God

In monotheistic thought, God is usually

viewed as the supreme being, creator, and
principal object of faith.[1] In non-
monotheistic thought, a god is "a spirit or
being believed to control some part of the
universe or life and often worshipped for
doing so, or something that represents
this spirit or being".[2][3]
Representation (for the purpose of art or worship) of God in (left to right from top) Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Balinese
Hinduism, Atenism and Zoroastrianism

Views regarding God vary considerably.

Many notable theologians and
philosophers have developed arguments
for and against the existence of God.[4]
Atheism rejects the belief in any deity.
Agnosticism is the belief that the
existence of God is unknown or
unknowable. Among theists, some view
knowledge concerning God as something
derived from faith and God is often
conceived as the greatest existent.[1] God
is often believed to be the cause of all
things and so is seen as the creator and
sustainer and the ruler of the universe.
God is often thought of as incorporeal and
independent of the material creation[1][5][6]
while pantheism holds God is the universe
itself. God is sometimes seen as the most
benevolent, while deism holds that God is
not involved in humanity apart from
creation.
Some traditions attach spiritual
significance to the relationship with God
and see God as the source of all moral
obligation, with acts such as worship and
prayer.[1] God is sometimes described
without reference to gender, while others
use terminology that is gender-specific.
God is referred to by different names
depending on the language and cultural
tradition with titles also used to refer to
different attributes.

Etymology and usage

The Mesha Stele bears the earliest known reference (840 BCE) to the Israelite God Yahweh.

The earliest written form of the Germanic

word God comes from the 6th-century
Christian Codex Argenteus. The English
word itself is derived from the Proto-
Germanic *ǥuđan. The reconstructed
Proto-Indo-European form *ǵhu-tó-m was
likely based on the root *ǵhau(ə)-, which
meant either "to call" or "to invoke".[7] The
Germanic words for God were originally
neuter—applying to both genders—but
during the process of the Christianization
of the Germanic peoples from their
indigenous Germanic paganism, the words
became a masculine syntactic form.[8] In
the English language, capitalization is
used when the word is used as a proper
noun, as well as for other names by which
a god is known.[9] Consequently, the
capitalized form of god is not used for
multiple gods or when used to refer to the
generic idea of a deity.[10][11]
The English
word God and its counterparts in other
languages are normally used for any and
all conceptions and, in spite of significant
differences between religions, the term
remains an English translation common to
all.

El means God in Hebrew, but in Judaism

and in Christianity, God is also given a
personal name, the tetragrammaton
YHWH, in origin possibly the name of an
Edomite or Midianite deity, Yahweh.[12] In
many English translations of the Bible,
when the word LORD is in all capitals, it
signifies that the word represents the
tetragrammaton.[13] Jah or Yah is an
abbreviation of Jahweh/Yahweh, and often
sees usage by Jews and Christians in the
interjection "Hallelujah", meaning "Praise
Jah", which is used to give God glory.[14] In
Judaism some of the Hebrew titles of God
are considered holy names.

Allāh (Arabic: ‫ )اهلل‬is the Arabic term with

no plural used by Muslims and Arabic
speaking Christians and Jews meaning
"The God", while ʾilāh (Arabic: ‫ ِإ َٰل ه‬plural
`āliha ‫ )آِل َه ة‬is the term used for a deity or a
god in general.[15][16][17] Muslims also use
a multitude of other titles for God.

In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered

a monistic concept of God.[18] God may
also be given a proper name in
monotheistic currents of Hinduism which
emphasize the personal nature of God,
with early references to his name as
Krishna-Vasudeva in Bhagavata or later
Vishnu and Hari.[19] Sang Hyang Widhi
Wasa is the term used in Balinese
Hinduism.[20]

In Chinese religion, Shangdi is conceived

as the progenitor (first ancestor) of the
universe, intrinsic to it and constantly
bringing order to it.

Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in

Zoroastrianism. "Mazda", or rather the
Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative
Mazdå, reflects Proto-Iranian *Mazdāh
(female). It is generally taken to be the
proper name of the spirit, and like its
Sanskrit cognate medhā, means
"intelligence" or "wisdom". Both the
Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-
Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-
European mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning
"placing (dʰeh1) one's mind (*mn̩-s)", hence
"wise".[21] Meanwhile 101 other names are
also in use.[22]

Waheguru (Punjabi: vāhigurū) is a term

most often used in Sikhism to refer to
God.[23] It means "Wonderful Teacher" in
the Punjabi language. Vāhi (a Middle
Persian borrowing) means "wonderful" and
guru (Sanskrit: guru) is a term denoting
"teacher". Waheguru is also described by
some as an experience of ecstasy which is
beyond all descriptions. The most
common usage of the word "Waheguru" is
in the greeting Sikhs use with each other -
Waheguru Ji Ka Khalsa, Waheguru Ji Ki
Fateh "Wonderful Lord's Khalsa, Victory is
to the Wonderful Lord."

Baha, the "greatest" name for God in the

Baháʼí Faith, is Arabic for "All-Glorious".[24]

Other names for God include Aten[25] in

ancient Egyptian Atenism where Aten was
proclaimed to be the one "true" supreme
being and creator of the universe,[26]
Chukwu in Igbo,[27] and Hayyi Rabbi in
Mandaeism.[28][29]

General conceptions

Existence

Thomas Aquinas summed up five main arguments as proofs for God's existence. (Painting by Carlo Crivelli, 1476)
Isaac Newton saw the existence of a Creator necessary in the movement of astronomical objects. (Painting by Godfrey
Kneller, 1689)

Atheism is, in a broad sense, the rejection

of belief in the existence of deities.[30][31]
Agnosticism is the view that the truth
values of certain claims—especially
metaphysical and religious claims such as
whether God, the divine or the
supernatural exist—are unknown and
perhaps unknowable.[32][33][34][35] Theism
generally holds that God exists objectively
and independently of human thought and
is sometimes used to refer to any belief in
God or gods.[36][37]

Some view the existence of God as an

empirical question. Richard Dawkins
states that "a universe with a god would be
a completely different kind of universe
from one without, and it would be a
scientific difference."[38] Carl Sagan argued
that the doctrine of a Creator of the
Universe was difficult to prove or disprove
and that the only conceivable scientific
discovery that could disprove the
existence of a Creator (not necessarily a
God) would be the discovery that the
universe is infinitely old.[39] Some
theologians, such as Alister McGrath,
argue that the existence of God is not a
question that can be answered using the
scientific method.[40][41] Agnostic Stephen
Jay Gould argued that science and religion
are not in conflict and proposed an
approach dividing the world of philosophy
into what he called "non-overlapping
magisteria" (NOMA).[42] In this view,
questions of the supernatural, such as
those relating to the existence and nature
of God, are non-empirical and are the
proper domain of theology. The methods
of science should then be used to answer
any empirical question about the natural
world, and theology should be used to
answer questions about ultimate meaning
and moral value. In this view, the perceived
lack of any empirical footprint from the
magisterium of the supernatural onto
natural events makes science the sole
player in the natural world.[43] Stephen
Hawking and co-author Leonard Mlodinow
state in their 2010 book, The Grand Design,
that it is reasonable to ask who or what
created the universe, but if the answer is
God, then the question has merely been
deflected to that of who created God. Both
authors claim however, that it is possible
to answer these questions purely within
the realm of science, and without invoking
any divine beings.[44][45]
Ontological arguments refer to any
argument for the existence of God that is
based on a priori reasoning.[46] Notable
ontological arguments were formulated by
Anselm and René Descartes.[47]
Cosmological arguments, such as those
described below, utilizes concepts around
the origin of the universe to argue for the
existence of God.

The Teleological argument, also called the

‘’argument from design’’, utilizes the
complexity within the universe as a proof
of the existence of God.[48] It is countered
that the fine tuning required for a stable
universe with life on earth is illusionary as
humans are only able to observe the small
part of this universe that succeeded in
making such observation possible, called
the anthropic principle, and so would not
learn of, for example, life on other planets
or of universes that did not occur because
of different laws of physics.[49] Non-theists
have argued that complex processes that
have natural explanations yet to be
discovered are referred to the
supernatural, called god of the gaps. Other
theists, such as John Henry Newman who
believed theistic evolution was acceptable,
have also argued against versions of the
teleological argument and held that it is
limiting of God to view him having to only
intervene specially in some instances
rather than having complex processes
designed to create order.[50]

The Argument from beauty states that this

universe happens to contain special
beauty in it and that there would be no
particular reason for this over aesthetically
neutrality other than God.[51] This has been
countered by pointing to the existence of
ugliness in the universe.[52] This has also
been countered by arguing that beauty has
no objective reality and so the Universe
could be seen as ugly or that humans have
made what is more beautiful than
nature.[53]
The Argument from morality argues for the
existence of God given the assumption of
the objective existence of morals.[54] While
prominent non-theistic philosophers such
as the atheist J. L. Mackie agreed that the
argument is valid, they disagreed with its
premises. Concerning the assumption of
objective morals, David Hume argued that
there is no basis to believe in objective
moral truths while biologist E. O. Wilson
theorized that the feelings of morality is a
by product of natural selection in humans
and would not exist independent of the
mind.[55] Philosopher Michael Lou Martin
argued that a subjective account for
morality can be acceptable and also
opposed the premise that objective
morality entails God pointing out that the
argument can similarly entail the existence
of polytheistic deities instead. Similar to
the argument from morality is the
argument from conscience which argues
for the existence of God given the
existence of a conscience that informs of
right and wrong. Philosopher John Locke
argued that conscience is a social
construct and thus would lead to
contradicting morals.[56]

Oneness
Trinitarians believe that God is composed of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.

