GALGOTIAS UNIVERSITY

Greater Noida
www.galgotiasuniversity.edu.in

AME502P Transmission system design Laboratory

LABORATORY MANUAL
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SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(SME)
EXPERIMENT NO.1
1

Aim: Study of various types of clutches

Theory: Diagram, Constructional Details, Working Principle and Operation of the above A
simplified sketch of a single plate clutch is given in fig 1 Friction plate is held between the
flywheel and the pressure plate. There are springs (the number may vary, depending upon
design) arranged circumferentially, which provide axial force to keep the clutch in engaged
position. The friction plate is mounted on a hub which is splined from inside and is thus free to
slide over the gear box shaft. Friction facing is attached to the friction plate both sides to provide
two annular friction surfaces for the transmission of power. A pedal is provided to pull the
pressure plate against the spring force whenever it is required to be disengaged. Ordinarily it
remains in engaged position as is shown in fig.1 when the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure
plate is moved to the right against the force of the springs. This is achieving by means of a
suitable linkage and a thrust bearing. With this movement of the pressure plate, the friction plate
is released and the clutch is disengaged. In actual practice the construction of the clutch differs.
The pressure plate, the springs, the release levers and the cover form a sub assembly, called the
cover assembly which can be mounted directly to the engine block, of course, placing the clutch
plate in between the flywheel and the pressure plate with the clutch shaft inserted in this
arrangement.

Fig1: Single plate clutch

Advantages of single plate clutch:

1. With the single plate clutch, gear changing is easier than with the cone clutch, because
the pedal movement is less in this case.
2. It does not suffer from disadvantages of cone clutch i.e. bindings of cones etc. and hence
it is more reliable.
Disadvantages of single plate clutch:
As compared to cone clutch, the springs have to be more stiff and this means greater force
require to be appliedby the driver while disengaging.
In the assembled position releases lever rest against the centre opening of the cover
pressing there is an eyebolt nut which causes the strut to pull the pressure plate against the
springs, thus holding together the assembly. When the cover is bolted onto the flywheel, the
pressure plate is further pushed back against the springs,causing them to be compressed further,
which relaxes the release levers. Anti rattle springs serve to prevent theundesirable noise due to
release levers when the clutch is in the engaged position.

Diaphragm Spring Type Single Plate Clutch

The construction of this type of clutch is similar to that of the single plate type of clutch
described above except that here diaphragm springs (also called Belleville springs) are used
instead if the ordinary coil springs. In the free condition, the diaphragm spring is of conical form
but when assembled, it is constrained to an approximately flat condition because of which it
exerts a load upon the pressure plate. A diaphragm spring type clutch is shown in fig. where
shows the clutch in the engaged position and in the disengaged position. It is seen from the above
figures that the diaphragm spring is supported on a fulcrum retaining ring so that any section
through the spring can be regarded as a simple lever. The pressure plate E is movable axially, but
it is fixed radically with respect to the cover. This is done by providing a series of equally spaced
lugs cast upon the back surface of the pressure plate. The drive from the engine flywheel is
transmitted through the cover, pressure plate and the friction plate to the gear box input shaft.

Fig-2: Diaphragm Spring Type Single Plate Clutch

The clutch is disengaged by pressing the clutch pedal which actuates the release fingers by
means of a release ring. This pivots the spring about its fulcrum, relieving the spring load on the
outside diameter, thereby disconnecting the drive. In this clutch, three straps of spring steel are
placed equilaterally so that their outer ends are riveted to the cover, while their centers are
riveted to the pressure plate. Drive is transmitted from the cover to the pressure plate viathe
straps along lines of action through the strap rivet centers. Spring flexure of the straps permits
the axial movement of the pressure plate relative to the cover.
Advantages of Diaphragm Spring Type Single Plate Clutch: This type of clutch has now
virtually superseded the earlier coil spring design in many countries in clutch sizes ranging up to
270 mm, in diameter, although in case of heavy vehicles, the coil spring type clutches are still
being used because of the difficulty to provide sufficient clamping force by a single diaphragm
spring. The diaphragm spring however, offers certain distinct advantages.
i.

It is more compact means of storing energy. Thus compact design results in smaller

ii.

clutch housing.
As the diaphragm spring is comparatively less affected by the centrifugal forces, it
can withstand higher rotational speeds. On the other hand, coil springs have tendency
to distort in the transverse direction at higher speeds.

iii.

In case of coil springs, load deflection curve is linear. Therefore, with the wear of the
clutch acing the springs has less deflection due to which they would apply less force
against the clutch plate. On the other hand, in case of diaphragm spring, the load
deflection curve is not linear therefore, in this case, as the clutch facing wears, force
on the plate gradually increases, which means that even in the worn out condition, the
spring force is not less than its value in case of new clutch. Further, it is also seen that
the load deflection curve depends upon the ratios h/t where h is the free dish height
and t is the thickness of the spring. Therefore, in this case with suitable design, the

iv.

load deflection curve can be improved to give lower release loads.

The diaphragm acts as both clamping spring and release levers. Therefore, many extra
parts like struts, eye bolts, levers etc. are eliminated in the diaphragm spring, because
of which the loss of efficiency due to friction wear of these parts also does not occur,
which results in the elimination of squeaks and rattles.

Multi plate clutch

These clutches are used in heavy commercial vehicles, racing cars and motor cycles for
transmitting high torque. In comparison to single plate type, these switches are smoother and
easier to operate due to their assembly of friction surfaces contact. They may be used where
space is very limited, i.e. in automatic transmission and motor cycles. In the latter cases a multi
plate clutch of small operator transmits approximately the same torque as a single plate clutch of
twice that diameter. These are also used in cases where very large torques is to be transmitted i.e.
in heavy commercial vehicles, cars, special purpose military and agricultural vehicles. These
clutches may be dry or wet. When the clutch of this type is operated in a bath of oil, it is calleda
wet clutch. But these oil immersed or wet clutches are generally used in conjunction with or as a
part of the automatic transmission. It consists of a number of thin plates connected alternately to
input and output shaft resulting in a very large area of working surface in a comparatively small
space. The increased number of plates provides the increased torque transmitting ability of the
clutch.

