Practice

Pregnancy and congenital heart disease

Anselm Uebing, Philip J Steer, Steve M Yentis, Michael A Gatzoulis

Congenital heart disease occurs in 0.8% of newborn

infants around the world. Advances in medical and
surgical treatments over the past decades has led to
more than 85% of these infants surviving to
adulthood.1 2 Most interventions, however, have not
been curative and about half of adults with congenital
heart disease face the prospect of further surgery,
arrhythmia,
heart
failure,
andif
managed
inappropriatelypremature death. The burden of
pregnancy represents a new challenge in women with
congenital heart disease.
In the United Kingdom about 250 000 adults have
congenital heart disease (also known as grown up
congenital heart disease (GUCH) patients), and this
number is growing.3 Half of these patients are women,
most of reproductive age. After suicide, cardiac disease
is now the leading cause of maternal death in the UK,
with most of these casualties having had congenital
heart disease.4 The medical profession should therefore be aware of the risks that women with congenital
heart disease face during pregnancy so that they can
be given adequate preconception counselling and
optimal care during pregnancy, delivery, and the postpartum period.57

Summary points
Cardiac disease is a leading cause of maternal
death in the UK (second only to suicide), and
most affected women have congenital heart
disease. The number of such cardiac patients at
risk is expected to grow
Timely pre-pregnancy counselling should be
offered to all women with congenital heart
disease to prevent avoidable pregnancy-related
risks and crisis management and allow patients to
plan their lives
Adequate care during pregnancy, delivery, and
the postpartum period requires a
multidisciplinary team approach with
cardiologists, obstetricians, and anaesthetists
Successful pregnancy is feasible for most women
with congenital heart disease at relatively low risk
when appropriate counselling and optimal care
are provided

Preconception counselling
Discussions about future pregnancies, family planning,
and contraception should begin in adolescence to prevent accidental and potentially dangerous pregnancies
in women with congenital heart disease. The impact of
heart disease on childbearing potential needs to be
explained clearly and sympathetically. Counselling has
to address how pregnancy may affect not just the
mother but also the fetus and the rest of the family (box
1). This allows women to make an informed choice
whether they wish to accept the risks associated with
pregnancy. The counselling should ideally be provided
in a joint clinic by an obstetrician with expertise in
heart disease and a cardiologist with special training in
adult congenital heart disease.
The risk for the mother
The risk for pregnant women with congenital heart
disease of having adverse cardiovascular eventssuch
as symptomatic arrhythmia, stroke, pulmonary
oedema, overt heart failure, or deathis determined by
the ability of their cardiovascular system to adapt to the
physiological changes of pregnancy (fig 1). Different
congenital conditions carry specific risks based on
their morphological features, previous operations, and
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current haemodynamic status (see table 1). One cannot

overemphasise the need for thorough assessment of
patients with congenital heart disease before pregnancy: this forms the basis for risk stratification, advice,
and decision making (box 2).
The risk to the fetus
Overall, there is a higher incidence of fetal and neonatal adverse eventsincluding intrauterine growth
restriction, premature birth, intracranial haemorrhage, and fetal lossin women with congenital heart
disease compared with the general population (box
3).10 This risk is highest in women with poor functional
class, cyanosis, and left heart obstruction to flow
(which restricts cardiac output and thus flow to the
placenta) and is amplified by any other obstetric risk
factors.811
Doctors should emphasise the need to optimise
both cardiac and general health of pregnant women

Adult Congenital
Heart Disease Unit,
Royal Brompton
and Harefield NHS
Trust and National
Heart and Lung
Institute at Imperial
College, London
SW3 6NP
Anselm Uebing
fellow in adult
congenital heart
disease
Michael A Gatzoulis
professor of
cardiology, congenital
heart disease
Academic
Department of
Obstetrics and
Gynaecology at
Chelsea and
Westminster
Hospital, Division
of Surgery,
Oncology,
Reproductive
Medicine and
Anaesthetics,
Faculty of Medicine,
Imperial College,
London
Philip J Steer
professor of obstetrics
and gynaecology
Magill Department
of Anaesthesia,
Intensive Care and
Pain Management,
Chelsea and
Westminster
Hospital, London
Steve M Yentis
consultant
anaesthetist
Correspondence to:
M A Gatzoulis
m.gatzoulis@rbh.
nthames.nhs.uk
BMJ 2006;332:4016