A deity, or "god" (with lowercase g), refers

to a supernatural being.[57] Monotheism is
the belief that there is only one deity,
referred to as ‘’God’’ (with uppercase g).
Monotheistic traditions view God as
incomparable and idolatry, equating others
to God in some way, is often strongly
condemned. Judaism includes some of
the oldest monotheistic traditions in the
world.[58] Islam's most fundamental
concept is tawhid meaning "oneness" or
"uniqueness".[59] The first pillar of Islam is
an oath that forms the basis of the religion
and which non-Muslims wishing to convert
must recite, declares that "I testify that
there is no deity except God."[60]

In Christianity, the doctrine of the Trinity

describes God as one God in Father, Son
(Jesus), and Holy Spirit.[61] In the past
centuries, this fundamental mystery of the
Christian faith was also summarized by
the Latin formula Sancta Trinitas, Unus
Deus (Holy Trinity, Unique God), reported in
the Litanias Lauretanas. God in Hinduism
is viewed differently by diverse strands of
the religion with most Hindus having faith
in a supreme reality (Brahman) who can be
manifested in numerous chosen deities.
Thus, the religion is sometimes
characterized as Polymorphic
Monotheism.[62] Henotheism is the belief
and worship of a single god at a time while
accepting the validity of worshiping other
deities.[63] Monolatry is the belief in only a
single deity worthy of worship while
accepting the existence of other dieties.[64]

Transcendence

Transcendence is the aspect of God's

nature that is completely independent of
the material universe and its physical
laws. Many supposed characteristics of
God are described in human terms.
Anselm thought that God did not feel
emotions such as anger or love, but
appeared to do so through our imperfect
understanding. The incongruity of judging
"being" against something that might not
exist, led many medieval philosophers
approach to knowledge of God through
negative attributes, called Negative
theology. For example, one should not say
that God is wise, but can say that God is
not ignorant (i.e. in some way God has
some properties of knowledge). Christian
theologian Alister McGrath writes that one
has to understand a "personal god" as an
analogy. "To say that God is like a person
is to affirm the divine ability and
willingness to relate to others. This does
not imply that God is human, or located at
a specific point in the universe."[65]

Pantheism holds that God is the universe

and the universe is God and denies that
God transcends the Universe.[66] For
famed pantheist philosopher Baruch
Spinoza, the whole of the natural universe
is made of one substance, God, or its
equivalent, Nature.[67][68] Pantheism is
sometimes objected to as not providing
any meaningful explanation of God with
the German philosopher Schopenhauer
stating “Pantheism is only a euphemism
for atheism”.[69] Pandeism holds that God
was a separate entity but then became the
Universe.[70][71] Panentheism holds that
God contains, but is not identical to, the
Universe.[72][73]

Creator

God Blessing the Seventh Day, 1805 watercolor painting by William Blake
God is often viewed as the cause of all
that exists. For Pythagoreans, Monad
variously referred to divinity, the first being
or an indivisible origin.[74] The philosophy
of Plato and Plotinus refers to “The One”
which is the first principle of reality that is
‘’beyond’’ being[75] and is both the source
of the Universe and the teleological
purpose of all things.[76] Aristotle theorized
a first uncaused cause for all motion in the
universe and viewed it as perfectly
beautiful, immaterial, unchanging and
indivisible. Aseity is the property of not
depending on any cause other than itself
for its existence. Avicenna held that there
must be a necessarily existent guaranteed
to exist by its essence- it cannot ‘’not’’ exist
– and that humans identify this as God.[77]
Secondary causation refers to God
creating the laws of the Universe which
then can change themselves within the
framework of those laws. In addition to the
initial creation, occasionalism refers to the
idea that the Universe would not by default
continue to exist from one instant to the
next and so would need to rely on God as a
sustainer. While divine providence refers
to any intervention by God it is usually
used to refer to "special providence" where
there is an extraordinary intervention by
God, such as miracles.[78][79]
Benevolence

Deism holds that God exists but does not

intervene in the world beyond what was
necessary to create it,[80] such as
answering prayers or producing miracles.
Deists sometimes attribute this to God
having no interest in or not being aware of
humanity. Pandeists would hold that God
does not intervene because God is the
Universe.[81]

Of those theists who hold that God has an

interest in humanity, most hold that God is
omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent.
This belief raises questions about God's
responsibility for evil and suffering in the
world. Dystheism, which is related to
theodicy, is a form of theism which holds
that God is either not wholly good or is
fully malevolent as a consequence of the
problem of evil.

Omniscience and omnipotence

Omnipotence (all-powerful) is an attribute

often ascribed to God. The omnipotence
paradox is most often framed with the
example "Could God create a stone so
heavy that even he could not lift it?" as
God could either be unable to create that
stone or lift that stone and so could not be
omnipotent. This is often countered with
variations of the argument that
omnipotence, like any other attribute
ascribed to God, only applies as far as it is
noble enough to befit God and thus God
cannot lie, or do what is contradictory as
that would entail opposing himself.[82]

Omniscience (all-knowing) is an attribute

often ascribed to God. This implies that
God knows how free agents will choose to
act. If God does know this, either their free
will might be illusory or foreknowledge
does not imply predestination, and if God
does not know it, God may not be
omniscient.[83] Open Theism limits God’s
omniscience by contending that, due to
the nature of time, God's omniscience
does not mean the deity can predict the
future and process theology holds that
God does not have immutability, so is
affected by his creation.

Other concepts

Classical theists (such as ancient Greco-

Medieval philosophers, Roman Catholics,
Eastern Orthodox Christians, many Jews
and Muslims, and some Protestants)[a]
speak of God as a divinely simple 'nothing'
that is completely transcendent (totally
independent of all else), and having
attributes such as immutability,
impassibility, and timelessness.[86]
Theologians of theistic personalism (the
view held by Rene Descartes, Isaac
Newton, Alvin Plantinga, Richard
Swinburne, William Lane Craig, and most
modern evangelicals) argue that God is
most generally the ground of all being,
immanent in and transcendent over the
whole world of reality, with immanence
and transcendence being the contrapletes
of personality.[87]

God has also been conceived as being

incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being,
the source of all moral obligation, and the
"greatest conceivable existent".[1] These
attributes were all supported to varying
degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and
Muslim theologian philosophers, including
Maimonides,[84] Augustine of Hippo,[84]
and Al-Ghazali,[4] respectively.

Non-theistic views

Religious traditions

Jainism has generally rejected

creationism, holding that soul substances
(Jīva) are uncreated and that time is
beginningless.[88]
Some interpretations and traditions of
Buddhism can be conceived as being non-
theistic. Buddhism has generally rejected
the specific monotheistic view of a Creator
God. The Buddha criticizes the theory of
creationism in the early Buddhist
texts.[89][90] Also, major Indian Buddhist
philosophers, such as Nagarjuna,
Vasubandhu, Dharmakirti and
Buddhaghosa, consistently critiqued
Creator God views put forth by Hindu
thinkers.[91][92][93] However, as a non-
theistic religion, Buddhism leaves the
existence of a supreme deity ambiguous.
There are significant numbers of
Buddhists who believe in God, and there
are equally large numbers who deny God's
existence or are unsure.[94][95]

Taoic religions such as Confucianism and

Taoism are silent on the existence of
creator gods. However, keeping with the
tradition of ancestor veneration in China,
adherents worship the spirits of people
such as Confucius and Lao Tzu in a similar
manner to God.[96][97]

Anthropology

Some atheists have argued that a single,

omniscient God who is imagined to have
created the universe and is particularly
attentive to the lives of humans has been
imagined, embellished and promulgated in
a trans-generational manner.[98]

Pascal Boyer argues that while there is a

wide array of supernatural concepts found
around the world, in general, supernatural
beings tend to behave much like people.
The construction of gods and spirits like
persons is one of the best known traits of
religion. He cites examples from Greek
mythology, which is, in his opinion, more
like a modern soap opera than other
religious systems.[99]Bertrand du Castel
and Timothy Jurgensen demonstrate
through formalization that Boyer's
explanatory model matches physics'
epistemology in positing not directly
observable entities as
intermediaries.[100]Anthropologist Stewart
Guthrie contends that people project
human features onto non-human aspects
of the world because it makes those
aspects more familiar. Sigmund Freud also
suggested that god concepts are
projections of one's father.[101]