Fig-3: Multi Plate Clutch

EXPERIMENT NO.2
Aim: To study of transmission system and gear meshing
Theory:
Sliding Mesh type Gear Box:
This is the simplest type of gear box. The power is transferred from the engine to the clutch shaft
and then to the clutch gear which is always in mesh with a gear on the layshaft. All the gears on
the lay shaft are fixed and as such they are all the time rotating when the engine is running and
the clutch is engaged. Three direct and one reverse speeds are attained by suitably moving the
gear on the main shaft by means of selector mechanism.

Fig-1: Sliding Mesh type Gear Box

Constant Mesh Gear Box:

In this type of gear box, all the gears are in constant mesh with the corresponding gears on the
lay shaft. The gears on the main shaft which is splined, are free. The dog clutches are provided
which slide on the main shaft. The gears on the layshaft are, however, fixed. When the left dog
clutch is slided to the left by means of the selector mechanism, its teeth of the gear are engaged
with the clutch gear. The same dog clutch, however, when slide to right makes contact with the
second gear and second gear ratio is obtained. Similarly movement of the right dog clutch to the
left results in low gear and towards right in reverse gear.

Fig-2: Constant Mesh Gear Box

Synchromesh Gear Box:

This type of gear box is similar to the constant mesh type. In this all the gears on the main shaft
are in constant mesh with the corresponding gears on the lays haft. The gears on the lay shaft are
fixed to it while those on the main shaft are free to rotate on the same shaft. Its working is also
similar to the constant mesh type, but in the former there is one definite improvement over the
latter. This is the provision of synchromesh device which avoids the necessity of double
declutching. The parts which ultimately are required to be engaged are first brought into
frictional contact which equalizes their speed, after which these may be engaged smoothly.

Fig-3: Synchromesh Gear Box

Fig shows the construction and working of a synchromesh gear box. In most of the cars,
however, the synchromesh devices are not fitted to all the gears. They are only on the high speed
gears but on the low speed and reverse gears, ordinary dog clutches are only provided. This is
done to reduce the cost. In other words, the gear wheels which are to be positively connected are
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first brought into frictional contact and when the friction has equalized their speeds, the positive
connections are made. Synchromesh devices can be applied to the sliding mesh gear box but they
are universally used with constant mesh gear boxes used in different motor vehicles. The main
features of this gear box are:
a. The output gears are free to rotate on bushes on the output shaft. They are internally
located by splined thrust bearings. Single or double helical gears remain in constant mesh
with the lay shaft gears.
b. The output gears are locked to their shaft by the dog clutch.
c. Change of the synchronizing hub takes place when its speed equalizes or synchronizes by
their scones.
In case this gear is not used, it is left to the skill of the driver to bring one or more gears for
meshing. By the skillful use of this clutch and accelerator pedal, he can bring the gears
approximately the same speed. Even for the unskilled driver it is not difficult to affect quite
satisfactory the change of gears. He can do it simply by using the clutch pedal gear lever with the
help of successful commercial gear synchronizers.

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
Aim: Study of automotive steering systems
10

Purpose of Steering System: The steering system allows the driver to guide the vehicle
along the road and turn left or right as desired. The system includes the steering wheel, which
controls the steering gear. It changes the rotary motion of the wheel into straight line motion.
Manual systems were popular but now power steering has become popular. It is now installed on
about 90% of the vehicles being manufactured.

Fig-1: Steering System in Vehicle

Fig-2: Steering System

Types of Steering Systems: A simplified pitman-arm type of steering system. Describes

how the wheels are supported on steering knuckles. The steering knuckles are attached to the
steering arms by ball joints. The bal joints at each wheel permit the steering knuckle to swing
from side to side. This movement turns the front wheels left or right so that the car can be
11

steered. The recirculating ball steering gear is shown in fig. In these units, the worm gear on the
end of the steering shaft has a special nut, running on it. The nut rides on rows of small
recirculation balls. The recirculation balls move freely through grooves in the worm and inside
the nut. As the steering shaft is rotated, the balls force the nut to move up and down the worm
gear. A short rack of gear teeth on one side of the nut mesh with the sector gear.
Therefore, as the nut moves up and down the worm, the sector gear turns in on direction
or the other for steering. The recirculating balls are the only contacts between the worm and the
nut. This greatly reduces friction andvthe turning effort or force applied by the driver for
steering. The balls are called recirculating balls because they continuously recirculate from one
end of the ball nut to the other end through a pair of ball return guides. For example, suppose the
driver makes a right turn, and then the worm gear rotated in a clockwise direction when viewed
from the drivers seat. This causes the ball nut to move upward. The ball roll between the worm
and the ball nut. As the balls reach the upper end of the nut, they enter the return guide and the
roll back to the lower end. There they reenter the groove between the worm and the ball nut.

Rack and pinion steering gears: The rack and pinion steering gear has become increasing
popular for todays smaller cars. It is simpler, moredire acting and may be straight mechanical or
power assisted operation. Figure shows a complete rack and pinion.

Fig-3: Rack and pinion steering gears

Rack and Pinion Power Steering: A power rack and pinion steering gear is another design of
integral power steering the rack functions as the power piston. The tie rods are attached between
the rack and the spindle steering arms. The control valve is connected to the pinion gear
Operation of the control valve is similar to that for the integral power steering gear when the
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steering wheel is turned, the resistance of wheels and the weight of vehicle cause the torsion bar
to twist. This twisting causes rotary valve to move in its sleeve, aligning the fluid passages for
the left, right, or neutral position. Oil pressure exerts force on the piston and helps move the rack
to assist the turning effort. The piston is attached directly to the rack. The housing tube functions
as the power cylinder. The gear assembly is always filled with fluid, and all internal components
are immersed in fluid. This makes periodic lubrication unnecessary, and also acts as a cushion to
help absorb road shocks. On some rack and pinion power steering gears al fluid passages are
internal except for the pressure and return hoses between the gear and pump.

Steering Linkages: Steering linkage depends upon the type of the vehicle, whether it is a
car which has independent front suspension or a commercial vehicle having generally a rigid
axle type front suspension. Each of these linkages will now be described.

