
1982 Harold and Erica Van Pelt, Los Angeles, CA.
Composition for Gems & Gemology is by Printed Page Graphics, Fullerton, CA. The color
separations are done b y Effective Graphics, Compton, CA. Printing is b y Waverly Press, Easton, MD.
"1983 Gemological Institute o f America.
All rights reserved.
ISSN 001 6-626X
Associate Editor
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Contributing Editor
John I. Koivula
Managing Editor
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Los Angeles, CA
Robert E. Kane
Los Angeles, CA
John Koivula
Santa Monica, CA
Sallie Morton
San lose, CA
Kurt Nassau
Bernardsville, N/
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Los Angeles, CA
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Pasadena, CA
John Sinkankas
San Diego, CA
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MANUSCRIPT
SUBMISSIONS
Gems a) Gemology welcomes the submission of articles on all aspects of the field. Please see the Suggestions for
Authors for preparing manuscripts in the Summer 1981 issue of the journal or contact the Managing Editor for a copy.
Letters on articles published in Gems a) Gemology and other relevant matters are also welcome.
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Gems a) Gemology is published quarterly by the Gemological Institute of America, a nonprofit educational
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EDITORIAL
STAFF
Editor-in-Chief
Richard T . Liddicoat, Jr.
Associate Editor
Peter C. Keller
Editor, Gem Trade Lab Notes

Chuck Fryer
Editor, Gemological Abstracts
Dona M. Dirlarn
Editor, Book Reviews
Michael Ross
Editor, Gem News
Stephanie Dillion
Any opinions expressed in signed articles are understood to be the views of the authors and not of the publishers
IN TRIBUTE TO
ROBERT M. SHIPLEY, JR.
obert M. Shipley, Jr., the elder son of the founder of the Gemological Institute
of America, passed away on September 10 after a long illness. He was 69 years
old. Bob Jr., as he was known to many of his friends in the gemological field, was
a great asset to his father in the early days of GIA. He came west from Wichita to
join his father in 1933, and his expertise in the laboratory field and in the development of instrumentation for gemologists quickly became apparent. The younger
Shipley soon became Director of the GIA Laboratory and was instrumental in establishing its reputation across the nation.
In many respects, Robert Shipley, Jr., was a genius in instrumentation. Prior to his
efforts, gemologists were largely dependent on instrumentation from the mineralogical field. Shipley decided that dark-field illumination would be of great benefit
. for examining the interior of gemstones and that low-power stereoscopic magnification would be a boon to the gemologist. In 1937, he applied for a patent on the
combination of binocular magnification with dark-field illumination for the examination of gemstones; 'the patent was granted in 1938. The stoneholder that he
developed for that early Diamondscope is still in use today, almost unchanged from
the original design.
'
When Edwin Land developed Polaroid, Shipley immediately saw the advantages
over the expensive and small Nicol prisms and made, with Raoul Francouer, a
French tool and dye maker, the first gem polariscope. Other instruments Shipley
developed include the original optical colorimeter, an electronic colorimeter, a universal motion immersion stage, a vertical equivalent of the endoscope for testing
drilled pearls, an analyzing refractometer, a pocket refractometer, and a gemological
polarizing microscope.
Shipley also assisted his father in the preparation of GIA1s Home Study courses,
particularly the course on advanced gemology. He taught many classes and acted
for a number of years as Director of Education as well as Research.
An officer in the Air Force reserve, Shipley was called to active duty in 1941. He
served in the U.S. and England during World War I1 and was given a medical discharge in 1944. After World War 11, he founded an instrument manufacturing company, which was sold to GIA around 1951. He then moved to Cloverdale, California,
north of San Francisco, where he continued his inventive ways with a research laboratory. He developed tree shakers for the fruit industry of northern California and
also equipment to pick up the fruit after it had fallen. He subsequently sold the
research laboratory to a large midwestern manufacturing firm.
Robert Shipley, Jr., is survived by his wife Mary and two sons.
Editorial
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
185
THE CHANTHABURI-TRAT
GEM FIELD, THAILAND
By Peter C. Keller
With th e recent drastic decline in
production from th e classic ruby m ine s of
Burma, Th ailand has become th e wo rld 's
major source of gem ruby. The majority
of the ruby produ ction, as w ell as som e
significant sapphire produ cti on, comes
from th e provin ces of Ch an tliabut i an d
Ttat in south eastern Thailand. Thi s
article reviews th e geology of th ese
all uvial deposi ts and describes the wide
range of methods used to mine th e
corundum . Gemologically, the Th ai
rubies are distinguished by their violet
overtone , inhibit ed fluor escence, and
ch aracteris tic inclusion s. Also discussed
is the heat treatment of corundum to
enhance color, which ha s becom e a major
industry in Clianthaburi. Th e newest
produ ct, "golden" sapphire, is examined,
including the apparent sta bility of the
color produced and clues to the det ection
of the heat treatment.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Keller is director of educa tion at the
Gemological Institute of America, Santa Monica,
California.
Acknowledgments: The author wishes to
thank the many people who con tributed to
this article in a variety of ways. John Koivula
and Chuck Fryer help ed ident ify many of the
inclusions. The trip into the mining region
would have bee n very difficufl if not for the
ge nerous office of Henry Ho, of the AIGS in
Bangkok, and the two knowledgable guides,
Narong Saeovi .and Dick Hughes. Sp ecial thanks
also go to Dr. George Rossman of the
California Institute of Techn ology for
sharing his insights into the heal
Ireatment of corundum . This study was made
po ssible by a grant from Ihe Western
Foundati on of Vertebrate Zoology.
))1983 Gemolo gical Institute of America
186
Chanthaburi -Trat, Thailand
hailand has been a world supplier of gem ruby and

sapphire since the latter part of the 19th century,
although the deposits were not thought to be as important as those of neighboring Burma. In 1963, however, the
Burmese deposits were nationalized, and supplies of fine
gems from these mines declined rapidly. The fact that so
little is produced in Burma today has catapulted the Thai
deposits into importance. An estimated 70% of the world's
high-quality gem rubies come from Thailand. Of these,
85% to 90% come from the Chanthaburi-Trat district
alone (Aranyakanon and Vichit, 1979). While the overall
quality of these rubies is not as high as those found in
Burma, exceptional stones are seen (figure 1).
The gem deposits of the Chanthaburi-Trat (formerly
Krat] area are entirely alluvial, having eroded out of deeply
weathered basalt flows . The region can, however, be divided into two mining districts based on the type of corundum produced. The first lies to th e west, near the
town of Chanthaburi (figure 2) and in the Chanthaburi
Province. It includes th e famous Khao ploi Waen and
Bang Kha Cha mining areas, known for their production
of blue, blue-green, and yellow sapphires as well as black
star sapphires. The second district, approximately 45 krn
to the east of Chanthaburi, in Trat Province, is the currently very active Bo RailBo Waen mining area known for
its significant production of ruby. In fact , Bo Rai/Bo Waen,
together with the Pailin area 27 km to the northeast in
Kampuchea (formerly Cambodia), comprises the most
important ruby-producing area in the world today. Occasionally, green sapphires and color-change sapphires
occur in this district as well.
In 1980, an estimated 39.4 million carats of ruby and
sapphire were mined in the Chanthaburi-Trat area by an
estimated work force of 20,000 miners (Stamm, 1981). It
is difficult to translate this production figure into official
export figures because the latter do not include tourist
purchases that do not have to be declared at customs or
smuggled material. In addition, the tremendous amount
GEM S & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
of corundum from elsewhere, particularly Sri

Lanka and Australia, that is brought to Thailand
for heat treatment and thus sold in the gem markets of Bangkok undoubtedly has a major effecton any 'export statistics. The actual production
and export figures are probably much greater than
those estimated by the Department of Customs
and the Department of Business Economics. It is
very significant, however, that these figures have
more than doubled since 1973 (Stamm, 1981).
Considering the importance of the Thai deposits, surprisingly little has been written about
them. Bauer (1904)provides one of the best early
descriptions and includes a detailed map of the
deposits. Most of the relatively recent work done
by the Geological Survey of Thailand has been
published in Thai journals which are, for the most
part, difficult to obtain in the United States. An
excellent general study of the gem deposits of
Thailand was done by Aranyakanon and Vichit
(1979).This report included details on the Chanthaburi-Trat area. Charaljavanaphet (1951)did one
of the earliest geological reports on the Bo Rai
area. One of the most important geological studies of the corundum-related basalts in Thailand
was by Vichit et al. (1978).Berrangk and Jobbins
(1976) did a superbly detailed study of the gem
deposits at Pailin, Cambodia, in which they included many references to the deposits in the
Chanthaburi-Trat area. A summary of this work
was recently published by Jobbins and Berrangk
(1981). There have also been several articles by
Chanthaburi-Trat, Thailand
Figure 1. Two fine Thai

rubies, 3.41 and 3.04 ct.
Photo courtesy of Jack
Abraham, Precious Gem
Resources, Inc.,
New York, NY.
visitors to the area, most notably Moreau (19761,

Chang (1969), and Pavitt (1973, 1976).
None of these papers, however, has put all the
aspects of geology, mining methods, production,
and gemological characteristics together into a
single, comprehensive report. The purpose of this
article is to fill this void, as well as to present an
update on current activities in the ChanthaburiTrat area, including the heat treatment of corundum, based on observations made by the author
on a visit to the area in June 1982.
LOCATION AND ACCESS
The Chanthaburi-Trat mining district is located
in southeast Thailand, approximately 330 lzm eastsoutheast of the capital city of Bangkok. The district extends from approximately 1020001 to
10300west longitude and 12O00' north latitude
to 13O00' north latitude. The district is contiguous with the very productive Pailin ruby and
sapphire gem field, 27 km northeast of Bo Rai in
Kampuchea (Cambodia).
Access to Chanthaburi is quite easy now compared to the late 19th century, when, according
to Bauer (1904), a 20-hour journey by steamer
from Bangkok was required. The new highway
has shortened the trip from Bangkok to Chanthaburi to three hours. Bo Rai is about an additional
45 lzm from Chanthaburi eastward via highway
no. 3157. Currently, there are more than 20 active
mining operations in the district, ranging from
hand operations to highly mechanized ones.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
187
HISTORY
Gem mining in the Chanthaburi-Trat area was
first reported at Khao Ploi Waen, also lznown as
'Pagoda Hill" or the "Hill of Gems," in 1850.
Khao Ploi Waen is about 8 lzm southwest of
Chanthaburi, near the village of Bang Kha Cha.
In 1850, the Shans and Burmese were mining sapphires here (Pavitt, 1973). According to Bauer
(1904))a missionary report dated 1859 stated that
it was possible to collect a handful of rubies from
the "Hill of Gems" in half an hour. Interestingly,
the pagoda that Bauer cites still stands.
Bauer (1904) described the state of the ruby
and sapphire deposits in the Trat Province (then
lznown as Krat) in the 1870s and 1880s. He divided the district into two groups, roughly 50 lzm
apart: Bo Nawang, an area of about 40 square lzilometers; and Bo Channa, 50 lzm to the northeast
and a little over one square kilometer in extent.
Bauer noted that the mines at Bo Nawang were
small, typically pits one meter deep, and sunk in
coarse yellow-brown sand overlying a bed of clay.
The rubies occurred at the base of the sand unit
in a layer 15-25 cm thick. These mines have been
worlzed since about 1875.
In 1895, an English company, The Sapphires
and Rubies of Siam, Ltd., obtained the rights to
mine in what was then Siam. This company was
an extension of E. W. Streeter, a famous London
jeweler with a Burmese gem-mining operation
known as Burma Ruby Mines Ltd. The company
was not successful in the Chanthaburi-Trat area
(Bauer, 1904).
At Bo Channa, the mines were vertical shafts
extending to a depth of 7 to 8 m until they reached
a gem gravel 15-60 c m thick. The Bo Channa
mines have been worlzed since about 1885. Both
Bo Channa and Bo Nawang were worlzed by the
Burmese. Bauer estimated that about 1250 miners
worlzed the two areas at the time.
Since the introduction of the Siam Mining Act
in 1919, all gem mining has been limited to Thai
nationals. Today, about 2,000 people mine in the
Khao Ploi Waen-Bang Kha Cha area, and at least
20,000 people work between Bo Rai, Bo Waen,
Nong Bon, and the deposits at Pailin in Kampuchea. Interviews at Bo Rai revealed that at least
1,000 miners from the area cross into Kampuchea
every day.
GEOLOGY
Because of the deep chemical weathering and subsequent rapid erosion that is typically associated
188
with tropical climates, the corundum deposits of

the Chanthaburi-Trat district occur exclusively
in alluvial, eluvial, or residual lateritic soil deposits derived from underlying basalt flows. The
gems have long been thought to have been derived from these basalts, although reports of insitu occurrences are rare (Vichit e t al., 1978).
While the precise age of the basalts has not yet
been determined, they are thought to be relatively
young; estimates range from Tertiary to Pleistocene (Leon Silver, personal communication, 1982).
According to Jobbins and Berrange (1981), the
closely related Pailin basalts have been radiometrically determined to be 1.4 to 2.14 million
years old. This places the basalts in Upper Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene age. They have been
informally designated the Chanthaburi-Trat basalts by Vichit et al. (1978).These flows unconformably overlie the Devonian-age Kanchanaburi
formation, which consists of phyllites and quartzites, and the JurassicITriassic Phu Kradung volcanic siltstones, sandstones, and conglomerates
(Javanaphet, 1969). These units are undoubtedly
comparable to the Devonian-age 0 Smoet formation and Triassic-age Tadeth Group that Berrange and Jobbins (1976)discuss in their comprehensive study of the Pailin gem field. Other
noteworthy geologic units in the region include
granites and granodiorites of possible Cretaceous
age and the Triassic-age Khao Sa-Bab granite
which outcrops just east of Chanthaburi (again,
see figure 2).
Outcrops of the Chanthaburi-Trat basalt are
rare. The only notable outcrops are a t Khao Ploi
Waen and Khao Wao. At Khao Ploi Waen, the unit
occurs as a dark, fine-grained to glassy vesicular
basalt; the hill itself is thought to be a volcanic
plug and is possibly a source for the gem-bearing
basalt flows in the area (Taylor and Buravas, 1951).
The plug at Khao Ploi Waen yields blue, green,
and yellow sapphires as well as black star sapphires. Rubies are rare a t this locality.
Invariably, the gem deposits are associated
with basalt flows or at least remnant flows. The
flow at Chanthaburi is only about 35 square kilometers. The basalts in the Bo Rai area are much
more extensive. As expected, the basalt flows parallel to the gem deposits, trending in a northsouth direction. The flow in the Bo Rai area is
about 27 lzm by 4 lzm. This roughly delineates the
Bo Rai mining district, which Vichit et al. (1978)
estimate to consist of about 23 gem localities. Bo
Rai produces ruby almost exclusively.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
LEGEND
Quaternary alluvium,
eluvium, valley fill,
and river gravel
Tertiary ChanthaburiTrat basalts
Cretaceous granite
and granodiorite
Triassic granite
and granodiorite
Jurassic and Tr~assic

Phu Kradung
formation
~~~~h?~at,uri
formation
..-.
. .. . ,
..... .: ..
.
6?'
,...-/-
International
boundary
Road
Mine
River
Figure 2. Geologi
sketchmap of th
Chanthaburi-Trat arec
showing major ruby un
sapphire mines. Modifie
from Vichit et 01. ( 1 97fi
and lwunaphet ( 1 969
From 9- petrographic point of view, the Chanthaburi-Trat basalts are fine-grained, olivine-bearing alkaline basalts; they have been called "basanitoids" by Vichit et al. (1978)and "basanites"
by Berrange and Jobbins (1976).These basalts locally contain spinel-rich lherzolite nodules, which
may, in fact, be the ultimate source for the corundum. Lherzolite nodules are thought to form
in the upper mantle of the earth, at depths of
about 50 lzm, and may be unrelated to the magmas that brought them to the surface. The basalts
contain augite, pyrope garnet, calcic plagioclase,
zircon, spinel, and magnetite. The magnetite has
been reported as megacrysts up to 6 cm in diameter. Spinel, which along with olivine and enstatite is typical of lherzolite, is locally abundant
but rarely of gem quality.
The structural and historical geology of the
Chanthaburi-Trat area is essentially identical to
that outlined by Jobbins and Berrange (1981) for
the Pailin area of what is now Kampuchea, which
could easily be considered part of the Chanthaburi-Trat district. Jobbins and Berrange note that
during the Himalayan orogeny of early to middle
Tertiary times, the region, which is largely underlain by Jurassic-Triassic sandstones and Devonian phyllites, was uplifted and intruded by
granites and granodiorites as represented by the

Khao Sa-Bob granite. During the final stages of
this orogenic episode, the area was also intruded
by basaltic dikes which spilled onto the earth's
surface in the form of extensive basaltic lava flows.
Some volcanic features, such as the volcanic plug
now exposed as a remnant at Khao Ploi Waen,
were also formed at this time. Since this period
of mountain building and volcanic activity, the
area has been geologically quiet and the surface
has been exposed to intense weathering and erosion as a consequence of the harsh tropical climate. Deep residual soil horizons formed over the
basalts which, locally, have been eroded and redeposited to form the secondary gem deposits of
the region. Because corundum is durable and
heavy, it is an ideal mineral for concentration in
these alluvial or eluvial deposits.
The gem deposits in the Chanthaburi-Trat area
vary greatly in thickness, depending on the topography of the area and the bedrock. In the
Chanthaburi area, sapphires are found on the surface at Khao Ploi Waen, and at a depth of 3-8 m
in the area adjoining the hill and at Bang Kha Cha.
In the relatively flat Bo Rai area, the gem gravel
is at a depth of at least 4-10 m and varies in thickness from 0.3 m to 1 m. At Bo Rai, the ruby is
GEMS &. GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
189
associated with black spinel, olivine, and, in rare

instances, blue, green, or color-change sapphires.
Figure 3. Primitive washing of gem gravels at

Chanthaburi-Trat area.
MINING METHODS
The methods used to mine ruby and sapphire in
the Chanthaburi area reflect all levels of technological sophistication, from the simple rattan basket to the most advanced bulldozer. The mining
in the Khao Ploi Waen area is typical of Thailand's most primitive extraction methods. Independent miners lease land from the local owners.
A vertical shaft about 1 m in diameter is then dug
to a depth of about 10 m, where the gem gravels
are usually intersected. No ladder is used; the
miner simply digs footholes into the side of the
shaft. The soil is lifted to the surface using a large
bamboo crane and rattan baskets. When the gem
gravels are encountered, they are washed in artificial pools and sorted by hand in round rattan
sieves (figure 3).According to Pavitt (1973),about
2,000 people work using these simple methods in
the Khao Ploi Waen area alone.
Just to the south of Khao Ploi Waen, at Bang
Kha Cha, which is famous for its black star sapphires and blue and green sapphires, a different
style of mining is found. Here, the sapphires are
recovered from the muddy tidal flats of the Gulf
of Siam, which is located about 5 lzm to the south.
The gem miners take boats out into the flats at
low tide and fill them with the gem-bearing mud.
They then take the mud to shore where it is
washed with the standard rattan sieves. There are
more sophisticated operations at Bang Kha Cha,
Figure 4,At Bo Rai, gem

gravels are washed by highpressure water cannons and
tran-sported up a pipe (seen
to the right in photo) to a
long sluice.
190
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
but the most technologically advanced mining

can be seen at Bo Rai, the ruby mines located on
the border of Kampuchea, where claims are generally about 1620 meters square, and the landscape is dotted with bulldozers and sophisticated
washing equipment.
Large-scale mechanized mining was formally
banned in Thailand in 1980 in response to pressure from farmers who claimed that the mining
was destroying the topsoil. Even so, the majority
of the ruby mining operations observed during the
author's recent visit to Bo Rai used bulldozers to
remove the overburden and high-pressure water
cannons to wash the gem gravel that is then
pumped into sluices from which the ruby is recovered (figures 4 and 5). According to Stamm
(19811, "special" permits that allow mechanized
mining are issued for 2500 baht (US$125) per
month. In addition to the bulldozers and water
cannons, the latest mechanical treatment includes a jig or "willoughby" table washer to concentrate the corundum at the end of the long
sluice (figure 6 ) .It is interesting to note that most
of these so-called new mining methods at Bo Rai
have been borrowed from the basicrprinciples of
alluvial tin mining used at Phukat, on the southern extension of Thailand.
Not all of the ruby mining in the Bo Rai area
is mechanized; here, too, some is done by "pitminers" using only the traditional rattan sieve.
These pitminers may work in small groups or on
a few square meters of leased land. They commonly pay the government or landowner about
500 baht (US$25)per month and are permitted to

keep what they recover. Other small miners search
the already-worked tailings of the large, mechanized operations (figure 7). Usually these small
miners are successful enough to support themselves and their families. The author noted several of them sorting and selling their ruby production in front of their homes (figure 8).
CHARACTERISTICS OF THAI
RUBY AND SAPPHIRE
The rubies taken from the basalt fields of southeastern Thailand can generally be distinguished
by their color and unique inclusions from those
derived from the crystalline limestone terrain of
Burma or from the graphite gneisses of East Africa. Gubelin (1940, 1971) has done detailed studies of inclusions that he found to be typical of
Thai rubies. He observed the most common inclusions to be subhexagonal to rounded opaque
metallic grains of pyrrhotite (Fe,-xS];yellowish
hexagonal platelets of apatite, (Cas(P04)3
(OH,F,Cl);and reddish brown almandite garnets,
Fe3Alz(Si04)3.
These inclusions were commonly
surrounded by circular feathers (figure 9) and
characteristic polysynthetic twinning planes (figure 10).
A parcel of over 500 rough rubies obtained by
the author from mines in the Bo Rai area were
examined for characteristic inclusions and any
other distinguishing features. The parcel consisted of well-rounded fragments, generally under
5 mm, which exhibited color variations from
gravels exit
F I K I I 5Y.~After the
the pipe, thuy are run over a long
sluice. The heavier corundum
concentrate collects in a jig at
the end.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
191
Figure 6. A jig or "willoughby" table washer, a

device borrowed from the Phukat tin mines on
the southern extension of Thailand, is very
effective at concentrating ruby.
strongly violet to a classic "pigeon blood" red.

Grains over a centimeter were rare. The refractive
index (1.766-1.774) and specific gravity (3.974.05) of ruby do not differ with locality. The high
iron content of the Thai rubies does influence
their behavior when exposed to ultraviolet radiation, in that their fluorescence is inhibited significantly. The parcel examined exhibited the very
weak fluorescence that would be expected for
Thai rubies.
By far the most common inclusion in the parcel of rubies studied was subhedral to anhedral
pyrrhotite (figure 11).These pyrrhotite inclusions
were commonly altered to a black submetallic

material (figure 12) that X-ray diffraction analysis
by Chuck Fryer of GIA revealed to be goethite,
FeO(0H).It is not surprising to see pyrrhotite inclusions in rubies from a basaltic terrain, since
basalts are unusually high in iron. Furthermore,
according to Carmichael et al. (1974), pyrrhotite
appears to be the dominant primary sulfide in basaltic rocks.
In all the samples studied, no inclusions of
almandite garnet or rutile were observed. Yellowish anhedral hexagonal platelets of translucent
apatite were noted, although these were considered quite rare. A high percentage of the stones
studied were totally free of diagnostic mineral inclusions, however; the most characteristic features in these stones were secondary stains of iron
oxide that appeared in almost all fractures (again,
see figure 11). Given the iron-rich nature of the
presumed host basalt, as discussed above, this
abundance of iron is to be expected. Typically, the
brownish to purplish overtones of the rubies, and
their weak fluorescence when exposed to shortwave ultraviolet and X-radiation, has been attributed to the characteristically high concentrations
of iron found in the Thai rubies.
Sapphires recovered from the Khao Ploi Waen
and Bang Kha Cha areas outside of Chanthaburi
are quite different morphologically from the
formless Bo Rai rubies. These sapphires show
signs of transport, in that they occur as wellrounded hexagonal prisms. I would suggest, however, that the sapphires have not traveled as far
Figure 7. Independent miners

often work the tailings of the
more sophisticated operations
in hopes of recovering any
overlooked ruby. This photo
was taken at Bo Rai.
192
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
Figure 8. Independent miners sorting rough rubies at Bo Rai. Note the bottle of "ruby
oil," essentially a coloring agent, which 'is sometimes used to temporarily enhance the
appearance of the gem rough.
as the rubies, which rarely exhibit any of their

original hexagonal morphology. The sapphires are
generally green, blue, yellow, or black-the black
commonly exhibiting asterism. They range in diameter from less than a millimeter up to 10 cm.
The average size observed was 3-6 mm. Large,
hexagonal blue-green sapphire specimens up to
HEAT TREATING "GOLDEN" SAPPHIRES

It is almost impossible to discuss the increased
availability of fine ruby and sapphire from Chan-
Figure 9. Typical inclusions i n Thai ruby are

these circular features surrounding pyrrhotite.
Magnified 60 X. Photo by John Iioivula.
Figure 10. Polysynthetic twinning, here

observed under crossed polarizers, is commonly
seen i n Thai rubies. Magnified 25 X. Photo b y
John Koivula.
1720 ct have been reported from the Bang Kha

Cha area (Pavitt, 1973). No gem-quality stones of
this size have ever been reported, however.