Extra references w1-w24 are on bmj.com

This article was posted on bmj.com on 13 February 2006:

http://bmj.com/cgi/doi/10.1136/bmj.38756.482882.DE

401

Practice

Box 2: Generic risk factors for women with congenital heart

disease during pregnancy
Poor functional class before pregnancy (New York Heart Association
functional classification > II) or cyanosis
Impaired systemic ventricular function (ejection fraction < 40%)
Left heart obstruction (mitral valve area < 2 cm2, aortic valve area < 1.5
cm2, left ventricular outflow tract peak blood pressure gradient (measured
by Doppler ultrasonography) > 30 mm Hg before pregnancy)
Preconception history of adverse cardiac events such as symptomatic
arrhythmia, stroke, transient ischaemic attack, and pulmonary oedema8 9
The expected cardiac event rate in pregnancies with 0, 1, or > 1 of these
risk factors is 5%, 27%, and 75%, respectively9 w1

Box 3: Generic risk factors for fetus of women with congenital

heart disease
Poor maternal functional class before pregnancy (New York Heart
Association functional classification > II) or maternal cyanosis
Left heart obstruction (mitral valve area < 2 cm2, aortic valve area < 1.5
cm2, left ventricular outflow tract peak blood pressure gradient > 30 mm
Hg before pregnancy)
Maternal age < 20 or > 35 years
Maternal smoking
Treatment with anticoagulants

Contraception and termination of pregnancy

Congenital heart disease is no bar to sexual activities.w2
Therefore, timely contraceptive counselling must be
part of womens healthcare plan to avoid unplanned
pregnancies and the need for termination (box 4).

Care during pregnancy

Antenatal care
The level of antenatal care and monitoring required
should be determined before pregnancy, or when this
is not possible as soon as pregnancy is confirmed. As
many general obstetricians will see only a few patients
with moderate to severe congenital heart disease, referral to a specialist centre for counselling is advisable.
Low risk patients (table 1) can then continue with their

3750

Plasma volume and heart rate

90

3500
3250
80

3000

Heart rate (beats/min)

Women should be given information on

Maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality associated with pregnancy
Risk of recurrence of congenital heart disease in the offspring
Maternal (and paternal, when the partner has congenital heart disease)
life expectancy
Level of surveillance, need for treatment, and anticipated hospitalisation
required during pregnancy
Contraception

Maternal (or paternal if the father has congenital

heart disease) life expectancy
Parental life expectancy should be discussed, as premature death, disability, or the need for major surgery will
obviously affect a couples ability to care for their child.
The best available information should be given so that
the couple can make an informed choice, bearing in
mind potential improvements in prognosis with
advances in cardiology. Fortunately, life expectancy is
excellent for most patients with congenital heart
disease, depending on their type of defect, previous
interventions, and current haemodynamic status.1

Plasma volume (ml)

Box 1: Counselling of women of reproductive age with congenital

heart disease

2750
Plasma volume
2500
Heart rate

Cardiac output and stroke volume

90
85
80

Stroke volume (ml)

70

2250
Cardiac output (l/min)

with heart disease. For women with good cardiovascular function without cyanosis, routine surveillance of
fetal growth should suffice. If clinical growth is unsatisfactory, growth should be checked with ultrasound
biometry. For women with cyanotic or stenotic lesions,
however, routine ultrasound biometry is justified. Close
assessment of fetal growth is also advisable in patients
with systemic hypertension or taking
blockers.12

75
70

The risk of congenital heart disease in offspring

For pregnant women with congenital heart disease, the
risk of their fetus having structural cardiac defects varies between about 3% and 12%, compared with a background risk of 0.8% for the general population (see
table 2).13 Specialised cardiac ultrasound screening
should therefore be offered. A fetal nuchal translucency measurement at 12-13 weeks gestation is a useful first screening test (the incidence of congenital
heart disease is only 1/1000 with normal nuchal thickness).14 For mothers with a strong family history of
congenital heart disease, a specialist fetal cardiac echo
scan at 14-16 weeks gestation should be offered to
detect moderate to severe congenital heart lesions, and
this may need repeating at 18-22 weeks.
402

65
4
Non- 4
pregnant

12

16

20

24

28

32

60
36 Postdelivery

Gestation (weeks)

Fig 1 Cardiovascular changes during pregnancy (adapted from

Thorne5 with permission). Plasma volume and cardiac output
increase steadily until the end of the second trimester, when cardiac
output reaches a plateau at 30-50% above pre-pregnancy levels.
Obstructive heart lesions (such as aortic or mitral valve stenosis),
which limit cardiac output, are particularly compromised during
pregnancy. The increase in blood volume may precipitate heart
failure. Cyanosis often worsens during pregnancy as pregnancy
related systemic vasodilation may lead to increased right to left
shunting.