Steering linkage for vehicle with rigid axle front suspension:

The drop arm (also called pitman arm) is rigidly connected to the cross shaft of the steering gear
at its upper end, while its lower end is connected to the link rod through a ball joint. To the other
end of the link rod is connected the link rod arm through a ball joint. Attached rigidly to the other
end of the link rod arm is the stub axle on which the road wheel is mounted. Each stub axle has a
forge track rod arm rigidly bolted to the wheel axis. The other ends of the track rod arms are
connected to the track rod by means of ball joints. The design of these ball joints is such that the
expanding spring compensates for wear ormis-adjustments. An adjuster is also provided in the
track rod to change its length for adjusting wheel alignment.
The steering gear provides mechanical advantage so that only a small effort is required at
the steering wheel to apply a much larger force to the steering linkage. Moreover it also provides
the desired velocity ratio so that much smaller movement of the stub axle is obtained with large
angular movement of the steering wheel. When the steering wheel is turned, the swinging action
of the drop arm imparts a near linear movement to the link rod. This movement is transmitted
through the link rod arm to the stub axle so as to turn the later about its pivot, which may be a
king pin or ball joints. The other wheel is steered through the track rod. Thus only one wheel is
positively steered.

13

Rack and pinion steering gear:

This type of steering gear is used on light vehicles

like cars and in power steering. Maruti 800 cars employ thissteering gear. It is simple, light and
responsive. It occupies very small space and uses lesser number of linkagecomponents compared
to the worm and wheel type of gear.

Power Steering:
Larger amount of torque is required to be applied by the driver for steering of medium and heavy
vehicles. The power steering system provides automatic hydraulic assistance to the turning effort
applied to the manual steering system. The power system is designed to become operative when
the effort at wheel exceeds a predetermined value, say 10N. the system is always so designed
that in the event of the failure of the power system, the driver is able to steer the vehicle
manually although with increased effort. Fig shows a typical power steering system installed on a
car. The power steering systems are operated by fluid under pressure. The fluids usually used are
oils of viscosity rating SAE 5 W or SAE 10 W or higher depending upon atmospheric conditions.
The systems operate under Fairly high pressures which may be as much as 7 MPa. The principle
of working of all the power steering systems is same. The slight movement of the steering wheel
actuates a valve so that the fluid under pressure from the reservoir enters on the appropriate side
of a cylinder, thereby applying pressure on the side of a piston to operate the steering linkage,
which steers the wheel in the appropriate direction. When the driver applies a force on the
steering wheel to steer, the far end of the torsion bar, being connected to the spool of the rotary
valve and the worm offers resistance. When the force at the wheel exceeds a predetermined
value, the spool turns through a small angle, when the return line is closed and the fluid under
pressure goes to one side of the rack piston and moves it to effect steering in the desired
direction. The torsion bar is meant to give a feel of the steering to the driver. The rotation of the
steering wheel in the opposite direction connects the other side of the steering gear to the
pressure line. In the neutral steer position both sides of the piston (nut) are shut off to the
pressure line and so they are at the same pressure but the return line is open due to which the
fluid goes on circulating through the valve without causing any steering effect.

EXPERIMENT NO. 4

14

Aim: To study and prepare repot on the constructional details, working principles of braking
system.

Theory
Principle:

It goes without saying that brakes are one of the most important control

components of vehicle. They are required to stop the vehicle within the smallest possible
distance and this is done by converting the kinetic energy of the vehicle into the heat energy
which is dissipated into the atmosphere.

Braking Requirements
1.

The brakes must be strong enough to stop the vehicle within a minimum distance in an
emergency. Butthis should also be consistent with safety. The driver must have proper

2.

control over the vehicle duringemergency braking and the vehicle must not skid.
The brakes must have good antifade characteristics i.e. their effectiveness should not
decrease withconstant prolonged application e.g. while descending hills. This
requirement demands that the cooling of thebrakes should be very efficient.

Hydraulic Brakes:
Most of the cars today use hydraulically operated foot brakes on all the four wheels with an
additional handbrake mechanically operated on the rear wheels. The main component in this is
the master cylinder which contains reservoir for the brake fluid. Master cylinder is operated by
the brake pedal and is further connected to the wheel cylinders in each wheel through steel
pipelines, unions and flexible hoses. In case of Hindustan Ambassador car, on front wheels each
brake shoe isoperated by separate wheel cylinder (thus making the brake two shoe leading)
whereas in case of rear wheelsthere is only one cylinder on each wheel which operates both the
shoes (thus giving one leading and one training shoe brakes.) As the rear wheel cylinders are also
operated mechanically with the hand brake, they are made floating. Further, all the shoes in the
Ambassador car are of the floating anchor type. The system is so designed that even when the
brakes are in the released position, a small pressure of about 50kPa is maintained in the pipe
lines to ensure that the cups of the wheel cylinder are kept expanded. This prevents the air from
entering the wheel cylinders when the brakes are released Besides, this pressure also
serves the following purposes.
15

Fig-1: Disc and Drum brake assembly in vehicle

i.

It keeps the free travel of the pedal minimum by opposing the brake shoe retraction

ii.

springs.
During bleeding, it does not allow the fluid pumped into the line to return, thus
quickly purging air from the system.

Drum Brakes
In this type of brakes, a brake drum is attached concentric to the axle hub whereas on the axle
casing is mounted a back plate. In case of front axle, the back plate is bolted to the steering
knuckle. The back plate is made of pressed steel sheet and is ribed to increase rigidity and to
provide support for the expander, anchor and brake shoes. It also protects the drum and shoe
assembly from mud and dust. Moreover, it absorbs the complete Torque reaction of the shoes due
to which reason it is sometimes also called torque plate. Two brake shoes are anchored on the
back plate as shown in fig. Friction linings are mounted on the brake shoes. One or two retractor
springs are used which serve to keep the brake shoes away from the drum when the brakes are
not applied. The brake shoes are anchored at one end, whereas on the other ends force F is
applied by means of some brake actuating mechanism which forces the brake shoe against the
revolving drum, thereby applying the brakes. An adjuster is also provided to compensate for
wear of friction lining with use. The relative braking torque obtained at the shoes for the same
force applied at the pedal varies depending upon whether the expander (cam or toggle lever) is

16

fixed to the back plate or it is floating, whether the anchor is fixed or floating andwhether the
shoes are leading or trailing.

Fig-2: Drum brake (wheel cylinder) position in vehicle

Fig-3: Drum brake

Disc Brakes:
As shown in fig. a disc brake consists of a cast iron disc bolted to the wheel hub and a stationary
housing calledcaliper. The caliper is connected to some stationary part of the vehicle, like the
axle casing or the sub axle andis cast in two parts, each part containing a piston. In between each
17

piston and disc, there is friction pad held inposition by retaining pins, spring plates etc. Passages
are drilled in the caliper for the fluid to enter or leave each housing. These passages are also
connected to another one for bleeding. Each cylinder and contains arubber sealing ring between
the cylinder and the piston.When the brakes are applied, hydraulically actuated pistons move the
friction pads into contact with the disc,applying equal and opposite forces on the later. On
releasing the brakes, the rubber sealing rings act as returnsprings and retract the pistons and the
friction pads away from the disc.
For a brake of this type:
T = 2paR
Where
= coefficient of friction
p = fluid pressure
a = cross sectional area of one piston
R = distance of the longitudinal axis of the piston from the wheel axis

Fig-4: Disc brake

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EXPERIMENT NO. 5
Aim: To study and prepare report on the construction details, working principles and operation
of suspension system.