As.,&
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
mm
Winter 1982
193
Figure 1 1 . Typical subhedral inclusions of

semialtered pyrrhotite in a Bo Rai ruby. Note
the characteristic iron stains also. Magnified
50x. Photo by John Koivula.
thaburi without considering as well the nowcommon use of heat treatment in that area. The
heat treatment of corundum has developed into
a major industry in Thailand, primarily in Bangkok and Chanthaburi. Estimates of the number
of heat-treatment facilities run from the hundreds
to the thousands. These facilities treat not only
the local production, but large quantities of material from Sri Lanka, Australia, Kampuchea, and
Burma as well. Nassau (1981) and Crowningshield and Nassau (1981)examined the technical
aspects of heat treatment and its detection in
ruby and sapphire in quite some detail. They limited themselves to those questions relating to enhancing asterism or improving the color of ruby
and blue sapphire, however. Abraham (1982) discussed some of the practical aspects of this growing industry in Bangkok, but again limited his
article to the commercially important blue sapphires, rubies, and sapphires exhibiting asterism.
On a recent visit to Chanthaburi, the author
had the opportunity to interview Mr. Sammuang
Koewvan and Mr. Jonk Chinudompong, two of
the leading treaters. They were very cooperative
and helpful, and essentially confirmed what Abraham (19821 presented in his recent article. The
author was, however, especially interested in the
relatively large amount of high-quality brownish
to orangy yellow-referred to here as goldensapphire that they were generating, largely from
Sri Lanlzan rough (figure 13). (While significant
quantities of blue sapphires have been heat treated
for at least the last 10 to 15 years, and rubies for
the last three to five years, the heat treatment of
golden sapphires on a large scale appears to be relatively new.) T o date, very little has appeared in
194
Figure 12. Large goethite inclusion found in an

alteration product of pyrrhotite. Magnified 50 X.
Photo by John Koivula,
the literature concerning these stones. Crowningshield (1982) reported that light yellow stones
were produced by heat treating colorless sapphire
seven or eight years ago, but that these were subject to fading. These stones were not the same as
the orangy yellow ones observed in this study,
which definitely did not fade on prolonged exposure (over several months) to light,
There was a great-deal of concern on the part
of the gem dealers in Thailand about these sapphires because such a golden color may also be
produced by irradiation, and the irradiated stones
have been found to fade rapidly when exposed to
heat or ultraviolet radiation. Because of this concern, dealers routinely place a suspect stone under a flame for one minute. If the stone has been
irradiated, it will fade. If, however, the sapphire
has been heat treated, it will temporarily darken
and, upon cooling, return to its golden color. (In
a recent personal communication, Robert Crowningshield noted that the GIA Gem Trade Lab in
New York prefers to place a suspect stone in sunlight for approximately four hours, since natural
yellow sapphires from Sri Lanka may temporarily
fade at a fairly low temperature.) In a paper by
Lehmann and Harder (19701, it was pointed out
that the yellow color in sapphire was generally
due to trivalent iron impurities. There were, however, some yellow sapphires that owed their color
to "irradiation color centers." The authors noted
that these sapphires "bleach completely within
a few days even in the dark."
The actual heat-treatment process for these
golden sapphires appears to be quite simple. Most
of the sapphires treated are colorless stones from
Sri Lanka. These sapphires are typically very clean
and free from the "silk" or rutile that provides the
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
Figure 13. A parcel of

faceted golden sapphires
after heat treatment. The
largest stones are about
titanium which, in conjunction with divalent iron,

is responsible for a sapphire's blue color (Nassau,
1981). Any highly included or flawed portions of
the rough sapphire are trimmed prior to treatment. he material is heated in an open crucible,
that is, in an oxidizing environment, in an oven
similar to'that described by Abraham (1982)for
blue sapphires. The divalent iron is converted to
trivalent iron following the simple equation offered by Nassau (1981):
4 FeO
Figure 14. Heat-treated golden sapphires w i t h

the pair of crucibles used in heciting
+ 0, + 2 Fe203
This conversion results in a yellow sapphire (Lehmann and Harder, 1970). Specifically, to produce
this change, the colorless sapphires'are heated for
about 12 hours at 1000 to 1700 in two crucibles, one placed inside the other (figure 14).The
corroded surface of the treated rough suggests
that the temperatures are at the high end of this
estimate. The variation in color is dramatic, some
stones remaining colorless while others become
a dark, rich golden color. The treaters interviewed
were very adamant that no chemicals are used in
the crucible with the sapphire. Theoretically, no
chemicals are necessary for the conversion of divalent to trivalent iron. The treated rough does
show signs of very localized partial melting; this
is possibly due to a spattering of the borax in
which the corundum-bearing crucible is packed
during the heating process. (The borax would be
an excellent flux to promote melting in the corundum, as it is in the diffusion treatment of this
material.]
Chanthaburi-Trat,Thailand
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
195
The actual mechanism for the appearance of

the golden yellow color in the sapphire is open to
speculation until the extensive research required
to provide a conclusive answer can be completed.
According to George Rossman, of the California
Institute of Technology (personal communication, 1982), trivalent iron alone will produce a
pale yellow color, but cannot be called upon for
the rich golden color observed in many of the
treated stones seen in Chanthaburi (figure 13).
Rossman suggests that perhaps we are seeing incipient exsolution of the trivalent iron as submicroscopic iron oxides in the corundum lattice.
This mechanism would be very similar to the
exsolution of hematite in plagioclase feldspar giving rise to the golden color of sunstone. In the
case of plagioclase, the hematite may become
coarse enough to result in aventurescence. This
phenomenon has not been observed in sapphire,
although the process is not unlike the exsolution
of titanium oxides (rutile) in corundum to produce the familiar "silk" inclusions. As noted
above, however, detailed research will be needed
to answer this question for certain.
With regard to the identification of heat treatment in these stones, the GIA Gem Trade Lab is
of the opinion that once irradiation (fade test) has
been eliminated, the source of color in brownish
to orangy yellow sapphire may be ascribed to heat
treatment on the basis of the rare and somewhat
unnatural nature of this hue. Additional clues to
heat treatment are the absence of an iron line at
4500 A in the spectroscope, subdued fluorescence, internal stress fractures, pockmarked facets, and abnormal girdles* (Robert Crowningshield, personal communication, 1982).
CONCLUSION
With the decline in production from the Mogok
area of Burma, the Chanthaburi-Trat area of Thailand has become of world importance as a source
of rubies and sapphires. Furthermore, the increasingly sophisticated methods of heat treatment
stemming from the Chanthaburi area have not
only increased the supply of fine-colored rubies
and blue sapphires substantially, but have also
introduced relatively large amounts of previously
rare "golden" sapphire of fine color. Greater tech' Editor's note: These latter two characteristics are
discussed and illustrated (figures 13 and 14) in the
Gem Trade Lab Notes section of this issue.
196
nological sophistication has also been applied to

the actual mining of the corundum to increase
the supply of rough to the market. Reduced military activity in the adjacent gem fields in Kampuchea (Cambodia) in recent months suggests a
return to importance of this area as well, contributing to the overall gem potential of the region.
REFERENCES
Abraham J. (1982)Heat treating corundum: the Bangkok operation. Gems as) Gemology, Vol. 18, pp. 79-82.
Aranyakanon P., Vichit P. (1979)Gemstones in Thailand. Unpublished report for the Economic Geology Division of the
Ministry of Industry of Thailand.
Bauer M., Spencer L.J. (1904)Precious Stones (trans, of 1896
German text). Charles Griffin & Co., London.
Berrangi J.P., Jobbins, E.A. (19761 The geology, gemmology,
mining methods, and economic potential of the Pailin ruby
and sapphire gem-field, Khmer Republic. Institute of Geological Sciences Report No. 35, London.
Carmichael l., Turner F., Verhoogen J. (1974)Igneous Petrology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY.
Chang F. (1969)A trip to Chantaburi, Thailand. Lapidary Journal, Vol. 23, pp. 1020-1024.
Charaljavanaphet, J. (1951) Gem deposits at Bo Na-Wong,
Tok-Phrom, Bo-Rai in ~ h a n t h a b u r iand Trat provinces.
Geologic Reconnaissance of the Mineral Deposits of Thailand: Geological Survey Memoir, Vol. 1, pp. 148-150.
Crowningshield R., Nassau K. (1981)The heat and diffusion
treatment of natural and synthetic sapphires. Journal of
Gemmology, Vol. 17, pp. 528-541.
Crowningshield R. (19821 Sapphire. In Gem Trade Lab Notes,
Gems a) Gemology, Vol. 18, p. 48.
Gubelin E. (1940)Differences between Burmese and Siamese
rubies. Gems as) Gemology, Vol. 3, pp. 69-72.
Gubelin E. (1971) New analytical results of the inclusions in
Siam rubies. Journal of Australian Gemmology, Vol. 12,
NO, 7, pp. 242-252.
Javanaphet J.C. (1969)Geological map of Thailand 1:1,000,000.
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand.
Jobbins E.A., Berrangi J.P. (1981)The Pailin ruby and sapphire
gemfield, Cambodia. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 17, No.
8, pp. 555-567.
Lehmann G., Harder H. (1970) Optical spectra of di and trivalent iron in corundum. American Mineralogist, Vol. 55,
pp. 98-105.
Moreau M, (1976) Nong Bon ou Ie rubis de thailande. Revue
de Cemmologie a.f.g., No. 47, pp. 10- 12,
Nassau K. (19811 Heat treating ruby and sapphire: technical
aspects. Gems as) Gemology, Vol. 17, pp. 121-131.
Pavitt J.A.L. (1973)Sapphire mining in Chantaburi (Thailand].
Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 13, pp. 302-307.
Pavitt J.A.L. (1976)Thailand-gem cutting and trading. Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 12, pp. 307-319.
Stamm D. (1981)A star is born: new facets of Thailand's gem
trade. New Look Investor, Vol. 13, No. 8, pp. 8-20.
Taylor G.C., Buravas S. (1951) Gem deposits at Khao Ploi
Waen and Bang Ka Cha, Chanthaburi Province. Geologic
Reconnaissance of the Mineral Deposits of Thailand: Geological Survey Memoir, Vol. 1, pp. 144-148.
Vichit P., Vudhichativanich S., Hansawek R. (1978)The distribution and some characteristics of corundum-bearing
basalts in Thailand. Journal of the Geological Society of
Thailand, Vol. 3, pp. M4-1-M4-38.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
GEMSTONES WITH
ALEXANDRITE EFFECT
By E. Gubelin and K. Schmetzer
T h e term alexandrite effect refers to the

apparent change of color i n certain
minerals from blue-green or greenish
violet i n daylight t o red or reddish violet
i n incandescent light. This effect was
discovered i n chrome-bearing chrysoberyl
from the Ural Mountains as early as the
beginning of the 19th century. In more
recent time's, i t has also been observed in
certain varieties of garnet, corundum,
spinel, kyanite, fluorite, and monazite. It
has been determined that the absorption
spectrum of all alexandrite-like minerals
is characterized by transmission maxima
i n the blue-green and red regions and by
a transmission m i n i m u m i n the yellow
region. The color of minerals with t w o
such regions of transmission is
determined i n daylight (richer i n blue
and green) b y the position of the
transmission maxima and i n
incandescent light (richer i n red) b y the
ratio of transmission i n the red and
transmission i n the blue-violet sections of
the visible spectrum.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Gubelin is a certified gemologist in Meggen,
Switzerland, and honorary professor at the
University of Stellenbosch, South Africa; Dr.
Schmetzer is a research associate at the
Mineralogisch-Petrographisches Institut der
Universitat Heidelberg, D-6900 Heidelberg,
Federal Republic of Germany.
Manuscript received September 20, 1982.
V 9 8 3 Gemological Institute of America
he alexandrite effect was observed for the first time

in 1830, in a chromium-bearing variety of chrysoberyl from the emerald mines on the eastern slopes of the
Ural Mountains. The new gem was named by the Swedish explorer Nils Nordenskiold in 1838 (Koksharov, 1861),
in honor of then-Tsarevitch Alexander Nikolayevitch,
the future Tsar Alexander I1 (1818-1881). The alexandrite,
famous for its conspicuous change of color-green in daylight and red in incandescent light-soon enjoyed great
popularity as well. This gem was appreciated not only for
its curious color change, which has only very recently
been explained (Carstens, 1973; Hassan et al., 1974;
Gubelin, 1976 a and b; and Schmetzer et al., 1980 a and
b) but also because red and green were the colors of the
tsarist army; thus the alexandrite was considered by many
to be the national gem of tsarist Russia.
Most of the alexandrites found on the gem market today originate from deposits in Sri Lanka and those recently discovered in Zimbabwe, Brazil, and Tanzania.
The Brazilian specimens usually display only a weak
change of color, while those from Tanzania and Zimbabwe demonstrate a striking alteration from dark green
and blue-green to pure or violetish red. Sri Lanka has been
and still is the most important producer of alexandrite.
The colors seen in the Sri Lankan specimens (brownish
green in daylight and olive-tinged red in incandescent
light) are more subtle than those commonly observed in
their Russian counterparts (blue-greenand deep red), and
the change of color is less pronounced. Figure 1 illustrates
the color change in a fine Sri Lankan alexandrite.
White et al. (1967) introduced the term alexandrite
effect to the literature and identified that it was not just
restricted to alexandrite, although alexandrite-like sapphire has been known to exist since at least the 1950s
(the American Museum of Natural History in New York
placed such a sapphire on display in 1960).A few garnets
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
197
Figure 1. Color change visible in an 8.07-ct alexandrite from Sri Lanka, from natural or
fluorescent light (left) to incandescent light (right). Stone courtesy of the Los Angeles
County Museum of Natural History. Photo b y Tino Hammid.
from the gemiferous Sri Lanlzan district of Ratnapura displaying a very similar change of color
came onto the market in the 1960s (the senior
author acquired his first specimen, 5 ct, in 1968).
Subsequently, alexandrite-like garnets were found
in the Umba Valley of Tanzania as well as in Bohemia, Norway, and Yakutia. They were either
chrome-rich pyropes or, more commonly, vanadium and/or chrome-bearing spessartite-rich pyropes (Amthauer, 1976; Schmetzer and 0tteinann, 1979).
Although well-informed gemologists have
known for some time that an alexandrite effect
may be produced in synthetic corundum by adding 20% chromium oxide or traces of vanadium
oxide (Barks et al., 19651, natural corundum from
Thailand and Colombia displaying a similar effect has only recently been described in detail
(Schmetzer et al., 1980).These gems contain Vgo3,
Fe203,and T i 0 2 in addition to C r a . A few examples of natural spinel from Sri Lanlza showing
a change of color from bluish violet in daylight to
red-violet in incandescent light have also appeared
on the market. The one such crystal examined
by the authors contains approximately 2% FeO
as well as small amounts of Cr203 and V20:,
(Schmetzer and Gubelin, 1980). To complete this
record, it may be mentioned that an alexandritelike fluorite, from Cherbadung in Switzerland,
was studied by H. A. Stalder (1978), an alexandrite-like kyanite from East Africa was described
by Bosshart et al. (19821, and an unusual alexandrite-like monazite from North Carolina was described by Bernstein (1982).
The following discussion reviews the current
knowledge on gemstones with the alexandrite ef-
198
fect and seeks to describe a common denominator

for this unusual phenomenon. In our search for
such a factor, we focused away from the question
of how the eye perceives color (an important issue, but beyond the scope of this study) and concentrated on the conditions-the chemistry of
the stone and how certain elements interact
within a particular crystal to produce a characteristic spectrum-that produce the color the eye
observes.
ALEXANDRITE
In the geochemical cycle, it is extremely uncommon that the structural component beryllium on
one side and chromium as a coloring agent on the
other should combine to form a crystal (Gubelin,
1976 a and b). The chromium-bearing variety of
chrysoberyl (BeAlzOi,)is thus a very rare gemstone. The petrology and paragenesis of alexandrite have been described by Bank and Gubelin
(1976)as well as by Leithner (1980).
In alexandrite, part of the aluminum is substituted by chromium (Cr3+).However, the chromium content varies within relatively broad
limits depending on the occurrence. To date,
the smallest trace of chromium, 0.03% C r a ,
has been determined in samples from Tanzania,
whereas a concentration between 0.30% and 0.73%
was found in Brazilian alexandrites (Schmetzer,
1978). The chromium ions produce the typical
color and color change of alexandrite, whereas
chrysoberyl normally owes its range of hues to
traces of iron. Since Cr3+has a slightly larger ion
radius (0.63 A) than A13+(0.51 A), it naturally prefers the more spacious of the two available aluminum lattice sites (A14 within the chrysoberyl
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
->
structure; yet some Cr3+ions are nevertheless incorporated into the second and narrower aluminum sites (Al,).It will be shown that not only the
amount of chromium in the chrysoberyl lattice,
but also the distribution of the chromium ions
between these two aluminum sites, as reflected
in the spectrum, is responsible for the characteristic color change and especially for its intensity.
The spectrum for alexandrite (figure 2a) shows
a transmission maximum at about 490 n m (i.e.,
in the blue to blue-green region), an absorption
maximum at 570 nm (i.e., in the yellow region),
and a second transmission maximum after about
600 nin in the red region and beyond in the adjacent infrared. This spectrum is primarily dependent on the presence of the Cr^ ions, which occupy 65% to 80% of the A12 lattice sites (Solntsev
et al., 1977; Matrosov et al., 1978).The presence
of the CrW ions in Al, sites effects the widening
and eventual displacement of this absorption
maximum, yet the corresponding Cr3+ bands remain weaker than the bands for the Cr3+ in A12
sites. The ratio of the Crl+ ions in these two A1
sites varies from crystal to crystal, and thus explains the variance in hue and intensity of the
color change observed in different specimens from
daylight to incandescent light.
The tr'ansmission of alexandrite for visible light
is high in the blue-green as well as in the red region of the spectrum. In daylight, in which the
blue short-wave components predominate (figure
3)) green to blue-green results. This effect is amplified by the optimal sensitivity of the human
eye for green light. In incandescent light, however, in which the long-wave spectral components predominate, the human eye perceives a red
hue because of the transmission in the spectral
section of minimal red absorption. The iron ion
does not directly contribute to the alexandrite effect, although it enhances the brownish cast of
certain alexandrites from Sri Lanka.
GARNETS WITH
ALEXANDRITE EFFECT
Crowningshield (1970) was the first author to
mention this new type of garnet. Garnets belong
to the group of neso-silicates with the general formula X^Yr[SiO.,].}, which indicates that the silicate anion is combined with a divalent metal ion
X and a trivalent metal ion Y. The alexandrite
effect is displayed only by some pyrope garnets
(Mg:,A12[SiO4I3)and some mixed crystals between
the end members of the isomorphous series of

pyrope-spessartite garnets (spessartite: Mn3A12
[SiOJa). The color change of chromium-rich pyropes is from bluish green in daylight to wine red
or reddish violet in incandescent light.
According to Yeremenlzo and Pollzanov (1972),
the alexandrite effect occurs in all pyropes that
contain 4% or more CraOg.The absorption maximum of pyropes with a lower chromium content
lies in the green to yellowish green region of the
Figure 2. Absorption curves of gemstones with
alexandrite effect: (a) alexandrite (from Lake
Manyara, Tanzania); (b) Mn-rich pyrope (from
Ratnapura, Sri Lanka); (c) corundum (in this
instance, from Colombia, although similar
sapphires m a y be found i n Thailand); (d) spinel
(from Ratnapura district, Sri Lanka); and (e)
fluorite (from Cherbadung, Switzerland), The
absorption spectra for all of these stones have
transmission maxima in the red and blue-green
regions and an absorption m a x i m u m in the
yellow region in common.
400
500
Wavelengths in nm
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
600
700
Winter 1982
199
spectrum; hence, such pyropes appear red to bluish

red in both natural and incandescent light. A
greater amount of inherent chromium displaces
the transmission from the blue-violet to the bluegreen spectral region. Consequently, such garnets
transmit the red rays of incandescent light (figure
2b). These circumstances are responsible for the
alexandrite effect (Amthauer, 1976; Schmetzer
and Ottemann, 1979).
Spessartite-rich pyropes from Tanzania, on the
other hand, in which a larger portion of Mg is replaced by Mn, require only small amounts of
vanadium or chromium (or both) to evoke an alexandrite effect (Gubelin, 1968; Schmetzer et al.,
1980).The absorption spectrum for these types of
garnets is characterized by a sharp maximum between 560 and 576 nm. The transmission occurs,
just as with alexandrite, in the blue-green and red
regions of the spectrum. Considerable differences
in the coloration of individual garnets may be
noted, caused by the situation of the absorption
minimum in the blue-green region and a maximum in the yellow region of the spectrum. The
iron content of the particular crystal is primarily
responsible for this condition, inasmuch as some
bands of Fe2+are situated between 454 and 526
n m in the domain of the blue-green absorption
minimum (figure 2b). The alexandrite effect ocFigure 3. Spectral composition of (a) daylight
(with the sun 65' above the horizon), and (b)
artificial light (50 W incandescent lamp). The
different-intensity maxima (for daylight in the
blue-green and for artificial light i n the red
spectral region) are very conspicuous.
K
300
200
/
-
Wavelengths in nm
400
500
600
Violet - Visible region
:-
700
n-A :
neu
;
curs in iron-rich pyropes with no spessartite molecules when they contain relatively high contents
of chromium (e.g., 8% or more CrÔy).
With regard to the absorption spectra for these
stones, the chromium and vanadium ions behave
similarly in all garnets. For instance, in Mn-rich
crystals, the specific absorption is partially superimposed by Mn2+bands; they appear between
408 and 422 nm. In the garnet crystal lattice, the
CrW ions (as well as the V+ ions) substitute for
some of the A13+,while Mn^ replaces Me,2+.Further details concerning the interpretation of the
spectra of alexandrite-like garnets may be consulted in the articles by Arnthauer (1976) and
Schmetzer and Ottemann (1979). The article by
Stockton ( 1982) illustrates some interesting colorchange garnets from East Africa.
CORUNDUM WITH
ALEXANDRITE EFFECT
Corundum is crystallized alumina [a-A120:J.
Pure corundum is colorless; the partial replacement of A13+by one or another of the transition
elements will introduce a wide variety of colors.
Corundum forms a continuous isomorphous series of mixed crystals with chromium oxide,
(Al,-xCrJzO:J.Small amounts of chromium impart a red color; greater amounts impart green.
Thus, a 20% CrgO:, content renders corundum
green in daylight and pink in incandescent light.
The absorption maxima of synthetic alexandritelike corundum lie at 415 and 568 nm. The spectrum of vanadium-bearing synthetic corundum is
also conspicuous by two strong absorption maxima at 571 and 398 nm. The stones are gray-green
in daylight and amethyst-like reddish violet in
artificial light.
Natural corundum with alexandrite effect [figure 2c) develops transmission maxima at 633 nm
(red) and 483 (blue-green).The alexandrite effect
thus materializes the same as in alexandrite itself. Alexandrite-like sapphire from Thailand,
which has less chromium, displays only a weak
change of color; while the blue sapphire from the
Umba Valley, which turns violetish red under incandescent light, possesses a greater amount of
chromium and hence shows a stronger color
change. This suggests that the intensity of the
color change depends on the concentration of the
transition-element atoms present [Schmetzer et
al., 1980).Figure 4 illustrates the color change in
a blue sapphire with alexandrite effect.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
Figure 4. Color change evident i n a 9.54-ct sapphire, purportedly from Sri Lanlza, from
natural or fluorescent light (left) to incandescent light (right). Stone courtesy of the Los
Angeles County Museum of Natural History. Photo by Tino Hammid.
SPINEL WITH
ALEXANDRITE EFFECT
Spinel is a combination of a divalent cation, typically magnesium in gem spinels, with alumina
(MgAlaOd).Characterized by a dense cubic stacking of oxygen atoms, the tetrahedral interstices
between the oxygens are filled in with bivalent
metal ions (e.g., Mg2+,Fe2+),while trivalent ions
-A13+]
find their places in the octahedral
(Cr3+,V3+,
coordinated lattice points.
The only alexandrite-like spinel described so
far [Schmetzer and Gubelin, 1980) has a color
change from violet-blue in daylight to red-violet
in artificial light. This unusual spinel, which originated in Sri Lanlza, contains 2.27% FeO as well
as lesser concentrations of Cr203(0.06%) and V2o3
(0.03%). Transmission maxima of equivalent intensities are observed at 490 and 440 nm; absorption maxima are at 571 and 633 nm (figure 2d). In
contrast to the more typical blue spinel, which is
rich in iron (without traces of Cr and V), the chromium and vanadium ions in the alexandrite-like
variety strengthen the intensity of the absorption
maximum at 571 nm, while the transmission
maximum in the blue region is simultaneously
weakened by the same ions. This means that the
spectrum displays transmission in the blue-violet
and red regions with an absorption maximum in
the yellow regions, thus producing the alexandrite effect.
KYANITE WITH
ALEXANDRITE EFFECT
Kyanite (A12SiOs),
which occurs in various shades
of blue and green, has become a highly appreciated collector's gem.

In their publication, White and White (1967)
claimed that titanium was solely responsible for
the typical blue color of lzyanite. More recently,
Bosshart et al. (1982)stated that "the chromofore
pairs Fe + (Ti)and Cr + Fe produce the various
blue colorations of kyanites rather than titanium
traces" (see Schmetzer, 1978). Among the four
lzyanites examined by Bosshart and his colleagues
was one greenish blue specimen that turned purple under incandescent light and was found to
have an exceptionally high precentage of chromium (Cr203,0.50%) coupled with a low iron
content (Fe203,0.35%) and a very small amount
of titanium (Ti02,0.04%).
In general, the absorption spectrum of the
color-changing lzyanite was similar in character
to the spectra of all other minerals with an alexandrite effect examined thus far, in that the transmission maxima in the near ultraviolet (at 345
nm) and blue-green (at 488 nm) regions are combined with strong absorption in the violet (at
about 410 nm) and in the green-yellow to red region (from 560 to about 650 nm). However, the
decisive absorption of the a-ray, with transmission peaks at 345 and 488 nm and absorption
maxima at 417 and 578 nm, is (according to
Bosshart et al., 1982)governed totally by the chromium content, which imparts the os-ray with all
four properties for releasing the color change. The
b- and y-rays do not directly participate in the
color change, although their influence on the absorption enhances its general appearance. Thus,
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
201
in this rare gem, the conditions leading to an alexandrite effect are fulfilled by the particular
spectral features generated by the chromium and
assisted by the iron content, in that the a-ray
mainly transmits the red rays of the incandescent
light, whereas the /3- and y-rays transmit the strong
greenish blue rays of daylight.