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Practice
antenatal care locally, taking into consideration the
specialist recommendations.
Moderate to high risk patients should ideally be
cared for in a tertiary, multidisciplinary environment
where a 24 hour service of experienced obstetricians,
anaesthetists, cardiologists, cardiac surgeons, and neonatologists can be provided. Careful planning for antenatal
care and delivery is needed. The patient herself should
be part of the decision making and understand the
minimal risk approach. Some patients may benefit
from hospitalisation during the third trimester of
pregnancy for bed rest, closer cardiovascular monitoring, and (for cyanotic patients) oxygen therapy. Patients
admitted for bed rest should receive appropriate thromboprophylaxis with low molecular weight heparin.
Patients with Eisenmenger syndrome (or other
forms of pulmonary arterial hypertension), Marfan
syndrome with aortic root diameter > 4 cm, or severe

left side obstructive lesions should be told of the high

maternal morbidity and mortality associated with
pregnancy. If an unplanned pregnancy occurs, early
termination should be considered. If the patient
chooses to proceed with pregnancy, however, the need
for care in a tertiary, multidisciplinary unit cannot be
overemphasised.
Anticoagulation
Women with congenital heart disease often require anticoagulation to avoid thromboembolic events secondary
to chronic or recurrent arrhythmia, sluggish blood flow
(as present after Fontan-type palliative procedures), or
metallic heart valve prostheses. The risk of thromboembolism is increased sixfold during pregnancy and
11-fold in the puerperium; thus adequate anticoagulation is vital. However, this poses substantial problems for
both mother and fetus. Warfarin, an effective oral antico-

Table 1 Pregnancy related risks for women with congenital heart disease by specific lesion
Lesion

Exclude before pregnancy

Potential hazards

Recommended treatment during pregnancy and peripartum

Pulmonary arterial hypertension

Arrhythmias
Endocarditis (unoperated or residual
defect)

Antibiotic prophylaxis for unoperated or residual defect

Atrial septal defects

(unoperated)9 w8 w9

Pulmonary arterial hypertension

Ventricular dysfunction

Arrhythmias
Thromboembolic events

Thromboprophylaxis if bed rest is required

Consider low dose aspirin during pregnancy

Coarctation (repaired)w10

Recoarctation
Aneurysm formation at side of repair (MRI)
Associated lesion such as bicuspid aortic valve
(with or without aortic stenosis or aortic
regurgitation), ascending aortopathy
Systemic hypertension
Ventricular dysfunction

Pre-eclampsia (coarctation is the only

congenital heart lesion known as an
independent predictor of pre-eclampsia)
Aortic dissection
Congestive heart failure
Endarteritis

Blockers if necessary to control systemic blood pressure

Consider elective caesarean section before term in case of
aortic aneurysm formation or uncontrollable systemic
hypertension
Antibiotic prophylaxis

Tetralogy of Fallotw11 w12

Severe right ventricular outflow tract obstruction

Severe pulmonary regurgitation
Right ventricular dysfunction
DiGeorge syndrome

Arrhythmias
Right ventricular failure
Endocarditis

Consider preterm delivery in the rare case of right ventricular

failure
Antibiotic prophylaxis

Mitral stenosisw8

Severe stenosis
Pulmonary venous hypertension

Atrial fibrillation
Thromboembolic events
Pulmonary oedema

Blockers
Low dose aspirin
Consider bed rest during third trimester with additional
thromboprophylaxis
Antibiotic prophylaxis

Aortic stenosisw13 w14

Severe stenosis (peak pressure gradient on

Doppler ultrasonography >80 mm Hg, ST segment
depression, symptoms)
Left ventricular dysfunction