Theory:

Labeled diagram, construction details, working principle and operation of the

following suspension systems

a) Front suspension system
i) Double Wishbone Suspension
ii) Macpherson Strut Front Suspension
b) Rear suspension system
i) Leaf Spring Rear Suspension
ii) Coil Spring Rear Suspension
iii) Macpherson Strut Rear Suspension

Objects of Suspension
1. To prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to the vehicle components
2. To safeguard the occupants from road shocks
3. To preserve the stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling, while in motionLeaf
SpringsSemi elliptic leaf springs are almost universally use for suspension in light and
heavy commercial vehicles. Forcars also, these are widely used for rear suspension.

Tapered Leaf Springs:

19

English Steel Corporation Ltd. Of England has produced Taperlite springs which have the
following advantages over the conventional leaf springs due to which these are becoming
increasingly popular compared to constant section conventional leaf springs.

Fig-1: Tapered Leaf Springs

1. Light weight nearly 60% of the corresponding conventional spring
2. There is no interleaf friction in case of single taper leaf spring. Even in case of heavy vehicles
wheremore leaves may be required, the number of such leaves is still less than in case of
conventional springs.Further, these rub against each other only at the ends. Due to these reasons
even in multi taper leaf springsrelatively less inter leaf friction will be present.
3 Absence of squeaking
4. The stresses are lower and more uniform compared to the conventional springs, thus giving
longer life.
5. They occupy less space.
6. In case of single taper leaf spring, there is no collection of moisture between the leaves and
hence nofretting fatigue.

Coil Springs:
20

The coil springs are used mainly with independent suspension, though they have also been used
in the conventional rigid axle suspension as they can be well accommodated in restricted spaces.
The energy stored per unit volume is almost double in the case of coil springs than the leaf
springs. Coil springs do not have noise problems nor do they have static friction causing
harshness of ride as in case of leaf springs. The spring takes the shear as well as bending stresses.
The coil springs, however, cannot take torque reaction and side thrust, for which alternative
arrangements have to be provided. A helper coil spring is also sometimes used to provide
progressive stiffness against increasing load.

Fig-2: Coil Springs

Shock Absorbers:
A springing device must be a compromise between flexibility and stiffness. If it is more rigid, it
will not absorb road shocks efficiently and if it is more flexible, it will continue to vibrate even
after the bump has passed. Sowed must have sufficient damping of the spring to prevent
excessive flexing. The friction between the leaves of a leaf spring provides this damping, but
because of the uncertainly of the lubrication conditions, the amount of friction also varies and
hence the damping characteristics do not remain constant. For this reason, the friction between
the springs is reduced to minimum and additional damping is provided by means of devices
called dampers or shock absorbers. In case of coil springs, the whole of damping is provided by
the shock absorbers. The shock absorbers thus control the excessive spring vibrations.
In fact the name shock absorber is rather misleading since it is the spring and not the shock
absorber that initially absorbes the shock. The shock absorber absorbs the energy of shock
converted into vertical movement of the axle by providing damping and dissipating the same into
21

heat. Thus, it merely serves to control the amplitude and frequency of spring vibrations. It cannot
support weight and has zero resilience. Therefore, damper is a better term technically to
describe the shock absorber.

Fig-3: shock absorbers

The shock absorbers are basically of two types the friction type and the hydraulic type. The
friction type has almost become obsolete due to its non predictable damping characteristics. The
principle of operation of hydraulic shock absorber is that when a piston forces the fluid in a
cylinder to pass through some hole a high resistance to the movement of piston is developed,
which provides the damping effect. The hydraulic type hasthe additional advantage that the
damping is proportional to the square of the speed, So for small vibrations, the damping is also
small, while for larger ones the damping becomes automatically more.

Wishbone type suspension:

Fig shows a diagrammatic sketch of wishbone type suspension with coil springs. The use of coil
springs in thefront axle suspension of cars is now almost universal.

22

It consists of upper and the lower wishbone arms pivoted to the frame member. The
spring is placed in betweenthe lower wishbone and the underside of the cross member. The
vehicle weight is transmitted from the bodyand the cross member to the coil spring through
which it goes to the lower wishbone member. A shockabsorber is placed inside the coil spring
and is attached to the cross member and to lower wishbone member.
The wishbone arms are like the chicken wishbone or letter V in shape because of which
the system is socalled. Because of this V shape, the wishbones not only position the wheels and
transmit the vehicle load to thesprings but these also resist acceleration, braking and cornering
(side) forces. The upper arms are shorter armsare shorter in length than the lower ones. This
helps to keep the wheel track constant, thereby avoiding the tyrescrub thus minimizing tyre wear.
However, small change in the camber angle does occur with such anarrangement.The wishbone
type is the most popular independent suspension system.

Fig-4: wishbone type suspension

Macpherson Strut type of suspension:

In this layout only lower wishbones are used. A strut containing shock absorber and the spring
carries also the stub axle on which the wheel is mounted. The wishbone is hinged to the cross

23

member and positions the wheel as well as resists accelerating, braking and side forces. This
system is simpler than double wishbone type described above and is also lighter, keeping the
unstrung weight lower. Further, the camber also does not change when the wheel moves up and
down. This type of suspension gives the maximum room in the engine compartment and is
therefore commonly used on front wheel drive cars.
In India this system has been used in Maruti (Suzuki) 800 cars. This type of suspension
with anti roll bar as employed in Volkswagen Jetta and Passat cars is shown in fig. this is claimed
t provide increased road safety, improve ride comfort and light and self stabilizing steering which
means that car continues along its chosen line,of travel when the brakes are applied even though
the road surface may vary.