FLUORITE WITH ALEXANDRITE EFFECT

The gemstones with alexandrite effect described
thus far are all oxides or silicates in which coloration and color effects are caused by ubiquitous
ions such as C P and VH as well as Few and Fe3+.
The alexandrite-like fluorite cannot be fitted into
this scheme because it is a calcium fluoride, occurring in nature as violet, blue, green, yellow,
orange, red, pink, and colorless crystals, depending on the incorporated ion. The coloration of various fluorites was investigated by Bill and Calas
(1978).
Stalder et al. (1978)referred to alexandrite-like
fluorite from Cherbadung (VS, Switzerland]. The
absorption spectrum for this stone is similar to
that of all other minerals with an alexandrite effect identified thus far; yet in the case of fluorite
the alexandrite effect is caused by a superimposition of the bands projected onto one another by
the ions of rare-earth elements such as yttrium
(Y3+),cerium (Ce3+),and samarium (Sm3+).As illustrated in figure 2e, the absorption maximum
in the visible sector of the spectrum is situated
at 578 nm and the absorption minimum occurs
at 495 n m (Schmetzer e t al., 1980). The fluorite
illustrated in figure 5 shows a distinct change
from blue in natural light to lavender in incandescent light.
MONAZITE WITH
ALEXANDRITE EFFECT
The cerium-phosphide monazite, CePOa, is not
usually considered a gemstone, although this
mineral may be found among the oddities of some
gem collections; yet it confirms that many other
minerals-especially the chromium-, iron- and
titanium-bearing ones-could theoretically display an alexandrite effect. According to Bernstein
(1982), yellow-orange crystals of monazite from
Montgomery County, North Carolina, appeared
reddish orange under incandescent light and pale
green under fluorescent light. These differing
colors were found to be caused by the rare-earth
element neodymium and the particular arrange-
202
ment of narrow absorption bands centered at about

800, 745, 580, 525, and 515 nm, with a cut-off
below approximately 480 nm. The close coincidence of these bands, due to Nd3+, and the transmission gaps between them create absorption features that are consistent with those observed in
the aforementioned gems. The eye perceives different hues in response to changes in the wavelength compositions of different light sources; the
narrow absorption bands of the monazite prove to
be sufficient to generate the color change.
DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

In reducing these observations to a common denominator, we wish to emphasize that the cause
of the alexandrite effect shared by all of these
stones lies not in the crystal structure or in the
chemistry of the coloring agents, but rather in an
equivalent correspondence of the position of the
absorption maxima and minima in the visible region of the spectrum. Alexandrite and the alexandrite-like varieties of garnet, corundum, spinel,
lzyanite, and fluorite demonstrate a strong transmission as much in the blue-green to violet as in
the red region of the visible spectrum. In addition,
a strong absorption occurs in the yellow region,
where it culminates in a pronounced maximum.
Starting with 476 nm (blue region), the absorption
increases gradually until it reaches the long-wave
end of the visible spectrum in the red region
(Schmetzer et al., 1980). Alexandrite-like spinel
presents an exception to this general rule, developing three regions of strong transmission, in the
red, blue-green, and violet. Consequently, the
color change in this stone is from violet-blue (not
blue or green] to red-violet.
The color of each mineral depends on a superimposition of the light components of all spectral
regions not absorbed by the mineral. In minerals
with an alexandrite effect, the occurrence of the
absorption minimum in the green, bluish green,
or blue region (i.e., between 560 and 480 nm) is
decisive for their color in daylight because the red
component of daylight is not strong (figure 3a)
and, as mentioned before, the sensitivity of the
human eye is greatest for green light. On the
other hand, in incandescent light, which has a
weaker blue and stronger red component (figure
3b), the transmission in the red region, from about
600 nm to the end of the visible spectrum, exerts
a dominant influence on the resulting color.,
The intensity of the color change and the hues
GEMS &. GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
m u r e ti. Color change apparent i n a 28.33-ct tfuorlte from lingland, from natural or
fluorescent light (left) to incandescent light (right). Photo by Tino Hammid.
observed in daylight and incandescent light in

minerals with alexandrite effect depends on the
particular position of the transmission and absorption regions as well as on their relative intensities. These in turn are dependent on the very
complex absorption spectra, which themselves
are influenced by minute traces of chromophorous ions within the individual crystal. Nature
possesses an enormous repertoire of such complex occurrences. It would, therefore, hardly be
astonishing if more gemstones with such a color
change were to appear in the future.
REFERENCES
Amthauer G . (1976) Kristallchemie und ~ a i b echrornhaltiger
Granate. Neues fahrbuch fur Mineralogie A bhandliingen,
Vol. 126, pp. 158-186.
Bank H., Gubelin E. (1976) Das Smaragd-Alexandritvorkommen von Lake ManyardTansania. Zeitschrift der Deutschen
Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 25, pp. 130-147.
Barks R.E., Roy D.M., White W.B. (1965) Sub-solidus equilibria in the system ALOn-CrzOaand optical spectra of crystalline solutions. Bulletin o f the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 44, pp. 317-319.
Bernstein L.R. (1982) Monazite from North Carolina having
the alexandrite effect. American Mineralozist,
- Vol. 67,. -pp..
356-359.
Bill H., Calas G. (1978) Color centres, associated rare-earth
ions and the origin of coloration in natural fluorites. Phys.
ics and chemistry of Minerals, Vol. 3, pp. 117-131.
Bosshart G., Frank E., Hanni H.A., Barot N. (1982)Blue colourchanging kyanite from East Africa. Journal of Gemmology,
Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 205-212.
Carstens H.(1973)The red-green change in chromium-bearing
garnets. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, Vol.
41, pp. 273-276.
Crowningshield R. (19701 Alexandrite-like garnet from Tanzania. Gems a ) Gemology, Vol. 13, No. 5, p. 162.
Gubelin E. (19681 Die Edelsteine der lnsel Ceylon. Edition
Scriptar, Lausanne, Switzerland.
Gubelin E. (1976a) Zum Problem des Farbenwechsels im Alexandrit. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 25, pp. 96-102.
Gubelin E. (1976b)Alexandrite from Lake Manyara, Tanzania.
Gems d Gemology, Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 203-209.
Hassan F., El-Rakhawy A. (19741Chromium 111 centers in synthetic alexandrite. American Mineralogist, Vol. 59, pp.
159-1 65.
Koksharov N.V. (1861) Materialien zur Mineralogie Riisslands. Bd. 4, St. Petersburg, pp. 56-72.
Leithner H. (1980)Alexandrit aus den Ural. Lapis, Vol. 5, pp.
25-28.
Matrosov V.N., Bukin G.V., Solntsev V.P., Tsvetkov E.G.,
Eliseev A.V., Kharchenko E.I. (19781 The growth and examination of optical properties of gem-alexandrite. Eleventh General Meeting of the International Mineralogical
Association, Novosibirsk 1978, Vol. 3, pp. 57-58.
Schmetzer K. (1978)Vanadium 111als Farbtrager bei naturlichen
Silikaten und Oxiden-ein Beitrag zur Kristallchemie des
Vanadiums. Dissertation, University of Heidelberg, 1978.
Schmetzer K., ~ a n H.,
k Gubelin E. (19801 The alexandrite effect in minerals: chrysoberyl, garnet, corundum, fluorite.
Neues lahrbuch fur Mineralogie Abhandl~mgen,Vol. 138,
pp. 147-164.
Schmetzer K., Gubelin E. (1980) Alexandrite-like natural spinel from Sri Lanka. Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie Abhandlungen, Vol. 9, pp. 428-432.
Schmetzer K., Ottemann G. (19791 Kristallchemie und Farbe
vanadiumhaltiger Granate. Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie A bhandlungen, Vol. 136, pp. 146-168.
Solntsev V.P., Kharchenko E.J., Matrosov V.N., Burkin G.V.
(1977) Distribution of chromium ions in the chrysoberyl
structure (in Russian). Vsesoyuznogo Mineralogicheskogo
Obshchestva Akademii Nauk SSSR, Trudy IV. Vsesoyuznogo Symposium Isomorphismu, part 2, pp. 52-59.
Stalder H.A., Embrey P., Graeser S., Nowacki I.W. (19781Die
Mineralien des Binntales. Naturhistorisches Museum, Bern.
Stockton C.M. (1982)Two notable color-change garnets. Gems
a) Gemology, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 100-101.
White E.W., White W.B. (1967) Electron microprobe and optical absorption study of coloured kyanites. Scienc'e, Vol.
.
158, pp. 915-917.
White W.B.., Rov
, R.., Crichton Y.N. (19671
, The "alexandrite
effect": an optical study. American Mineralogist, Vol. 52,
pp. 867-871.
Yeremenko G.K., Polkanov Yu.A. (1972) Thermochromatic
effect in pyrope. Doklady Akademii Naiik S S S R , Earth Science Section 203, pp. 129-131.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
203
GEM-QUALITY
GROSSULAR GARNETS
By D. Vincent Manson and Carol M. Stockton
T h e gemological classification and

identification of gem grossular garnets is
examined through the study of 105 gemquality grossulars. These specimens were
measured for refractive index, specific
gravity, absorption spectrum, color, and
chemical composition. From these data,
the authors were able to reexamine the
ranges of physical and optical properties
that are characteristic of the gem species
grossular. In addition, they discuss the
problems encountered in defining the t w o
gem varieties of grossular, tsavorite and
hessonite.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Manson is director of research and Ms.
Stockton is senior research gemologist at
the Gemological Institute of America, Santa
Monica, CA.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank
those employees of GIA who assisted in
gathering data for this article. Thanks also go to
Tino Hammid for the photograph in figure 1 , to
Mike Havstad for the photograph in figure 6, and
to Susan Kingsbury for the line drawings. Special
thanks go to Arthur Chodos, of the California
Institute of Technology, for the use of the
microprobe and for his valuable advice and
assistance with the chemical analyses.
"1983 Gemological Institute of America
204
rossular garnet occurs in a diversity of colors, including tones of orange, yellow, and green. Until
recently, this garnet species encountered little popularity
as a gemstone, and then only in its brownish orange variety hessonite. About 10 years ago, however, a large deposit of vivid green grossular was discovered in east
Africa (Bridges, 1974). Popularization of this material
followed the coining of the trade name "tsavorite" (now
accepted as a variety by mineralogists), and grossular
emerged as a significant gem species. More recently, another new east African garnet, tagged with the trade name
"malaya" and easily confused with hessonite, has brought
new attention to bear on grossular (Stockton and Manson,
1982).
Hessonite and tsavorite illustrate the inconsistency
that surrounds the definition of many gem varieties.
Hessonite is the name traditionally applied to the yellow, orange, or brown transparent variety of grossular.
However, color descriptions of hessonite are varied and
vague: "cinnamon-colored and "yellow" (Dana, 1911))
"yellowish and brownish red" (Deer et al. 19631, "brownish-yellow, through a brownish-orange to aurora-red"
(Webster, 1975), "orange-brown" [Anderson, 19591, "light
yellow to dark yellow shades" (Arbunies-Andreu, 19751,
"yellow-brown to orangy-brown" (Shipley, 1974), "orangy-yellow to orangy-brown" (Liddicoat, 1981). In addition to the lack of agreement we encountered on the precise range of hues associated with this variety, nowhere
could we find mention of the saturation of color to which
these various hues referred.
The original description of tsavorite as being similar
in color to emerald (Bridges, 1974)is also rather vague. At
what point does green grossular have sufficient depth and
intensity of color to be considered tsavorite? This is much
the same as the familiar question, At what stage does
green beryl become emerald? The net result of this lack
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
Figure 1 . This selection of stones used in the grossular portion of the garna study
illustrates' the range of colors examined.
of agreement with regard to the colors of the gem

varieties of grossular is confusion among gemologists, understandably, as to the correct applications of these varietal terms.
The final goal of our study and review of garnets [Manson and Stockton, 1981; Stockton and
Manson, 1982) is to provide clear, functional definitions of all the gem species and gem varieties
of the garnet group. The size of this problem required that we divide the subject into a series of
descriptive papers to be followed by a concluding
article that proposes a cohesive gemological classification of the garnets on the basis of the data
gathered. This study of the transparent grossular
garnets continues the garnet project. Inasmuch as
grossular has been well documented both mineralogically and gemologically, this portion of our
study serves primarily to confirm previous work
on the grossulars and to supply data (such as color
description) not provided in earlier reports.
DATA COLLECTION
Stones were selected for study on the basis of gem
quality, transparency, and colors that are typically associated with grossular. Chemical analyses from a previous study (Stockton and Manson,
1982) confirmed the identity of stones that might

visually be mistaken for some other type of garnet. The resulting collection contained 105 specimens ranging from colorless through pale to intense hues of yellow, green, and orange (figure 1).
Although orange grossulars were examined as part
of the paper just cited, we included them here as
well in order to compare all colors of grossular.
Not included in this study are the massive, translucent materials [including pink and green) that
in many cases actually belong to the separate species hydrogrossular (Deer et al., 1963).There have
been cases of translucent grossular reported (Bank,
1980))but this material is ornamental rather than
gem quality.
Refractive index, specific gravity, spectrum,
color, and chemical composition were determined for the 105 garnets Selected. The instruments and methods used to obtain these data
were described fully in a previous article in this
journal (Manson and Stockton, 1981). The data
gathered on the 105 gem garnets used in this
study will be published at a later date, upon completion of the entire GIA garnet project, and are
summarized below. Specific data will be provided
on request to the authors.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
205
DISCUSSION OF DATA
Physical and Optical Data. Comparison of the
ranges we obtained for refractive index and specific gravity with the values quoted by three other
gemological references (table 1) reveals that the
ranges we found in our 105 samples are somewhat
broader than one might presume on the basis of
the gemological literature. A graph of the relationship between refractive index and specific
gravity among our 105 specimens (figure 2) suggests that, of the nongrossular components present, andradite appears to have the strongest effect
on the departure of these propertiesfrom the values for pure grossular: 1.731 (McConnell, 1964)
and 3.594 (Skinner, 1956), respectively. However,
the scattering of points to either side of the grossular-andradite trend suggests that other influences, such as other end-member components,
are present, as one might expect (Ford, 1915;
Fleischer, 1937).
Comparison of our data with references in the
mineralogy literature sometimes reveals discrepancies that result from the particular nature of
our samples. Gem specimens are relatively inclusion-free, transparent, single crystals, while mineralogical specimens are frequently fractured and
included such that they are not transparent even
as single crystals. For example, data cited by Ford
(1915) resulted in a low estimate of the specific
gravity of pure grossular (3.530 rather than the
3.594 found by Skinner in 1956). It is recognized
now that, as stated by Deer et al. (1963, p. 811,
"garnets commonly have small inclusions of
quartz or other minerals which cause the composite grain to have a low specific gravity." In
fact, their data reflect this bias when compared
with our results.
ited two broad regions of absorption and two of

transmission (figure 3). Absorption occurs from
the short wavelength end of the visible region to
about 460 nm and again in a broad region centered
around approximately 603.5 nm and varying in
width. However, these broad bands or regions of
absorption can be discerned with the hand spectroscope only rarely, in some dark green stones.
Transmission is centered around 525 to 550 nm
in the green region, as might be expected, and in
the far red around 700 to 735 nm. This is virtually
identical to the spectra observed by Gubelin and
Weibel(1975) and by Amthauer (1975)for similar
grossulars.
The second type of spectral curve, associated
with colorless, yellow, and orange stones, shows
gradually increasing transmission from the short
wavelength region to maximum transmission in
Figure 2. Refractive index plotted against
specific gravity for the 105 grossulars studied.
The coordinate point for the ideal end member
grossular is also shown (X).
Absorption Spectra. We observed two basic shapes

of spectral curves for grossular garnets on the recording spectrophotometer. Green stones exhib-
TABLE 1. Refractive index and specific gravity ranges
for grossular garnets,

Reference
Refractive index
Shipley (1974)
1.74 -1.75
Webster (1975)
1,742-1.748
Liddicoat (1981 ) approx, 1.735
Manson and
1.731-1.754
Stockton (present study)
206
Specific gravity
3.57-3.73
approx. 3.65
approx. 3.61
3.57-3.67
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
Figure 3. Representative spectral curve of a

green grossulur as observed with the
spectrophotometer.
the yellow-to-orange region, depending on the

color of the stone, followed by a rapid decrease in
transmission to the end of the long wavelength
region of the visible spectrum (figure 4). Most of
the stones examined showed no sharp absorption
bands, but a few showed a faint band around 434
n m that is probably due to Fe3+(Amthauer, 1975;
Slack and Chrenko, 1971).One light orange stone
also 11ad.vy-y faint bands at 418.5, 489.5, 503.5,
and 529.5 nm that to our knowledge have not
been observed elsewhere in grossular. This stone,
however, is the most heavily included one in our
collection, and these absorption bands may be related to the inclusions that pervade the specimen.
In any case, none of these bands is strong enough
to be seen with the hand spectroscope, so they
are purely of academic interest to most jewelergemologists.
Chemistry. It has long been considered that grossular is chemically continuous with andradite
and uvarovite and forms a subgroup with them
(Winchell and Winchell, 1951).While the amount
of andradite in the 105 gems we analyzed ranged
from approximately 0 to 19%, the most uvarovi te
we encountered was 1.5%. In fact, no single endmember component other than andradite exceeded 7% in any of the gem grossulars we analyzed (table 2).The relative quantities of grossular
and andradite compared to all the remaining components can be observed in the ternary diagram
of these three divisions (figure 5).
Although examples of stones containing less
than 75% and more than 20% grossular have been
cited (e.g., Deer et al., 1963))we personally have
observed no gem-quality stones in that range.
Grossular appears to be chemically less inclined
to mix with other end-member components to
Figure 4, Representative spectral curve of a

yellow-orange grossular as observed with the
spectrophotometer.
produce large single crystals of gem quality, so

grossulars of gem quality are generally very high
in grossular content. The net result is that, chemically, grossular is easy to isolate and identify as
a gem species.
Color and Chemistry. CIE color coordinates for

the 105 grossulars were derived from ColorMaster
notations (Manson and Stockton, 1981) and plotted in a chromaticity diagram (figure 6).The stones
themselves were then placed on their respective
coordinate points and photographed to show the
complete range of colors for these gem grossulars
(figure 7).This also illustrates, coincidentally, the
quality of color description we have been able to
obtain using the ColorMaster.
Pure grossular is colorless. Departing from this
pure (and rarely seen) grossular are two distinct
color trends that are evident on the chromaticity
diagram (again, see figure 6). One of these proceeds through yellow-green to a pure, vivid green
at one extreme, and the other proceeds through
TABLE 2. Weight percentage ranges of garnet end

members calculated for the 105 grossulars studied.
Formula
End member
Weight %
--
Ca3Tiy(Fe3+,Si)30,2 Schorlomite
Ca3Fe2Si30,2
Andradite
Mn3V2Si3012
Ca3V2Si3Ol2
Goldmanite
Ca3Cr2Si3012
Uvarovite
Mg3Cr~Si3012
Knorringite
Mg3A12Si3012
Pyrope
Mn3Al2Si3OI2
Spessartine
Ca3A12Si30,2
Grossular
Fe3A12Si30,2
Almandine
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
0 02- 2,14
0
- 19.07
0
- 3.05
0
- 6,91
0
- 1.51
0
- 2.19
- 3.15
77.71 -97.91
0 - 3.35
Winter 1982
207
GROSSULAR
Figure 5. Points for the

205 gross~~lars
plotted o n
a ternary diagram that
displays the relationship
between grossular,
andradite, and the s u m o f
the remaining endmember components.
Grossular is clearly the
dominant component
among these garnets.
yellow and orange to a vivid red-orange at the

other extreme. As the hue changes toward one of
the extremes, the saturation increases. Each trend
can be roughly represented by a curved line (figure
8). The change in color, corresponding to the
changes in both hue and saturation, can then be
measured as a percentage of the distance along
the respective trend line.
To determine the relationships among the nine
oxides present in these garnets, we used the statistical method of factor analysis as described earlier by Manson and Stockton (1981).This analysis
of the oxide components for all 105 grossulars revealed the three important clusterings presented
in table 3. (We used the original oxide figures
from our microprobe analyses in order to avoid
any bias that might have been introduced in our
calculation of end members.) Factor 1 interprets
as the basic grossular component, which is almost invariably accompanied by small amounts
of pyrope (less than 2.20%)) spessartine (less than
3.15% ),and schorlomite (less than 2.15% 1. Factor
2 expresses the correlation between vanadium
(VfOJ and chromium (CraOJ end-member components, and factor 3 is essentially an iron component that appears principally as FegOg, or
208
Figure 6. The CIE chromaticity diagram w i t h

an indication o f the region reproduced i n figure
7. X indicates the coordinates for colorless or
neutral grey.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
Figure 7. The green-through-orange region of the CIE chromaticity diagram with the 105
garnets positioned according to their x-y coordinates.
Figure 8. The green-through-orange
region of the CIE chromaticity
diagram with the color trend lines
used to approximate changes in
color of the 105 grossulars.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
209
andradite. Factors 2 and 3 become especially

significant when we compare the oxides that they
represent with the two color trends in grossulars.
Specifically, the measure of color change described above can be plotted against the quantities of the color-related oxides as identified by
our factor analysis. Figure 9 shows that there is
a direct relationship between the amount of VgOg
in a stone and increasing green, but there is no
correlation between Vz03and yellow and orange
grossulars. Cr20g(figure 10) behaves remarkably
like V20:,, although in smaller quantities (only
two stones with more than 30% green contained
no chromium). This suggests that generally the
Vz03:Cr203ratio in green grossulars is considerably greater than 1:1 but that both vanadium and
chromium are usually responsible for the green
in grossular garnets. A similar relationship between V3+ and Cr3+has been observed by Switzer
(1974) and by Amthauer (1975).An exception to
this relationship between vanadium, chromium,
and green coloration apparently exists in grossulars that are colored principally or solely by Cr203
(Arnthauer, 1976; Wight and Grice, 1982). We
have not yet had the opportunity to examine any
such material and so have no idea how the green
of these stones compares to that of the gems in
our study.
By examining how the quantities of FeO and
Fe203calculated by our end-member program behave with respect to changes in color, we can in-
TABLE 3. Factor analysis of the oxides present in the

105 garnets studied.
Factors
Oxide
1
SiO,
TiO,
A1203
v2
cr203
MgO
CaO
MnO
FeO
+++
++
--
210
strong positive correlation

moderate positive correlation
weak positive correlation
moderate negative correlation
weak negative correlation
Figure 9. A comparison of t h e weight

percentages of VD3i n t h e 105 garnets w i t h
their respective positions along t h e color trend
lines illustrated in figure 8. V.Ôys h o w s a
definite increase w i t h respect t o increasing
green trend.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
fer in which valence state (Fez+or Fe3+)*iron is

affecting color in grossulars. Figure 11 shows that
the amount of FeÔy clearly increases with the
change of color through yellow and orange to redorange and decreases as green increases. While
FeO is conspicuously absent from the green grossulars (figure 12), its role in the color of yellow
and orange grossulars remains ambiguous. In order to resolve this question, determination of the
valence states of iron in yellow and orange grossulars by means more accurate than stoichiometric calculation is required. In fact, numerous such
studies have been performed on the roles of Fez+
and Fe3+in grossular (e.g.,Arnthauer, 1975; Manning, 1972 and 1973). These have supported the
relationship we found between yellow and orange
grossular and Fe3+. A study by Manning and
Tricker (1977) confirmed the role of Fe3+ in this
context.
Figure 10. Weight percentage of C r 2 0 : j

compared with changes along the color trend
lines. C r 2 0 sincreases with the green trend here
in m u c h the same w a y as V 2 0 : does
,
i n figure
8. (Caution must be taken to consider the
different scales along the x-axis i n figures 9-12.)
CONCLUSIONS
The gem species grossular presents few problems
in description or identification. All of the gems
we examined in this study contain more than
70% of the component Ca3A12SiaOiz,
considerably
more than the 50% required to assign them to a
gem species. Mineralogical evidence based on nongem-quality material has shown that there is indeed a continuous chemical series between grossular, andradite, and uvarovite, but the grossulars
examined in this study suggest that there is a gap
in this series with regard to gem-quality grossular
garnets. Until we receive evidence to the contrary, then, we can regard gem grossulars as discrete with respect to any other gem garnet species. Gem grossulars have been observed in this
study to possess refractive indices from 1.731 to
1.754 and specific gravities of 3.57 to 3.67. The
hand spectroscope revealed no characteristic absorption bands for the 105 grossulars examined,
in support of past observations.
Considering the effect that the application of
varietal names has on the appreciation of gemstones, the precise definition of gem varieties is
of some importance. The two gem varieties of
grossular, hessonite and tsavorite, lack such def-
'Fern is the valence state of iron in FeO; Fe3' is the

valence state of iron in Fe20,.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
211
Weight
1.0
20
3.0
40
5,O
6.OoAFe'O'
Figure 11. Weight percentage of F e a s as

determined by the end-member calculations
compared to changes along the color trend
lines for the 105 grossulars. F e D s increases
with the increase along the yellowlorange
trend line.