Likewise, Émile Durkheim was one of the

earliest to suggest that gods represent an
extension of human social life to include
supernatural beings. In line with this
reasoning, psychologist Matt Rossano
contends that when humans began living
in larger groups, they may have created
gods as a means of enforcing morality. In
small groups, morality can be enforced by
social forces such as gossip or reputation.
However, it is much harder to enforce
morality using social forces in much larger
groups. Rossano indicates that by
including ever-watchful gods and spirits,
humans discovered an effective strategy
for restraining selfishness and building
more cooperative groups.[102]

Neuroscience and psychology

Sam Harris has interpreted some findings
in neuroscience to argue that God is an
imaginary entity only, with no basis in
reality.[103]

Johns Hopkins researchers studying the

effects of the “spirit molecule” DMT, which
is both an endogenous molecule in the
human brain and the active molecule in
the psychedelic ayahuasca, found that a
large majority of respondents said DMT
brought them into contact with a
"conscious, intelligent, benevolent, and
sacred entity," and describe interactions
that oozed joy, trust, love, and kindness.
More than half of those who had
previously self-identified as atheists
described some type of belief in a higher
power or God after the experience.[104]

About a quarter of those afflicted by

temporal lobe seizures experience what is
described as a religious experience[105]
and may become preoccupied by thoughts
of God even if they were not previously.
Neuroscientist V. S. Ramachandran
hypothesizes that seizures in the temporal
lobe, which is closely connected to the
emotional center of the brain, the limbic
system, may lead to those afflicted to view
even banal objects with heightened
meaning.[106]
Psychologists studying feelings of awe
found that participants feeling awe after
watching scenes of natural wonders
become more likely to believe in a
supernatural being and to see events as
the result of design, even when given
randomly generated numbers.[107]

Relationship with humanity

Praying Hands by Albrecht Dürer

Worship

Theistic religious traditions often require

worship of God and sometimes hold that
the purpose of existence is to worship
God.[108][109] To address the issue of an all-
powerful being demanding to be
worshipped, it is held that God does not
need or benefit from worship but that
worship is for the benefit of the
worshipper.[110] Gandhi expressed the view
that God does not need his supplication
and that "Prayer is not an asking. It is a
longing of the soul. It is a daily admission
of one's weakness".[111] Invoking God in
prayer plays a significant role among many
believers. Depending on the tradition, God
can be viewed as a personal God who is
only to be invoked directly while other
traditions allow praying to intermediaries,
such as saints, to intercede on their
behalf. Prayer often also includes
supplication such as asking forgiveness.
God is often believed to be forgiving. For
example, a hadith states God would
replace a sinless people with one who
sinned but still asked repentance.[112]
Sacrifice for the sake of God is another act
of devotion that includes fasting and
almsgiving. Remembrance of God in daily
life include mentioning interjections
thanking God when feeling gratitude or
phrases of adoration such as repeating
chants while performing other activities.

Salvation

Transtheistic religious traditions may

believe in the existence of deities but deny
any spiritual significance to them. The
term has been used to describe certain
strands of Buddhism,[113] Jainism and
Stoicism.[114]

Among religions that do attach spirituality

to the relationship with God disagree as
how to best worship God and what is
God's plan for mankind. There are different
approaches to reconciling the
contradictory claims of monotheistic
religions. One view is taken by exclusivists,
who believe they are the chosen people or
have exclusive access to absolute truth,
generally through revelation or encounter
with the Divine, which adherents of other
religions do not. Another view is religious
pluralism. A pluralist typically believes that
his religion is the right one, but does not
deny the partial truth of other religions.
The view that all theists actually worship
the same god, whether they know it or not,
is especially emphasized in the Baháʼí
Faith, Hinduism[115] and Sikhism.[116] The
Baháʼí Faith preaches that divine
manifestations include great prophets and
teachers of many of the major religious
traditions such as Krishna, Buddha, Jesus,
Zoroaster, Muhammad, Bahá'ú'lláh and
also preaches the unity of all religions and
focuses on these multiple epiphanies as
necessary for meeting the needs of
humanity at different points in history and
for different cultures, and as part of a
scheme of progressive revelation and
education of humanity. An example of a
pluralist view in Christianity is
supersessionism, i.e., the belief that one's
religion is the fulfillment of previous
religions. A third approach is relativistic
inclusivism, where everybody is seen as
equally right; an example being
universalism: the doctrine that salvation is
eventually available for everyone. A fourth
approach is syncretism, mixing different
elements from different religions. An
example of syncretism is the New Age
movement.

Epistemology

Faith

As opposed to the evidentialist position

taken by those such as Richard Swinburne,
faith in God is also sometimes held to be
"properly basic".[117] Some theists agree
that only some of the arguments for God's
existence are compelling, but argue that
faith is not a product of reason, but
requires risk. There would be no risk, they
say, if the arguments for God's existence
were as solid as the laws of logic, a
position summed up by Pascal as "the
heart has reasons of which reason does
not know."[118] Inherent intuition about God
is referred to in Islam as fitra, or “innate
nature”.[119] In Confucian tradition,
Confucius and Mencius promoted that the
only justification for right conduct, called
the Way, is what is dictated by Heaven, a
more or less anthropomorphic higher
power, and is implanted in humans and
thus there is only one universal foundation
for the Way.[120]

Revelation

Revelation refers to some form of

message communicated by God. This is
usually proposed to occur through the use
of prophets or angels. Al-Maturidi argued
for the need for revelation because even
though humans are intellectually capable
of realizing God, human desire can divert
the intellect and because certain
knowledge cannot be known except for
been specially given to prophets.[121] The
term General revelation is used to refer to
knowledge revealed about God outside of
direct or special revelation such as
scriptures. Notably, this includes studying
nature, sometimes seen as the Book of
Nature.[122] An idiom in Arabic states, "The
Qur’an is a Universe that speaks. The
Universe is a silent Qur’an".[123]

Reason

Traditionalist theology holds that one

should not opinionate beyond revelation to
understand God's nature and frown upon
rationalizations such as speculative
theology.[124] Notably, for
anthropomorphic descriptions such as the
“Hand of God” and attributes of God, they
neither nullify such texts nor accept a
literal hand but leave any ambiguity to
God, called tafwid, without asking
how.[125][126] Prima scriptura is the
doctrine that biblical canon is the primary
guide over other sources such as reason
or expert opinion while Sola scriptura is
the doctrine that the Bible is the only
source of authority for the Christian faith
and practice.[127]

Specific characteristics
Titles

99 names of Allah, in Chinese Sini

In the Judeo-Christian tradition, "the Bible

has been the principal source of the
conceptions of God". That the Bible
"includes many different images,
concepts, and ways of thinking about" God
has resulted in perpetual "disagreements
about how God is to be conceived and
understood".[128] Throughout the Hebrew
and Christian Bibles there are titles for
God, who revealed his personal name as
YHWH (often vocalized as Yahweh or
Jehovah).[12] One of them is Elohim.
Another one is El Shaddai, translated "God
Almighty".[129] A third notable title is El
Elyon, which means "The High God".[130]
Also noted in the Hebrew and Christian
Bibles is the name "I Am that I Am".[131][12]

God is described and referred in the Quran

and hadith by certain names or attributes,
the most common being Al-Rahman,
meaning "Most Compassionate" and Al-
Rahim, meaning "Most Merciful".[132] Many
of these names are also used in the
scriptures of the Baháʼí Faith.

Vaishnavism, a tradition in Hinduism, has

a list of titles and names of Krishna.

Gender

The gender of God may be viewed as

either a literal or an allegorical aspect of a
deity who, in classical western philosophy,
transcends bodily form.[133][134]
Polytheistic religions commonly attribute
to each of the gods a gender, allowing
each to interact with any of the others, and
perhaps with humans, sexually. In most
monotheistic religions, God has no
counterpart with which to relate sexually.
Thus, in classical western philosophy the
gender of this one-and-only deity is most
likely to be an analogical statement of how
humans and God address, and relate to,
each other. Namely, God is seen as
begetter of the world and revelation which
corresponds to the active (as opposed to
the receptive) role in sexual
intercourse.[135]
Biblical sources usually refer to God using
male or paternal words and symbolism,
except Genesis 1:26–27,[136][137] Psalm
123:2–3, and Luke 15:8–10 (female);
Hosea 11:3–4, Deuteronomy 32:18, Isaiah
66:13, Isaiah 49:15, Isaiah 42:14, Psalm
131:2 (a mother); Deuteronomy 32:11–12
(a mother eagle); and Matthew 23:37 and
Luke 13:34 (a mother hen).