Fig-5: Macpherson Strut type of suspension

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Rear Wheel Independent Suspension

Though the rear wheels are not to be steered, yet there is a considerable difficulty in the rear
wheel springing if the power has to be transmitted to the rear wheels. But even the rear wheel
independent springing is cominginto prominence because of its distinct advantages over the rigid
axle type.Fig shows one method of rear wheel independent suspension. Universal couplings A
and B keep the wheelvertical, while the sliding coupling C is required to maintain the wheel
track constant, thereby avoidingscrubbing of the tyres. This method has been used in the de Dion
type of axle.

Fig-6: Rear Wheel Independent Suspension

25

EXPERIMENT NO. 6
Aim:

To study and prepare report on the constructional details working principles of cooling

system.

Theory: Labeled diagram, construction details, working principle and operation of the engine
systems and sub systems.

Methods of cooling
Various methods used for cooling of automobile engines are
1 Air cooling
2 Water cooling

Air cooling
The basic principle involved in this method is to have current of air flowing continuously over
the heated metalsurface from where the heat is to be removed. The heat dissipated depends upon
following factors;
a) Surface area of metal into contact with air
b) Mass flow rate of air
c) Temperature difference between the heated surface and air
d) Conductivity of metal

26

Fig-1: Air cooling System

Advantages
1.

Air cooled engines are lighter because of the absence of the radiator, the cooling jackets

and thecoolant.
2. They can be operated in extreme climates where the water may freeze.
3. In certain areas where there is scarcity of cooling water, the air cooled engine is an
advantage.
4. Maintenance is easier because the problem of leakage is not there.
5. Air cooled engines get warmed up earlier than the water cooled engine

Disadvantages
1.

It is not easy to maintain even cooling all around the cylinder, so that the distortion of the
cylinders takeplace. This defect has been remedied sometimes by using fins parallel to
the cylinder axis. This is also helpfulwhere a number of cylinders in a row are to be

2.

cooled. However, this increases the overall engine length.

As the coefficient of heat transfer for air is less than that for water, there is less efficient
cooling in thiscase and as a result the highest useful compression ratio is lesser in the case

of air cooled engines than in thewater cooled ones.

3. The fan used is very bulky and absorbs a considerable portion of the engine power
(about 5%) to driveit.
4. Air cooled engines are more noisy, because of the absence of cooling water which acts as
5.

soundinsulator.
Some engine components may become inaccessible easily due to the guiding baffles and
cooling whichmakes the maintenance difficult.

27

Water cooling
In water cooling system, the cooling medium used is water. In this, the engine cylinders are
surrounded bywater jackets through which the cooling water flows. Heat flows from the cylinder
walls into water which goesto the radiator where it loses its heat to the air. Usually some
antifreeze is added to the cooling water, due towhich it is often referred to as coolant. Both these
terms have been used in this chapter, often meaning sameunless the context requires otherwise.
Water cooling systems are of two types;
1. Thermosyphon system
2. Pump circulation system

Fig-2: Water cooling System

Advantages
28

1.

As the circulation of coolant is maintained by natural convention only, the cooling is

rather slow.Therefore, to have adequate cooling, the capacity of the system has to be

2.

large.
Due to the quantity of coolant being large, it takes, more time for the engine to reach the

operatingtemperature.
3. Radiator header tank must be located higher than the top of the cylinder coolant jackets,
4.

which is nomore possible with the modern body styles.

Certain minimum level of coolant water must be maintained in the system. If the coolant
falls belowthat level, continuity of flow would break and the system would consequently
fail.

29

EXPERIMENT NO. 7
Aim:

To study and prepare report on the constructional details working principles of

lubrication system.

Systems of engine lubrication

The various systems adopted for the lubrication of automobile engine are
1.

Petrol system

Splash system
2. Pressure system
3. Dry sump system

Petrol system
This is used generally for small two stroke engines, e.g. in majority of scooter and motor cycle
engines. It is thesimplest of all types of engine lubrication systems. Certain amount of the
lubricating oil is mixed with thepetrol itself, the usual ratio being 2% to 3% of oil. If it is less,
there is danger of oil starvation or insufficientlubrication causing damage to the engine; if
however, it is more, there will be excessive carbon deposits in thecylinder head and the engine
will also give dark smoke.When the petrol mixture enters the crankcase, due to high
temperatures there, the petrol component vaporizesleaving a thin film of lubricating oil on the
crankcase, cylinder walls, crankshaft and bearings.The main requirements of lubricating oil for
two stroke engine are that it should readily mix with petrol andburn without leaving much
residue.

Splash system: This was employed for the engines of early motor cycles. It is one of the
cheapest methods of engine lubrication. A scoop is made in the lowest part of the connecting rod
and the oil is stored in the oil trough (fig.)it being pumped there from the crankcase oil sump.
When the engine runs the scoop causes the oil to splash on the cylinder walls each time it passes
30

through its BDC position. This affects the lubrication of engine walls, Gudgeon pin, main
crankshaft bearings, big end bearings etc.

Fig-1: Splash type lubrication System

Pressure system: This system is used almost universally in modern car engines. The splash
system though cheaper, is not suitable for automobile engines because of the absence of positive
lubrication. In the pressure system (fig) an oil pump takes the oil from the wet sump through a
strainer and delivers it through a filter to the main oil gallery at a pressure of 200 to 400 kPa. The
oil pressure is controlled by means of a pressure relief valve, situated in the filter unit or the
pump housing.

Dry sump system: This system is employed in some racing car engines for situations where
the vehicle has to be operated at verysteep angles, for example, sports cars, jeeps etc. if ordinary
pressure system of lubrication is used in such cases, the situations may arise when there is no oil
at the place where oil pump is installed. To avoid such instances, dry sump system is used
(fig)wherein two pumps, instead of one, are used. The scavenge pump A is installedin the
crankcase portion which is the lowest. It pumps oil to a separate reservoir B, from where the
pressurepump C pumps the oil through filter D, due to the cylinder bearings; a full pressure
31

system of lubrication isemployed. The oil pressure is maintained at 400-50 kPa for the main and
big end bearings while about 5- 100 kpa pressure is used for timing gears and cam shaft bearings
etc.

EXPERIMENT NO. 8
Aim: To study and prepare report on the constructional details working principles of operation
ingnition system

Theory:
An ignition system is a system for igniting a fuel-air mixture. Ignition systems are well known in
the field of internal combustion engines such as those used in petrol (gasoline) engines used to
power the majority of motor vehicles, but they are also used in many other applications such as
in oil-fired and gas-fired boilers, rocket engines, etc.The first ignition system to use an electric
spark was probably Alessandro Volta's toy electric pistol from the 1780s. Virtually all petrol
engines today use an electric spark for ignition. Diesel engines rely on fuel compression for
ignition, but usually also have glowplugs that preheat the combustion chamber to allow starting
of the engine in cold weather. Other engines may use a flame, or a heated tube, for ignition.