Arrhythmias
Angina
Endocarditis
Left ventricular failure

Bed rest during third trimester with thromboprophylaxis

Consider balloon aortic valvotomy (for severe symptomatic
valvar stenosis) or preterm caesarean section if cardiac
decompensation ensues (bypass surgery carries 20% risk of
fetal death)
Antibiotic prophylaxis

Systemic right ventricle (TGA

after atrial switch procedure,
ccTGA)w15-w18

Ventricular dysfunction
Severe systemic atrioventricular valve regurgitation
Bradyarrhythmias and tachyarrhythmias
Heart failure (NHYA >II)
Obstruction of venous pathways after atrial switch
as venous blood flow significantly increases during
pregnancy

Right ventricular dysfunction (potentially

persisting after pregnancy)
Heart failure
Arrhythmias
Thromboembolic events
Endocarditis

Regular monitoring of heart rhythm

Restore sinus rhythm in case of atrial flutter (cardioversion
usually effective and safe)
Alter afterload reduction therapy (stop ACE inhibitors;
consider
blockers)
Low dose aspirin (75 mg)
Antibiotic prophylaxis

Cyanotic lesions without

pulmonary hypertension11

Ventricular dysfunction

Haemorrhage (bleeding diathesis)

Thromboembolic events
Increased cyanosis
Heart failure
Endocarditis

Consider bed rest and oxygen supplementation to maintain

oxygen saturation and promote oxygen tissue delivery
(thromboprophylaxis with low molecular weight heparin)
Antibiotic prophylaxis

Fontan-type circulationw19

Ventricular dysfunction
Arrhythmias
Heart failure (NYHA >II)

Heart failure
Arrhythmias
Thromboembolic complications
Endocarditis

Consider anticoagulation with low molecular weight heparin

and aspirin throughout pregnancy
Maintain sufficient filling pressures and avoid dehydration
during delivery
Antibiotic prophylaxis

Marfan syndromew20

Aortic root dilatation >4 cm

Type A dissection of aorta

Blockers in all patients

Elective caesarean section when aortic root >45 mm (z35
weeks gestation)

Eisenmenger syndrome; other

pulmonary arterial
hypertensionw21 w22

Ventricular dysfunction
Arrhythmias

30-50% risk of death related to

pregnancy
Arrhythmia
Heart failure
Endocarditis for Eisenmenger syndrome

Therapeutic termination should be offered

If pregnancy continues, close cardiovascular monitoring,
early bed rest, pulmonary vasodilator therapy with
supplemental oxygen should be considered
Close monitoring necessary for 10 days postpartum

Low risk lesions

Ventricular septal defects9 w8 w9

Moderate risk lesions

High risk lesions

MRI=magnetic resonance imaging, NYHA=New York Heart Association functional classification, TGA=transposition of the great arteries, ccTGA=congenitally corrected TGA.

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Box 4: Contraception and termination of pregnancy for women

with congenital heart disease
Contraception
None of the methods available today is optimal for women with congenital
heart disease
Natural methods (abstinence, withdrawal, safe period) and barrier
methods (condoms, diaphragm) have unacceptably high failure rates and
cannot be recommended for women in whom pregnancy carries a
substantial risk
Combined oral contraceptives should be avoided in patients at risk of
thromboembolism (cyanosis impaired cardiac function, atrial arrhythmias,
Fontan-type circulation, and prosthetic heart valves) because of the
thrombophilic properties of oestrogen
Progestogen-only oral contraceptives (the mini pill) do not increase the
risk for thromboembolism and have few serious side effects (such as
irregular uterine bleeding), but the failure rate is higher than that of the
combined pill. Depot injections of progestogen are an alternative to the
mini pill, especially for adolescents for whom compliance is a concern
An intrauterine device impregnated with progestogen has been an
important advance in contraception for patients with high risk for
pregnancy related complications and thromboembolism. Such devices are
highly effective and safe: they reduce menstrual bleeding and carry a very
low risk of infection and ectopic pregnancy
Sterilisation should be considered for women in whom pregnancy would
carry a prohibitively high risk or when a couple decide that they never want
to have children. Sterilisation is permanent, although there is still a 1/200
pregnancy rate, and there are surgical risks associated with the procedure
Termination of pregnancy
The risk of termination of pregnancy increases with increasing
gestational age and should be performed as soon as the decision has been
made, preferably in the first trimester
Suction curettage under local anaesthesia is the preferred method
Medical abortion with oral antiprogesterones and vaginally administered
prostaglandins is probably contraindicated because the haemodynamic
effects (systemic vasodilation with hypotension, increasing cyanosis, heavy
bleeding, retention of products with infection) are unpredictable