Depiction

Ahura Mazda (depiction is on the right, with high crown) presents Ardashir I (left) with the ring of kingship. (Relief at
Naqsh-e Rustam, 3rd century CE)

In Zoroastrianism, during the early

Parthian Empire, Ahura Mazda was
visually represented for worship. This
practice ended during the beginning of the
Sasanian Empire. Zoroastrian iconoclasm,
which can be traced to the end of the
Parthian period and the beginning of the
Sassanid, eventually put an end to the use
of all images of Ahura Mazda in worship.
However, Ahura Mazda continued to be
symbolized by a dignified male figure,
standing or on horseback, which is found
in Sassanian investiture.[138]
Deities from Near Eastern cultures are
often thought of as anthropomorphic
entities who have a human like body which
is, however, not equal to a human body.
Such bodies were often thought to be
radiant or fiery, of superhuman size or
extreme beauty. The ancient deity of the
Israelites (Yahweh) too was imagined as a
transcendent but still anthropomorphic
deity.[139] Humans could not see him,
because of their impurity in contrast to
Yahweh's holiness, Yahweh being
described as radiating fire and light which
could kill a human if looking at him.
Further, more religious or spiritual people
tend to have less anthropomorphic
depictions of God.[140] In Judaism, the
Torah often ascribes human features to
God, however, many other passages
describe God as formless and
otherworldly. Judaism is aniconic,
meaning it overly lacks material, physical
representations of both the natural and
supernatural worlds. Furthermore, the
worship of idols is strictly forbidden. The
traditional view, elaborated by figures such
as Maimonides, reckons that God is wholly
incomprehensible and therefore
impossible to envision, resulting in a
historical tradition of "divine
incorporeality". As such, attempting to
describe God's "appearance" in practical
terms is considered disrespectful to the
deity and thus is deeply taboo, and
arguably heretical.

Gnostic cosmogony often depicts the

creator god of the Old Testament as an
evil lesser deity or Demiurge, while the
higher benevolent god or Monad is
thought of as something beyond
comprehension having immeasurable light
and not in time or among things that exist,
but rather is greater than them in a sense.
All people are said to have a piece of God
or divine spark within them which has
fallen from the immaterial world into the
corrupt material world and is trapped
unless gnosis is attained.[141][142][143]

Use of the symbolic Hand of God in the Ascension from the Drogo Sacramentary, c. 850

Early Christians believed that the words of

the Gospel of John 1:18: "No man has
seen God at any time" and numerous other
statements were meant to apply not only
to God, but to all attempts at the depiction
of God.[144] However, later depictions of
God are found. Some, like the Hand of
God, are depiction borrowed from Jewish
art. Prior to the 10th century no attempt
was made to use a human to symbolize
God the Father in Western art.[144] Yet,
Western art eventually required some way
to illustrate the presence of the Father, so
through successive representations a set
of artistic styles for symbolizing the Father
using a man gradually emerged around the
10th century AD. A rationale for the use of
a human is the belief that God created the
soul of man in the image of his own (thus
allowing human to transcend the other
animals). It appears that when early artists
designed to represent God the Father, fear
and awe restrained them from a usage of
the whole human figure. Typically only a
small part would be used as the image,
usually the hand, or sometimes the face,
but rarely a whole human. In many images,
the figure of the Son supplants the Father,
so a smaller portion of the person of the
Father is depicted.[145] By the 12th century
depictions of God the Father had started
to appear in French illuminated
manuscripts, which as a less public form
could often be more adventurous in their
iconography, and in stained glass church
windows in England. Initially the head or
bust was usually shown in some form of
frame of clouds in the top of the picture
space, where the Hand of God had
formerly appeared; the Baptism of Christ
on the famous baptismal font in Liège of
Rainer of Huy is an example from 1118 (a
Hand of God is used in another scene).
Gradually the amount of the human
symbol shown can increase to a half-
length figure, then a full-length, usually
enthroned, as in Giotto's fresco of c. 1305
in Padua.[146] In the 14th century the
Naples Bible carried a depiction of God the
Father in the Burning bush. By the early
15th century, the Très Riches Heures du
Duc de Berry has a considerable number
of symbols, including an elderly but tall
and elegant full-length figure walking in the
Garden of Eden, which show a
considerable diversity of apparent ages
and dress. The "Gates of Paradise" of the
Florence Baptistry by Lorenzo Ghiberti,
begun in 1425 use a similar tall full-length
symbol for the Father. The Rohan Book of
Hours of about 1430 also included
depictions of God the Father in half-length
human form, which were now becoming
standard, and the Hand of God becoming
rarer. At the same period other works, like
the large Genesis altarpiece by the
Hamburg painter Meister Bertram,
continued to use the old depiction of
Christ as Logos in Genesis scenes. In the
15th century there was a brief fashion for
depicting all three persons of the Trinity as
similar or identical figures with the usual
appearance of Christ. In a Trinitarian Pietà,
God the Father is often symbolized using a
man wearing a papal dress and a papal
crown, supporting the dead Christ in his
arms.[147] In 1667 the 43rd chapter of the
Great Moscow Council specifically
included a ban on a number of symbolic
depictions of God the Father and the Holy
Spirit, which then also resulted in a whole
range of other icons being placed on the
forbidden list,[148][149] mostly affecting
Western-style depictions which had been
gaining ground in Orthodox icons. The
Council also declared that the person of
the Trinity who was the "Ancient of Days"
was Christ, as Logos, not God the Father.
However some icons continued to be
produced in Russia, as well as Greece,
Romania, and other Orthodox countries.

The Arabic script of "Allah" in the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul

In Islam, Muslims believe that God (Allah)

is beyond all comprehension and equal,
and does not resemble any of his
creations in any way. Muslims tend to use
the least anthropomorphism among
monotheists.[140] They are not iconodules
and have religious calligraphy of titles of
God instead of pictures.[150]

See also
Mythology
portal
Philosophy
portal
Religion
portal

All pages with titles beginning with God

Absolute (philosophy)
Apeiron (cosmology)
Deity
 Demigod
Existence of God
God complex
God (disambiguation)
God (word)
Relationship between religion and
science

References
Footnotes

a. The attributes of the God of classical

theism were all claimed to varying degrees
by early Jewish, Christian and Muslim
scholars, including Maimonides,[84] St
Augustine,[84] and Al-Ghazali.[85]
Citations

1. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted.

(ed)The Oxford Companion to Philosophy,
Oxford University Press, 1995.

2. "god" (https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dict
ionary/english/god) . Cambridge
Dictionary.

3. "Definition of GOD" (https://www.merriam-w

ebster.com/dictionary/god) .
www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved
27 February 2023.

4. Plantinga, Alvin. "God, Arguments for the

Existence of", Routledge Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, Routledge, 2000.
5. David Bordwell (2002). Catechism of the
Catholic Church, Continuum International
Publishing ISBN 978-0-86012-324-8 p. 84

6. "Catechism of the Catholic Church –

IntraText" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
130303003725/https://www.vatican.va/arc
hive/ENG0015/__P17.HTM) . Archived
from the original (https://www.vatican.va/ar
chive/ENG0015/__P17.HTM) on 3 March
2013. Retrieved 30 December 2016.
7. The ulterior etymology is disputed. Apart
from the unlikely hypothesis of adoption
from a foreign tongue, the OTeut. "ghuba"
implies as its preTeut-type either "*ghodho-
m" or "*ghodto-m". The former does not
appear to admit of explanation; but the
latter would represent the neut. pple. of a
root "gheu-". There are two Aryan roots of
the required form ("*g,heu-" with palatal
aspirate) one with meaning 'to invoke' (Skr.
"hu") the other 'to pour, to offer sacrifice'
(Skr "hu", Gr. χεηi;ν, OE "geotàn" Yete v).
OED Compact Edition, G, p. 267

8. Barnhart, Robert K. (1995). The Barnhart

Concise Dictionary of Etymology: the
Origins of American English Words, p. 323.
HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-270084-7
9. " 'God' in Merriam-Webster (online)" (http://
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/go
d) . Merriam-Webster, Inc. Retrieved 19 July
2012.
10. Webster's New World Dictionary; "God n.
ME < OE, akin to Ger gott, Goth guth, prob. <
IE base *ĝhau-, to call out to, invoke > Sans
havaté, (he) calls upon; 1. any of various
beings conceived of as supernatural,
immortal, and having special powers over
the lives and affairs of people and the
course of nature; deity, esp. a male deity:
typically considered objects of worship; 2.
an image that is worshiped; idol 3. a person
or thing deified or excessively honored and
admired; 4. [G-] in monotheistic religions,
the creator and ruler of the universe,
regarded as eternal, infinite, all-powerful,
and all-knowing; Supreme Being; the
Almighty"
11. Dictionary.com (http://dictionary.reference.
com/browse/God) Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20090419052813/http://dic
tionary.reference.com/browse/God) 19
April 2009 at the Wayback Machine; "God
/gɒd/ noun: 1. the one Supreme Being, the
creator and ruler of the universe. 2. the
Supreme Being considered with reference
to a particular attribute. 3. (lowercase) one
of several deities, esp. a male deity,
presiding over some portion of worldly
affairs. 4. (often lowercase) a supreme
being according to some particular
conception: the God of mercy. 5. Christian
Science. the Supreme Being, understood as
Life, Truth, Love, Mind, Soul, Spirit, Principle.
6. (lowercase) an image of a deity; an idol.
7. (lowercase) any deified person or object.
8. (often lowercase) Gods, Theater. 8a. the
upper balcony in a theater. 8b. the
spectators in this part of the balcony."
12. Parke-Taylor, G. H. (1 January 2006).
Yahweh: The Divine Name in the Bible.
Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p. 4.
ISBN 978-0-88920-652-6. "The Old
Testament contains various titles and
surrogates for God, such as El Shaddai, El
Elyon, Haqqadosh (The Holy One), and
Adonai. In chapter three, consideration will
be given to names ascribed to God in the
patriarchal period. Gerhard von Rad
reminds us that these names became
secondary after the name YHWH had been
known to Israel, for "these rudimentary
names which derive from old traditions, and
from the oldest of them, never had the
function of extending the name so as to
stand alongside the name Jahweh to serve
 as fuller forms of address; rather, they were
occasionally made use of in place of the
name Jahweh." In this respect YHWH
stands in contrast to the principal deities of
the Babylonians and the Egyptians.
"Jahweh had only one name; Marduk had
fifty with which his praises as victor over
Tiamat were sung in hymns. Similarly, the
Egyptian god Re is the god with many
names."