Magneto systems:
The simplest form of spark ignition is that using a magneto. The engine spins a magnet inside a
coil, or, in the earlier designs, a coil inside a fixed magnet, and also operates a contact breaker,
interrupting the current and causing the voltage to be increased sufficiently to jump a small gap.
The spark plugs are connected directly from the magneto output. Early magnetos had one coil,
with the contact breaker (sparking plug) inside the combustion chamber. In about 1902, Bosch
introduced a double-coil magneto, with a fixed sparking plug, and the contact breaker outside the
cylinder. Magnetos are not used in modern cars, but because they generate their own electricity
they are often found on piston-engined aircraft engines and small engines such as those found

32

in mopeds, lawnmowers, snowblowers, chainsaws, etc. where a battery-based electrical system is

not present for any combination of necessity, weight, cost, and reliability reasons.
Magnetos were used on the small engine's ancestor, the stationary "hit and miss" engine which
was used in the early twentieth century, on older gasoline or distillate farm tractors before battery
starting and lighting became common, and on aircraft piston engines. Magnetos were used in
these engines because their simplicity and self-contained operation was more reliable, and
because magnetos weighed less than having a battery and dynamo or alternator.
Aircraft engines usually have dual magnetos to provide redundancy in the event of a failure, and
to increase efficiency by thoroughly and quickly burning the fuel air mix from both sides towards
the center. The Wright brothers used a magneto invented in 1902 and built for them in 1903 by
Dayton, Ohio inventor, Vincent Groby Apple.[1] Some older automobiles had both a magneto
system and a battery actuated system (see below) running simultaneously to ensure proper
ignition under all conditions with the limited performance each system provided at the time. This
gave the benefits of easy starting (from the battery system) with reliable sparking at speed (from
the magneto).

Fig-1: Magneto ignition coil

Switchable systems:

33

The output of a magneto depends on the speed of the engine, and therefore starting can be
problematic. Some magnetos include an impulse system, which spins the magnet quickly at the
proper moment, making easier starting at slow cranking speeds. Some engines, such as aircraft
but also the Ford Model T, used a system which relied on non rechargeable dry cells, (similar to
a large flashlight battery, and which was not maintained by a charging system as on modern
automobiles) to start the engine or for starting and running at low speed. The operator would
manually switch the ignition over to magneto operation for high speed operation.
To provide high voltage for the spark from the low voltage batteries, a 'tickler' was used, which
was essentially a larger version of the once widespread electric buzzer. With this apparatus, the
direct current passes through an electromagnetic coil which pulls open a pair of contact points,
interrupting the current; the magnetic field collapses, the spring-loaded points close again, the
circuit is reestablished, and the cycle repeats rapidly. The rapidly collapsing magnetic field,
however, induces a high voltage across the coil which can only relieve itself by arcing across the
contact points; while in the case of the buzzer this is a problem as it causes the points
to oxidize and/or weld together, in the case of the ignition system this becomes the source of the
high voltage to operate the spark plugs.
In this mode of operation, the coil would "buzz" continuously, producing a constant train
of sparks. The entire apparatus was known as the 'Model T spark coil' (in contrast to the
modern ignition coil which is only the actual coil component of the system). Long after the
demise of the Model T as transportation they remained a popular self-contained source of high
voltage for electrical home experimenters, appearing in articles in magazines such asPopular
Mechanics and projects for school science fairs as late as the early 1960s. In the UK these
devices were commonly known as trembler coils and were popular in cars pre-1910, and also in
commercial vehicles with large engines until around 1925 to ease starting.
The Model T (built into the flywheel) differed from modern implementations by not
providing high voltage directly at the output; the maximum voltage produced was about 30 volts,
and therefore also had to be run through the spark coil to provide high enough voltage for
ignition, as described above, although the coil would not "buzz" continuously in this case, only
going through one cycle per spark. In either case, the low voltage was switched to the
34

appropriate spark plug by the 'timer' mounted on the front of the engine. This performed the
equivalent function to the modern distributor, although by directing the low voltage, not the high
voltage as for the distributor. The timing of the spark was adjustable by rotating this mechanism
through a lever mounted on the steering column. As the precise timing of the spark depends
on both the 'timer' and the trembler contacts within the coil, this is less consistent than the
breaker points of the later distributor. However for the low speed and the low compression of
such early engines, this imprecise timing was acceptable.

Fig-2: Switchable magneto ignition circuit with starting battery.

Battery and coil-operated ignition:

With the universal adoption of electrical starting for automobiles, and the availability of a
large battery to provide a constant source of electricity, magneto systems were abandoned for
systems which interrupted current at battery voltage, used an ignition coil (a transformer) to step
the voltage up to the needs of the ignition, and a distributor to route the ensuing pulse to the
correct spark plug at the correct time.

35

The first reliable battery operated ignition was developed by the Dayton Engineering
Laboratories Co. (Delco) and introduced in the 1910 Cadillac. This ignition was developed
by Charles Kettering and was a wonder in its day. It consisted of a single coil, points (the
switch), a capacitor and a distributor set up to allocate the spark from the ignition coil timed to
the correct cylinder. The coil was basically a transformer to step up the low battery voltage (6 or
12 V) to the high ignition voltage required to jump a spark plug gap.
The points allow the coil magnetic field to build and then, when the points are opened by
a cam arrangement, the magnetic field collapses and a large voltage (20 kV or greater) is
produced. The capacitor has two functions: 1) it absorbs the back EMF from the magnetic field
in the coil to minimize point contact burning and maximize point life; and 2) it forms a resonant
circuit with the ignition coil transferring further energy to the secondary side until the energy is
exhausted.[2] The Kettering system became the primary ignition system for many years in the
automotive industry due to its lower cost, higher reliability and relative simplicity.