agulant, crosses the placenta and thus carries major risks

for the fetus (fig 2).15 16 w3 In contrast, heparin does not
cross the placenta and is therefore safe for the fetus.
However, it is reported to be less effective for thromboprophylaxis, particularly in women with metallic valve
prostheses.17 18 Therefore, any advice on anticoagulant
treatment during pregnancy must weigh the risks and
benefits for both mother and fetus, and decisions
regarding treatment should be made jointly with the
patient and her partner.

Table 2 Risk of recurrent disease in offspring of parents with congenital heart disease
Mother affected
Lesion

Risk of transmission
(%)

Father affected
No of
cases

Risk of transmission
(%)

No of
cases

Atrioventricular septal defect

11.6

5/43

4.3

1/23

Aortic stenosis

8.0

36/248

3.8

18/469

Coarctation

6.3

14/222

3.0

9/299

Atrial septal defect

6.1

59/969

3.5

16/451

Ventricular septal defect

6.0

44/731

3.6

26/717

Pulmonary stenosis

5.3

24/453

3.5

14/396

Persistent ductus arteriosus

4.1

39/828

2.0

5/245

Tetralogy of Fallot

2.0

6/301

1.4

5/362

Total

5.8

222/3795

3.1

93/2961

Data from Nora 1994,13 a meta-analysis of 13 studies undertaken between 1969 and 1994. Recurrence risk
largely depends on the type of the lesion, the sex of the parent affected, and the family history of congenital
heart disease if present.13 w6 w7 For lesions with autosomal dominant inheritance (DiGeorge, Marfan, and
Noonans syndromes), the risk for recurrence of congenital heart disease can be as high as 50%.

404

Ideally, women of reproductive age with valvular

heart disease who are undergoing surgery should have
tissue rather than metallic prostheses to avoid the need
for anticoagulation during future pregnancies. Anticoagulation has implications for analgesic or anaesthetic
options for delivery, since epidural or spinal techniques
may carry a risk of intraspinal bleeding depending on
the dose and timing of anticoagulant treatment.
Cardiac drugs in pregnancy
Most commonly used cardiovascular drugs for patients
with heart disease cross the placenta and expose the
fetus to their pharmacological effects. Some drugs also
enter breast milk and may affect the neonate and infant.
Although many drugs routinely used in pregnancy are
relatively safe, the benefits and risks for mother and fetus
have to be weighted carefully (box 5).21 22 w4

Delivery and the postpartum period

Labour and delivery must be planned carefully and
well in advance. Ideally, decisions about timing and
mode of delivery should be agreed after a multidisciplinary case discussion including the patient. These decisions must be communicated appropriately to the
patient and to the tertiary and local healthcare teams.
In our practice, we copy the notes, all investigations,
and the recommended delivery plan to the patient.

Box 5: Safety profiles of cardiac drugs in

pregnancy
The lowest possible effective dose should be used, and
a single drug regimen should be aimed for. For more
detail see references21 22 w4
Relatively safe
Adenosine
Amiloride

BlockersClose monitoring is essential, however,
because they may affect fetal growth and may blunt
the fetal heart rate response under hypoxic conditions
Calcium channel blockers
Digoxin
Flecainide
Heparin
Lidocaine
Mexiletine
Procainamide
Quinidine
Not safe
Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors,
angiotensin-II receptor antagonistsRisk of neonatal
renal failure and hypotension, renal tubular
dysgenesis, intrauterine growth restriction, decreased
skull ossification
WarfarinRisk of skeletal defects, abnormalities of
the central nervous system, intracranial haemorrhage
AmiodaroneMay be used in special circumstances,
but risk of hypothyroidism and potential brain damage
PhenytoinRisk of heart defects, intrauterine
growth restriction, orofacial abnormalities
SpironolactonePossible risk of anomalies of the
external genitalia (animal studies only). If potassium
sparing diuretics are needed, amiloride is preferable