13. Barton, G.A. (2006). A Sketch of Semitic

Origins: Social and Religious. Kessinger
Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4286-1575-5.
14. Loewen, Jacob A. (1 June 2020). The Bible
in Cross Cultural Perspective (Revised ed.).
William Carey Publishing. p. 182. ISBN 978-
1-64508-304-7. "Shorter forms of Yahweh:
The name Yahweh also appears in a
shortened form, transliterated Jah
(pronounced Yah) in the Revised Version
and the American Standard Version, either
in the text or footnote: "my song is Jah" (Ex
15:2); "by Jah, his name" (Ps 68:4); "I shall
not see Jah in Jah's land (Is 38:11). It is
common also in such often untranslated
compounds as hallelujah 'praise Jah' (Ps
135:3; 146:10, 148:14), and in proper names
like Elijah, 'my God is Jah,' Adonijah, 'my
Lord is Jah,' Isaiah, 'Jah has saved.' "
15. "God" (https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/
faithgod.html) . Islam: Empire of Faith.
PBS. Retrieved 18 December 2010.

16. "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of

Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking
Christians and Jews also refer to God as
Allāh.

17. L. Gardet. "Allah". Encyclopaedia of Islam

Online.

18. Pantheism: A Non-Theistic Concept of Deity

– p. 136, Michael P. Levine – 2002

19. Hastings 1925–2003, p. 540

20. McDaniel, June (2013), A Modern Hindu
Monotheism: Indonesian Hindus as 'People
of the Book'. The Journal of Hindu Studies,
Oxford University Press,
doi:10.1093/jhs/hit030 (https://doi.org/10.
1093%2Fjhs%2Fhit030)

21. Boyce 1983, p. 685.

22. The Intellectual Devotional: Revive Your
Mind, Complete Your Education, and Roam
confidently with the cultured class, David S.
Kidder, Noah D. Oppenheim, p. 364

23. Philosophy and Faith of Sikhism – p. ix,

Kartar Singh Duggal – 1988

24. A Feast for the Soul: Meditations on the

Attributes of God : ... – p. x, Baháʾuʾlláh,
Joyce Watanabe – 2006
25. Jan Assmann, Religion and Cultural
Memory: Ten Studies, Stanford University
Press 2005, p. 59

26. M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature,

Vol. 2, 1980, p. 96

27. Afigbo, A. E; Falola, Toyin (2006). Myth,

history and society: the collected works of
Adiele Afigbo (https://www.worldcat.org/oc
lc/61361536) . Trenton, NJ: Africa World
Press. ISBN 978-1-59221-419-8.
OCLC 61361536 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/61361536) .

28. Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen (2002). The

Mandaeans: ancient texts and modern
people. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-515385-5. OCLC 65198443 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/65198443) .
29. Nashmi, Yuhana (24 April 2013),
"Contemporary Issues for the Mandaean
Faith" (http://www.mandaeanunion.com/his
tory-english/item/488-mandaean-faith) ,
Mandaean Associations Union, retrieved
28 December 2021
30. Nielsen 2013: "Instead of saying that an
atheist is someone who believes that it is
false or probably false that there is a God, a
more adequate characterization of atheism
consists in the more complex claim that to
be an atheist is to be someone who rejects
belief in God for the following reasons ... :
for an anthropomorphic God, the atheist
rejects belief in God because it is false or
probably false that there is a God; for a
nonanthropomorphic God ... because the
concept of such a God is either
meaningless, unintelligible, contradictory,
incomprehensible, or incoherent; for the
God portrayed by some modern or
contemporary theologians or philosophers
... because the concept of God in question
is such that it merely masks an atheistic
substance—e.g., "God" is just another name
for love, or ... a symbolic term for moral
ideals."
31. Edwards 2005: "On our definition, an
'atheist' is a person who rejects belief in
God, regardless of whether or not his
reason for the rejection is the claim that
'God exists' expresses a false proposition.
People frequently adopt an attitude of
rejection toward a position for reasons
other than that it is a false proposition. It is
common among contemporary
philosophers, and indeed it was not
uncommon in earlier centuries, to reject
positions on the ground that they are
meaningless. Sometimes, too, a theory is
rejected on such grounds as that it is sterile
or redundant or capricious, and there are
many other considerations which in certain
contexts are generally agreed to constitute
good grounds for rejecting an assertion."
32. Thomas Henry Huxley, an English biologist,
was the first to come up with the word
agnostic in 1869 Dixon, Thomas (2008).
Science and Religion: A Very Short
Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-19-929551-7.
However, earlier authors and published
works have promoted an agnostic points of
view. They include Protagoras, a 5th-
century BCE Greek philosopher. "The
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy –
Protagoras (c. 490 – c. 420 BCE)" (http://w
ww.iep.utm.edu/p/protagor.htm) . Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/2008101418
1706/http://www.iep.utm.edu/p/protagor.
htm) from the original on 14 October 2008.
Retrieved 6 October 2008. "While the pious
might wish to look to the gods to provide
absolute moral guidance in the relativistic
universe of the Sophistic Enlightenment,
that certainty also was cast into doubt by
philosophic and sophistic thinkers, who
pointed out the absurdity and immorality of
the conventional epic accounts of the gods.
Protagoras' prose treatise about the gods
began 'Concerning the gods, I have no
means of knowing whether they exist or not
or of what sort they may be. Many things
prevent knowledge including the obscurity
of the subject and the brevity of human
life.' "
33. Hepburn, Ronald W. (2005) [1967].
"Agnosticism". In Donald M. Borchert (ed.).
The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 1
(2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference USA (Gale).
p. 92. ISBN 978-0-02-865780-6. "In the most
general use of the term, agnosticism is the
view that we do not know whether there is a
God or not." (p. 56 in 1967 edition)
34. Rowe, William L. (1998). "Agnosticism" (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=VQ-GhVW
TH84C&q=agnosticism&pg=PA122) . In
Edward Craig (ed.). Routledge Encyclopedia
of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-
415-07310-3. "In the popular sense, an
agnostic is someone who neither believes
nor disbelieves in God, whereas an atheist
disbelieves in God. In the strict sense,
however, agnosticism is the view that
human reason is incapable of providing
sufficient rational grounds to justify either
the belief that God exists or the belief that
God does not exist. In so far as one holds
that our beliefs are rational only if they are
sufficiently supported by human reason, the
person who accepts the philosophical
position of agnosticism will hold that
neither the belief that God exists nor the
belief that God does not exist is rational."
35. "agnostic, agnosticism". OED Online, 3rd ed.
Oxford University Press. 2012. "agnostic. :
A. n[oun]. :# A person who believes that
nothing is known or can be known of
immaterial things, especially of the
existence or nature of God. :# In extended
use: a person who is not persuaded by or
committed to a particular point of view; a
sceptic. Also: person of indeterminate
ideology or conviction; an equivocator. : B.
adj[ective]. :# Of or relating to the belief that
the existence of anything beyond and
behind material phenomena is unknown
and (as far as can be judged) unknowable.
Also: holding this belief. :# a. In extended
use: not committed to or persuaded by a
particular point of view; sceptical. Also:
 politically or ideologically unaligned; non-
partisan, equivocal. agnosticism n. The
doctrine or tenets of agnostics with regard
to the existence of anything beyond and
behind material phenomena or to
knowledge of a First Cause or God."

36. "Philosophy of Religion.info – Glossary –

Theism, Atheism, and Agonisticism" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/2008042407144
3/http://www.philosophyofreligion.info/defi
nitions.html) . Philosophy of Religion.info.
Archived from the original (http://www.philo
sophyofreligion.info/definitions.html) on
24 April 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2008.
37. "Theism – definition of theism by the Free
Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and
Encyclopedia" (http://www.thefreedictionar
y.com/theism) . TheFreeDictionary.com.
Retrieved 16 July 2008.

