God

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God the Father by Ludovico Mazzolino (1480 c. 1528)

This article is about the concept "God" in the context of monotheism andhenotheism. For the general
concept of "a god", see Deity. For God in specific religions, see an index of pages beginning in "God
in". For discussion of the existence of God, see Existence of God. For other uses, see God
(disambiguation).
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God
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In monotheism and henotheism, God is conceived as the Supreme Being and principal object
of faith.[1] The concept of God as described by theologianscommonly includes the attributes
of omniscience (infinite knowledge), omnipotence(unlimited power), omnipresence (present
everywhere), omnibenevolence (perfect goodness), divine simplicity, and eternal and necessary
existence. In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, while in deism, God is the
creator, but not the sustainer, of the universe. Monotheism is the belief in the existence of one God
or in the oneness of God. In pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is purported not
to exist, while deemed unknown or unknowable within the context ofagnosticism. God has also been
conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), apersonal being, the source of all moral obligation, and
the "greatest conceivable existent".[1] Many notable medieval philosophers and modern
philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God.[2]
There are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about
God's identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era ofAtenism, possibly the earliest recorded
monotheistic religion, this deity was called Aten,[3] premised on being the one "true" Supreme Being
and Creator of the Universe.[4] In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, "He Who Is," "I Am that I Am", and
the tetragrammaton YHWH are used as names of God, while Yahweh, andJehovah are sometimes
used in Christianity as vocalizations of YHWH. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the
titular names Elohim or Adonai, the latter of which is believed by some scholars to descend from the
Egyptian Aten.[5][6][7][8][9] In Islam, the name Allah, "Al-El," or "Al-Elah" ("the God") is used, while
Muslims also have a multitude of titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered
a monistic deity.[10] Other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Bah'
Faith,[11]Waheguru in Sikhism,[12] and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism.[13]
The many different conceptions of God, and competing claims as to God's characteristics, aims, and
actions, have led to the development of ideas of omnitheism, pandeism,[14][15] or a perennial
philosophy, which postulates that there is one underlying theological truth, of which all religions
express a partial understanding, and as to which "the devout in the various great world religions are
in fact worshipping that one God, but through different, overlapping concepts or mental images of
him."[16]
Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology and usage

2 General conceptions
o 2.1 Oneness
o 2.2 Theism, deism and pantheism
o 2.3 Other concepts
3 Non-theistic views of God
o 3.1 Anthropomorphism
4 Existence of God
5 Specific attributes
o 5.1 Names
o 5.2 Gender
o 5.3 Relationship with creation
6 Theological approaches
7 Distribution of belief in God
8 See also
9 References

10 Further reading
11 External links

Etymology and usage

Detail of Sistine Chapelfresco Creation of the Sun and Moon by Michelangelo (c. 1512), a well-known example of the
depiction of God the Father in Western art

Main article: God (word)

The earliest written form of the Germanic word God (always, in this usage, capitalized[17]) comes from
the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus. The English word itself is derived from the ProtoGermanic * uan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * hu-t-mwas likely based on the
root * hau()-, which meant either "to call" or "to invoke".[18] The Germanic words for God were
originally neuterapplying to both gendersbut during the process of the Christianization of
the Germanic peoples from their indigenous Germanic paganism, the words became a masculine
syntactic form.[19]
In the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between
monotheistic "God" and "gods" in polytheism.[20][21] The English word God and its counterparts in
other languages are normally used for any and all conceptions and, in spite of significant differences
between religions, the term remains an English translation common to all. The same holds for
Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, thetetragrammaton YHWH, in origin
the name of an Edomite or Midianite deity, Yahweh. In many translations of the Bible, when the
word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the
tetragrammaton.[22] Allh (Arabic: ) is the Arabic term with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic
speaking Christians and Jews meaning "The God" (with a capital G), while "ilh" (Arabic: ) is the
term used for a deity or a god in general.[23][24][25] God may also be given a proper name in
monotheistic currents of Hinduism which emphasize the personal nature of God, with early
references to his name asKrishna-Vasudeva in Bhagavata or later Vishnu and Hari.[26]

General conceptions
Main article: Conceptions of God
There is no clear consensus on the nature of God.[27] The Abrahamic conceptions of God include
the monotheistic definition of God in Judaism, the trinitarian view of Christians, and the Islamic
concept of God. The dharmic religions differ in their view of the divine: views of God in
Hinduism vary by region, sect, and caste, ranging from monotheistic to polytheistic to atheistic.
Divinity was recognized by the historical Buddha, particularly akra and Brahma. However, other

sentient beings, including gods, can at best only play a supportive role in one's personal path to
salvation. Conceptions of God in the latter developments of the Mahayana tradition give a more
prominent place to notions of the divine.[citation needed]