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In principle, vaginal delivery carries a lower risk of
complications for both the mother and the fetus. Compared with caesarean section, it causes smaller shifts in
blood volume, less haemorrhage, fewer clotting
complications, and fewer infections.23 However, prolonged and difficult labour should be avoided, and
detailed continuous monitoring of the mother and
fetus is mandatory.
The principle is to manage the stress of labour in
such a way that it does not exceed the womans capacity
to cope with it. In this regard, early epidural analgesia
with a cardiostable drug at low dose is important. Good
regional analgesia helps to avoid further increases in
cardiac output associated with contractions and allows
instrumental delivery or careful extension should anaesthesia for caesarean section be required.24 Labour
should not be induced unless for obstetric indications or
because of developing cardiovascular compromise.
Spontaneous labour is usually quicker and carries a
higher chance of a successful delivery than induced
labour. The threshold for assisted delivery either by
vacuum extraction or forceps should be low in order to
avoid a prolonged second stage of labour.23
Maternal monitoring during labour should be individualised and usually includes continuous electrocardiographic monitoring and pulse oximetry, and
occasionally invasive blood pressure recording. All
women with congenital heart disease should be
warned against lying flat during pregnancy, and
especially labour, to avoid aortocaval compression (left
decubitus position is the position of choice). Endocarditis prophylaxis should be considered for most
patients with congenital heart disease irrespective of
the mode of delivery.
The early postpartum period is also potentially
dangerous. With uterine contraction, there is transfusion of extra blood into the circulation, which can
cause volume overload. Conversely, there is a risk of
uterine haemorrhage with substantial loss of blood
volume, potentially leading to haemodynamic compromise. Oxytocic drugs such as oxytocin and
ergometrine that improve uterine contraction have
also major haemodynamic effects. Oxytocin can
induce vasodilatation and arterial hypotension, and
ergometrine can cause arterial hypertension. These
adverse cardiovascular effects may be catastrophic if
the drugs are given rapidly or in high dose (any oxytocic drug should be given as a continuous infusion at
the lowest effective rate). Preparations containing a
combination of oxytocin and ergometrine have
unpredictable effects on the circulatory system and
should be avoided.25 Management of the early
postpartum period should aim to avoid fluctuations in
blood volume and blood pressure as much as
possible.23 25
Ongoing monitoring is necessary in high risk
patients during the puerperium. This is particularly so
for patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension,
where the risk of maternal death remains high for up
to 10 days.w5 Thromboprophylaxis with low molecular
weight heparin is of major importance before and after
delivery and should continue until the mother is fully
mobilised. Warfarin is safe during breast feeding and
can be reinstated 6-12 hours after delivery.
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Assess mothers thromboembolic risk

Discuss anticoagulation options and balancing safety for mother versus safety for fetus

High risk
First generation prosthetic valve
(such as Starr Edwards, Bjork-Shiley)
Mechanical valve in mitral position
Multiple mechanical valves

Relatively low risk

Second generation prosthetic valve
(such as St Jude Medical, Medtronic-Hall)
Mechanical valve in aortic position
Chronic atrial fibrillation or flutter

Maternal safety
emphasised
Warfarin for 36 weeks
Then UFH or LMWH

Maternal safety
emphasised
UFH or LMWH for 12
weeks
Then warfarin to 36th
week
Then UFH or LMWH

Fetal safety
emphasised
UFH or LMWH for 12
weeks
Then warfarin to 36th
week
Then UFH or LMWH

Fetal safety
emphasised
UFH or LMWH

Consider low-dose aspirin (75 mg) until 35th week in all women who need anticoagulation
Warfarin (international normalised ratio 3.0-4.5) Associated with embryopathy in 6.4% of live
births and increases risk of fetal bleeding and death.15 w3 Adverse effects are probably dose
dependent (less frequent if warfarin dose <5 mg/day)16
UFH = Adjusted dose unfractionated heparin Full treatment dose given twice daily subcutaneously
in doses adjusted to achieve activated partial thromboplastin time prolongation of 2.5-3.5xcontrol19
LMWH = Adjusted dose low molecular weight heparin Full treatment dose of LMWH given twice
daily to keep a 4 hour post-injection anti-Xa heparin concentration of 1.0-1.2 U/ml
Failures of heparin prophylaxis in women with metallic valve prostheses might be due to
inadequate dose and monitoring of drug. LMWH and UFH are both reasonable options if monitored
and dose adjusted accordingly19
Aspirin has been used extensively for obstetric indications and is safe in pregnancy. It can be used
either in isolation or combined with anticoagulant agents but should be stopped by 35 weeks
gestation because of peripartum effects on fetusw23 w24