212
Figure 12. Weight percentage of FeO as

determined by the end-member calculations
compared with changes along the color trend
lines. While PeO is present only in some stones
located along the yellowlorange color trend
line, no clear-cut correlation can be observed
between changing yellowlorange color and the
amount of FeO present.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
inition, as do most varieties in gemology. In the

case of grossular, we have been able to observe a
correlation between color and certain chemical
elements that strongly supports the use of varietal distinctions. However, as with red and violet
garnets, including rhodolite, the causes of color
are not always so readily determined. Before we
can define any varieties of garnets, therefore, we
must review all the variables related to the varietal classification of gem garnets in order to formulate general rules that can be applied uniformly across the group. The concluding paper of
the garnet project will include our recommendations for the precise definition of the gem varieties hessonite and tsavorite.
Ford W.E.(1915) A study of the relations existing between the

chemical, optical and other physical properties of the
members of the garnet group. American Journal o f Science,
4th series, Vol. 40, No. 235, pp. 33-49.
Gubelin E.J., Weibel M. (1975) Green vanadium grossular garnet from Lualenyi, near Voi, Kenya. Lapidary Journal, Vol.
29, No. 2, pp. 402-426.
Liddicoat R.T. Jr. (1981) Handbook of Gem Identification.
Gemological Institute of America, Santa Monica, CA, pp.
248-249.
Manning P.G. (1972) Optical absorption spectra of Fe3+ in octahedral and tetrahedral sites in natural garnets. Canadian
Mineralogist, Vol. 11, pp. 826-839.
Manning P.G. (1973)Intensities and half-widths of octahedralFeJ+ crystal-field bands and Racah parameters as indicators
of next-nearest-neighbor interactions in garnets. Canadian
Manning P.G., Tricker M.J. (1977)A Mossbauer spectral study
of ferrous and ferric ion distributions in grossular crystals:
evidence for local crystal disorder. Canadian Mineralogist,
Val. 15, pp. 81-86.
Manson D.V., Stockton C.M. I19811 Gem earnets in the redto-violet color ranee.
a> ~ e m o -.
l o kVol. 17. No. 4,
pp. 191-204.
McConnell D. (1964) Refringence of garnets and hydrogarnets.
Canadian Mineralogist, Vol. 8, pp. 11-12.
Shipley R.M. (1974)~ i c t i o n a of
r ~&s and Gemology. Gemological Institute of America, Santa Monica, CA, p. 89.
Skinner B.J. (1956) Physical properties of end-members of the
garnet group. American Mineralogist, Vol. 41, pp. 428-
ems
REFERENCES
Amthauer G. (1975)Zur Kristallchemie und Farbe gruner und
brauner Grossulare aus Tansania. Zeitschrift der Deutschen
Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 61-72.
Amthauer G. (1976) Kristallchemie und Farbe chromhaltiger
Granate. Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie Abhundlangen,
Vol. 126,No. 2, pp. 158-186.
Anderson B.W. (1959) Properties and classification of individual garnets. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 1-7.
Arbunies-Andreu M., Bosch-Figueroa J.M., Font-Altabi M.,
Traveria-Cros A. (1975) Physical and optical properties of
garnets of gem quality. Fortschritte Mineralogie, Vol. 52,
pp. 531-538.
Bank H. (1980) Granate aus Mexiko. Zeitschrift der Deutschen
Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 29, Nos. 3 and 4, pp.
194-195.
Bridges C.R. (1974) Green grossularite garnets ('ftsavoritcs")

in East Africa. Gems a ) Gemology, Vol. 14, No. 10, pp.
290-295,
Dana E.S. (1911) Descriptive Mineralogy, 6th ed. John Wiley

& Sons, New York, p. 440.
Deer N.A., Howie R.A., Zussman J. (1963)Rock-Forming Minerals. Vol. 1, Ortho- and Ring Silicates. Longman Group
Ltd., London, pp. 77-1 12.
Fleischer N.H. (1937) The relation between chemical composition and physical properties in the garnet group. American Mineralogist, Vol. 22, pp. 751-759.
436.
Slack G.A., Chrenko R.M. (1971) Optical absorption of natural

garnets from 1000 to 30,000 wavenumbers. Journal of the
Optical Society of America, Vol. 61, No. 10, pp. 13251329.
Stockton C.M., Manson D.V. (1982)Gem garnets: the orangeto red-orange color range. In International Gemological
Symposium Proceedings 1982, Gemological Institute of
America, Santa Monica, CA, pp. 327-338.
Switzer G.S. (1974) Composition of green garnet from Tanzania and Kenya. Gems a> Gemology, Vol. 14, No. 10, pp.
296-297.
Webster R. (19751Gems. Shoe String- Press, Hamden,. CT,. -pp.

155-158.
Wight W., Grice J.D. (1982) Grossular garnet from the Jeffrey
Mine, Asbestos, Quebec, Canada. Journal of Gemmology,
Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 126-130.
Winchell A.M., Winchell H. (1951)Elements of Optical Mineralogy, Part 11, Descriptions of Minerals. John Wiley &
Sons, New York, pp. 483-489.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
213
NOTES
A N D
NEW T E C H N I Q U E S
ARTISTRY I N ROCK CRYSTAL:
T H E V A N PELT COLLECTION
B y John Sinkunkus
Harold and Erica Van Pelt of Los Angeles are known
worldwide for their superb color photography of
gems and minerals. A well-kept secret, however, has
been their remarkable proficiency i n the lapidary
arts, specifically in the production in traditional
styles of many important rock crystal objects,
including candlesticks, vases, paperweights, and
polished quartz crystals containing various mineral
inclusions. Agate, amethyst, and other gemstones are
also employed. For the most part, the machinery
used to create these objects was designed or
modified by the Van Pelts themselves and includes
devices for sawing, grinding, and polishing. A stepby-step procedure for making a hollow ostrich egg,
completely covered by triungulur facets, is explained.
T h e purest form of quartz, known as rock crystal,

is one of the most abundant and widely distributed of all minerals. Relatively few places, however, provide clear crystals large enough for
lapidary work of the scale covered in this article;
currently, Brazil is the primary source of large
pieces of gem quality. This fascinating substance
was used by the ancient Egyptians, Chinese, Japanese, and by many cultures around the Mediterranean. Marvelous carvings were made from it by
pre-Columbian Indians of the Americas.
In later years, large crystals found in the Alps
enabled Renaissance lapidaries such as the celebrated Miseroni family of Florence (late 16th cen-
214
Notes and New Techniques
tury-1 7th century) to create outstanding works of

art as urns, vases, bowls, cups, and figurines. These
were often engraved with scenes and figures in
shallow relief. Many were complemented by precious-metal attachments and joints on which were
expended the best efforts of master enamelists
and jewelers (Michel, 1960). Examples of such
masterpieces can be seen in most major art
museums, notably the Metropolitan Museum in
New York, the Victoria and Albert in London, the
Green Vaults in Dresden, and the Residenz in
Munich (Strohmer, 1947; Rossi, 1954; Morassi,
1963; Menzhausen, 1968).
Because of the enormous amount of labor
required to work rock crystal, fewer objects were
made from it as subsidies from European royal
houses gradually fell away. Despite the availability of suitable rough, only the Chinese continued to produce large carvings into modern
times, although smaller objects of rock crystalsuch as spheres, seals, figurines, and the lilzewere made by the artisans of the Urals in Russia,
the famous carvers of Idar-Oberstein in Germany,
and elsewhere in the Orient and in Europe.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Sinkankas is a retired naval officer and author of
numerous books and articles on lapidary work,
mineralogy, and collecting.
'"7983 Gimo/ogica/ Institute of America
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
Figure 1. The Van Pelt quartz egg measures 5 in. (12.7 cm) high x 3 in. (7.6 crn) i n
diameter. The top has 176 facets, and the bottom 240. The walls of this hollow egg are
3 rnrn thick. Photo 1982 Harold and Erica Van Pelt, Los Angeles, CA.
In part, the decline in carving large objects

from rock crystal may be attributed to the appearance of high-quality glass, a much softer and far
more easily worked material. Much of the initial
shaping labor required to "rough out" a rock
crystal urn, for example, is completely eliminated
in glass manufacture, where the approximate
shape of the finished object can be obtained
directly from molten glass. Furthermore, after
suitable surface treatment, such as engraving or
grooving, a finished object in colorless glass is
scarcely distinguishable by the casual glance from
its more precious counterpart in rock crystal.
Thus it is news indeed to find a resurgence of
traditional rock crystal lapidary work taking place
in a modest workshop in Los Angeles by the team
of professional photographers, Harold and Erica
Van Pelt. Both are known worldwide for their
skill in realistically and artistically portraying
gems and minerals, as seen on the pages and
covers of Gems es) Gemology and many other

journals and books. This article examines the
origins of the Van Pelts' interest in carving and
faceting gemstones, and, specifically, the techniques they use to create fine, large objects such
as the hollow egg in figure 1 from rock crystal.
FROM PHOTOGRAPHERS
TO LAPIDARIES
The Van Pelts' interest in minerals and gems was
aroused in the late 1960s, when they were first
persuaded to try their hands at photographing
mineral specimens. Years of experience in the
photography of art objects of all kinds, including
sculptures, which are notoriously difficult to photograph well, aided their early success in depicting
mineral specimens and faceted stones.
This interest in minerals led to the accumulation of specimens for themselves, and eventually the desire to create from gem materials
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
215
Figure 2. The procedure used to fashion the

faceted hollow quartz egg. (A) The sawed block
of rock crystal with cross-section profile
marlied and dop attached with epoxy. Note the
cardboard strips, which raise the dop enough t o
permit ingress of a hacksaw blade when later
transfer takes place. (B) The rock crystal block
is mounted i n a rotatable tool for sawing off
strips t o achieve an approximate cylindrical
profile. The index gear at left allows rotation
by an equal number of degrees for each cut
made b y the diamond blade at right. (C) After
the initial sawing, the rough profile is ground
i n by hand against the diamond-charged
Crystalite turbine wheel shown at right. ( D )
Accurate profiling is accomplished using a
Crystalite grinding wheel, Y4 in. x 4 in. radius
(foreground), adjusted to the profile template
shown in the background. ( E ) The marks left
b y the profiling operation are ground out using
an 8 in. Crystalite 220-mesh diamond wheel.
Great care must be taken not to overgrind.
This step establishes the basic reference surface
for faceting. (F) The facets are ground using
a large, home-designed machine with a
Crystalite 8 in., 100-mesh diamond disc. The
diagrams on the wall show the positions and
inclinations of the facets, which gradually
decrease in size toward the tip of the egg. (G)
The facets are prepolished on a wood lap, using
Crystalite 15-micron diamond compound with
Crystalube for lubricant. ( H ) The stone is
turned around using the lathe to provide
alignment. The old dop is on the right and the
n e w dop is on the left. (I) The old dop has n o w
been removed, and the first drilling with a
Crystalite % in. core drill i s i n progress (note
the oil-coolant feed pipe). The narrow core is
knocked out later to leave a cylindrical recess.
This step i s followed b y t w o other core
drillings, each o f larger diameter. (J) The rough
interior is n o w cut b y the use of a suitable
diamond wheel attached to the post at right,
while the egg itself is slowly rotated at the left.
(K) The interlocking rim recess is machined
before the egg is removed from the lathe. A
series of felt wheels charged with cerium oxide
provide the final polish.
something that would be artistically satisfying

yet different from the usual projects undertaken
by beginning lapidaries. Their experience in the
art world suggested a revival of the art of carving
large objects from rock crystal and other hard and
compact gem materials. Using Gem Cutting (Sinlzanlzas, 1962) as a guide, they made or modified
as necessary the machinery needed to solve the
problems of rapid, safe removal of unwanted
material and at the same time insure geometrical
accuracy in the finished work. Among their modifications and alterations are a slab saw for
blocking out rough, fitted with clamps and adjustment devices to hold the stone at preset angles;
a smaller "trim saw" with a unique raising platform to regulate depth of cut; an arbor with
grinding wheel attachments and special elongated
shaft extensions to hold grinding, smoothing, and
polishing wheels and points, a drill press for coring
and hollowing; a lathe for turning round sections;
a lap for flattening large plane areas; and a very
large, strong, faceting head to apply facets to large
objects.
One of the most intriguing roclz crystal objects
made by the Van Pelts is the ostrich egg in two
halves shown in figure 1 and on the cover of this
issue. Each of the halves is accurately faceted to
provide exterior surfaces entirely covered by small,
polished triangles. The smoothly rounded interior
is hollowed out to very thin walls, and the halves
interlock by means of machined recesses along
their rims. It is truly a masterpiece of design and
creativity. The closed egg is 5 in. (13 cm) tall and
3 in. (7.7 cm) wide, and the walls are about 3 mm
thick. The procedure for making the egg is briefly
explained below to show the lapidary problems
involved and how they were solved.
FASHIONING THE HOLLOW EGG
The first step was to saw an almost flawless piece
of roclz crystal in half, one half for each half of the
egg. One of the halves was then attached with
epoxy to the dop shown in figure 2A. Three spacer
strips of cardboard were used to raise the quartz
slightly above the dop to allow ingress of a
hacksaw blade for later removal of the dop. The
dopped bloclz was then inserted into the special
device shown in figure 2B; this, in turn, was
locked into the feed carriage of the slabbing saw
to make the cuts shown in the photograph. After
each cut, the bloclz was rotated a like number of
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
217
degrees to a new position to achieve a rough circular outline.

In the next step, the quartz bloclz was held
against a diamond-charged wheel, shown in the
baclzground of figure 2C, until the desired shape
was achieved. Then, as shown in figure 2D, the
bloclz was slowly rotated in the lathe head at the
left while being ground with the round-nose diamond wheel in the foreground. The in-movement
of the grinding wheel was regulated by the template in the baclzground to insure an accurate profile. Another hand-grinding operation followed to
remove the excess material between the grooves,
as shown in figure 2E, and to establish the final
surface for faceting.
The dopped stone was next inserted into the
faceting machine in figure 2F for cutting the
numerous facets according to the plans seen here
on the wall charts, which detail the steps, the
angles between them, and the peripheral arrangement of the facets. After cutting, the facets were
polished on the wood lap shown in figure 2G. The
stone was now ready for turn-around and hollowing.
Figure 2H shows the redopping procedure, in
which the lathe itself was used as an accurate
axial alignment tool. The new dop at the left is
a tube of metal which was bonded to the stone
with epoxy. The tube has teeth cut into its edge
which allows the epoxy solvent better access when
the dop must be removed from the stone. Alternate teeth are covered with tape to prevent direct
and possibly damaging contact of tube and stone.
The first dop, on the right, was removed and the
egg-half positioned for the initial hollowing operation, as shown in figure 21. Here a hollow diamond-charged drill was used to cut a core to
suitable depth, with care being taken to insure
that the cut was not made too deep. The slender
core was then lznoclzed out and a large core drill
substituted to remove further material; the process was subsequently repeated once more using
a still larger core drill.
The roughly hollowed recess was then ground
smooth with a diamond wheel set off-center as
shown in figure 2J, again using an internal template, visible here in the baclzground on the right.
This template helps the cutter maintain uniform
thickness and parallelism of the curved walls.
Because of the limited availability of grinding
wheels that could accommodate the gradually
changing curvature of the inside, it was necessary
218
to hand-finish the interior as shown in figure 2K.

For this step, a resilient drum, covered by diamond-coated cloth, was brought into play. Other
drums of different shapes were used to methodically smooth the interior and were followed by
polishing wheels made of felt and charged with
a slurry of cerium oxide. Note also i n figure 2K
that the interlocking rim previously mentioned
has been machined in place; it was later smoothed
and then fitted with a metal, gold-plated rim
cemented in place with epoxy resin.
If all of this seems difficult and tedious, be
assured that it is. As each thin-walled creation
neared completion, the mechanical problems were
further burdened by the constant dread that one
slip would ruin the work and nullify hours and
hours of labor. A decided advantage of handholding the object during the last stages of
smoothing and polishing is that build-up of excessive and possibly damaging heat can be detected
and counteracted quickly.
SOME NOTES O N OTHER
VAN PELT PIECES
A few words of explanation are in order i n connection with other objects made by the Van Pelts,
such as those shown in figures 3 and 4. As a
matter of convenience and safety, it is often better
to make vases and urns from several sections of
quartz, with the faceted or fluted sections mated
by peg-and-socket joints machined into the pieces
themselves and finally cemented with colorless
epoxy. Joints of this kind may be covered with
gold bands as shown in the slender vases of figure
3, where the separate segments have been individually faceted. O n the other hand, the goblet
shown in figure 4 has had its smoothly curved
flutes cut into the rock crystal by hand. For the
most part, the Van Pelts now do their own metalwork, gem setting, and plating. Other objects made
by the Van Pelts include spoons fashioned from
colorful Uruguyan agate, a series of paperweights
Figure 3. Rock crystal vases meas~lring10V2 i n .

(26.6 c m ) high x 3 in. (7.6 c m ) i n diameter at
the top and 3% i n . (8.8 c m ) i n diameter at the
base. Each vase has six sides and 96 facets. T h e
tops of the covers are m a d e of pink tourmaline
and green tourmaline, respectively. Photo
1982 Harold and Erica Van Pelt,
Los Angeles, C A .
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
Figure 4. Rock crystal vase

measuring 4 Vi in. (1 1.4 cm) high
x 3% in. (8 cm) in diameter.
There are 24 flutes on the body
and the base. The natural quartz
crystal in the background, from
Arkansas, is representative of the
material used for fine pieces such
as this. Photo 1982 Harold and
Erica Van Pelt, Los Angeles, CA.
made from rock crystal, agate and petrified wood,

also pill boxes and other types of small containers.
While the production of these objects is a
severe test of patience and skill, the Van Pelts are
emphatic in pointing out that the greatest initial
difficulty is in finding suitable rough. Large masses
of rock crystal and some other gem materials are
available, to be sure, but careful examination
usually shows that most are unsatisfactory, containing either too many flaws in critical areas, or,
far worse, fractures that could lead to disintegra-
REFERENCES
Menzhausen I. (1968) The Green Vaults. Edition Leipzig,
Leipzig,
Michel H. (1960) Cristal de roche et cristalliers. Memoires
Academic Royale Belgique, classe de beaux-arts, Vol. 11,
No. 3, 52 [2] pp., 24 plates.
Morassi A. (19631 Art Treasures of the Medici. New York
Graphic Society, Greenwich, CT.
220
tion before a piece is finished. The scarcity of

large rough insures that few rock crystal masterpieces will ever be made. The Van Pelt creations,
none of which has ever been sold, are unique in
today's lapidary community.
Editor's Note: The hollow quartz egg is currently on display
at the GIA headquarters i n Santa Monica, California. The
vases shown here will, together with other pieces fashioned
b y the Van Pelts, be on display at the Tucson Gem and
Mineral Show, February 10 -13, 1983.
Rossi F. (1954) Italian feweled Arts. Harry N. Abrams, Inc.,

New York.
Sinkankas I. (1962)Gem-cutting-a Lapidary's Manual. Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York.
Strohmer E.v. (1947) Prunkgefasse aus Bergkristall. Kunstvemag Wulfram,Vienna, 38 [2] pp., 48 plates.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
GEM-QUALITY FRIEDELITE
FROM THE KALAHARI MANGANESE FIELD
NEAR KURUMAN, SOUTH AFRICA
By Herbert S. Pienaar
Gem-quality friedelite was discovered b y chance
during shaft-sinking operations i n a new, deep
manganese mine near Kuruman. This article reports
on the general geology and mineralization of the
friedelite, speculates on the age and origin of the
deposit, and describes the gemological properties of
this material.
T h e comparatively rare mineral friedelite was

first reported in 1876 by Bertrand. This occurrence was in the manganese mine at Adervielle,
in the Vallke du Luron of the Hautes Pyrenees,
France. The mineral was named in honor of
Charles Friedel, the French chemist and mineralogist.
Since then, friedelite has been recorded as occurring sporadically in other manganese silicate
deposits worldwide, including the Hartig mine
near Pajsberg, Sweden (Lindstrom, 1891); the Sjo
mine near Orebro, Sweden (Ingelstrom, 1891);the
mines near Veitsch, Austria (Hoffmann and Slavik, 1909); the Buckwheat mine and Parker shaft,
Franklin Furnace, Sussex County, New Jersey
(Palache, 1910); the Taylor mine, Franklin Furnace, and the mines at Sterling Hill, Sussex
County, New Jersey (Palache, 1935); the Fe-Mn
deposits at Dshumart and Kamya, Central Kazahkstan, U.S.S.R. (Kuyapova, 1960); and the deposits of the Atasui region of Central Kazahlzstan
(Kuyapova, 1968).
It appears that only the occurrences at Franklin Furnace and Sterling Hill have produced gemquality friedelite (Sinkankas, 1959; Sinkankas,
1962; Arem, 1977; Webster, 1978).The suitability
of this comparatively rare mineral for gem cutting
has been mentioned by Sinkankas (1968))Vargas
(1969),and Vargas (1979).
In November 1980, a little more than 100
years after its original discovery, a new occurrence of gem-quality friedelite was discovered, at
the Kalahari manganese field in the Republic of
South Africa. A brief description of the mineralization of this rare gem material and the circumstances that led to its discovery is presented here.
MINERALIZATION
The friedelite was found during shaft-sinking operations at the Middelplaats mine in the Kalahari
manganese field, near Kuruman, northern Cape
Province, Republic of South Africa (figure 1).It is
associated with the lower manganese ore zone indicated in figure 2. The ore itself is a fine-grained
mudstone into which the ore mineral, braunite,
is incorporated in a highly disseminated state
(Middelplaats Manganese Ltd., 1981).
Koekemoer, a mineral dealer, relying on information supplied by the miners who removed the
friedelite from the shaft, originally placed the occurrence in the upper portion of the 25-m-thick
ore zone at a depth of about 395 m below the surface and a distance of about 75 m from the main
shaft (personal communication, 1981). Subsequent follow-up investigations by Zaayman, the
resident mine geologist, placed the friedelite locality at the base of the lower ore body near the
old ventilation shaft. Unfortunately, the precise
underground position could not be determined,
inasmuch as that portion of the mine, once it was
worked out, had been converted into maintenance workshops and all the rock faces covered
by "shotcrete," a cement aggregate applied at high
pressure. Nevertheless, small fragments of friedelite were subsequently found in this vicinity
(Zaayman, personal communication, 1982).
On the basis of information received from the
miners, it is estimated that originally two to three
tons of low-grade manganese ore were collected,
from which about 100 kg of friedelite (then
thought to be a variety of rhodochrosite) and ganABOUT THE AUTHOR
Mr. Pienaar is lecturer in gemology at the De Beers
Laboratory, University of Stellenbosch, Republic of South
Africa.
Acknowledgments: The author wishes to thank Crystal World
Inc., Los Angeles, for specimens; the Geology Department of
the Middelplaats manganese mine for supplying relevant
information: and the technical staff of the Department of
Geology, Stellenbosch University, for processing the
manuscript.
"7983 Gemological Institute of America
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
221
Figure 1. Locality m a p of
mines i n the Kalahari
manganese field, Republic
o f South Africa.
gue were later separated. According to the miners,

the friedelite occurred in three discrete, near-horizontal veins within the low-grade manganiferous
ironstone. As seen in large hand specimens, two
of these "veins" have a thickness of about 10 mm
and contain the pure cryptocrystalline friedelite,
the third is about 35 mm thick and is criss-crossed
by veinlets of carbonate-rich minerals, which give
it a composite, matrix-like appearance.
Figure 2. Generalized section through the
Middelplaats manganese mine, modified after
Middelplaats Manganese Ltd. Report (1981).
Vertical scale exaggerated,
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
Kalahari formation: mud, alcrete and sand (0-60my.)
Mooidraai member: dolomitic limestone

Hotazel member: banded ironstone with two manganese ore horizons
Ongeluk member: lavas and agglomerates (2220 my.)
Basic dyke intrusion (1750 m.y.)
The friedelite mineralization tends to follow the general bedding of the sediments, with a
slight cross-cutting relationship in places. Consequently, the origin of the friedelite occurrence
is not clear. It could be metasomatic and associated with the nearby 1750-m.y.-old basic dykes,
or it could be the metamorphic product of a discrete layer within the original banded ironstone
formation. It is, however, definitely younger than
the 2220-m.y.-old Ongeluk volcanic rocks onto
which the banded ironstone formation was
deposited.
GENERAL GEMOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION
Two forms of gem-quality friedelite have been
found. The one is evenly colored and translucent,
and has a rose red to carmine red appearance (figure 3).The other form is also predominantly rose
red to carmine red, but it is streaked by pink and
white veinlets of rhodochrosite and other carbonate minerals. It is referred to here as matrix friedelite (figure 4).
Ideally, the chemical composition of friedelite
is MnaSi(,O,g(OH,Cl),o.
However, according to the
accompanying electron probe analysis by D. H.
Cornell of the Department of Geology, University
of Stellenbosch, the friedelite from this occurrence has some of the manganese replaced isomorphously by iron and magnesium (table 1).
Thus far, no discrete crystals have been found
in this locality. All the material examined was
cryptocrystalline and optically anisotropic; it produced a typical aggregate reaction when exam-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
Figure 3. Cryptocrystulline
friedelite cubochons, 16 x
10.1 m m (5.42 ct) and 10.4
x 8.8 m m (3.83 ct). Photo
by Tino Hammid.
ined under crossed polarizing filters. However,

the X-ray diffraction powder pattern for this material agrees well with that published by Frondel
and Bauer (1953) for friedelite and which they
placed in the trigonal crystallographic system.
Refractive index determinations using immersion techniques gave values of (D = 1.657 and =
1.630. However, measurements made on a standard gemological refractometer result in a general
single value of 1.64. Moreover, some gems do display "form birefringence" (Webster,1978, p. 189)
and show two distinct shadow edges, which can
be separated in the usual way by a polarizing filter. The ".form birefringence" values determined
on 10 examples with flat facets varied from 0.005
to 0.020, usually symmetrically placed around
the mean value of 1.64.