Oneness
Main articles: Monotheism and Henotheism

The Trinity is the belief in Christianity that God is one God in three persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus),
and God the Holy Spirit

Monotheists hold that there is only one god, and may claim that the one true god is worshiped in
different religions under different names. The view that all theists actually worship the same god,
whether they know it or not, is especially emphasized in Hinduism[28] and Sikhism.[29]
In Christianity, the doctrine of the Trinity describes God as one God in three persons. The Trinity is
composed of God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God the Holy Spirit.[30]
Islam's most fundamental concept is tawhd (meaning "oneness" or "uniqueness"). God is described
in the Qur'an as: "Say: He is Allah, the One and Only; Allah, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not,
nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."[31][32] Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of
the Trinity and divinity ofJesus, comparing it to polytheism. In Islam, God is beyond all
comprehension or equal and does not resemble any of his creations in any way. Thus, Muslims are
noticonodules, and are not expected to visualize God.[33]
Henotheism is the belief and worship of a single god while accepting the existence or possible
existence of other deities.[34]

Theism, deism and pantheism

Main articles: Theism, Deism and Pantheism
Theism generally holds that God exists realistically, objectively, and independently of human
thought; that God created and sustains everything; that God is omnipotent and eternal; and that God
is personal and interacting with the universe through, for example, religious experience and the
prayers of humans.[35] Theism holds that God is both transcendent and immanent; thus, God is
simultaneously infinite and in some way present in the affairs of the world.[36] Not all theists subscribe
to all the above propositions, but they usually subscribe to one or more of them (see, by way of
comparison, family resemblance).[35]Catholic theology holds that God is infinitely simple and is not
involuntarily subject to time. Most theists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent,
although this belief raises questions about God's responsibility for evil and suffering in the world.
Some theists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence, omniscience, or
benevolence. Open Theism, by contrast, asserts that, due to the nature of time, God's omniscience
does not mean the deity can predict the future. Theism is sometimes used to refer in general to any
belief in a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.[37][38]

Deism holds that God is wholly transcendent: God exists, but does not intervene in the world beyond
what was necessary to create it.[36] In this view, God is not anthropomorphic and does not literally
answer prayers or cause miracles to occur. Common in Deism is a belief that God has no interest in
humanity and may not even be aware of humanity. Pandeism andPanendeism, respectively,
combine Deism with the Pantheistic or Panentheistic beliefs discussed below.[15][39][40] Pandeism is
proposed to explain as to Deism why God would create a universe and then abandon it,[41] and as to
Pantheism, the origin and purpose of the universe.[41][42]
Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the universe is God, whereas Panentheism holds that
God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe.[citation needed] It is also the view of the Liberal Catholic
Church, Theosophy, some views of Hinduism except Vaishnavism, which believes in panentheism,
Sikhism, some divisions of Neopaganism and Taoism, along with many varying denominations and
individuals within denominations. Kabbalah, Jewish mysticism, paints a pantheistic/panentheistic
view of God which has wide acceptance in Hasidic Judaism, particularly from their founder The
Baal Shem Tov but only as an addition to the Jewish view of a personal god, not in the original
pantheistic sense that denies or limits persona to God.[citation needed]

Other concepts
Dystheism, which is related to theodicy, is a form of theism which holds that God is either not wholly
good or is fully malevolent as a consequence of the problem of evil. One such example comes
from Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov, in which Ivan Karamazov rejects God on the grounds
that he allows children to suffer.[43] Another example would be Theistic Satanism.[citation needed]
In modern times, some more abstract concepts have been developed, such as process
theology and open theism. The contemporaneous French philosopher Michel Henry has however
proposed a phenomenological approach and definition of God as phenomenological essence
of Life.[44]
God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being, the source of
all moral obligation, and the "greatest conceivable existent".[1] These attributes were all supported to
varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christian andMuslim theologian philosophers,
including Maimonides,[45] Augustine of Hippo,[45] and Al-Ghazali,[2] respectively.

Non-theistic views of God

See also: Evolutionary origin of religions and Evolutionary psychology of religion
Nontheism holds that the universe can be explained without any reference to the supernatural, or to
a supernatural being. Some non-theists avoid the concept of God, whilst accepting that it is
significant to many; other non-theists understand God as a symbol of human values and aspirations.
The nineteenth-century English atheist Charles Bradlaugh declared that he refused to say "There is
no God", because "the word 'God' is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct affirmation";[46] he
said more specifically that he disbelieved in the Christian God. Stephen Jay Gould proposed an
approach dividing the world of philosophy into what he called "non-overlapping magisteria" (NOMA).
In this view, questions of the supernatural, such as those relating to the existence and nature of
God, are non-empirical and are the proper domain of theology. The methods of science should then
be used to answer any empirical question about the natural world, and theology should be used to
answer questions about ultimate meaning and moral value. In this view, the perceived lack of any
empirical footprint from the magisterium of the supernatural onto natural events makes science the
sole player in the natural world.[47]
Another view, advanced by Richard Dawkins, is that the existence of God is an empirical question,
on the grounds that "a universe with a god would be a completely different kind of universe from one
without, and it would be a scientific difference."[48] Carl Sagan argued that the doctrine of a Creator of
the Universe was difficult to prove or disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that
could disprove the existence of a Creator would be the discovery that the universe is infinitely old.[49]