Mechanically timed ignition:

Most four-stroke engines have used a mechanically timed electrical ignition system. The heart of
the system is the distributor. The distributor contains a rotating cam driven by the engine's drive,
a set of breaker points, a condenser, a rotor and a distributor cap. External to the distributor is
the ignition coil, the spark plugs and wires linking the distributor to the spark plugs and ignition
coil. (see diagram Below)
The system is powered by a lead-acid battery, which is charged by the car's electrical
system using a dynamo or alternator. The engine operates contact breaker points, which interrupt
the current to an induction coil (known as the ignition coil).
The ignition coil consists of two transformer windings sharing a common magnetic core
the primary and secondary windings. An alternating current in the primary induces alternating
magnetic field in the coil's core. Because the ignition coil's secondary has far more windings than
the primary, the coil is a step-up transformer which induces a much higher voltage across the
36

secondary windings. For an ignition coil, one end of windings of both the primary and secondary
are connected together. This common point is connected to the battery (usually through a currentlimiting ballast resistor). The other end of the primary is connected to the points within the
contact breaker. The other end of the secondary is connected, via the distributor cap and rotor, to
the spark plugs.

Fig-2: Distributor cap

Fig-3: Ignition Circuit Diagram - Mechanically Timed Ignition

37

The ignition firing sequence begins with the points (or contact breaker) closed. A steady charge
flows from the battery, through the current-limiting resistor, through the coil primary, across the
closed breaker points and finally back to the battery. This steady current produces a magnetic
field within the coil's core. This magnetic field forms the energy reservoir that will be used to
drive the ignition spark.
As the engine turns, so does the cam inside the distributor. The points ride on the cam so
that as the engine turns and reaches the top of the engine's compression cycle, a high point in the
cam causes the breaker points to open. This breaks the primary winding's circuit and abruptly
stops the current through the breaker points. Without the steady current through the points, the
magnetic field generated in the coil immediately and rapidly collapses. This change in the
magnetic field induces a high voltage in the coil's secondary windings.
At the same time, current exits the coil's primary winding and begins to charge up
the capacitor ("condenser") that lies across the now-open breaker points. This capacitor and the
coils primary windings form an oscillating LC circuit. This LC circuit produces a damped,
oscillating current which bounces energy between the capacitors electric field and the ignition
coils magnetic field. The oscillating current in the coils primary, which produces an oscillating
magnetic field in the coil, extends the high voltage pulse at the output of the secondary windings.
This high voltage thus continues beyond the time of the initial field collapse pulse. The
oscillation continues until the circuits energy is consumed.
The ignition coil's secondary windings are connected to the distributor cap. A
turning rotor, located on top of the breaker cam within the distributor cap, sequentially connects
the coil's secondary windings to one of the several wires leading to each cylinder's spark plug.
The extremely high voltage from the coil's secondary (typically 20,000 to 50,000 volts) causes a
spark to form across the gap of the spark plug. This, in turn, ignites the compressed air-fuel
mixture within the engine. It is the creation of this spark which consumes the energy that was
stored in the ignition coils magnetic field.

38

Some twin cylinder motorcycles and motor scooters had two contact points feeding twin coils
each

connected

directly

to

the

spark

plug

without

distributor;

e.g.

the BSA

Thunderbolt and Triumph Tigress.

High performance engines with eight or more cylinders that operate at high r.p.m. (such as
those used in motor racing) demand both a higher rate of spark and a higher spark energy than
the simple ignition circuit can provide. This problem is overcome by using either of these
adaptations:

Two complete sets of coils, breakers and condensers can be provided - one set for each
half of the engine, which is typically arranged in V-8 or V-12 configuration. Although the
two ignition system halves are electrically independent, they typically share a single
distributor which in this case contains two breakers driven by the rotating cam, and a rotor
with two isolated conducting planes for the two high voltage inputs.

A single breaker driven by a cam and a return spring is limited in spark rate by the onset
of contact bounce or float at high rpm. This limit can be overcome by substituting for the
breaker a pair of breakers that are connected electrically in series but spaced on opposite
sides of the cam so they are driven out of phase. Each breaker then switches at half the rate
of a single breaker and the "dwell" time for current buildup in the coil is maximized since it
is shared between the breakers. The Lamborghini V-12 engine has both these adaptations and
therefore uses two ignition coils and a single distributor that contains 4 contact breakers.
A distributor-based system is not greatly different from a magneto system except that more

separate elements are involved. There are also advantages to this arrangement. For example, the
position of the contact breaker points relative to the engine angle can be changed a small amount
dynamically,

allowing

the ignition

timing to

be

automatically

advanced

with

39

increasing revolutions per minute (RPM) or increased manifold vacuum, giving better efficiency
and performance.
However it is necessary to check periodically the maximum opening gap of the breaker(s),
using a feeler gauge, since this mechanical adjustment affects the "dwell" time during which the
coil charges, and breakers should be re-dressed or replaced when they have become pitted by
electric

arcing.

This

system

was

used

almost

universally until

the

late

1970s,

when electronic ignition systems started to appear.

Electronic ignition:
The disadvantage of the mechanical system is the use of breaker points to interrupt the lowvoltage high-current through the primary winding of the coil; the points are subject to
mechanical wear where they ride the cam to open and shut, as well as oxidation and burning at
the contact surfaces from the constant sparking. They require regular adjustment to compensate
for wear, and the opening of the contact breakers, which is responsible for spark timing, is
subject to mechanical variations.
In addition, the spark voltage is also dependent on contact effectiveness, and poor
sparking can lead to lower engine efficiency. A mechanical contact breaker system cannot control
an average ignition current of more than about 3 A while still giving a reasonable service life,
and this may limit the power of the spark and ultimate engine speed.

40

Fig-4: Example of a basic electronic ignition system

Electronic ignition (EI) solves these problems. In the initial systems, points were still used but
they handled only a low current which was used to control the high primary current through a
solid state switching system. Soon, however, even these contact breaker points were replaced by
an angular sensor of some kind - either optical, where a vaned rotor breaks a light beam, or more
commonly using a Hall effect sensor, which responds to a rotatingmagnet mounted on the
distributor shaft. The sensor output is shaped and processed by suitable circuitry, then used to
trigger a switching device such as a thyristor, which switches a large current through the coil.

41

EXPERIMENT NO. 9
Aim:

Study and Performance analysis of four stroke Diesel Engine

To determine:
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.
1.7.
1.8.
1.9.
1.10.