An examination of oriented petrographic thin
sections revealed that the friedelite crystallites
are spindle-shaped, with their long axes more-orless coinciding with the crystallographic c-axis.
The vein-like infill is such that the spindles tend
to be oriented preferentially at right angles to the
plane of the bedding of the rock in which the friedelite occurs. Refractive index measurements
made on polished sections oriented first parallel
and then perpendicular to the plane containing
the "vein" gave values of 1.64 and 1.63-1.65
respectively.
The luster on freshly broken surfaces is waxy
to dull. O n polished surfaces, however, it is vitreous. Polished cabochons are translucent to
semitranslucent.
None of the samples of friedelite examined
displayed fluorescence when exposed to long-wave
ultraviolet (365 nm), short-wave ultraviolet (254
nml, or X-rays.
O n the hand spectroscope, the absorption
spectrum shows a clear absorption band from 535
to 595 nm, with a general absorption from 400 to

480 nm. This absorption pattern is persistent and
was observed in all specimens tested. Furthermore, as may be concluded from its absorption
spectrum, friedelite has a vivid red appearance
when observed through a Chelsea dichroic filter.
Other physical properties include hardness,
which falls between 4% and 5 on the Mohs scale;
relative density for the pure material, which is
3.066 0.003, with a slight increase up to 3.11
for matrix samples; fracture, which is even to
semigranular; structure, which is massive; and
toughness, which may be regarded as fair to good.
Although most of the examples of massive
friedelite examined were free of any characteristic
inclusions, some did show small white blebs of
carbonate mineralization.
DISCUSSION
Friedelite, schallerite, and pyrosmalite form a
group of minerals collectively referred to as the
pyrosmalite group, with the general formula
(Mn,Fe)gSitjOls(OH,Cl)lo.
Although these minerals
are known to occur a t times as single crystals, it
is mainly the massive forms of friedelite that
have been used for gem cutting.
Palache (1935)mentions a number of color varieties of friedelite occurring in the Franklin and
Sterling Hill areas. These include the compact
forms tinted brownish red, through the flesh-colored shades, to a "lively pink." By comparison,
the friedelite from Middelplaats displays very little color variation and its reddish appearance is
its main attraction. The Kazahlzstan cryptocrystalline forms of friedelite described by Kuyapova
in 1960 are reddish brown or a light somewhat
greenish brown.
The cause of the color cannot be explained
with any certainty. In broad terms, it may be as-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
223
TABLE 1. Electron rnicroprobe analysis (in wt. %) of

friedelite from the Kalahari manganese field.
SiO,
A1203
MgO
FeO
MnO
CaO
TiO,
K20
Na20
cl
Figure 4. Matrix friedelite cabochon

(28 x 14 mm).
H20+
(by difference)
sumed that friedelite is an idiochromatic mineral

with compositional manganese as the principal
colorant. Since the ferroan-friedelite described by
Kuyapova (1968) is dark brown with an iron content of about 10% (reported as an oxide), and the
pink friedelite described by Palache (1935)has a
low iron content (0.7 oxide), the lightness or
darkness of the tonal quality of the reddish color
could very well be associated with the amount of
iron that has isomorphously replaced the manganese. It should be pointed out, however, that
the pink friedelite is also described as being a lowchlorine friedelite and its unusual pink color could
also be associated with the low chlorine content
(0.25%reported by Palache in 1935.
The comparative rarity of friedelite is emphasized if one considers that this occurrence is the
first to be reported in the Kalahari manganese
field (which extends for about 500 km2; see figure
2), that manganese ore has been mined in a number of mines during the past 25 years, that the
present discovery is limited to the originally recovered 100 kg of friedelite and gangue, that the
geologist at Middelplaats mine had great difficulty in relocating the mineralization and could
only find tiny fragments of friedelite, that the
method of underground mining at depths of 250
m and more is highly mechanized thereby minimizing in-situ discoveries, and that the friedelite
mineralization did not occur in the present ore
horizons.
To date, friedelite has been encountered as a
gem only rarely, while neither schallerite nor pyrosmalite has ever been recorded as such. It is
quite possible that these minerals do exist as
gems, but because of their similarity in appearance and durability to reddish brown varieties of
bowenite serpentine, they were misidentified as
224
such. They do, however, display slightly higher

values for their physical and optical properties.
REFERENCES
Arem J.E. (1977)Color Encyclopedia of Gemstones. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., NY.
Bertrand E. (1876) Comptes Rendus de I'Academie des Sciences de France, Vol. 82, p. 1167.
Frondel C., Bauer L.H. (1953)Manganpyrosmalite and its polymorphic relation to friedelite and schallerite. American
Hoffmann A., Slavik F. (1909)Bulletin Acta Bohbme, Vol. 14,
p. 4.
Ingelstrom L.J. (1891)Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie, Vol. 21,
p. 94.
Kuyapova M.M. (1960) Friedelite from the iron-manganese
deposits of Dshumart and Kamya in Central Kazahkstan.
Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, Vol. 135, pp. 416-418.
Kuyapova M.M. (1968)Friedelite and its ferrous varieties from
deposits of the Atasui region of Central Kazahkstan. Zapiski Vsesoyuznogo Mineralogicheskogo Obshchestva, Vol.
97, pp. 342-348.
Lindstrom G. (1891) Geologiska FOteningens i Stocl&olm
Forhandlingar, Vol. 13, p. 81.
Middelplaats Manganese Ltd., Department of Geology (1981)
A brief description of the Middelplaats manganese deposit.
Unpublished report.
Palache C. (1910)Contributions to the mineralogy of Franklin
Furnace, New Jersey.American Journal of Science, Vol. 29,
pp. 177-187.
Palache C. (1935)The minerals of Franklin and Sterling Hill,
Sussex, New Jersey. U.S. Geological Survey Professional
Paper 180, pp. 88-90.
Sinkankas J. (1959) Gemstones of North America. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., NY.
Sinkankas J. (19621Gem Cutting, 2nd ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., NY.
Sinkankas J. (1968)Standard Catalog of Gems. Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co., NY.
Vargas C.,Vargas M. (1969) Faceting for Amateurs. Vargas,
Thermal, CA.
Vargas G., Vargas M. (1979)Descriptions of Gem Materials.
Vargas, Palm Desert, CA.
Webster R. (1978) Gems, Their Sources, Descriptions and
Identification, 3rd rev. ed. Butterworth, London.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
TOURMALINE AS AN INCLUSION
IN ZAMBIAN EMERALDS
By John I. Koivula
This article reports the identification of tourmaline
crystals as inclusions in emeralds from Zambia, i n
south-central Africa. T o understand the paragenesis
responsible for this unusual association, the geology
of the area is reviewed. The gemological properties o f
these emeralds are also noted.
T o date, a variety of interesting mineral inclusions have been reported in the emeralds from the
deposits at Milzu-Kafubu, in Zambia (Sinlzanlzas,
1981).These include the micas biotite and phlogopite, rutile, and apatite. Recently, the author
had the opportunity to study three rough emeralds and one faceted stone from this locality with
inclusions that appeared to be tourmaline, a mineral that' has been reported as inclusions i n emeralds from the Urals in the Soviet Union and
from the Habachtal mine in Austria (Sinlzanlzas,
1981; Gubelin, 1974)but has not previously been
noted as occurring in Zambian emeralds.
If the inclusions the author observed are in
fact tourmaline, then a new paragenetic relationship could be established and a new species added
to the list of known inclusions in Zambian emeralds. To this end, the geology of the area is reviewed and the inclusions themselves described
in detail. Also, the gemological properties of these
stones are compared to those previously reported
for Zambian emeralds.
GENERAL GEOLOGY
OF THE ZAMBIAN
EMERALD AREA
The main emerald-producing area in Zambia
comprises two deposits, Milzu and Kafubu, which
lie within a few kilometers of each other. This
emerald field is located in the Kitwe district of
northern Zambia, approximately 32 lzm southwest of Kitwe and 40 lzm west-northwest of Luanshya, near the entrance of the Miku River into the
Kafubu River (Bank, 1974).Both Miku and Kafubu
produce excellent, gem-quality emeralds; some
crystals weigh well over 100 ct.
The two deposits are geologically similar. The

emeralds are found in biotite-phlog'opite schists
in which dark brown to blaclz tourmaline also
occurs. Other roclzs intimately associated with
the emerald- and tourmaline-bearing mica schists
are talc-magnetite schists and quartz-amphibolite-chlorite schists with secondary quartz veining
(Bank, 1974; Sinkankas, 1981). It is thought that
the chromium necessary to provide the traceelemental coloration of the emerald was derived
from magnetite in the talc-magnetite schists, as
the magnetite in these roclzs has been shown to
contain a small percentage of chromium (Bank,
1974).
TOURMALINE AS AN INCLUSION
Because tourmaline is found throughout the schist
host rock in direct association with the emeralds,
it is not surprising to find tourmaline crystals as
inclusions in the emeralds. The inclusions observed in the four specimens studied by the author are prismatic and, as is typical of tourmalines, striated parallel to the c-axis (see figure 1).
They are transparent dark orangy brown in a
strong transmitted light or on very thin edges, but
generally they appear blaclz and opaque. They occur up to 10 mm in length and 2 mm in diameter.
Many are easily seen with the naked eye.
Surrounding the tourmalines are numerous
tiny, whitish-appearing tension fractures that extend into the host emerald. Some of these, as illustrated in figure l , are decorated with brownish
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mr. Koivula is the senior staff gemologist in the Gem
Identification Department of the Gem Trade Laboratory, Inc.,
Santa Monica, California.
Acknowledgments: The author would like to express his
sincere thanks to Julius Petsch for donating the emeralds with
tourmaline inclusions for this study, and to Peter Keller for
arranging the donation. A special thanks goes to Chuck Fryer
for the X-ray diffraction work, to Roger Kuchek for his
assistance in obtaining the ColorMaster notations, to Stephen
Hofer for his consultation on the absorption spectra, and to
William Kerr for faceting the large stone used in this study.
''1983 Gemological Institute of America
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
225
Figure 2. Cross-sectional view of one of the

dravite tourmaline inclusions breaking the
surface of a rough crystal of Zambian emerald,
Oblique illumination, magnified 50x.
GEMOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
One faceted and three rough emeralds were examined. The faceted stone was an emerald cut
that weighed 0.91 ct, and the largest rough crystal
section weighed 3.48 ct. The emeralds varied in
color from a bluish green of medium intensity to
a dark, intense bluish green.
Using the GEM ColorMaster, the color of the
0.91-ct faceted stone was dialed in as 00 red, 43
Figure 1. A black-appearing crystal of dravite
green, and 22 blue using the E modifier. This readtourmaline in a Zambian emerald is decorated
ing calculated as 0.230 x, 0.586 y, and 5.72 z for
by numerous small tension fractures, some
the coordinates on the CIE color chart, giving a
of which are stained by limonite. This
very slight bluish green by CIE standards.
photomicrograph was taken using a
Refractive index and optic character were decombination of low-intensity transmitted light
termined
using a Duplex I1 refractometer and a
and oblique illumination, magnified 2 0 ~ .
sodium vapor light source. Refractive indices of
= 1.581 and M = 1.588 were noted, which gives
orange limonite. In cross section, as in figure 2,
an optic character and sign of uniaxial negative
the tourmalines display typical trigonal or trianand a birefringence of 0.007.
gular outlines. No crystallograpl~icallydictated
The emeralds were studied for their visible
alignment was noted between the tourmaline inlight absorption characteristics using a Beck
clusions and their host.
wavelength prism spectroscope and the GEM
Noted gemologist Chuck Fryer scraped one of
spectroscope unit. In the direction of the ordinary
the inclusions that reached the surface and obray, parallel to the c-axis, sharp absorption lines
tained enough powder for X-ray diffraction analcould be seen at approximately 479 nin, 610 nm,
ysis. The inclusion was found to correspond to
638 nm, and 670 nm, with a single, somewhat
tourmaline in the schorl-dravite series, schorl
thicker band at approxin~ately682 nnl.
having the chemical composition Na(Fe,Mn).jAl,jBs
A general absorption band was also noted beSi,A7(OH,F),,and dravite, NaMg3~BB.jSi,j027(OH,F).i.tween 580 nin and 610 nm. At 90from the c-axis,
The diffraction pattern obtained matched dravite
only four distinct absorption lines were observed:
more closely than schorl, but a detailed chemical
638 nm, 650 nnl, 670 nin, and 690 nm. All of the
analysis would be necessary to conclusively place
absorption points in these emeralds can be corthese tourmalines in their proper position in the
related to known chromium absorption peaks
schorl-dravite series.
(Sinl<ankas, 1981).
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
The emeralds showed no reaction to longwave or short-wave ultraviolet radiation, or to

X-radiation.
The specific gravity was hydrostatically determined for two of the emerald specimens. One
specimen, devoid of tourmaline and containing
only a small number of mica platelets, showed an
average specific gravity reading of 2.71. The second specimen, shot through with numerous tourmaline crystals as well as with mica and other
assorted inclusions, revealed a specific gravity of
2.82. This higher S.G. could be due in part to the
presence of the schorl-dravite tourn~aline,which
has a specific gravity (3.03-3.25) that is much
higher than that of emerald. The gemological
properties obtained by the author for refractive
index and specific gravity (on the less included
stone) were in close agreement with those published by Bank (1974) for emeralds from Miku,
Zambia.
CONCLUSION
Although tourmaline has been reported as inclusions in.erneralds from the Ural Mountains in the
Soviet Union and from the Habachtal emerald
mine in Austria, this is the first report of such
inclusions in African emeralds. Since emerald has
$9
not yet been found included in Zambian tourmalines, it can be inferred that the emeralds may
be geologically younger than the tourmalines.
In reviewing the suite of inclusions now known
to occur i n Zambian emeralds, we find striking
similarities to inclusions in emeralds from other
schist-type deposits. In fact, the emeralds from
the mica schist in Habachtal, Austria (Gubelin,
1956, 1974), are known to play host to all of the
minerals so far found as inclusions in Zambian
emeralds. Such comparable parageneses support
the view that schist-type emeralds all undergo
similar stages of genesis.
Editor's note: An attractive example o f a faceted
Za~nbicinemerald if, illustrated in the Gem Trade
Lab Notes section o f this issue.
REFERENCES
Bank H. (19741 The emerald occurrence of Miku, Zambia.
journal of Gemmology, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 8-15.
Gubelin E J . (1956) The emerald from Habachtal. Gems es)
Gemology, Vol. 8, No. 10, pp. 295-309.
Gubelin E.J. (1974) Internal World of Gemstones. ABC edition, Zurich, Switzerland.
Sinkankas J. (19811 Emerald and Other Beryls. Chilton Book
Co., Radnor, PA.
SECOND ANNUAL
GEMS & GEMOLOGY MOST VALUABLE ARTICLE AWARD
This issue marks the end of the 1982

volume year of Gems & Gemology. Once
again, we are asking you-our readersto select the three articles that you found
most interesting and potentially useful. By
participating in this ballot, you not only help
us acknowledge the time and effort that these
authors have contributed to expanding the
geniological literature, but you also give us a
better idea of your needs and interests.
Your ballot is located on the insert card
inside this issue. Please choose three
articles from 1982 and mark them in order of
numerical preference: (1) first, (2) second, (3)
third. Be sure to mark only three articles {or
the entire year. Additional comments
concerning the journal are welcome in the
space provided. After voting, simply detach
the postcard ballot and drop it in the mail

(postage pre-paid if mailed in the U.S.).
Ballots must be received by March 15, 1983
to be included in the final tally.
The winning articles will be announced in
the Spring 1983 issue of Gems & Gemology,
with cash awards of $500, $300, and $100,
respectively, given to the authors of the three
most valuable articles.
Your participation is important to the
vitality of the journal. So please take just a
few minutes now to let us know how you feel,
and help honor the authors whose work has
educated and enlightened gemological readers
around the world.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
227
EDITOR
Chuck Fryer
GIA, Sanla Monica
Uem trade
LAB NOTES
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Robert Crowntngshield
Gem Trade Laboratory, New York
Karin N . Hurwit
Gem Trade Laboratory, Santa Monica
Robert E. Kane
Gem Trade Laboratory, Los Angeles
DIAMOND
"Chameleon" Diamond
Perhaps the most striking color
change of a diamond is in the socalled chameleon. These diamonds
were discussed, but not illustrated,
in the Winter 1981 issue of Gems
&> Gemology. It was noted at that
time that these stones glow red
while hot from being on the wheel,
then on cooling appear to be fancy
yellow before changing on exposure
to light to the dull yellow or graygreen usually associated with chameleon diamonds.
Figure 1 shows a particularly attractive dark yellow-green emeraldcut diamond seen recently in the
New York lab. The stone displayed
strong yellow fluorescence and phosphorescence. Also observed were a
weak pair of absorption lines at approximately 4155 A and 4190 A in
the spectroscope. Figure 2 shows the
same stone while i t is still warm
from an alcohol flame. In this phase,
it would be considered a fancy, intense orange-yellow. Unfortunately,
few future owners will ever see this
color, as the diamond returned in
seconds to its "normal" green as
soon as it was exposed to light.
Crusader Diamond
What's new in diamond cutting? In
New York, we had the opportunity
to examine a seven-sided modified
brilliant resembling a crusader's
shield, complete with a white cross
) I 9 8 3 Gemological Instilute of America
Lab Notes
Figure 1. Normal color of this

2.5-ct "chameleon"
diamond.
engraved on the table (figure 3 ) . It

appeared at first that the table was
originally mechanically "frosted,"
then repolished with four shallow
facets designed to leave the cross as
shown. However, the mechanical
etch marks are at right angles to the
two cross members, which suggests
that the "frosting" may have been
done later.
Diamond Oddities
Only rarely have we seen needle-like
inclusions in diamonds, and even
more rarely have we seen them in
patches resembling those found in
natural corundum. Figure 4 shows
two long rows of needles as viewed
through the crown of a round brilliant that came into the New York
lab. When viewed from the pavilion,
the needles take on a more scat-
Figure 2. The stone shown in

figure 1 after heating and
before exposure to light.
Figure 3. Shield-shaped
diamond with cross on the
table. Magnified 10 X.
tered appearance, with brilliantly
reflected spots along some of them.
A naturally yellow fancy diamond that also came into the New
York laboratory for a complete quality analysis was puzzling to the
graders because of what appeared to
be the blackish outlines of all the
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
Figure 4. Needle-like
inclusions in diamond.
Magnified 30 X.
Figure 7. Natural 6-ct emerald from Zambia.

Figure 5. Unus~lalfacet-edge
appearance in yellow
diamond.' Magnified 20 X.
pavilion facets (figure 5). The best

explanation we had for the appearance was that the pavilion had been
lightly burned. With the dark yellow
as contrast, the nonburned areas appeared blackish. It was odd that the
effect was confined to the pavilion;
one possible explanation is that the
stone had been lightly burned all
over and repolished only on the
crown.
Unusual Absorption Spectrum
The spectroscope is invaluable in
determining the origin of color in

most colored diamonds. This determination is usually routine, and we
see new or unexpected absorption
spectra only infrequently. Recently,
however, a bright yellow marquiseshaped diamond weighing approximately 1.38 ct was sent to the Los
Angeles laboratory. This stone exhibited a n absorption spectrum almost identical to that described for
bright yellow diamonds of natural
color on page 210 of the 11th edition
of the Handbook o f Gem Identification, by Richard T. Liddicoat, Jr.
Upon careful examination of the
spectrum, however, a very faint line
was noted at 5920 A, which proved
that the stone had been treated (see

figure 6). Even when the diamond
was cooled with an aerosol refrigerant gas, which often aids greatly in
observing absorption spectra, the
5920 A line was difficult to see.
This stone exemplifies the fact
that care must be taken when examining the absorption spectra of
diamonds. If a stone like this one
were hastily examined, a gemologist
might miss the very faint 5920 A
line and therefore misinterpret the
spectrum as being that of a natural
yellow diamond. Note also that the
lone-wave
ultraviolet fluorescence
was a strong yellow, rather than the
expected yellow-green.
Figure 6. Absorption spectrum of treated bright yellow diamond.

EMERALD
Figure 7 illustrates a nearly flawless

6-ct Zambian emerald that recently
came into the New York lab. When
examined with a hand spectroscope,
the stone showed a distinct line at
4270 A. This absorption line has
heretofore been reported as being
present in some natural emeralds of
unknown origin (Kane, Gems &>
Gemology, Winter 1980-81) and in
Lab Notes
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
229
some Pakistan stones (Glibelin, Gems

ed Gemology, Fall 1982), as well as
in iron-rich Gilson synthetic emeralds. The identifying features of this
Zambian stone are its nearly inert
reaction to ultraviolet radiation and
its high refractive indices (1.5851.592). Other stones from the same
lot, but with inclusions, had similar
properties.
PARISITE
A client submitted two earthylooking hexagonal crystal fragments
to the New York laboratory with the
comment that they were very rare
gems. The crystals resembled brown
corundum with a highly developed
basal parting, or cleavage. We accepted them for identification only
after determining that one had a
natural face that appeared to be
smooth and lustrous enough to allow a refractive index reading.
The test for refractive index was
inconclusive, though the stone ap-
~ v I o L E T V B & B L U E
peared to be strongly birefringent,

with readings of approximately 1.671.77. This suggested the possibility
that the material might be a carbonate. The hardness was approximately 4 % on the Mohs scale. Specific gravity was 4.18. When we
observed the crystals with a hand
spectroscope, we were amazed to see
many bands of the spectrum that
would be associated with a rare-earth
element.
One of the many possibilities we
considered on the basis of these
properties was siderite, an iron carbonate, but our samples of siderite
are semitransparent, greenish yellow-brown cleavages, with a different absorption spectrum (figure 8 )
and refractive indices of approximately 1.63 to above the scale (actually, 1.873).
Before we were able to complete
our tests, however, our client returned for her stones and told us
they were parisite crystals that she
had collected herself at the Muzo
+BG-(
4000
GREEN\-
V G ~ Y 0
5000
-(-
RED
8000
-1
7000
mine in Colombia. She said she just

wanted to know if we could recognize a "gem" when we see one. With
a hardness of only 4 % ) basal cleavage, and a nondescript color and
appearance, parisite seems a poor
candidate for adding to the list of
gemstones, though her crystals (one
weighed in excess of 5 ct) are indeed
rare.
Gemologists are acquainted with
parisite (named for J. I. Paris, first
lessee of the Muzo mine after Colombia gained its independence in
18 19) as a yellowish, blade-like inclusion in Muzo emeralds. In fact,
their presence in an emerald is considered proof that the stone came
from the Muzo mine. Parisite is a
fluocarbonate of the cerium metals
(cerium, lanthanum, and the pair
praseodymium and n e o d y n ~ i u n ~
[usually called didyn~ium])that are
collectively known as rare-earth elements. It is, therefore, not surprising
to see that parisite has a rare-earth
spectrum. Robert Webster mentions
seeing an emerald with a rare-earth
spectrum that was later found to be
due to the numerous parisite inclusions in the stone. Note, however,
that the spectrum shown here in figure 9 is somewhat different from the
one shown in the Spring 1973 issue
of Gems e) Gemology, which was of
a lighter-colored parisite inclusion
in emerald.
PEARLS, Plugged Natural Blister
Since preparing the entry on cultured 34 blister pearls for the Spring
1982 issue of Gems o) Gemology,
Figure 8. Absorption spectrum for siderite.

Figure 9. Absorption spectrum for parisite.
-vIoLET
4000
230
V B &BLUE
Ll G \ G R E E N +
5000
Lab Notes
V G t V
GOO0
-(-
RED
-1
Figure 10. X-ray showing

plug in a blister pearl.
Actual size.
7000
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
we at the New York lab have been

more conscious of blister pearls than
before. The X-radiograph of a large
"pearl" in figure 10 shows that it is
actually a natural blister pearl that
has been plugged. The plug provides
the material for the drill hole and
the peg used to secure the pearl to
its mounting.
.. . . -
Star QUARTZ
The 11.77-ct translucent, white, asteriated, oval double cabochon shown
in figure 11 was recently brought to
the Los Angeles laboratory for iclentification. When the stone was examined in a polariscope, a "bullseye" uniaxial interference figure
was obtained, thus proving it to be
quartz.
The phenomenon of asterism in
quartz was discussed in some detail
in the Winter 1981 issue of Gems
a) Gemology, on page 230. The unusual feature about this stone, reportedly from Sri Lanka, was the
fact that the r~itile needles that
evoked the asterisin were relatively
large, and were even visible to the
unaided eye. When examined with
the n~icroscope, the rutile needles
were strikingly enhanced by interference colors that changed as the
stone was moved (see figure 12).The
iridescence produced by the interference of light with the rutile
needles was easily visible to the unaided eye as the stone was rotated
under a single light source.
. .
- --
SAPPHIRE, Heat Treated

A natural sapphire of unusual color
came into the New York lab for
identification. The brilliant orangeyellow seemed unnatural, and the
lack of fluorescence and absence of
an iron line in the absorption spectrum strongly suggested a heat-treated
stone. The clincher, however, was
an unpolished burned area near the
multiplane girdle (figure 13).
Figure 14 shows yet another example of incomplete repolishing of
a heat-treated orangy yellow natural
Lab Notes
Figure 11. Star quartz, 11.77 ct.
exposure to south daylight for a day

or so. Norn~ally,we would assume
that the color was due to irradiation
and not to heat, but we recently
heard that certain heat-treated yellow natural sapphires may fade (Gems
o) Gemology, Spring 1982, pp. 47
and 48). This has not yet been
confirmed.
Figure 12. Rutile needles in

the star quartz cabochon
shown in figure 12.