38. Dawkins, Richard (23 October 2006). "Why

There Almost Certainly Is No God" (http://w
ww.huffingtonpost.com/richard-dawkins/w
hy-there-almost-certainl_b_32164.html) .
The Huffington Post. Retrieved 10 January
2007.

39. Sagan, Carl (1996). The Demon Haunted

World. New York: Ballantine Books. p. 278.
ISBN 978-0-345-40946-1.
40. Alister E. McGrath (2005). Dawkins' God:
genes, memes, and the meaning of life (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=V9dr616
7AJ8C) . Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-
2539-0.

41. Floyd H. Barackman (2001). Practical

Christian Theology: Examining the Great
Doctrines of the Faith (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=Jb5aRB7OxWsC) . Kregel
Academic. ISBN 978-0-8254-2380-2.

42. Gould, Stephen J. (1998). Leonardo's

Mountain of Clams and the Diet of Worms.
Jonathan Cape. p. 274. ISBN 978-0-224-
05043-2.

43. Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God Delusion.

Great Britain: Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-
618-68000-9.
44. Stephen Hawking; Leonard Mlodinow
(2010). The Grand Design (https://archive.o
rg/details/granddesign0000hawk) .
Bantam Books. p. 172 (https://archive.org/
details/granddesign0000hawk/page/172) .
ISBN 978-0-553-80537-6.

45. Krauss L. A Universe from Nothing. Free

Press, New York. 2012. ISBN 978-1-4516-
2445-8

46. "Ontological Arguments" (https://plato.stan

ford.edu/entries/ontological-arguments/) .
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Retrieved 27 December 2022.

47. Aquinas, Thomas (1990). Kreeft, Peter

(ed.). Summa of the Summa. Ignatius
Press. pp. 65–69.
48. Ratzsch, Del; Koperski, Jeffrey (10 June
2005) [2005]. "Teleological Arguments for
God's Existence". Teleological Arguments
for God's Existence (https://plato.stanford.e
du/entries/teleological-arguments/) .
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

49. "Fine-Tuning" (https://plato.stanford.edu/en

tries/fine-tuning/) . The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Center for the
Study of Language and Information (CSLI),
Stanford University. 22 August 2017.
Retrieved 29 December 2022.

50. Chappell, Jonathan (2015). "A Grammar of

Descent: John Henry Newman and the
Compatibility of Evolution with Christian
Doctrine". Science and Christian Belief. 27
(2): 180–206.
51. Richard Swinburne (2004). The Existence of
God (2 ed.). Oxford University Press.
p. 190–91. ISBN 978-0199271689.

52. The existence of God (1 ed.). Watts & Co.

p. 75.

53. Minority Report, H. L. Mencken's

Notebooks, Knopf, 1956

54. Martin, Michael (1992). Atheism: A

Philosophical Justification. Temple
University Press. p. 213-214.
ISBN 9780877229438.

55. Craig, William Lane; Moreland, J.P. (2011).

The Blackwell Companion to Natural
Theology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 393.
ISBN 9781444350852.
56. Parkinson, G. H. R. (1988). An Encyclopedia
of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. p. 344-345.
ISBN 9780415003230.

57. O'Brien, Jodi (2009). Encyclopedia of

Gender and Society (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=_nyHS4WyUKEC) . Los
Angeles: Sage. p. 191. ISBN 978-1-4129-
0916-7. Retrieved 28 June 2017.

58. "BBC - Religion: Judaism" (https://www.bbc.

co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/) .
www.bbc.co.uk.

59. D. Gimaret. "Allah, Tawhid". Encyclopædia

Britannica Online.

60. Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of

jihad: An introduction." Journal of Law and
Religion 3(2):381–97.
61. "What Is the Trinity?" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20140219020335/http://www.whata
boutjesus.com/grace/actions-god-series/w
hat-trinity?page=0%2C0) . Archived from
the original (http://www.whataboutjesus.co
m/grace/actions-god-series/what-trinity?pa
ge=0,0) on 19 February 2014.

62. Julius Lipner. "Hindu deities" (https://www.k

hanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/begin
ners-guide-asian-culture/hindu-art-culture/
a/hindu-deities) . Retrieved 6 September
2022.

63. Müller, Max. (1878) Lectures on the Origin

and Growth of Religion: As Illustrated by the
Religions of India. London: Longmans,
Green and Co.
64. McConkie, Bruce R. (1979), Mormon
Doctrine (2nd ed.), Salt Lake City, Utah:
Bookcraft, p. 351

65. McGrath, Alister (2006). Christian Theology:

An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing.
p. 205. ISBN 978-1-4051-5360-7.

66. "Pantheism" (https://stanford.library.sydne

y.edu.au/archives/spr2008/entries/panthe
ism/) . Standford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. 17 May 2007. Retrieved
11 September 2022.

67. Curley, Edwin M. (1985). The Collected

Works of Spinoza. Princeton University
Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07222-7.
68. Nadler, Steven (21 August 2012) [2001].
"Baruch Spinoza". Baruch Spinoza (http://pl
ato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2012/entries/
spinoza/) . Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy.

69. "Pantheism" (https://plato.stanford.edu/ent

ries/pantheism/) . Standford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy. 1 October 2012. Retrieved
18 November 2022.
70. Alan H. Dawe (2011). The God Franchise: A
Theory of Everything. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-
473-20114-2. "Pandeism: This is the belief
that God created the universe, is now one
with it, and so, is no longer a separate
conscious entity. This is a combination of
pantheism (God is identical to the universe)
and deism (God created the universe and
then withdrew Himself)."

71. Paul Bradley (2011). This Strange Eventful

History: A Philosophy of Meaning. p. 156.
ISBN 978-0-87586-876-9. "Pandeism
combines the concepts of Deism and
Pantheism with a god who creates the
universe and then becomes it."
72. John Culp (2013). "Panentheism," (http://pl
ato.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/encyclopedia/arch
info.cgi?entry=panentheism) Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/2015101602381
3/http://plato.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/encyclo
pedia/archinfo.cgi?entry=panentheism) 16
October 2015 at the Wayback Machine
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
Spring.
73. Peter C. Rogers (2009). Ultimate Truth,
Book 1. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-4389-7968-7.
"As with Panentheism, Pantheism is derived
from the Greek: 'pan'= all and 'theos' = God,
it literally means "God is All" and "All is
God." Pantheist purports that everything is
part of an all-inclusive, indwelling,
intangible God; or that the Universe, or
nature, and God are the same. Further
review helps to accentuate the idea that
natural law, existence, and the Universe
which is the sum total of all that is, was,
and shall be, is represented in the
theological principle of an abstract 'god'
rather than an individual, creative Divine
Being or Beings of any kind. This is the key
element that distinguishes them from
 Panentheists and Pandeists. As such,
although many religions may claim to hold
Pantheistic elements, they are more
commonly Panentheistic or Pandeistic in
nature."

74. Fairbanks, Arthur, Ed., "The First

Philosophers of Greece". K. Paul, Trench,
Trubner. London, 1898, p. 145.

75. Dodds, E.R. "The Parmenides of Plato and

the Origin of the Neoplatonic 'One'". The
Classical Quarterly, Jul–Oct 1928, vol. 22,
p. 136
76. Brenk, Frederick (January 2016). "Pagan
Monotheism and Pagan Cult" (https://classi
calstudies.org/annual-meeting/147/abstrac
t/pagan-monotheism-and-pagan-cult) .
"Theism" and Related Categories in the
Study of Ancient Religions. Vol. 75.
Philadelphia: Society for Classical Studies
(University of Pennsylvania). Retrieved
5 November 2022. "Historical authors
generally refer to "the divine" (to theion) or
"the supernatural" (to daimonion) rather
than simply "God." [...] The Stoics, believed
in a God identifiable with the logos or
hegemonikon (reason or leading principle)
of the universe and downgraded the
traditional gods, who even disappear during
the conflagration (ekpyrosis). Yet, the
Stoics apparently did not practice a cult to
this God. Middle and Later Platonists, who
spoke of a supreme God, in philosophical
discourse, generally speak of this God, not
the gods, as responsible for the creation
and providence of the universe. They, too,
however, do not seem to have directly
practiced a religious cult to their God."
SCS/AIA Annual Meeting (https://samreligi
ons.org/2014/12/30/theism-and-related-ca
tegories-in-the-study-of-ancient-religions/)
77. Adamson, Peter (4 July 2013). "From the
necessary existent to God" (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=OeVribsJbgUC) . In
Adamson, Peter (ed.). Interpreting
Avicenna: Critical Essays. Cambridge
University Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-521-
19073-2.

78. "Providence" (http://www.encyclopedia.co

m/topic/Providence.aspx#1O101-Providen
ce) . The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
World Religions. Encyclopedia.com.
Retrieved 17 July 2014.