Brake Power
Fuel consumption
Specific fuel consumption
Brake thermal efficiency
Heat carried out by water from calorimeter
Heat carried away by engine jacket
Heat carried out by exhaust gases
Air consumption
Swept volume
Volumetric efficiency

Introduction:
A Diesel engine is almost the same as a petrol engine but it burns a different type of fuel.
Diesel engines have mainly been used in Lorries and buses because of their increased
power and their reliability. They tend to be noisy and smelly compared to a petrol engine
but are more economical to run.
In diesel engine the compression stroke only compresses air and not fuel. In the ignition
stroke compressed air is present with very high pressure and then fuel is injected into the
cylinder with the help of an injector, resulting in generating enormous heat, which then
ignites the fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber at that precise moment of
maximum pressure. There is no need of spark plug in a diesel engine. The compressed air
is hot enough to cause the fuel to explode. This is because a diesel engine has a far higher
compression ratio than does a petrol engine.

42

Theory
The Four Stroke Cycle
A four-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine in which the piston completes four
separate strokesintake, compression, power, and exhaustduring two separate
revolutions of the engine's crankshaft, and one single thermodynamic cycle.
1. INTAKE: this stroke of the piston begins at top dead center. The piston
descends from the top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, increasing
the volume of the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air is forced by atmospheric
(or greater) pressure into the cylinder through the intake port.
2. COMPRESSION: with both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston
returns to the top of the cylinder compressing the air or fuel-air mixture into
the cylinder head.
3. POWER: this is the start of the second revolution of the cycle. While the piston
is close to Top Dead Centre, the compressed airfuel mixture in a gasoline
engine is ignited, by a spark plug in gasoline engines, or which ignites due to
the heat generated by compression in a diesel engine. The resulting pressure
from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air mixture forces the piston back
down toward bottom dead centre.
4. EXHAUST: during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top
dead centre while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent fuelair mixture through the exhaust valve(s).

Description
Single Cylinder, Four Stroke, Diesel Engine Test rig with Rope Brake dynamometer
arrangement mainly consists of:
1. Loading arrangement (Rope Brake Dynamometer)
43

2. A Fuel Input Measuring Arrangement

3. Air intake measuring arrangement.
4. An arrangement for measuring the heat carried away by cooling water from
engine jacket.
5. An arrangement for measuring the heat carried away by cooling water from
exhaust gases.
6. A Control Panel
Loading Arrangement
A rope brake dynamometer arrangement with a brake drum coupled to the engine shaft
and provided with a coupling water arrangement and spring balances. The load can be
varied by increasing the rope tension on the brake drum with revolving the hand wheel
provided on the top of frame.
Fuel Input Measuring Arrangement
This arrangement consists of a fuel tank of suitable capacity mounted on a stand. The fuel
goes to the engine through a burette. The burette facilitates the measurement of fuel
consumption for a definite period with the help of stopwatch.
Air Intake Measuring Arrangement
It consists of an orifice, a diaphragm base manifold base manifold and a U- tube
manometer. With the help of orifice and manometer, the volume of the air sucked can be
calculated.
An arrangement for measuring the heat carried away by cooling water from engine
jacket
Suitable pipefitting is provided for circulating the cooling water into the engine water
jacket. For measuring the rate of flow of cooling water, a water meter is provided. With
these arrangements one can find the heat carried out by the cooling water. The

44

temperature of inlet and outlet water can be directly read from the digital temperature
indicator.
An arrangement for measuring the heat carried away by Exhaust gases:
It consists of exhaust gas calorimeter to measure the heat carried away by exhaust gases.
Exhaust gas calorimeter consists of a central tube and an outer jacket. Exhaust gases
passes through central tube and water is circulated in outer jacket to get the maximum
temperature difference of exhaust gases at inlet and outlet of calorimeter. The volume of
water circulation is measured with the help of water meter and stopwatch. Thermocouples
are provided to get the inlet and outlet temperature of exhaust gases and water circulated.
Experimental procedure:
1 Starting procedure
1.1 Close all the valves from V1 to V8
1.2 Fill oil in the oil sump of engine. It should be in between the marks provided
on the oil dipstick.
1.3 Fill the diesel in diesel tank.
1.4 Fill the manometer with water up to half of its height.
1.5 Fill the burette with the diesel by opening the valve V6, V5 ,V3.
1.6 Supply the fuel to the engine by opening the valves V4.
1.7 Switch on the main supply to the panel.
1.8 Connect water supply to the engine.
1.9 Connect the pipes from engine water outlet, calorimeter water outlet and brake
drum water outlet to drum.

45

1.10 Open the valve V1 and V2

1.11 Set a flow rate for engine cooling water by valve V1.
1.12 Set a flow rate for calorimeter cooling water by valve V2.
1.13 Note down the reading of sensor T3/T4.
1.14 Adjust the weight balance to zero.
1.15 Start the engine with the handle and let it run for 5 min at no load condition.
1.16 Partially open the valve V8 for brake drum cooling.
1.17 Apply load on engine with the help of spring balances.
1.18 Wait for 10 minutes so that temperature can stabilize.
1.19 Note down the reading of spring balances.
1.20 Note the R.P.M.
1.21 Note down the manometer reading.
1.22 Note down the temperature by D.T.I.
1.23 Close the valve V5 and note down the time to consume 10-20 ml of diesel by
stop watch.
1.24 Open the valve V5
1.25 Measure the flow rate of water through engine jacket with help of water
meter and stop watch for engine cooling.
1.26 Measure the flow rate of water through engine jacket with help of water
meter and stop watch for calorimeter cooling.
1.27 Repeat the experiment for different load.
46

2 Closing Procedure:
2.1 When the experiment is over remove load on engine by hand wheel of spring
balance.
2.2 Stop the engine.
2.3 Close the fuel supply by valve V4.
2.4 Close the cooling water supply to the engine and calorimeter after 10 minutes.
2.5 Open the valve V7 to drain the water from calorimeter.

Observation and Calculation:

1. Data:
Acceleration due to gravity g= 9.1m/sec2

47

2. Observation Data:

3. Calculations:

48

49

50

Precaution and Maintenance Instructions:

1 Always check the oil level in the engine before starting and make sure that
sufficient oil is present in the engine.
2 Never starts the engine at loaded condition.

51

3 Change engine oil after every 100 hours of total running or 6 months whichever
is earlier.
4 Open cold water supply before starting.
5 Fuel tank and fuel line should be clean and free from foreign particles.
6 If diesel tank was empty before filling the diesel, remove air trapped in fuel line
by opening the vent screw.

Troubleshooting:
1 If the Engine heats up, check the water supply to the engine jacket.
2 If engine does not start, check the fuel and fuel supply line, if air found in
pipeline, remove it.

52