Magnified 30 x.
sapphire. It came from a lot of six
stones, all of which clearly owed
their color to heat treatment.
One yellow sapphire from another lot of four stones recently seen
in New York faded appreciably after
Figure 13. The unpolished

burn area near the girdle of
this yellow sapphire reveals
heat treatment.
SPINEL AND SAPPHIRE,

Colored by Cobalt (?)
One of the most unusual coincidences to occur in the New York
Figure 14. Partly polished facet

of a yellow heat-treated
sapphire. Magnified 10 X.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
231
Figz~re15. Red flashes in a

dark blue spinel, 2.56 ct.
Magnified 10 X .
Figure 16. Rain-like inclusion

in the spinel shown in figure
15. Magnified 10 X .
laboratory in recent years was the

receipt in one week of identification
requests for two natural-appearing
blue gemstones that seemed to be
colored by cobalt. All gemologists
have been taught that cobalt-colored
blue stones do not occur in nature.
It was therefore a distinct surprise
to test a dark blue oval stone that
exhibited red flashes (figure 15)similar to those seen in synthetic blue
spinel. The presence of included

crystals and fingerprint inclusions
suggested natural origin. However,
the unnatural-appearing "rain" inclusions (figure 161, normally associated with flux-grown materials,
puzzled us. The refractive index of
1.715 was normal for natural spinel.
The stone appeared red under the
color filter. In addition to the cobalt spectrum associated with syn-
Figure 17. Cobalt-like absorption spectrum i n spinel.
Figure 18. Unusual spectrum observed in a sapphire.
Lab Notes
thetic spinel, the absorption spectrum showed a weak iron line at

approxin~ately4500 A (figure 17).
A search of the literature turned
up only one report of stones that fit
this description. In an article in the
July 1977 issue of the Journal of
Gemmology, R. Keith Mitchell describes three such spinels with these
characteristics. In view of advances
in the flux growth of synthetic crystals and in the heat diffusion of surface color in corundum, it would be
hasty to conclude that these "new"
blue spinels are in truth natural. The
stone we had in the laboratory, with
both crystals and "rain-like" (flux?)
inclusions, is suspicious. However,
the only flux-grown cobalt-colored
blue synthetic spinels we have seen,
which were kindly furnished by Dr.
Kurt Nassau, had no inclusions and
the surfaces of the octahedra were
crazed, which suggests difficulty in
manufacturing. There was really no
comparison to be made other than
color, red flashes, refractive index,
and color filter reaction. We did not
detect iron in the absorption spectrum of the flux-grown synthetic
spinels provided by Dr. Nassau.
Later that same week another
client asked if we could identify a
purple-blue stone in an Edwardian
ring while his customer waited. This
stone was clearly an unusual, but
natural, purple-blue sapphire. The
stone appeared red under the color
filter and showed red flashes under
a direct incandescent light. The absorption spectrum (figure 18) was
unlike any we had seen before in
natural sapphire. It resembles the
absorption spectrum of cobalt-colored synthetic blue spinel; the only
differences are that the two longwave bands toward the red end are
higher in the
approximately 200 i%
spectrum of this sapphire, and the
shorter wave-length band toward the
blue end becomes two bands offset
200 A toward the shorter wavelength end of the spectrum.
The fact that surface diffusion of
titanium and iron as well as chromium has been successfully used to
impart a "synthetic" color to natu-
GEMS &. GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
ral corundum makes it a matter of

conjecture as to the possibility that
cobalt could be used for the same
purpose. Possibly, cobalt may diffuse much more readily than the
other elements so that more than
just surface coloration would be the
result. We must emphasize, however, that we have not encountered
any report of such cobalt diffusion,
so this is merely conjecture at this
time.
Star SPINEL
Figure 19. A 1.83-ct star spinel

showing six rays.
Figure 20. Four- and six-ray

stars visible i n the star spinel
shown i n figure 19.
The New York lab also received for

identification a very "clean" graypurple six-ray star spinel (figure 19).
The asterism was exceptionally sharp
but showed the alternating six- and
four-ray stars expected of asteriated
spinel in different orientations (figure 20).
The second item was a singly refractive, transparent, purplish blue,

triangular piece of rough material
that had no distinctive internal patterning. X-ray diffraction and chemical analysis by the electron microprobe proved the material to be
potassium chloride, a highly watersoluble substance. Because of the
poor surface on the material, only a
hazy refractive index was seen at
approximately 1.49. There was no
reaction to ultraviolet radiation. Potassium chloride does occur in nature as the mineral sylvite.
UNCLASSIFIED ODDITIES
The Gem Trade Laboratory in Santa
Monica was recently asked to issue
identification reports on two rather
interesting man-made items. The
first was a singly refractive, transparent, green, rectangular piece of
rough material that had one of the
most intricate internal patterns we
have yet encountered. The pattern,
as can be seen in figure 21, showed
the isometric nature of the host. The
refractive index was 1.39, and the
specific gravity was approximately
2.64. The material, which showed
perfect cleavage in two directions,
fluoresced a very strong yellow to
Lab Notes
Figure 21. Isometric inclusion

pattern seen i n lithium
fluoride. Magnified 25 X.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
long-wave ultraviolet radiation and

a strong greenish yellow to shortwave ultraviolet radiation. X-ray
diffraction proved the material to be
lithium fluoride, a slightly watersoluble chemical compound. There
is no known natural counterpart.
Andrew Quinlan from New York supplied

figures 1, 2,3, 4, 5, 13, 14.15, 16, 19, and
20. Peter Johnston drew the absorption
spectrum in figure 6. Shane McClure provided figure 11. Figure 7 was supplied by
Tino Hammid. John Koivula is responsible
for figure 21. Bob Crowningshield prepared figures 8, 9 , 10, 17, and 18. Bob
Kane took the photo in figure 12.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
233
Editorial Forum
DEBATE OVER
LARGEST KNOWN FACETED
TAAFFEITE CONTINUES
1 notice that you marked the statement "WORLD'S
LARGEST TAAFFEITE?" (Gem Trade Lab Notes, Spring
1982, p. 49) with a question mark, and I appreciated
your caution in this matter. Of the five taaffeites in my
private collection, the largest weighs 11.24 ct. It is
pink, has a faceted oval cut, and contains a yellowish
brown inclusion of monazite. Even this taaffeite is not
the largest in the world, as the largest known to me
weighs 13.22 ct. It is flawless and has a pleasing mauve
color. It is cut oval and faceted. This very rare and beautiful collector's item is in the possession of Mr. R. Fonseka in Colombo, Sri Lanka.
E. Giibelin
Meggen, Switzerland.
JEWELRY SUITE
MARKINGS
Regarding the markings you show and describe on the
pink topaz, peridot, and seed pearl panire shown on
page 121 of the Summer 1982 Gems s) Gemology, I
may be of some assistance. The owl marking you described applies to gold items which are being imported
into France for which earlier French provenance cannot
be absolutely guaranteed, or items which were proved
to come from countries other than those which had
been French colonies. In order for a jewellery item to
be resold in France legally, it had to be marked with
234
Editorial Forum
this control mark. T h e swan marking you have photographed is the corresponding control mark for items
made of or partially made of silver. These two markings
were in use from July 1, 1893, until 1970. It is therefore
possible that the suite was imported into France anytime from 1893 to 1970.
There would also appear to be a good possibility
that some of the stone settings are actually made of
silver and that this has been obscured by the later plating process.
The mark with the letters and umbrella is in all
probability either an original maker's mark or the mark
of the firm which had the pieces for resale and therefore
had the control marks put on. Of the two possibilities,
the more likely would be that this is the later retailer's
or importer's mark. The box shape and the fact that it
is an applied plate lead m e to believe that it was a
French firm. The double struck marking of the ram appears to be the gold guarantee mark of Paris 1819-1 838,
as per the Book of Old Silver by Seymour B. Wyler,
page 336.
By the design and style, it is certainly possible that
the jewellery was made in France, 1819-1838, purchased by someone who moved out of the country, and
many years later brought back into France for resale.
For further reference on international precious metals markings, I would suggest Poincons d'or et de 1'10tine and Poincons dlArgent by Tardy, 21 Rue des Boulangers, Paris, S.E., which contain textual explanations
of various French import and export marks as well as
international guarantee marks.
Debra Fraleigh, G.G.
Fraleigh Jewellers & Gemmologists
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
Dona M . Dirlam, Editor
REVIEW BOARD
Miriam K. Cybul
GIA, New York
Stephanie L. Dillon
GIA, Santa Monica
Bob F. Effler
GIA, Santa Monica
Joseph 0 . Gill
Gill & Shortell Ltd., San Francisco
Caroline K. Goldberg
GIA, Santa Monica
Joseph P. Graf
Gem Trade Lab, Inc.,
Los Angeles
Fred L. Gray
GIA, Santa Monica
Elizabeth R. Hardy
GIA, New York
Gary S. Hill
GIA, Santa Monica
Jill M. Hobbs
GIA, Santa Monica
Steven C. Hofer
Santa Monica
Karin N. Hurwit
Gem Trade Lab, Inc.,
Santa Monica
Noel P. Krieger
GIA, Santa Monica
Ernest R. Lalonde
GIA, Santa Monica
Shane F. McClure
Gem Trade Lab, Inc., Los Angeles
Mark W. Patterson
G ~ ANew
,
York
Michael P. Roach
Andin International, New York
COLORED STONES AND

ORGANIC MATERIALS
The colors of sillimanite. G. R. Rossman, E. S. Grew,

W. A. Dollase, A m e r i c a n Mineralogist, Vol. 67,
NO. 7-8, 1982, pp. 749-761.
Sillimanite, A12Si0.,, occasionally seen as a faceted
gemstone, is a common mineral constituent of aluminum-rich rocks in metamorphic environments. While
normally colorless, sillimanite is also known in three
This section is designed to provide as complete a record

as possible of the recent literature on gems and
gemology. Articles are selected for abstracting solely at
the discretion of the section editor and her reviewers,
and space limitations may require that we include only
those articles that will be of greatest interest to our
readership
Inquiries for reprints of articles abstracted must be
addressed to the author or publisher of the original
material
The reviewer of each article is identified by his or her
initials at the end of each abstract Guest reviewers are
identified by their full names
' 7983 Gemological Institute of America
Gary A. Roskin
Michael L. Ross
GIA, Santa Monica
Andrea L. Saito
GIA, Santa Monica
James E. Shigley
GIA, Santa Monica
Frances Smith
Carol M. Stockton
GIA, Santa Monica
Barbara J. Taylor
Asian Institute of Gemmological
Sciences, Los Angeles
Evelyn Tucker
Anchorage, Alaska
Kerry J. Werner
GIA, Santa Monica
colored varieties: yellow, brown, and, rarely, blue. As

in various other gem minerals (e.g.,corundum) that are
colorless when free of impurities, these three colors in
sillimanite are due to the presence of small amounts
of trace elements such as iron, chromium, and titanium which substitute for aluminum. Crystal-structure analysis has established that aluminum occurs in
both six-fold (octahedral)and four-fold (tetrahedral)coordination with oxygen in sillimanite. The purpose of
this investigation was to relate the observed colors and
optical absorption spectra for sillimanites from a number of localities with the pattern of trace-element substitution for aluminum in these different crystallographic sites.
The authors conclude the article with a discussion
of the relationship between the cooling history of a sillimanite crystal in an igneous or metamorphic rock and
the distribution and oxidation state of trace elements,
such as iron substituting for aluminum, in the crystal
structure.
IES
Cultured pearl experiment puts mussel in T N economy. L. M. Henderson, Southern Jeweler, Vol. 58,
No. 3, 1982, pp. 32-34.
Within the next few years, John Latendresse plans to
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
235
make the biggest splash on the cultured pearl scene

since the first importation to America of cultured pearls
from Japan. His goal is to be the owner of the first
productive cultured pearl farm in the United States.
Latendresse, who has been in the pearl business for
some 29 years, briefly discusses how his soon-to-beproducing'pearl farms'in Tennessee will help the local
community's ailing economy.
By offering American cultured pearls to jewelers in
this country, h e also expects to make inroads into the
fluorishing Japanese import market of freshwater cultured pearls.
CAR
Monazite from North Carolina having the alexandrite
effect. R. Bernstein, American Mineralogist, Vol.
67, NO. 3-4, 1982, pp. 356-359.
"Alexandrite effect," the property of a crystalline material to change its apparent color when viewed under
different lighting conditions, is commonly associated
with alexandrite, a chromium-bearing chrysoberyl that
appears green i n sunlight or fluorescent light and red
in incandescent or candle light. Other minerals known
to display this effect are chromium- and vanadiumbearing corundum and garnet, yttrium-bearing fluorite,
and spinel and diaspore.
In this article, Bernstein describes the first documented occurrence of such behavior in monazite
(Ce,La,Nd,Th) (P,,), a common accessory constituent
of igneous rocks but a rather unusual gemstone. The
material examined in this study consists of a few small
[ I m m or less) euhedral crystals from a mineralized
quartz vein in the Uwharrie National Forest, near Badin,
Montgomery County, North Carolina. These crystals
appear yellow-orange in daylight, reddish orange in incandescent light, and light green i n fluorescent light,
but they do not fluoresce to short-wave or long-wave
ultraviolet radiation nor are they pleochroic. Quantitative microprobe analysis revealed the presence of various rare-earth elements (cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, samarium, praseodymium, gadolinium, yttrium),
but not elements such as iron, thorium and uranium,
which are common constituents of monazite. Bernstein suggests that the pastel colors caused by such
rare-earth elements should be present in most monazite specimens but are usually masked by the normal
dark color of this mineral, which results from the presence of iron and from the thorium- and uranium-induced radiation damage to the crystal structure.
This article demonstrates that color change under
different lighting conditions is probably a more common optical phenomenon than was once believed. Potentially, these color changes may be observed in a
range of gem materials that contain rare-earth or transition elements. One might suppose, therefore, that
with a knowledge of the relative absorption spectra of
these elements in different crystal-structure environ-
236
ments, it would be possible to predict the occurrence

of the "alexandrite effect" in various minerals.
JES
Nature of color centers and EPR of a manganese-activated beryl. V. P. Solntsev, E. I. Kharchenko, A. S.
Lebedev, V. A. Klyakhin, and A. G. Il'in, Journal
of Applied Spectroscopy, Vol. 34, No. 1, 1981, pp.
111-1 15.
In attempting to understand the causes of color and
other optical absorption phenomena in gem materials,
a scientist may use any of a number of spectroscopic
techniques for examining absorption bands (energy
transitions) over different portions of the electromaenetic spectrum. The technique employed by these investigators in their study of red and pink beryl is that
of electron paramagnetic resonance (or EPR, also known
as electron spin resonance, ESR) spectroscopy. The
method involves the measurement of absorption bands
[and corresponding energies) in the microwave region
of the spectrum (wavelength = 0.1 m m to 30 cm).
These particular bands arise in the spectra of certain
atoms, such as those of the transition metals, that do
not have each of the valence orbitals, or energy levels,
filled by two electrons. In those orbitals that contain
unpaired electrons, the electrons can undergo a transition between energy levels by the absorption of microwave radiation.
As is the case with a number of gem minerals, the
range of colors exhibited by beryl is caused by the presence of trace amounts of different transition metals. It
has been recognized for some time that the pink of
morganite and the rose red of bixbite are due to the
presence of manganese. However, there has been some
uncertainty regarding both the valence state of manganese and the site i t occupies in the beryl crystal
structure. O n the basis of their data, these investigators
believe that the rose color in beryl is due to Mn+3substituting for Al+3.
This article provides a good discussion of the causes
of color in pink and red beryls. However, since manganese can exist in several valence states in beryl specimens, and additional transition metals can also be
present, one should expect slight variations in absorption spectra between different specimens. The article
also illustrates the continuing problem of accounting
for the various absorption bands in the complicated
spectra of most gem materials.
YES
A U.S. review: chrysoberyl. M. I. Jacobson, Rocks and
Minerals, Vol. 57, No. 2, 1982, pp. 49-57.
Although chrysoberyl has been found in minor amounts
in only a handful of localities in the United States, the
author hopes that a review of the mineral, its geologic
associations, and known localities might contribute to
the discovery of other occurrences.
Jacobson begins with a discussion of the varieties of
chrysoberyl and the mineralogy of this species. He in-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
eludes a map of the U.S. with the reported pegmatite

localities plotted, of which 10 districts are lznown to
have produced chrysoberyl.
In the detailed description of the historical occurrences of chrysoberyl, Jacobson presents such information as exact locations, types of crystals found, associated minerals, dates of discovery, and names of
discoverers. The first discovery of chrysoberyl in the
U.S. was in 1810 at Haddam, Connecticut, where 3-in.
crystals were found in a pegmatite vein in gneiss.
Building projects have since made this site inaccessible. In 1892, individual twinned crystals of green chrysobeiyl up to 0.55 in. long were found in a quartz matrix in an excavation at 88th and Amsterdam Streets
in New Yorlz City. This one find, however, was never
repeated at that site. Other states in which chrysoberyl
has occurred include Maine, New Hampshire, Colorado, South Dakota, Arizona, and Nevada.
The author concludes with a discussion of museums that have chrysoberyl collections and a list of
40 references.
SFM
Zur Erkennung diftusionsbehandelter Korunde (Recognizing diffusion-treated corundum). H. A. Hanni,
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellscbaft. Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 49-57.
In a discussion of heat-treated corundfim, Dr. Hiinni
describes the diffusion heat-treatment process. He nicely
illustrates typical inclusions in, and distinguishing
characteristics of, some blue Sri Lankansapphires after
heat diffusion treatment.
In this process, small quantities of trace impurities,
titanium oxide [TiOz)and/or iron oxide (FezOa),are actually added to the surface of the stones and then the
stones are heated to temperatures of at least I70O0C.
The treatment produces a thin layer at the surface,
with a depth of approximately 2 mm.
Characteristic inclusions and surface features enable the identification of sapphires in which some foreign material has been added by diffusion treatment.
With immersion in methylene iodide, the following
characteristics may be seen: strongly colored facet
junctions, differences in color from one facet to another
as a result of unequal repolishing, and possibly a colorless girdle area due to excessive repolishing. With the
unaided eye, a dark rim around the girdle of the stone
may be seen, as well as a "color hole" in the center of
the stone and color concentration in surface pits and
cracks.
BIT
DIAMONDS
The Australian wild card is now DeBeersl ace in the
hole, part I. DeBeers and the Australian diamond
connection, part 11. E. Farrell, Goldsmith, Vol. 161,
1982: No. 2, pp. 39-50; No. 3, pp. 57-61.
There has been much speculation in the diamond in-
dustry about the new Australian diamond mine at Argyle. Who will market the output? What effect will this
new deposit have on the world marlzet? Eileen Farrell
attempts to answer these and other frequently asked
questions in two consecutive articles.
It now seems that some sort of agreement will be
reached between the Ashton Joint Venture, the developers of the mine, and DeBeers's Central Selling Organization. DeBeers will most likely distribute the
majority of the diamonds, as they must to perpetuate
their dominance of the marlzet, but they will malze several unprecedented concessions for this privilege. The
Australians are firm in wanting a local cutting industry
and in marketing part of the gem and near-gem production themselves.
The Argyle pipe is expected to yield approximately
35% of the world diamond production in quantity, but
only about 4% by value, because of the low overall
quality of the diamonds and their small size. If the valnations of the initial samples are correct, and there has
been some disagreement about these figures, the market should not be upset by this new influx of diamonds.
Ms. Farrell's articles, which malze interesting reading, are well researched.
PLG
Diamond collecting in northern Colorado. D. S. Collins, Mineralogical Record, Vol. 13, No. 4, 1982,
pp. 205-208.
The occurrence of diamonds in lzimberlite is usually
associated with the classic areas of diamond production
in Africa, but similar occurrences are lznown. Within
the United States, for instance, the diamond locality
near Murfreesboro, Arkansas, has been recognized since
the early 1900s. This article describes a recent discovery of diamonds in the northern Front Range of the
Wyoming-Colorado border, between Laramie and Fort
Collins.
As in other areas, the diamonds at this locality occur in lzimberlite, a type of olivine- and pyroxene-rich
ultramafic igneous rock lznown as peridotite. Within
this particular area of the Front Range, some 90 separate lzimberlite bodies have been identified in Precambrian granitic rocks. The lumberlite pipes were emplaced along several major fault zones. Fission-track
dating of zircons recovered from the lzimberlite gave an
average value of 377 million years, which indicates a
Devonian age for these diamond-bearing pipes.
Since 1975, a small number of diamonds have been
found in the weathered lzimberlite at this locality. These
stones average approximately 1 mm in diameter; the
largest recorded diamond is a distorted octahedron
weighing 0.06 ct. Some of these stones are of gem quality. They may occur as crude crystals, or as rounded or
broken fragments, white or pale yellow in color.
The future prospect for diamond recovery from this
area is not known at present. The author considers the
area to be a potentially rich find on the basis of un-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
237
published estimates of the diamond concentrations in

this kimberlite. However, he gives no indication of
plans for future development or geologic study beyond
that associated with scientific research.
/Es
The ever-rising tide of Russian diamonds. R. V. Huddiestone, Precioustones Newsletter, Vol. 5, No. 6,
1982, pp. 34-39.
The Siberian diamond production is perhaps the single
most infl~ient~ial
factor in today's nonregulated distribution of diamonds. Huddlestone offers an optimistic
view of the effect of these stones on the world market.
He begins with an historical account of the prediction
and eventual discovery of kimberlite pipes in the Siberian platform, the most notable being the Mir pipe
in 1955. Today, over 450 pipes have been located.
Mining in Siberia produced problems that had not
been encountered in other localities. Temperature variations of 120from a low of -70 required ingenious
solutions for mining techniques, equipment, and people. In fact, in 1972 bonuses were paid to the estimated
60,000 workers on the basis of how far north they
worked.
Huddlestone then turns to the issue of diamond production figures and marketing practices. Noting the
difficulty of obtaining accurate statistics from the Soviet Union, he reports the generally accepted figures of
10.5 million carats, or about 25% of the world's annual
production, of which 20% are gem quality. In 1972,
Russia modified its contract with DeBeers and now
markets some of its own stones.
Acknowledging that the actions of the Russian government are dictated by the country's need for foreign
currency, Huddlestone argues that the Soviet Union
has marketed its stones in such an orderly fashion that
"the ever rising tide of Russian diamonds should not,
therefore, be viewed with such apprehension." A4WP
Famous diamonds of the world (XII): the Colenso diamond. 1. Balfo~ir,Indiaqiia, Vol. 31, No. l , 1982,
pp. 133-137.
The story behind the Colenso diamond is as unique as
the 133.14-ct pale yellow octahedron itself. The controversy begins with its discovery and continues to the
question of where i t is today. Exactly when and where
the stone was found is not known, although production
statistics suggest that it came from the DeBeers mine.
A11 1896 magazine account reported that it was found
in the pocket of a dead miner who had been buried in
the collapse of an open-pit mine.
From South Africa the Colenso went to England and
was purchased by John Ruskin, writer and social critic,
who donated i t to the British Museum (Natural History) in 1887. He attached two stipulations: (1)it could
never be cut, because uncut jewels were "twenty times
more i n t e r e ~ t i n g "and
~ (2)it must be exhibited with a
238
description naming it the Colenso diamond after his

friend John Williams Colenso. Colenso, a noted mathematician and first Anglican Bishop of Natal, had been
embroiled in controversy which included his excommunication for his enlightened views on African customs and reinterpretation of theological matters.
Balfour concludes with a n account of the theft of
the Colenso from the museum i n April 1965. Not only
has the octahedron never been recovered, but one wonMWP
ders if it has remained intact.
On isotopic fractionation of carbon in the solid-state
synthesis of diamond (in Russian). I. N. Ivanovskaja, S. F. Maxov, L. E. ~ t e r e n b e r ~
A., R. Musin,
and V. P. Filonenko, Geochemistry, Vol. 9, 1980,
pp. 1415-1417.
The principle of fractionation, the tendency for the
number of particles in different atoms of the same material to vary as the material crystallizes, was used by
researchers at the Institute of High-pressure Physics in
Moscow to help resolve the question of what kind of
carbon serves as the source for different types of diamond. By measuring this isotopic number in diamonds
they synthesized under controlled conditions, the authors hoped to discover what forms of carbon produce
natural diamonds.
Other scientists had already determined that very
little fractionation occurs as diamond is created from
mixtures of melted materials, while crystals synthesized from a gas tend toward heavier carbon. The writers thus chose to concentrate on fractionation that occurs while diamond is produced in the solid state: from
uninelted materials under extremely high temperature
and pressure. The results would then give an idea how
natural diamond formed under conditions of impact
metanlorphosis, the most interesting examples being
those diamonds found in meteor craters from Arizona
to Popigai in the USSR.
The authors restricted their study to solid-state synthesis under both high static pressures and lower pressures with a special catalyst. Different types of carbonaceous materials and carbon, including natural and
synthetic graphite, were placed in a high-temperature
chamber along with bismuth and certain platinum alloys. Changes in the structure of bismuth at known
pressures tell the researchers what pressures have been
reached, while the platinum materials, which melt
only with extreme heat, indicate the temperatures
attained.
Intense heat and pressure produced small crystals
that, when cleaned by acid and checked with X-rays,
proved to be diamond. The crystals were then placed
in a special chamber with oxygen and burned. The relative number of particles in the carbon atoms were
then easily measured by a spectrometer reading of the
resulting carbon dioxide.
The ratios of different isotopes of carbon present
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
demonstrated the absence of any fractionation in either

method of synthesis. The authors concluded that, assuming diamond crystallizes in nature as it does in the
lab, the wide variations in the number of atomic particles with natural diamond must be caused by a wide
range in the source materials, rather than by fractionation. The presence of a certain by-product (lonsdaleite)
with the synthetic diamonds further allowed the writers to postulate that the source of carbon for the meteorite diamonds, which appear with the same inaterial, must have been graphite rather than coal.