Stephen Hawking and co-author Leonard Mlodinow state in their book, The Grand Design, that it is
reasonable to ask who or what created the universe, but if the answer is God, then the question has
merely been deflected to that of who created God. Both authors claim however, that it is possible to
answer these questions purely within the realm of science, and without invoking any divine beings.[50]

Anthropomorphism

Depiction of God in the Catholic Church, Latin America

Main article: Anthropomorphism

Pascal Boyer argues that while there is a wide array of supernatural concepts found around the
world, in general, supernatural beings tend to behave much like people. The construction of gods
and spirits like persons is one of the best known traits of religion. He cites examples fromGreek
mythology, which is, in his opinion, more like a modern soap opera than other religious
systems.[51] Bertrand du Castel and Timothy Jurgensen demonstrate through formalization that
Boyer's explanatory model matches physics' epistemology in positing not directly observable entities
as intermediaries.[52] Anthropologist Stewart Guthrie contends that people project human features
onto non-human aspects of the world because it makes those aspects more familiar. Sigmund
Freud also suggested that god concepts are projections of one's father.[53][not in citation given]
Likewise, mile Durkheim was one of the earliest to suggest that gods represent an extension of
human social life to include supernatural beings. In line with this reasoning, psychologist Matt
Rossano contends that when humans began living in larger groups, they may have created gods as
a means of enforcing morality. In small groups, morality can be enforced by social forces such as
gossip or reputation. However, it is much harder to enforce morality using social forces in much
larger groups. Rossano indicates that by including ever-watchful gods and spirits, humans
discovered an effective strategy for restraining selfishness and building more cooperative groups.[54]

Existence of God
Main article: Existence of God

St. Thomas Aquinassummarized five arguments which he believed were proof for the existence of God

Countless arguments have been proposed in attempt to prove the existence of God.[55] Some of the
most notable arguments are the Five Ways of Aquinas, the Argument from Desireproposed by C.S.
Lewis, and the Ontological Argument formulated both by St. Anselm andDescartes.[56] Even
among theists, these proofs are debated, and some, such as the Ontological Argument, are highly
controversial. Aquinas spends a section of his treatise on God refuting St. Anselm's proof.[57]
St. Anselm's approach was to define God as, "that than which nothing greater can be conceived".
Famed pantheist philosopher Baruch Spinoza would later carry this idea to its extreme: By God I
understand a being absolutely infinite, i.e., a substance consisting of infinite attributes, of which each
one expresses an eternal and infinite essence. For Spinoza, the whole of the natural universe is
made of one substance, God, or its equivalent, Nature.[58] His proof for the existence of God was a
variation of the Ontological argument.[59]
Some theologians, such as the scientist and theologian A.E. McGrath, argue that the existence of
God is not a question that can be answered using the scientific method.[60][61] AgnosticStephen Jay
Gould argues that science and religion are not in conflict and do not overlap.[62]
There are many philosophical issues concerning the existence of God. Some definitions of God are
nonspecific, while others can be self-contradictory. Arguments for the existence of God typically
include metaphysical, empirical, inductive, and subjective types, while others revolve around the
order and complexity in the world and perceived holes in evolutionary theory.
Arguments against the existence of God typically include empirical, deductive, and inductive types.
Conclusions reached include views that: "God does not exist" (strong atheism); "God almost
certainly does not exist"[48] (de facto atheism[63]); "no one knows whether God exists" (agnosticism[64]);
"God exists, but this cannot be proven or disproven" (weak theism); and that "God exists and this
can be proven" (strong theism). There are numerous variations on these positions.[citation needed]

Specific attributes
Different religious traditions assign differing (though often similar) attributes and characteristics to
God, including expansive powers and abilities, psychological characteristics, gender characteristics,
and preferred nomenclature. The assignment of these attributes often differs according to
the conceptions of God in the culture from which they arise. For example,attributes of God in
Christianity, attributes of God in Islam, and the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy in Judaism share certain
similarities arising from their common roots.

Names
Main article: Names of God

The 99 Names of God in Islam, engraved into the ceiling of the Grand Mosque of Kuwait

Throughout the Hebrew and Christian Bibles there are many names for God. One of them is Elohim.
Another one is El Shaddai, meaning God Almighty.[65] A third notable name is El Elyon, which
means The Most High God.[66]
God is described and referred in the Quran and hadith by certain names or attributes, the most
common being Al-Rahman, meaning "Most Compassionate" andAl-Rahim, meaning "Most Merciful"
(See Names of God in Islam).[67]
Vaishnavism, a tradition in Hinduism, has list of titles and names of Krishna.