79. "Creation, Providence, and Miracle" (http://

www.reasonablefaith.org/creation-providen
ce-and-miracle) . Reasonable Faith.
Retrieved 20 May 2014.
80. Lemos, Ramon M. (2001). A Neomedieval
Essay in Philosophical Theology. Lexington
Books. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-7391-0250-3.
81. Allan R. Fuller (2010). Thought: The Only
Reality. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-60844-590-5.
"Pandeism is another belief that states that
God is identical to the universe, but God no
longer exists in a way where He can be
contacted; therefore, this theory can only be
proven to exist by reason. Pandeism views
the entire universe as being from God and
now the universe is the entirety of God, but
the universe at some point in time will fold
back into one single being which is God
Himself that created all. Pandeism raises
the question as to why would God create a
universe and then abandon it? As this
relates to pantheism, it raises the question
of how did the universe come about what is
its aim and purpose?"
82. Perry, M.; Schuon, F.; Lafouge, J. (2008).
Christianity/Islam : perspectives on
esoteric ecumenism : a new translation
with selected letters. United Kingdom:
World Wisdom. p. 135.
ISBN 9781933316499.

83. Wierenga, Edward R. "Divine

foreknowledge" in Audi, Robert. The
Cambridge Companion to Philosophy.
Cambridge University Press, 2001.

84. Edwards, Paul. "God and the philosophers"

in Honderich, Ted. (ed)The Oxford
Companion to Philosophy, Oxford
University Press, 1995. ISBN 978-1-61592-
446-2.
85. Plantinga, Alvin. "God, Arguments for the
Existence of", Routledge Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, Routledge, 2000.

86. 1998, God, concepts of, Edward Craig,

Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
Taylor & Francis, [1] (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=5m5z_ca-qDkC)

87. "www.ditext.com" (http://www.ditext.com/r

unes/t.html) . Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20180204214255/http://www.di
text.com/runes/t.html) from the original
on 4 February 2018. Retrieved 7 February
2018.

88. Nayanar, Prof. A. Chakravarti (2005).

Samayasāra of Ācārya Kundakunda. p.190,
Gāthā 10.310, New Delhi: Today &
Tomorrows Printer and Publisher.
89. Narada Thera (2006) "The Buddha and His
Teachings," pp. 268-269, Jaico Publishing
House.

90. Hayes, Richard P., "Principled Atheism in the

Buddhist Scholastic Tradition", Journal of
Indian Philosophy, 16:1 (1988:Mar) p. 2.

91. Hsueh-Li Cheng. "Nāgārjuna's Approach to

the Problem of the Existence of God" in
Religious Studies, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Jun.,
1976), pp. 207-216 (10 pages), Cambridge
University Press.

92. Hayes, Richard P., "Principled Atheism in the

Buddhist Scholastic Tradition", Journal of
Indian Philosophy, 16:1 (1988:Mar.).

93. Harvey, Peter (2019). "Buddhism and

Monotheism", p. 1. Cambridge University
Press.
94. Khan, Razib (23 June 2008). "Buddhists do
Believe in God" (https://www.discovermaga
zine.com/the-sciences/buddhists-do-believ
e-in-god) . Discover. Kalmbach Publishing.

95. "Buddhists" (https://www.pewresearch.org/

religion/religious-landscape-study/religious
-tradition/buddhist/) . Pew Research
Center. The Pew Charitable Trusts.

96. "Confucianism" (https://education.nationalg

eographic.org/resource/confucianism/) .
National Geographic. National Geographic
Society.

97. "Taoism" (https://education.nationalgeogra

phic.org/resource/taoism/) . National
Geographic. National Geographic Society.
98. Culotta, E (2009). "The origins of religion".
Science. 326 (5954): 784–87.
Bibcode:2009Sci...326..784C (https://ui.ads
abs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Sci...326..784C)
. doi:10.1126/science.326_784 (https://doi.
org/10.1126%2Fscience.326_784) .
PMID 19892955 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/19892955) .

99. Boyer, Pascal (2001). Religion Explained (ht

tps://archive.org/details/religionexplaine0
0boye) . New York: Basic Books. pp. 142 (h
ttps://archive.org/details/religionexplaine0
0boye/page/142) –243. ISBN 978-0-465-
00696-0. "boyer modern soap opera."
100. du Castel, Bertrand; Jurgensen, Timothy M.
(2008). Computer Theology. Austin, Texas:
Midori Press. pp. 221–22. ISBN 978-0-
9801821-1-8.

101. Barrett, Justin (1996). "Conceptualizing a

Nonnatural Entity: Anthropomorphism in
God Concepts" (http://commonsenseatheis
m.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/Barre
tt-Conceptualizing-a-Nonnatural-Entity.pdf)
(PDF). Cognitive Psychology. 31 (3): 219–
47. doi:10.1006/cogp.1996.0017 (https://d
oi.org/10.1006%2Fcogp.1996.0017) .
PMID 8975683 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/8975683) . S2CID 7646340 (https://a
pi.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:764634
0) .
102. Rossano, Matt (2007). "Supernaturalizing
Social Life: Religion and the Evolution of
Human Cooperation" (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20120303101304/http://www2.sel
u.edu/Academics/Faculty/mrossano/recen
tpubs/Supernaturalizing.pdf) (PDF).
Human Nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.). 18 (3):
272–94. doi:10.1007/s12110-007-9002-4
(https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12110-007-90
02-4) . PMID 26181064 (https://pubmed.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/26181064) . S2CID 1585551
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:
1585551) . Archived from the original (htt
p://www2.selu.edu/Academics/Faculty/mr
ossano/recentpubs/Supernaturalizing.pdf)
(PDF) on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 25 June
2009.
103. Harris, S. The end of faith. W.W. Norton and
Company, New York. 2005. ISBN 0-393-
03515-8

104. "A spiritual experience" (https://hub.jhu.ed

u/magazine/2020/fall/psychedelics-god-at
heism/) . 17 September 2020. Retrieved
11 October 2022.

105. Sample, Ian (23 February 2005). "Tests of

faith" (https://www.theguardian.com/scienc
e/2005/feb/24/1) . The Guardian. Retrieved
15 October 2022.

106. Ramachandran, Vilayanur; Blakeslee,

Sandra (1998). Phantoms in the brain. New
York: HarperCollins. p. 174-187. ISBN 0-
688-15247-3.
107. Kluger, Jeffrey (27 November 2013). "Why
There Are No Atheists at the Grand Canyon"
(https://science.time.com/2013/11/27/why
-there-are-no-atheists-at-the-grand-canyo
n/) . Time. Retrieved 12 October 2022.

108. "Human Nature and the Purpose of

Existence" (http://www.patheos.com/Librar
y/Islam/Beliefs/Human-Nature-and-the-Pur
pose-of-Existence.html) . Patheos.com.
Retrieved 29 January 2011.

109. Quran 51:56 (https://www.perseus.tufts.ed

u/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A20
02.02.0006%3Asura%3D51%3Averse%3D5
6)

110. "Salat: daily prayers" (https://www.bbc.co.u

k/religion/religions/islam/practices/salat.
shtml) . BBC. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
111. Richards, Glyn (2005). The Philosophy of
Gandhi: A Study of his Basic Ideas.
Routledge. ISBN 1135799342.

112. "Allah would replace you with a people who

sin" (https://web.archive.org/web/2013101
4174102/http://en.islamtoday.net/artshow-
426-3787.htm) . islamtoday.net. Archived
from the original (http://en.islamtoday.net/
artshow-426-3787.htm) on 14 October
2013. Retrieved 13 October 2013.

113. Antonio Rigopoulos, The Life and

Teachings of Sai Baba of Shirdi (1993), p.
372; J. L. (Ed) Houlden, Jesus: The
Complete Guide (2005), p. 390

114. Writings on Religion, Walter de Gruyter

(1988), p. 145.
115. See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of
Hinduism (Viveka Press 2002) ISBN 1-
884852-04-1

116. "Sri Guru Granth Sahib" (http://www.srigrant

h.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page
&Param=1350&english=t&id=57718) . Sri
Granth. Retrieved 30 June 2011.

117. Beaty, Michael (1991). "God Among the

Philosophers" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20070109162529/http://www.religion-onl
ine.org/showarticle.asp?title=53) . The
Christian Century. Archived from the
original (http://www.religion-online.org/sho
warticle.asp?title=53) on 9 January 2007.
Retrieved 20 February 2007.

118. Pascal, Blaise. Pensées, 1669.

119. Jon Hoover, "Fiṭra" (https://dx.doi.org/10.11
63/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27155) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/2022122811
1034/https://referenceworks.brillonline.co
m/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM
_27155) 28 December 2022 at the
Wayback Machine, EI3.

120. "The Second Sage" (https://aeon.co/essay

s/the-influential-confucian-philosopher-you-
ve-never-heard-of) . Aeon. Retrieved
24 March 2023.

121. Cenap Çakmak Islam: A Worldwide

Encyclopedia [4 volumes] ABC-CLIO 2017
ISBN 978-1-610-69217-5 page 1014
122. Hutchinson, Ian (14 January 1996).
"Michael Faraday: Scientist and
Nonconformist" (http://silas.psfc.mit.edu/F
araday/) . Retrieved 30 November 2022.
"Faraday believed that in his scientific
researches he was reading the book of
nature, which pointed to its creator, and he
delighted in it: `for the book of nature,
which we have to read is written by the
finger of God'."