Numerous references in both English and Russian,
as well as general discussions of the latest synthesis
techniques and descriptions of the experiments, make
this article one of the most informative of recent Soviet
papers. Similar investigations should prove invaluable
if and when it becomes necessary for gemologists to
develop methods of separating synthetic and natural
gem-quality diamonds.
MPR
New type of diamond-bearing rock-garnet pyroxenite.

A. I. Ponoinarenko, Z. V. Spetsius, N. V. Sobolev,
Doklady Akdden~iiNauk S S S R , Vol. 251, No. 2,
1980, pp. 438-441.
While studying plutonic xenoliths from the Udachnaya
kimberlite pipe in the USSR, the authors discovered
two occurre'nces of a hitherto unknowndiainond-bearing rock of extremely unusual composition.
The most common types of diamond-bearing parent
rocks previously known were bimineralic eclogites associated with kyanite and corundun~,and diamondbearing ultramafics such as garnet-ilmenite peridotite
and garnet peridotite without ilmenite. Samples of this
new material are highly irregular in chemical composition and growth features, suggesting to the authors
that the pressure and temperature of crystallization
vary from previously published data. The authors present data on the chemical, composition of the minerals
found in the diamond-bearing pyroxenite along with
calculations of garnet and pyroxene end members. The
authors conclude that the minerals in this high-aluminum, low-chromium ultramafic rock formed under
conditions of high pressure in the deepest zones of the
upper mantle at depths of about 260 to 270 km.
SCH
Russians train cutters early. V. Yegorov, Diamond N e w s
and S. A. Jeweller, Vol. 45, No. 5, 1982, p. 53.
In a rare article on the Russian diamond industry, Viktor Yegorov, director of a vocational school for diamond
cutting in the Soviet Union, describes the one-year program, which is both theoretical and practical. Crystallography, origin, and physical and optical properties
comprise the theory, which also includes the study of
aesthetics. The students' first cutting attempts are made
on real diamonds. Yegorov points out that "their processing losses are only five percent higher than those
of experienced workers." Perfect eyesight is required;

it is only later that "special sight" (the ability to plan
the cutting of a rough crystal) is recognized in the top
graduates. The final exam includes the complete working of a crystal, giving it all 57 facets.
M WP
GEM LOCALITIES
An occurrence of gem-quality elbaite from Glenbuchat,
Aberdeensliire, Scotland. B. Jackson, Journal of
Gemmology, Vol. 18, No. 2, 1982, pp. 121-125.
This brief article describes the first reported occurrence
of gem-quality elbaite tourmaline in Scotland. The locality is near the town of Glenbuchat in Aberdeenshire,
where a sequence of metamorphic schists has been intruded by pegmatite and aplite dikes of granitic composition. In this area, only one pegmatite has so far produced gem tourm-1' 1'me.
Elbaite crystals up to several centimeters in length
(average 1 c m ] have been found in limited quantity associated with lepidolite, in~iscovite,and quartz within
the inner zone of the pegmatite. These crystals exhibit
a range of colors and are usually of gem quality. Some
of the larger crystals, however, have central cores which
contain abundant fractures and cavities, or are partly
replaced by muscovite.
The author presents some mineralogic data on both
the schorl and the elbaite from this locality. Partial
chemical analyses obtained with an electron microprobe are consistent with other published data on tourmaline. Refractive index and specific gravity also agree
with published data.
T o date, there is no indication that faceted stones
have been cut from this elbaite. Further investigation
will be necessary to determine the nature, extent, and
gem-producing potential of these pegmatites.
]ES
The Virgem da Lapa pegmatites. J. P. Cassedanne and

J. Lowell, Mineralogical Record, Vol. 13, No. 1,
1982, pp. 19-28.
Cassedanne and Lowell call the Virgem da Lapa district
"one of the finest localities in the world for well-crystallized minerals." The pegmatite area is characterized
by an abundance of gem minerals, including tourmaline, topaz, and beryl.
Located in northeastern Minas Gerais, Brazil, the
Virgem da Lapa pegmatites consist of three production
centers: Limoerio, Xanda, and Toca da Onca. The
physiography, geology, and mineralogy of the district
are given together with a geologic sketch map and a
map of the Xanda mine. Three color and numerous
black-and-white photographs of crystal specimens are
also included, as the authors discuss 18 of the minerals
that occur here. Cassedanne and Lowell conclude that
although the most accessible pockets have been exploited and commercial mining is hindered by the ex-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
239
pense, this area has great potential for future

JpG
production.
INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES

Colour i t accurate. P. Read, Canadian Jeweller, Vol.
103, NO. 4, 1982, pp. 19-20.
In his column, "Practical Gemmology," Peter Read reports on Okuda's new Diamond Color Checker model
DC-530A. He prefaces his discussion with a brief history of diamond color-grading devices, including the
Shipley Colorimeter and the more recent Eickhorst
Diamond-photometer.
The new Okuda instrument claims to be able to
grade with repeatable accuracy all diamonds in the yellow range as well as brown and fluorescent stones. The
DC-530A features an integrating sphere which collects
the light reflected from the gem and effectively channels the signal through a set of red and blue filters and
then into two photometers. The light signal reaching
the photodetectors is fed into an electronic device which
computes the ratio and derives a color grade value that
is measured on a meter calibrated directly to CIA color
grades D thru L. "Manual" control knobs enable the
operator to calibrate according to existing master stones
which may be of high color or low color in a given
stone. Two additional controls provide for corrections
involving diamonds over one carat and serve to compensate for the shank color of mounted stones.
Using six diamond and five cubic zirconia masters,
Read found the instrument to be accurate within onefourth of a grade on yellow diamonds in the J range and
within one-half of a grade on diamonds in the D color
range, but off by at least two grades on CZ. Certain
precautions are necessary: notably, the diamond must
be cleaned before testing, and the test platform on
which the stone rests must be dust free. Read also suggests checking the instrument's calibration frequently.
Because data were not available on the DC-530A's
ability to grade fluorescent and brown stones, Mr. Read
intends to address this question at a later date. SCH
A contribution to the separability of natural and synthetic emeralds. H. A. Hanni, Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 18, No. 2, 1982, pp. 138-144.
Reviewing the various methods of distinguishing natural and synthetic emeralds, Dr. Hanni reminds us that
physical constants such as refractive index, birefringence, and specific gravity may overlap and thus
provide inconclusive results. The author then discusses
the differences in the theoretical chemical composition
of beryl, Gilson synthetic emerald, and Sandawana natural emerald, noting that the Gilson product is actually
closer to the theoretical formula while the Sandawana
stone contains significant amounts of N a 2 0 and MgO
with minor amounts of FeO, MnO, and Cr20i.
To determine whether this variation in chemical
240
composition might be useful in separating natural and

synthetic emeralds, Dr. Hanni tested 45 stones of different origin and manufacture on the electron microprobe and plotted the weight percent of C i a s , FeO,
MgO, and N a 2 0 in each. He concludes that a concentration of N a 2 0 and MgO greater than 1.0% is characteristic of natural emeralds, although he does note
that i n Colombian emeralds this can drop below 1%.
New synthetic products and a greater number of natural stones will have to be tested to determine the usefulness of this technique.
SCH
The purification of bromoform. C. Washington, Journal
of Gemmology, Vol. 18, No. 1, 1982, pp. 6-8.
Washington describes a simple technique for purifying
bromoform. Contaminated or discolored bromoform
used as a heavy liquid for specific gravity deterininations may be purified by placing a stoppered flask of
the contaminated solution in a bucket of ice-water
slurry. Bromoform will crystallize out at S (its freezing point) within a couple of hours and when remelted
will have approximately 98% purity and a density close
to 2.85. Best results are obtained by inserting a thermometer into the bromoform to determine when the
S level has been reached; further cooling may allow
other impurities such as benzene (f.p., 5.5OC)and methylene iodide (f.p., 6.loC)to crystallize out as well.
ERL
JEWELRY ARTS
Cellini, Faberge and me. T. Hoving, Connoisseur, Vol.
210, NO. 842, 1982, pp. 82-91.
"Me" is Jean Schlumberger, the 75-year-old creator of
"splendid baubles": a peridot-studded cucumber-shaped
golden box, a foot-high clock of gold and lapis lazuli
that resembles a turban, a 100-ct Kashmir sapphirecentered golden flower, bestrewn with emeralds and
diamonds, growing out of a clay flower pot. Schlumberger is not exaggerating when he likens himself to
the other two great jewelers of the Western world, as
the 20 astonishingly beautiful color photographs reveal.
This article gives us a rare glimpse of riches both
material and spiritual in this brief account of Schlumberger's life and art. "My goal was-and is-happiness," he says, and "I try to make everything look as
if it were growing." Elsewhere, h e speaks of a desire to
"elevate. . . an a r t . . . which ought to be called something more than 'charming, elegant, ravishing, and
chic,' a desire it is plain he has fulfilled.
FS
Photography for metalsmiths. Part one: What's wrong
with this picture? L. F. Brown, Metalsmiih, Vol. 1,
NO. 4, 1981, pp. 48-54.
Drawing from his experiences in metalsmithing and
jewelry design and as a professional darkroom technician and photographer, Leslie Brown has created a mini-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
course to help struggling metalsmiths produce technically accurate photographs of small metallic objects.
As the first in a series, this article focuses on the basic
question: What are the characteristics of a quality photograph and how does one attain them? Brown discusses what film to use, how to operate the camera's
meter, and what other equipment is necessary. Although each of the subjects is covered well in relatively
simple language, a useful appendix has been thoughtfully provided for readers not familiar with photography terminology.
Mike Havstad
Pre-Columbian art of Costa Rica. B. Braun, Museum,
Vol. 2, No. 6, 1982, pp. 51-55.
The art exhibition "Between ContinentsIBetween Seas:
Pre-Columbian Art of Costa Rica," which is touring
the U.S. in 1982 and 1983, is cohesively thematic in its
examples of sculpture and jewelry that uniquely represent the archaeological history of the cultures and
regions inhabited by pre-Columbian civilizations.
Unlike the dominant civilizations from Mesoamerica in the north and from the northern Andes in the
south, no one great state or civilization seemed to establish itself in Costa Rica. The article indicates, rather,
that the snare environment resulted in chiefdom-like
cultures, occupying three main regions: GuanacasteNicoya in 'the north, the Central Highland-Atlantic
watershed in the east, and Diquis in the southwest.
Indicative of the priorities of the chiefdom society
are objects recovered from the grave sites of high-ranking officials. Frequently, these were "three-legged metates (or grinding stones), elegant jade pendants known
as axe gods, and hardstone clubs called maceheads."
Such objects symbolized the importance of land, its
acquisition, defense, and labor, all of which were related to power. These relics, which offer an interesting
and beautiful view of early Costa Rican history, span
a period from 500 B.C. to 1550 A.D. The exhibition
shows a progression of archaeological finds that differ
not only in meaning but also in content, as gold replaces stone and jade.
loyce Law
RETAILING
Cartier-two centuries of records. 28 Karati International, Vol. 12, No. 57, 1982, pp. 70-79.
In a brief history of La Maison Cartier, the author highlights the generations involved in the firm's management since the 1800s. The integration of colored stones
with fashionable gold enameling was created and popularized by Louis Francois Cartier, a skilled craftsman
who became popular with visiting aristocracy during
the 1867 Paris Exhibition. Although Louis was ruined
by the revolution in 1870, his son Alfred restored and
strengthened the business.
In 1898, Alfred and his sons established the present
headquarters in Paris and opened a house in London.
In 1908, they opened the third Maison Cartier in New

York. Alfred's oldest son Louis proved the creative genius of the family, and was responsible for reviving the
clock-making tradition.
World War I1 brought the death of Louis and a new
management to the house. Robert Hocq was primarily
responsible for putting the empire back together and
continuing the old tradition. Hocq, together with his
daughter Nathalie, has increased sales of expensive
jewelry while giving a new emphasis to medium-priced
pieces.
This historical overview of Maison Cartier, with 27
photographs of Cartier people as well as jewelery, leaves
the reader asking for more. Unfortunately, it is not supplemented with references or a bibliography.
ERH
Employee screening. Part I, the promise and perils of
polygraph. M. E. Thomas, Goldsmith, Vol. 161,
No. 6, 1982, pp. 52-68.
In the first of a series about employee screening processes, Ms. Thomas's critical examination of polygraph
testing demystifies the pretest and test procedures and
enumerates polygraph limitations. The author questions the validity and consistency of polygraph findings
and their use in predicting future employee behavior.
Opinions from academicians, the Civil Liberties Union,
and jewelry trade employers and employees are presented.
Acknowledging increased polygraph use in the jewelry industry for preemployment screening and for theft
and loss situations, Thomas provides employers with
guidelines for selecting a competent examiner and for
evaluating the results. Consideration must be given to
state law limiting andlor licensing the use of polygraph
tests. Employers are cautioned that the polygraph may
protect those who steal and can still pass the exam, and
that there are possible legal repercussions of requiring
polygraph testing for employment.
The author witnessed an actual polygraph testing
session which revealed techniques used to elicit admission of wrongdoing from a respondent during the
pretest interview. The most respected private polygraphers concur that 90% -95% of adverse reports given
to employers are based on such admissions. Extremely
important in the testing is the subject's belief that the
'lie-detector" system works and that the polygraph
room should be regarded as a confessional.
A LS
SYNTHETICS A N D SIMULANTS
Growth of modified cat's-eye gemstones (MgTiOgsolid
solutions) by the floating zone method (in Japanese). I. Shindo, Journal of the Gemmological Society of Japan, Vol. 7, No. l, 1980, pp. 3-8.
Shindo, from the National Institute for Research in
Organic Materials, gives a preliminary report on a new
man-made cat's-eye material. The compound MgTiOli
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
241
was selected because, unlike other magnesium-titanium compounds, heating of this compound produces
chatoyancy. In the experiment, MgTiOa crystals were
floated through zones in a halogen lamp image furnace.
The author contrasts this new method with that used
for YAG, GCC, etc., where the material to be crystallized is placed in a crucible, liquefied, and then cooled
slowly. Here, the solidification is unpredictable because
of the difficulty of maintaining an atmosphere. O n a
graph, Shindo illustrates what can occur i n this process.
In the floating zone method, two shafts are usedthe material rod positioned on the top and the seed rod
on the bottom. Placed within a quartz tube, these rods
are rotated in opposite directions. In the central region
is the fluid stage, which is contained by surface tension
only. A diagram illustrates the positioning of a halogen
lamp external to the quartz tube, all of which is enveloped by a mirrored furnace. Light and heat from the
lamp are focused on the area where crystal solidification occurs. Necessary in this operation are a lens and
a screen used to direct heat to the central part of the
quartz tube. The shafts rotate at 3 0 rpm with growth
measured at 2 mmlhr. When the crystals reach 50 mm,
which takes about 24 hours, the power is turned off and
the solution is cooled rapidly. A photograph of a boule
and an explanatory diagram accompany this description of the process.
The experiment was repeated several times, with
resulting boules ranging from 8 to 100 mm. Annealing
the boules at 1300 for 24 hours in an oxygen atmosphere induced transparency and a lighter color. Pictured are three boules in which the chatoyancy extends
approximately 2-4 cm. X-ray analysis revealed that
growth occurred mostly along the 1010 axis and
chatoyancy along the 0001 plane. A cabochon is also
pictured.
A LS
MISCELLANEOUS
Characteristics of crystal growth in nature as seen from
the morphology of mineral crystals. I. Sunagawa,
Bulletin d e M i n e r d o g i e , Vol. 104, 1981, pp.
8 1-87.
Even a cursory examination of the natural crystals of
zircon, topaz, beryl, quartz, and other gemstones quickly
demonstrates that some minerals display a wide diversity of crystal forms, or habits. This variation in the
geometrical shape of crystals is, in part, a result of mineral formation taking place over a range of physical and
chemical conditions in different geologic environments
in the earth's crust. In this review article, the author
discusses some of the factors that influence the morphology of natural crystals and, in s o doing, provides
242
a helpful introduction to the modern ideas on crystal

growth.
Sunagawa begins by stating that the essential feature of natural crystallization is that crystal growth
occurs from a 'solution,' in contrast to the growth of
crystals in the laboratory, which may be accomplished
by melt, vapor, or solid-state crystallization, as well. In
solution growth, important factors affecting crystallization include temperature, the composition of the solution and the crystallizing solid, the nature of the
solid-solution interface, the degree of supersaturation
of the dissolved phase in the solution, and additional
thermodynamic considerations.
Because of the great differences in conditions of
crystal growth in nature versus those in the laboratory,
the overall morphologies of crystals formed i n these
two environments are dissimilar. Sunagawa concludes
his article with a brief discussion of some of these contrasting features and their causes.
IES
The mineralogy of pegmatites. G. E. Brown, Jr., Ameri c a n Mineralogist, Vol. 67, Nos. 1 and 2, 1982, pp.
180- 189.
This article presents a selection of abstracts of papers
presented at a conference on pegmatites held in conjunction with the 1981 Tucson Gem and Mineral Show.
This conference, sponsored jointly by the Mineralogical Society of America and Friends of M.ineralogy,
brought together mineralogists and pegmatite experts
from the U.S. and several foreign countries. Of the 23
papers presented during this two-day meeting, 17 consisted of descriptions of various pegmatite localities,
while the remaining 6 covered more general topics on
pegmatite features and genesis. Five of these were of a
review nature and only the titles are included in this
summary.
Localities described included Llano County, Texas;
Marathon County, Wisconsin; San Diego County, California; Cleveland County, North Carolina; Dixon
County, New Mexico; several localities i n Colorado;
Maricopa County, Arizona, Grafton County, New
Hampshire; Oxford County, Maine; the Black Hills,
South Dakota; and, in more general terms, the Soviet
Union, Brazil, Canada, and Namibia. Additional presentations were given on experimental crystallization
studies of pegmatite genesis, light stable isotope geochemistry of pegmatities, the origin of color in pegmatite minerals, the phosphate mineralogy of pegmat i t e ~and
, the role of aqueous vapor in the crystallization
history of a pegmatite magma. The abstracts presented
at this meeting not only reflect the current level of
knowledge of pegmatites, but also demonstrate the
type of research work undertaken to better understand
these fascinating igneous rocks.
YES
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
BRAZIL:
PARADISE OF GEMSTONES
By /ales Roger Sauer, 136 pp., illus.,
published by 1. R. Saner, Rio de /aieiro, Brazil, 1982. US$20.00 '
BOOK
REVIEWS1
conflict. Additionally, the early part

of this book seems to support the
purchase of quality over nonquality,
but chapter 9 is titled "Never Mind
the Quality, Feel the Shine."
Some of the more humorous
quotes are as follows:
On diamond cutting: "The last
stage in diamond cutting (and in the
cutting of precious stones, too) is
the actual cutting of the facets on
the stone," "First, the apprentice will
be allowed to do a little harmless
polishing. . . . I 1
O n gemstones: "Many natural
stones-those which are dug out of
the ground-are crystallised. What
this means is that they start off as
a piece of wood, or other reasonably
solid object, and as time goes on get
gradually churned down into the
depths of the earth until they become fossils. But gemstones have
gone a stage further than a fossil;
crystallisation is the next process
that occurs through intense heat and
g r e a t pressure. . . . to think that the
beautiful stone started life as a rotten chip of wood. . . ."
". . . coral reefs have been fished
out of existence all over the world. . . . I 1
"Many people become very worried
when they feel they might ,have been
sold a citrine rather than a topaz, or
vice versa; but even though the
stones are two different things, their
values are not dissimilar. . . . either
stone will represent the same sort of
investment.''
Cat's eye and tiger's eye ". . . have
roughly the same value." "If you can
still see the lines or stripes distinctly marked whichever way you
turn the ring, it's a tiger's eye."
"Semi-precious stones, especially the
less expensive varieties like citrine
and cat's eye, are not worth copying
as the real thing doesn't actually cost
that much more."
Now I a m N O T a gemologist, but
one of the authors claims to be. If I
can see the absurdity of the above,
why couldn't they? (One of m y gemological colleagues said the information would rate a 35 on a GG
exam.)Any jeweler-gemologist should
Given the importance of Brazil's extraordinary gem wealth in the international n~arketplace,it is surprising that until now n o one book
[
Michael Ross, Editor
addressing the subject was available
to the gemologist. Brazil: Paradise
culty some authors have in getting
of Gemstones is an excellent begintheir work published, it is surprising
ning to the filling of this void. While
to
discover how easily pure drivel
the book does not go into great detail on each of the various gem spe- finds its way between hard covers.
The English, with their flair for
cies found in Brazil, it does give the
understaten~ent,
have always been
reader an adequate introduction. In
able to get away with printing comaddition, the book is beautifully iledy under the guise of serious inalustrated with superb photographs
terial. The Jewellery Book is to the
by Harold and Erica Van Pelt.
gem
industry approximately what
The text is divided by gem speMrs. Malaprop was to the educacies. For each species, the author
tional system of Great Britain.
gives a brief gemological descripThe Jewellery Book was suppostion, including its possible color
edly
written for the British layperrange, the derivation of its name,
son to give
- him a better idea of the
the causes of its color, and the like.
types of jewelry and a reason to buy
Following this gemological backjewelry. It is fiction laced with
ground, 'Sauer goes on to describe
"enough
- facts to fool the layman. . .
the major Brazilian deposits in which
the material has been found, along but for a n authentic gemologist, it
is fairly good comedy. Not Richard
with a brief history. This history
Brindsley
Sheridan, you understand;
may include detail on recent discoveries, such as the 1977 find of un- more like Woody Allen's surprising,
precedentedly large and fine rubel- off-the-wall humor.
Because I am not a gemologist, I
lite crystals near Conselheiro Peria
could
read i t much the same way a
in Minas Gerais. The only distraclayman would. As a writer and fortion to the book, a minor one, is that
mer jeweler, however, I a m appalled
the table of contents is in the rear;
at the amount of misinformation.
essentially doubling as a brief index.
The book was written with two
Brazil: Paradise of Gemstones
viewpoints (one from each author??)
will be an important introduction
that do not always coincide. O n page
to the casual reader, and delightful
29,
the authors discuss the "misconreading for the gemologist, particularly as a reference for gem localities. ception . . . that the name on the
box is as important as the piece of
PETER C. KELLER
Director of Education, G1A jewellry (sic)itself." This would have
been their chance to stress the value
of a firm's reputation for quality. InTHE JEWELLERY BOOK
stead they state, ". . . trendy names,
By Susan St. Maur a n d Norbert
and the equally trendy prices they
Streep, 198 pp., illus., published by
charge, are a luxury few of us can
S t . Martins Press, New York, NY,
afford." Then, on page 57, after dis1981. W 9 . 9 5
cussing- the relative merits of buying
,
Over 35,000 book titles were pubfrom larger or smaller stores, they
lished in the United States last year.
say, ". . . jewellery prices don't vary
One would think that publishers
much from small shop to big shop."
would devote capital and energy to Perhaps the English market is differbooks of substance and veracity
ent, but most "trendyUstores in the 'This book is available for purchase at
rather than fluff written by people
United States are also larger firms, the GIA Bookstore, 1735 Stewart
posing as experts. Given the diffi- so the two statements appear to Street, Santa Monica, C A 90404.
Book Reviews
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
243
be able to explain gemology to a customer better than this book does.

If you need a laugh, or a good cry
over the state of publishing these
days, spend $9.95 on this book.
You'd be better off, however, taking
i n a good movie and loading up on
popcorn.
H. DAVID MORROW
Retail Jewelry Store
Management Course Supervisor,
GIA
Editor's note: The credit page of The
Jewellery Bookstates that Mr, Streep
"qualified as a gemologist with the
Gemological Institute of America."
GlA's education records reveal n o
such qualification.
BEYOND THE GLITTER

By Gerald L. Wykoff, 203 pp., illus.,
published by Adamas, Washington,
DC, 1982. US$17.95*
In Beyond the Glitter, Gerald Wykoff attempts to pack "Everything
you need to know to buy, sell, care
for, and wear gems and jewelry
wisely" into 200 pages. "You" means
consumers. "Everything" includes
history and lore, care, treatments,
identification, metals testing, diamond and colored stone grading, and
investments.
Mr. Wykoff's tone is generally
candid and informal, but many of
his statements create a n image of
the consumer and jeweler as adversaries. T h e chapter on gem care is
thorough and sound, although i t contains some information that seems
more suited to retail jewelry store
employees than to consumers. The
chapter on investments is straightforward, and Mr. Wylioff makes some
positive statements about treatments
and synthetics.
Unfortunately, the book has many
weaknesses. Some are related to editing and production; for example,
the labels for the facet diagrams on
page 3 6 are scrambled, and many of
the photographs are blurred. There
are also weaknesses in Mr. Wvlioff's
gemology. These include references
to bubbles in diamonds and silk in
rubies intersecting at 140' angles.
Picky stuff maybe-the kind people
lose points for on the Diploma ex-
244
Book Reviews
amination-but they are typical of

the types of mistakes i n information
and interpretation that eventually
lead Mr. Wykoff to recommend transparent, faceted rhodochrosite as a
jewelry stone alternative to ruby.
T h e book's weakest aspect, however. is the choice of information
presented. In the chapter on metals,
Mr. Wylioff details a technique for
using nitric acid to test metal content. In his discussion of cutting
evaluation, one of the first features
Mr. Wylioff tells u s to look for is the
alignment of upper and lower girdle
facets. T h e fancy-shape section includes the statement: "The point
facets should onlv be about 3' shallower than the adjacent facets. . . . I f
And in the last chapter we are advised to prepare clarity diagrams of
our gems to provide positive identification in case we should ever
have to entrust them to a jeweler.