Gender
Main article: Gender of God
The gender of God can be viewed as a literal or as an allegorical aspect of a deitywho, in Classical
western philosophy, transcends bodily form.[68][69] In polytheistic religions, the gods are more likely to
have literal sexual genders, allowing them to interact with each other and with humans in a sexual
way. In most monotheisticreligions, there is no comparable being for God to relate to in a literal
gender-based way. Thus, in Classical western philosophy the gender of this one-and-only deity is
most likely to be an analogical statement of how humans and God address, and relate to, each
other. Namely, God is seen as begetter of the world and revelation which corresponds to the active
(as opposed to feminine receptive) role in sexual intercourse.[70]
God is usually characterised as male in Biblical sources, except: female in Genesis 1:2627,[71][72] Psalm 123:2-3, andLuke 15:8-10; a mother in Hosea 11:3-4, Deuteronomy 32:18, Isaiah
66:13, Isaiah 49:15, Isaiah 42:14, Psalm 131:2; a mother eagle in Deuteronomy 32:11-12; and a
mother hen in Matthew 23:37 and Luke 13:34.

Relationship with creation

See also: Creator deity, Prayer and Worship

God the Father by Cima da Conegliano, c. 1515

Prayer plays a significant role among many believers. Muslims believe that thepurpose of
existence is to worship God.[73][74] He is viewed as a personal God and there are no intermediaries,
such as clergy, to contact God. Prayer often also includes supplication and asking forgiveness. God
is often believed to be forgiving. For example, a hadith states God would replace a sinless people
with one who sinned but still asked repentance.[75] Christian theologian Alister McGrath writes that
there are good reasons to suggest that a "personal god" is integral to the Christian outlook, but that
one has to understand it is an analogy. "To say that God is like a person is to affirm the divine ability
and willingness to relate to others. This does not imply that God is human, or located at a specific
point in the universe."[76]
Adherents of different religions generally disagree as to how to best worship God and what is God's
plan for mankind, if there is one. There are different approaches to reconciling the contradictory
claims of monotheistic religions. One view is taken by exclusivists, who believe they are the chosen
people or have exclusive access to absolute truth, generally through revelation or encounter with the
Divine, which adherents of other religions do not. Another view is religious pluralism. A pluralist
typically believes that his religion is the right one, but does not deny the partial truth of other
religions. An example of a pluralist view in Christianity is supersessionism, i.e., the belief that one's
religion is the fulfillment of previous religions. A third approach is relativistic inclusivism, where
everybody is seen as equally right; an example being universalism: the doctrine that salvation is
eventually available for everyone. A fourth approach is syncretism, mixing different elements from
different religions. An example of syncretism is the New Age movement.

Theological approaches
Theologians and philosophers have ascribed a number of attributes to God,
including omniscience, omnipotence,omnipresence, perfect goodness, divine simplicity,
and eternal and necessary existence. God has been described asincorporeal, a personal being, the
source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable being existent.[1] These attributes were all
claimed to varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars, including St
Augustine,[45]Al-Ghazali,[77] and Maimonides.[45]
Many medieval philosophers developed arguments for the existence of God,[2] while attempting to
comprehend the precise implications of God's attributes. Reconciling some of those attributes
generated important philosophical problems and debates. For example, God's omniscience may
seem to imply that God knows how free agents will choose to act. If God does know this, their
apparent free will might be illusory, or foreknowledge does not imply predestination; and if God does
not know it, God may not be omniscient.[78]
However, if by its essential nature, free will is not predetermined, then the effect of its will can never
be perfectly predicted by anyone, regardless of intelligence and knowledge. Although knowledge of
the options presented to that will, combined with perfect-infinite intelligence, could be said to provide
God with omniscience if omniscience is defined as knowledge or understanding of all that is.
The last centuries of philosophy have seen vigorous questions regarding the arguments for God's
existence raised by such philosophers as Immanuel Kant, David Hume and Antony Flew, although
Kant held that the argument from morality was valid. The theist response has been either to contend,
like Alvin Plantinga, that faith is "properly basic"; or to take, likeRichard Swinburne,
the evidentialist position.[79] Some theists agree that none of the arguments for God's existence are
compelling, but argue that faith is not a product of reason, but requires risk. There would be no risk,
they say, if the arguments for God's existence were as solid as the laws of logic, a position summed
up by Pascal as: "The heart has reasons which reason knows not of."[80]
Most major religions hold God not as a metaphor, but a being that influences our day-to-day
existences. Many believers allow for the existence of other, less powerful spiritual beings, and give
them names such as angels, saints, jinns, demons, and devas.