123. Hofmann, Murad (2007). Islam and Qur'an.

Amana publications. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-
59008-047-4.

124. Halverson (2010, p. 36 (https://archive.org/

details/theologycreedsun00halv/page/n4
4) ).
125. Hoover, John (2020). "Early Mamlūk
Ashʿarism against Ibn Taymiyya on the
Nonliteral Reinterpretation (taʾwīl) of God's
Attributes" (https://nottingham-repository.w
orktribe.com/output/3741348) . In
Shihadeh, Ayman; Thiele, Jan (eds.).
Philosophical Theology in Islam: Later
Ashʿarism East and West. Islamicate
Intellectual History. Vol. 5. Leiden and
Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 195–230.
doi:10.1163/9789004426610_009 (https://
doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004426610_009)
. ISBN 978-90-04-42661-0. ISSN 2212-8662
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2212-866
2) . LCCN 2020008682 (https://lccn.loc.go
v/2020008682) . S2CID 219026357 (http
 s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2190
26357) .

126. Halverson (2010, pp. 36–37 (https://archiv

e.org/details/theologycreedsun00halv/pag
e/n44) ).
127. Wisse, Maarten (2017). "PART I: Systematic
Perspectives – Contra et Pro Sola
Scriptura" (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=_yk_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19) . In
Burger, Hans; Huijgen, Arnold; Peels, Eric
(eds.). Sola Scriptura: Biblical and
Theological Perspectives on Scripture,
Authority, and Hermeneutics. Studies in
Reformed Theology. Vol. 32. Leiden: Brill
Publishers. pp. 19–37.
doi:10.1163/9789004356436_003 (https://
doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004356436_003)
. ISBN 978-90-04-35643-6. ISSN 1571-4799
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1571-479
9) .
128. Francis Schüssler Fiorenza and Gordon D.
Kaufman, "God", Ch 6, in Mark C. Taylor, ed,
Critical Terms for Religious Studies
(University of Chicago, 1998/2008), 136–
40.

129. Gen. 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; Ex. 6:31; Ps. 91:1, 2

130. Gen. 14:19; Ps. 9:2; Dan. 7:18, 22, 25
131. Exodus 3:13-15
132. Bentley, David (1999). The 99 Beautiful
Names for God for All the People of the
Book. William Carey Library. ISBN 978-0-
87808-299-5.
133. Aquinas, Thomas. "First part: Question 3:
The simplicity of God: Article 1: Whether
God is a body?". Summa Theologica (http://
www.newadvent.org/summa/1003.htm) .
New Advent.

134. William G. T. Shedd, ed. (1885). "The

Seventh". The Confessions of Augustine (ht
tps://archive.org/details/confessionsaugu0
0shedgoog) . Warren F. Draper.

135. Lang, David; Kreeft, Peter (2002). "Why

Male Priests?". Why Matter Matters:
Philosophical and Scriptural Reflections on
the Sacraments. Our Sunday Visitor.
ISBN 978-1-931709-34-7.
136. Elaine H. Pagels "What Became of God the
Mother? Conflicting Images of God in Early
Christianity" (http://holyspirit-shekinah.org/
_/what_became_of_god_the_mother-1.ht
m) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20101123111512/http://holyspirit-shekina
h.org/_/what_became_of_god_the_mother-
1.htm) 23 November 2010 at the Wayback
Machine Signs, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Winter, 1976),
pp. 293–303
137. Coogan, Michael (2010). "6. Fire in Divine
Loins: God's Wives in Myth and Metaphor"
(https://books.google.com/books?id=2_gP
KQEACAAJ&q=god+and+sex) . God and
Sex. What the Bible Really Says (https://arc
hive.org/details/godsexwhatbi00coog/pag
e/175) (1st ed.). New York, Boston:
Twelve. Hachette Book Group. p. 175 (http
s://archive.org/details/godsexwhatbi00coo
g/page/175) . ISBN 978-0-446-54525-9.
Retrieved 5 May 2011. "humans are
modeled on elohim, specifically in their
sexual differences."

138. Boyce 1983, p. 686.

139. Williams, Wesley. “A Body Unlike Bodies:
Transcendent Anthropomorphism in
Ancient Semitic Tradition and Early Islam.”
Journal of the American Oriental Society,
vol. 129, no. 1, 2009, pp. 19–44. JSTOR,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/40593866
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
21118183524/https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/40593866) 18 November 2022 at the
Wayback Machine. Accessed 18 Nov. 2022.

140. Shaman, Nicholas J., Anondah R. Saide,

and Rebekah A. Richert. "Dimensional
structure of and variation in
anthropomorphic concepts of God."
Frontiers in psychology 9 (2018): 1425.
141. Bataille, Georges (1930). "Base Materialism
and Gnosticism". Visions of Excess:
Selected Writings, 1927-1939: 47.

142. Marvin Meyer; Willis Barnstone (30 June

2009). "The Secret Book of John". The
Gnostic Bible (http://gnosis.org/naghamm/
apocjn-meyer.html) . Shambhala. Retrieved
15 October 2021.

143. Denova, Rebecca (9 April 2021).

"Gnosticism" (https://www.worldhistory.or
g/Gnosticism/) . World History
Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15 October 2021.

144. James Cornwell, 2009 Saints, Signs, and

Symbols: The Symbolic Language of
Christian Art ISBN 0-8192-2345-X p. 2
145. Adolphe Napoléon Didron, 2003 Christian
iconography: or The history of Christian art
in the middle ages ISBN 0-7661-4075-X p.
169

146. Arena Chapel, at the top of the triumphal

arch, God sending out the angel of the
Annunciation. See Schiller, I, fig 15

147. Irene Earls, 1987 Renaissance art: a topical

dictionary ISBN 0-313-24658-0 pp. 8, 283

148. Oleg Tarasov, 2004 Icon and devotion:

sacred spaces in Imperial Russia ISBN 1-
86189-118-0 p. 185

149. "Council of Moscow – 1666–1667" (http://g

enuineorthodoxchurch.com/moscow_166
6.htm) . Retrieved 30 December 2016.
150. Robyn Lebron (2012). Searching for
Spiritual Unity...Can There Be Common
Ground?. p. 117. ISBN 978-1-4627-1262-5.

Bibliography
Boyce, Mary (1983), "Ahura Mazdā",
Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 1, New York:
Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 684–687
Bunnin, Nicholas; Yu, Jiyuan (2008). The
Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=LdbxabeT
oQYC) . Blackwells. ISBN 9780470997215.
Pickover, Cliff, The Paradox of God and the
Science of Omniscience, Palgrave/St Martin's
Press, 2001. ISBN 1-4039-6457-2
Collins, Francis, The Language of God: A
Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief, Free
Press, 2006. ISBN 0-7432-8639-1
Miles, Jack, God: A Biography, Vintage, 1996.
ISBN 0-679-74368-5
Armstrong, Karen, A History of God: The
4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and
Islam, Ballantine Books, 1994. ISBN 0-434-
02456-2
Paul Tillich, Systematic Theology, Vol. 1
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951).
ISBN 0-226-80337-6
Halverson, J. (26 April 2010). Theology and
Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim
Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism
(https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IYzGA
 AAAQBAJ) . Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-
10658-1.
Hastings, James Rodney (1925–2003)
[1908–26]. Encyclopedia of Religion and
Ethics. John A Selbie (Volume 4 of 24
(Behistun (continued) to Bunyan.) ed.).
Edinburgh: Kessinger Publishing, LLC. p. 476.
ISBN 978-0-7661-3673-1. "The encyclopedia
will contain articles on all the religions of the
world and on all the great systems of ethics.
It will aim at containing articles on every
religious belief or custom, and on every
ethical movement, every philosophical idea,
every moral practice."

External links
God
 at Wikipedia's sister projects

Definitions
from
Wiktionary
Media from
Commons
News from
Wikinews
Quotations
from
Wikiquote
Resources
from
Wikiversity

Concept of God in Christianity (http://w

ww.armatabianca.org/eng/padre.php?s
ottomenu=4)
Concept of God in Islam (http://www.isl
am-info.ch/en/Who_is_Allah.htm)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0190421081921/http://www.islam-info.
ch/en/Who_is_Allah.htm) 21 April 2019
at the Wayback Machine
God Christian perspective (http://www.al
laboutgod.com/)
Hindu Concept of God (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20030504073425/http://ww
w.shaivam.org/hipgodco.htm)
Jewish Literacy (http://www.aish.com/lit
eracy/concepts/Understanding_God.as
p) Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20101219080545/http://www.aish.co
m/literacy/concepts/Understanding_Go
 d.asp) 19 December 2010 at the
Wayback Machine

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=God&oldid=1154636494"

This page was last edited on 13 May 2023, at

18:13 (UTC). •
Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless
otherwise noted.