Now, metals testing, cutting evaluation, and plotting all have an admitted place in a comprehensive
discussion of gems and jewelry. But
presenting specialized techniques,
like GIA1s visual proportion grading
system, is only going to give consumers a false sense of security-or
worse. N o matter how many cautions you include, i t i s still dangerous to recommend that people go
out and buy nitric acid to test their
jewelry. It is unrealistic to expect
people with n o training in the use
of magnifiers to criticilly evaluate
facet alignment or to distinguish between a 34' and a 31' facet angle.
And my experience as a Diamond
instructor almost makes m e chuckle
at the thought of clarity plots prepared by people with zero training,
experience, or background-except
that I know that some jeweler is
going to be confronted with one of
these plots, along with an accusation of stone switching.
Considering Mr. Wykoff's apparent attitude toward retail jewelers,
his factual inaccuracies, and his
choice of material, I would say that
this book which proposes to take
consumers "beyond the glitter" might
actually get them into trouble.
MICHAEL ROSS
Course Revision Supervisor, GIA
OTHER BOOKS
RECEIVED IN 1982
Exploring the Earth and the Cosmos,
Issac Asimov. Crown, 1982; 352
pp., n o illustrations; US13.95.
Nothing about gemology, but
reading this exuberant book about
the expansion of human lznowledge and experience will make
you sit back and marvel a t the
species to which you belong.
Gem and Jewellery Year Book 1982,
ed. V. Kala. G e m &> Jewellery
Information Centre of India
(A-95, Journal House, Junta Colony, Jaipur 302004, India); 854
pp; some blacl<-and-whitephotographs, line drawings, and
maps; US$26.00 (airmail), or
US$18.00* (seamail). The eighth
edition of the compendium includes information about the
Indian gem and jewelry trade,
gemological instruments and
lapidary equipment and suppliers, Indian customs regulations, the international gem
trade, foreign representatives in
India and Indian representatives
abroad, gem and jewelry organizations, and taxation. It also
includes a directory of Indian
suppliers.
Jewellery Today, Canadian Jewellers Association and Canadian
Jewellers Institute, 1982; 359 pp.;
5 color photographs, m a n y blackand-white photographs, some
line drawings; US$24.95.' The
new text for CJI's jewelry retailing course covers precious metals, diamonds, colored stones,
synthetics and imitations, pearls,
jewelry manufacturing, rings,
chains, flatware, holloware, ceramics, china, glassware, clocks,
appraising, merchandising, inventory control, advertising, insurance, and selling. Appendixes
give information about CJA and
CJI, Canadian precious metals
marking regulations, and British
hallmarks.
A Pictorial Guide to Fossils, Gerard
R. Case. Van ~ o s t r a n ' dReinhold, 1982; 515 pp; USs29.95.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
Stephanie Dillon, Edit01
MINERALOGISTS ADOPT
GEMOLOGICAL CONCERNS
The quadrennial meeting of the International Mineralogical Association took place in Varna, Bulgaria, this
past September. A highlight of the meeting was the formation of a new Commission on Gem Materials, with
Professor Hermann Bank selected as its leader. Representing 30 member nations, the commission will
seek to achieve international accord on gemological
nomenclature, to promote gemological research among
mineralogists, and to encourage the exchange of information among scholars and laboratory personnel concerning synthetics and treatments.
DIAMOND SOURCE
ASSUMPTION ASSAILED
The Third International Kimberlite Conference was
also held in September, in Clermont-Farrand, France.
The substance of the four-day meeting consisted of reports on geological studies of kimberlites from around
the world. Papers presented by two groups of scientists
concerning host rock of the West Australian occurrences, particularly Argyle Pipe AK-1, were of universal
interest. These reported that the host material is not
kimberlite, as scientists have assumed the source of all
diamonds to be. Instead, it is composed of two rock
types, kimberlitoid and lamprophyre.
*'
Smitlisonian InstitutionIFreer Gallery of Art-12th Street and Jefferson Drive, S.W., Washington, DC
20560. Telephone: (202)357-2627.
"Chinese Art of the Warring States
Period: Change and Continuity,
480-222 B.C." is a selection of 151
examples of jade ornaments, lacquerware, bronze vessels, fittings,
and other metalwork inlaid with intricate gold and silver designs. These
are associated both with warfare and
with the industrial sophistication
and improved transportation systems that were developed during this
turbulent era. Opened October 1and
continues through February 15, 1983.
Smithsonian InstitutionICooperHewitt Museum-2 East 91st Street,
New York, NY 10028. Telephone:
(212)860-6898. "Faberge: Jeweler to
Royalty" consists of over 200 works
by Peter Carl Faberge, which are on
loan from British collections, including that of Queen Elizabeth 11.
As part of the "Britain Salutes New
Gem News
York" celebration of 1983, this exhibit marks the first showing of the
pieces in the United States. Presented March 22 through July 10,
1983.
Society of America will be held in

conjunction with the show February
13 and 14. Further information is
available from the Tucson Gem &
Mineral Show Committee, P.O. Box
42543, Tucson, AZ 85733. Please
visit the GIAlGems &> Gemology
booth while you're there!
The Tucson Gem & Mineral Society's 29th Annual Show will be held
February 10-13 at the Tucson Community Center, 260 South Church
Avenue, Tucson, Arizona. The featured mineral will be cerussite. Educational programs and displays will
bring together gem and mineral matcrials from all over the world. Special displays will include sculptured
quartz, agate cameo bowls from IdarObei-stein, an exhibit of a fanious
Colorado mining district, minerals
from Mibladen, Morocco, and a 667ct emerald crystal from the Muzo
mine. The Mineralogical Record will
hold silent auctions during the show,
as well as its regular auction of the
50 best contributions on February
12. A joint symposium of Friends of
Mineralogy and the Mineralogical
The American Gem Trade Association Fair and Conclave will be held
February 5-10 at the Doubletree Hotel, 445 South Alvernon Way,
Tucson, AZ 85711. "Put a little color
in your life" is the theme of the association's second annual show, featuring natural, colored gemstones.
There will be seminars, social
events, and a business meeting of
the association. Further information
may be obtained by contacting
Chairwoman Maureen Jones at (213)
990-2411, or Manager Don Elwood
at (213) 703-8671.
The Accredited Gemologists Association will hold an educational
seminar February 10 and 11 at Palo
Verde Plaza Holiday Inn, 4550 South
Palo Verde Boulevard, Tucson, Ari-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
245
zona. Speakers will address the association on such issues as color

grading, appraisals, gemological instruments, and synthetic stones.
Further information may be obtained from Joseph W. Tenhagen,
President, Accredited Gemologists
Association, 36 N.E. First Street,
Suite 419, Miami, FL 33132. Telephone: (305)372-0872.
The Israel Precious Stones & Diamonds Exchange, together with the
Israel Emerald Cutters Association,
will host the International Precious
Stones Congress, April 11-1 6, 1983,
in Tel-Aviv, Israel. The program will
include lectures, professional ses-
sions, and panel discussions concerning gem mining, cutting, marketing, and other gemological issues.
There will be exhibits of professional publications and contemporary instrumentation, as well as lapidary tours. The congress will be held
at the Tel-Aviv Hilton. Information
may be obtained from the Congress
Committee, Israel Precious Stones
& Diamonds Exchange, 1 Jabotinsky
Street, Ramat-Gan 52520, Israel.
Telephone: (03)2561 12. Telex:
341667 ATT PR STONES. "Israel
Jewelry Week" will be celebrated
concurrently, from April 11-14, by
over 100 exhibitors of jewelry at the
Laromme Hotel in Jerusalem.
Stamps honoring four gems of the

Smithsonian collection may be issued as a block in 1984. Mrs. Lillian
Turner, chairman of the stamp committee for the American Federation
of Mineralogical Societies, suggests
that those who wish to promote the
issuance send requests to: Postmaster, 475 L'Enfant Plaza, S.W., Washington, D C 20260.
Gems o)Gemology welcomes news
of exhibits and events of a gemological nature. Please contact Stephanie Dillon, Gemological Institute of America, 1660 Stewart St.,
Santa Monica, CA 90404. Telephone: (213) 829-2991.
Complete Your Gems & Gemology Collection Now

A limited number of back issues of GEMS &
GEMOLOGY are currently available from stock.
To help you complete your reference library,
we are offering the following sets at special
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+ A complete Four-issue Set of the "1981
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represents a savings of almost S50.00.
Supplies of these special sets are limited,

and will be filled o n an as-available basis.
Single issues are priced as follows:
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Fall 1981 available in complete 1981
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GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
index
to
Volume 18
Numbers 1-4
1982
SUBJECT INDEX
T h i s i n d e x gives t h e first a u t h o r (in parentheses) a n d first page of t h e article o r Gem T r a d e
Lab N o t e s ( G T L N Jsection i n which t h e indexed subject occurs. T h e reader is referred t o
t h e a u t h o r index for t h e full title and t h e coauthors, w h e r e appropriate, of t h e articles cited.
Alexandrite effect, see Color

change
Andalusite
from Sri Lanka (Zwaan) 62
Apatite
from Sri Lanka (Zwaan]62
Asterism
in quartz (GTLN)228
in sapphire, as induced by heat
(GTLN) 102
in spinel [GTLN]228
in synthetic ruby [GTLN] 102
B
Bangkok, Thailand
heat treating corundum in
(Abraham] 79
Beryl
colored by vanadium (GTLN)44
Beryllium sodalite, see Tugtupite
"Black Ruby," see Spinel
Book reviews
Beyond the Glitter (Wykoff)243
Brazil: Paradise of Gemstones
(Sauer] 243
The Cambridge Encyclopedia o f
Earth Sciences (Smith, ed.] 182
G e m and Jewelry Fact Sheets
(Ross, ed.) 182
A n Illustrated Dictionary o f
Jewelry (Newman] 119
The Jewellery Book (St. Maur
and Streep] 243
Photographical Atlas of Detrital
Minerals (Devismes] 119
Broome pearl, see Pearls, cultured
c
California
amethyst, citrine, and green
Index
quartz from (Paradise)39

Cambodia, see Kampuchea
Carving
of jade, historical and
contemporary (Tucker)20
of opal (Grussing)95
Cat's-eye, see Chatoyancy
Ceylon, see Sri Lanka
Ceylonite, see Spinel
Chalcedony
cameo, good repair of (GTLN]
169
Chatham
flux-grown synthetic sapphire
(Kane] 140
Chatoyancy
in emerald (GTLN] 169
in iolite (GTLN) 169
in tourmaline (GTLN] 102
Change-of-color phenomenon, see
Color change
China
jade forms from (Tucker]20
Chrysoberyl
alexandrite and cat's-eye from Sri
Lanka (Zwaan]62
Cobalt
in natural gemstones (GTLN]
228
Color change
in alexandrite, corundum, spinel,
kyanite, fluorite, and monazite
(Gubelin] 197
in garnet (Stockton] 100,
[Gubelin] 197
garnet inclusion in diamond
(GTLN) 169
Color stability
in heat-treated and irradiated
"golden" yellow sapphire
[Keller] 186
in yellow sapphire (GTLN)228
Conch
'pearl" (GTLN) 169
Corundum, see Ruby and Sapphire
Cristobalite
in opal (GTLN) 169
Cryogenic cooling
to enhance spectra in diamond
[Scarratt) 72
Cubic zirconia
cutting of [Kerr] 154
in shape of diamond crystal
[GTLN) 169
D
Diamond
burned (GTLN)228
color-change garnet inclusion in
(GTLN] 169
cyclotron treated (GTLN) 102
with irregular finish on table
(GTLN)44
Diamond, colored
chameleon (GTLN]228
detection of natural from
cyclotron treated (Scarratt) 72
pink, blue, green, yellow, and
brown (Scarratt] 72
yellow, treated (GTLN)228
Diamond, cuts and cutting of
Barion emerald cut (Kerr) 154
modified brilliant [GTLN)228
Watermeyer split-facet cuts
(Kerr) 154
Diamond simulants
cubic zirconia in shape of
diamond crystal (GTLN] 169
Diffusion treatment
as a method of inducing color in
sapphires (GTLN) 169
of synthetic sapphires (GTLN)
102
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
247
E
East Africa
color-change garnets from
(Stockton) 100
Ekanite
Emerald
chatoyancy in (GTLN) 169
comparison of properties among
stones from various localities
(Gubelin) 123
fakes (GTLN)44, 102, 169
from Pakistan mines-geology,
mining, recovery, and cutting
of (Gubelin) 123
underwater archaeological
discovery (GTLN)44
Zambian, with tourmaline
inclusions (Koivula)225
Zambian, with unusual spectrum
(GTLN)228
Emerald, synthetic
Lennix flux-grown (GTLN) 169
with unusual inclusion (GTLN)
44
F
Faceting
of rock crystal (Sinkankas)214
in Sri Lanka (Zwaan)62
Watermeyer split-facet cuts
(Kerr) 154
Feldspar
moonstone and cat's-eye
moonstone from Sri Lanka
(Zwaan)62
Fibrolite, see Sillimanite
Friedelite
history, mineralization, and
gemology of (Pienaar)221
G
Gahnospinel, see Spinel
Garnet
color-change (Stockton) 100,
(Gubelin) 197
color-change, as inclusion in
diamond (GTLN) 169
pyrope-almandite (Zwaan)62
see also Grossular
Greened amethyst, see Quartz
Greenland
tugtupite deposits in (Jensen)90
Grossular
orange-brown from Sri Lanka
(Zwaan)62
physical and optical properties of
(Manson)204
pink and green (GTLN) 102
Heat treatment
248
Index
of lavender jadeite, to test for

color enhancement (Koivula)
32
of ruby and sapphire (Abraham)
79
of sapphire to produce "golden"
yellow (Keller) 186
of yellow sapphire (GTLN)44,
228
Hessonite, see Grossular
Irradiation
of diamond (GTLN) 102
of diamond, natural and
cyclotron treated (Scarratt) 72
and radioactivity (Rossman)87
of spodurnene By neutrons
(Rossman)87
Inclusions
apatite in kornerupine (GTLN)
102
in Chatham flux-grown orange
and flux-grown blue sapphire
(Kane) 140
in diamond, color-change garnet
(GTLN) 169
in diamond, needles (GTLN) 228
in emerald from Pakistan
(Gubelin) 123
in jadeite, nephrite, and jade
substitutes (Hobbs)3
in Knischlza synthetic ruby
(Gubelin) 165
in Lennix flux-grown emerald
(GTLN) 169
photography of (Koivula)83
in ruby from Pakistan (Gubelin)
123
shadowing as a technique to
enhance microscopic viewing
of (Koivula) 160
in spinel (GTLN) 102
in spinel from Pakistan (Gubelin)
123
in Sri Lanka stones (Zwaan] 62
in synthetic emerald (GTLN)44
in taaffeite (GTLN)44
in Thai ruby and sapphire
(Keller) 186
tourmaline in Zambian emerald
(Koivula)225
Inscription of gemstones
alexandrite (GTLN) 102
Iolite
chatoyancy in (GTLN) 169
history, nomenclature, trade

names, properties, and
identification of (Hobbs)3
see also Jadeite
Jadeite
damaged by heat during repair
(GTLN) 102
separation of natural and colortreated lavender (Koivula)32
see also Jade
Jade substitutes
green glass hololith (GTLN) 169
misnomers, properties, and
separation of (Hobbs)3
Jewelry repair
damage caused by heat (GTLN)
102
Kalahari, see South Africa
Kampuchea (Cambodia)
Pailin ruby field-geology of
(Keller) 186
Knischka synthetic ruby (Gubelin)
165
Kornerupine
with apatite inclusions (GTLN)
102
from-Sri Lanka (Zwaan) 62
Lapis-lazuli substitute
dyed marble (GTLN) 169
Lighting methods
pinpoint illumination (Koivula)
83
shadowing (Koivula) 160
Low-temperature spectroscopy, see
Cryogenic cooling
M
Microscopy
pinpoint illumination with
(Koivula)83
shadowing to enhance image
(Koivula) 160
Moonstone, see Feldspar
N
Nephrite, see Jade
Nomenclature
discussion of jade, jadeite, and
nephrite (Hobbs)3
of gem-quality grossular garnet
(Manson)204
0
J
Jade
carvings, symbolism in (Tucker)
20
Opal
carving of (Grussing) 95
common, carved (GTLN)44
doublet (GTLN) 102
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
flow structure in (GTLN) 102

oolitic (GTLN) 102
pink, carved (GTLN) 169
P
Palzistan (Swat and Hunza valleys)
emerald, ruby, and spinel from
(Gubelin) 123
Palygorski te
in opal (GTLN) 169
Pargasite
from Palzistan (Gubelin) 123
Parisite (GTLN)228
Pearls
attached to shells (GTLN) 102
blister (GTLN)228
with odor (GTLN) 102
Pearls, cultured
Broome, cultured blister from
Australia (GTLN)44
growth of Biwa (GTLN)44
Mabe (Crowningshield)36
separation of Y4 cultured blister
pearl and Mabe
(Crowningshield]36
% cultured blister pearls
(Crowningshield)36
Pinpoint i,lluminator (Koivula) 83
Pleonast; see Spinel
Prasiolite, see Quartz
Pyrope-almandite, see Garnet
'
Quartz
amethyst, cat's-eye, rock crystal,
rose, and smoky from Sri
Lanlza (Zwaan]62
amethyst, citrine, and green from
Nevada-California bordergeology of area and cause of
color (Paradise)39
rock crystal-as a material for
lapidary arts (Sinkankas)214
star (GTLN)228
R
Radioactivity
in neutron-irradiated spodumene
(Rossman) 87
Rock crystal, see Quartz
Ruby
from Chanthaburi-Trat,
Thailand-history, geology,
mining methods of, and
inclusions in (Keller)186
heating treating of (Abraham)79
from Pakistan-geology, mining,
properties of, and inclusions in
( ~ i b e l i n123
)
Ruby, synthetic
flux-grown, internal
characteristics of (Koivula] 160
Index
Knischka (Gubelin) 165

star material from Germany
(GTLN) 102
s
Sapphire
blue, heat treatment of
(Abraham) 79
blue, pink, yellow, star, and
geuda from Sri Lanlza (Zwaan)
62
from Chanthaburi-Trat,
Thailand-history, geology,
mining methods of, inclusions
in, and heat treatment of
(Keller) 186
cutting of, in Australia (GTLN)
44
damaged by heat during repair
(GTLN) 102
diffusion treatment of (GTLN)
169, 228
with heat-induced star (GTLN)
102
with unusual spectrum (GTLN]
228
yellow, heat treatment of
(GTLN) 44, 228, (Keller) 186
Sapphire, synthetic
Chatham flux-grown orange and
flux-grown blue (Kane) 140
diffusion of (GTLN) 102
Shadowing, see Lighting methods
Sillimanite
Sinhalite
from Sri Lanlza (Zwaan]62
South Africa
discovery of gem-quality
friedelite in (Pienaar)221
Spectra
of alexandrite and color-change
corundum, spinel, lzyanite,
fluorite, and monazite
(Gubelin) 197
of chameleon diamond (GTLN)
228
of Chatham flux-grown orange
and blue sapphire (Kane] 140
of color-change garnet (Stockton)
100, (Gubelin) 197
of colored diamonds (Scarratt)72
of diamond (GTLN) 102
of emerald (Gubelin) 123
of grossular garnet (Manson)204
of heat-treated "golden" yellow
sapphire (Keller) 186
of irradiated spodumene
(Rossn~an)
87
of jadeite, idocrase, serpentine,
dyed-green jadeite, and
chalcedony (Hobbs)3
of Knischka synthetic ruby

(Gubelin] 165
of iolite (GTLN) 169
of parisite (GTLN) 228
ofquartz (Paradise)39
of treated yellow diamond
(GTLN)228
of yellow sapphire (GTLN) 228
of Zambian emerald (Koivula)
225, (GTLN)228
Sphene
from Sri Lanlza (Zwaan)62
Spinel
"Black Ruby" (GTLN) 169
gahnospinel from Sri Lanka
(Zwaan)62
inclusions in (GTLN) 102
from Pakistan-properties of and
inclusions in (Gubelin) 123
from Sri Lanlza (Zwaan) 62
star (GTLN)228
with unusual color (GTLN)228
Spodumene
green, from Sri Lanka (Zwaan)62
irradiation of (Rossman) 87
Sri Lanka
gems of (Zwaan]62
Sugilite (GTLN)44
T
Taaffeite
world's largest? (GTLN) 44
Thailand
Bangkok, heat treatment in
(Abraham] 79
Chanthaburi-Trat gem field
(Keller) 186
Topaz
Tourmaline
cat's-eye (GTLN) 102
as inclusion in Zambian emerald
(Koivula)225
from Sri Lanka (Zwaan)62
Tsavorite, see Grossular garnet
Tugtupite
Discovery, mineralogy,
crystallography, and current
status of (Jensen)90
u
Unclassified oddities
lithium fluoride (GTLN)228
potassium chloride (GTLN)228
v
Van Pelt collection (Sinkankas) 214
z
Zircon
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982
249
AUTHOR INDEX
This index lists, in alphabetical order, the names of authors of all articles that appeared in the
four issues of Volume 18 of Gems o) Gemology. Full citation is provided under the first
author only, with reference made from joint authors.
A
Abraham J.S.D.: Heat treating
corundum: the Bangkok
operation, 79-82
c
Crowningshield R.: Cultured %I
blister pearls, 36-38
Grussing T.: Carving gemquality opal, 95-99
Gubelin E.J.
Gemstones of Pakistan: emerald,
ruby, and spinel, 123-139
New synthetic rubies made by
Professor P. 0 . Knischlza, 165168
Gubelin E.J., Schmetzer K.:
Gemstones with alexandrite
effect, 197-203
H
Hobbs J.M.: The jade enigma, 3-19
J
Jensen A,, Petersen O.V.:
Tugtupite: a gemstone from
Greenland, 90-94
K
Kane R.E.: The gemological
250
Index
properties of Chatham fluxgrown synthetic orange sapphire

and synthetic blue sapphire,
140-153
Keller P.C.: The Chanthaburi-Trat
gem field, Thailand, 186-196
Kerr W.C.: A report on the new
Watermeyer split-facet diamond
cuts, 154-159
Koivula 1.1.
Pinpoint illumination: a
controllable system of lighting
for gem microscopy, 83-86
Shadowing: a new method of
image enhancement for
gemological microscopy, 160164
Some observations on the
treatment of lavender jadeite,
32-35
Tourmaline as an inclusion in
Zambian emeralds, 225-227
M
Manson D.V., Stoclzton C.M.:
Gem-quality grossular garnets,
204-213
P
Paradise T.R.: The natural
formation and occurrence of
green quartz, 39-42
Petersen O.V., see Jensen A.
Pienaar H.S.: Gem-quality

friedelite from the Kalahari
manganese field near Kuruman,
South Africa, 221 -224
Q
Qiu Y., see Rossman G.R.
Rossman G.R., Qiu Y,: Radioactive

irradiated spodumene, 87-89
s
Scarratt K.V.G.: The identification
of artificial coloration in
diamond, 72-78
Schmetzer K., see Gubelin E.J.
Sinkankas J.: Artistry in rock
crystal: the Van Pelt collection,
21 4-220
Stoclzton C.M.: Two notable colorchange garnets, 100-101
Stoclzton C.M., see Manson D.V.
Tucker E.: Jade forms from ancient
China, 20-31
z
Zwaan P.C.: Sri Lanka: the gem
island, 62-71
Indexes prepared b y D o n a D i r l a m
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1982

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WINTER 1982

In Tribute to Robert M. Shipley, Jr.

Gemstones with Alexandrite Effect

Gem-Quality Grossular Garnets

Artistryfin Rock Crystal: The Van Pelt Collection

Gem-Quality Friedelite from the Kalahari Manganese

Tourmaline as an Inclusion in Zambian Emeralds

Gem Trade Lab Notes

"1983 Gemological Institute o f America.

All rights reserved.

ISSN 001 6-626X

Editor, Gem Trade Lab Notes

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Chanthaburi -Trat, Thailand

hailand has been a world supplier of gem ruby and

GEM S & GEMOLOGY

of corundum from elsewhere, particularly Sri

Figure 1. Two fine Thai

visitors to the area, most notably Moreau (19761,

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

with tropical climates, the corundum deposits of

Jurassic and Tr~assic

granites and granodiorites as represented by the

associated with black spinel, olivine, and, in rare

Figure 3. Primitive washing of gem gravels at

Figure 4,At Bo Rai, gem

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

but the most technologically advanced mining

500 baht (US$25)per month and are permitted to

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 6. A jig or "willoughby" table washer, a

strongly violet to a classic "pigeon blood" red.

were commonly altered to a black submetallic

Figure 7. Independent miners

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

as the rubies, which rarely exhibit any of their

HEAT TREATING "GOLDEN" SAPPHIRES

Figure 9. Typical inclusions i n Thai ruby are

Figure 10. Polysynthetic twinning, here

1720 ct have been reported from the Bang Kha

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 1 1 . Typical subhedral inclusions of

Figure 12. Large goethite inclusion found in an

Figure 13. A parcel of

titanium which, in conjunction with divalent iron,

Figure 14. Heat-treated golden sapphires w i t h

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

The actual mechanism for the appearance of

nological sophistication has also been applied to

T h e term alexandrite effect refers to the

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Gemstones with Alexandrite Effect

he alexandrite effect was observed for the first time

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Gemstones with Alexandrite Effect

fect and seeks to describe a common denominator

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Gemstones with Alexandrite Effect

the end members of the isomorphous series of

GEMS & GEMOLOGY