Fig 2 Proposed algorithm for anticoagulation therapy during pregnancy for women with
congenital heart disease (modified from Elkayam20)

Summary
Although pregnancy can pose substantial risks for
women with congenital heart disease, it remains
feasible for most with suitable medical support.
Pre-pregnancy counselling and multidisciplinary care
including cardiologists, obstetricians, and anaesthetists
are essential to help these women have their own children at the minimal possible risk and, thus, allow them
to reach their full life potential.
Competing interests: None declared.
1

2
3
4

5
6

Nieminen HP, Jokinen EV, Sairanen HI. Late results of pediatric cardiac
surgery in Finland: a population-based study with 96% follow-up.
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Task Force on the Management of Cardiovascular Diseases During Pregnancy of the European Society of Cardiology. Expert consensus
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Additional educational resources

Grown Up Congenital Heart (GUCH) Patients Association
(www.guch.org.uk)Offers valuable information for patients regarding
pregnancy and other issues relevant to congenital heart disease
ISACCD, International Society for Adult Congenital Cardiac Disease
(www.isaccd.org)Offers useful information for professionals and patients
alike and provides relevant links to other websites
Canadian Adult Congenital Heart Network (www.cachnet.org)Gives
detailed information about the management of patients with congenital
heart disease and risks related to pregnancy

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Practice
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(Accepted 11 January 2006)

Interactive case report

A 28 year old postpartum woman with right sided chest
discomfort: case presentation
Girish Dwivedi, Sajad Ahmed Hayat, Andonis G Violaris, Roxy Senior
Department of
Cardiovascular
Medicine, Northwick
Park Hospital,
Harrow, Middlesex,
HA1 3UJ
Girish Dwivedi
registrar in cardiology
Sajad Ahmed Hayat
registrar in cardiology
Andonis G Violaris
consultant cardiologist
Roxy Senior
consultant cardiologist
Correspondence to:
R Senior
[email protected]
BMJ 2006;332:406

Mrs Patel, a 28 year old woman with a 7 month old

baby, presented to the accident and emergency department with a severe episode of right sided chest pain.
The pain, which had started two months ago, was well
localised over the right chest wall with no radiation.
However, it was precipitated by exertion, particularly
while pushing her daughters pushchair and was limiting her recreational activities with her child. The pain
was not exacerbated by deep inspiration, coughing, or
twisting, and she had no associated symptoms of dyspnoea, palpitations, or dizziness. She had consulted her
general practitioner and was being treated for a
presumed musculoskeletal condition.
Her coronary artery disease risk factors included
diabetes mellitus, diagnosed three years ago, which was
well controlled with oral treatment (glycated haemoglobin 7.5%). She also had hypothyroidism and was
taking 25 g levothyroxine daily. She had never
smoked and had no history of hypertension; her lipid
status was unknown.

aVR

V1

V4

II

aVL

V2

V5

Questions
1 What would be your initial management of Mrs
Patel?
2 What further investigations would you suggest?
3 What would you tell Mrs Patel and her family at
this stage?
Please respond through bmj.com, remembering that
Mrs Patel is a real patient and that she and her carers
will be reading the responses

She was obese (body mass index 34.6) but

otherwise in good health. Her pulse was 70 beats per
minute and regular and her blood pressure was
130/70 mm Hg. All peripheral pulses were palpable
with no audible bruits. She had normal heart sounds
with no murmurs, and her chest was clear with no
adventitious sounds. There were no breast lumps or
tenderness. Abdominal examination found no abnormality. Her resting electrocardiogram showed sinus
rhythm with poor R wave progression in the anterior
leads. Inverted and biphasic T waves were noted in
leads V2 and V3 (figure).
Competing interests: None declared.

III

aVF

V3

V6

This is the first of a three part case report where we

invite readers to take part in considering the diagnosis
and management of a case using the rapid response
feature on bmj.com. Next week we will report the case
progression and in four weeks time we will report the
outcome and summarise the responses

Mrs Patels resting electrocardiogram

406

BMJ VOLUME 332

18 FEBRUARY 2006

bmj.com