Abstract :Automatic Light Control System is a simple yet powerful concept, which uses transistor

as a switch. By using this system manual works are 100% removed. It automatically
switches ON lights when the sunlight goes below the visible region of our eyes. This is
done by a sensor called Light Dependant Resistor (LDR) which senses the light actually
like our eyes. It automatically switches OFF lights whenever the sunlight comes, visible to
our eyes.
By using this system energy consumption is also reduced because nowadays the manually
operated street lights are not switched off even the sunlight comes and also switched on
earlier before sunset. In this project, no need of manual operation like ON time and OFF
time setting.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Light sensing device:

A Light Sensor generates an output signal indicating the intensity of light by measuring
the radiant energy that exists in a very narrow range of frequencies basically called
"light", and which ranges in frequency from "Infrared" to "Visible" up to "Ultraviolet"
light spectrum. The light sensor is a passive devices that convert this "light energy"
whether visible or in the infrared parts of the spectrum into an electrical signal output.
Light sensors are more commonly known as "Photoelectric Devices" or "Photo Sensors"
becuse the convert light energy (photons) into electricity (electrons).
Photoelectric devices can be grouped into two main categories, those which generate
electricity when illuminated, such as Photo-voltaics or Photo-emissives etc, and those
which change their electrical properties in some way such as Photo-resistors or Photoconductors. This leads to the following classification of devices.

Photo-emissive Cells - These are photodevices which release free electrons from a
light sensitive material such as caesium when struck by a photon of sufficient
energy. The amount of energy the photons have depends on the frequency of the
light and the higher the frequency, the more energy the photons have converting
light energy into electrical energy.

Photo-conductive Cells - These photodevices vary their electrical resistance when

subjected to light. Photoconductivity results from light hitting a semiconductor
material which controls the current flow through it. Thus, more light increase the
current for a given applied voltage. The most common photoconductive material is
Cadmium Sulphide used in LDR photocells.

Photo-voltaic Cells - These photodevices generate an emf in proportion to the

radiant light energy received and is similar in effect to photoconductivity. Light
energy falls on to two semiconductor materials sandwiched together creating a

voltage of approximately 0.5V. The most common photovoltaic material is

Selenium used in solar cells.

Photo-junction Devices - These photodevices are mainly true semiconductor

devices such as the photodiode or phototransistor which use light to control the
flow of electrons and holes across their PN-junction. Photojunction devices are
specifically designed for detector application and light penetration with their
spectral response tuned to the wavelength of incident light.

The Photoconductive Cell

A Photoconductive light sensor does not produce electricity but simply changes its
physical properties when subjected to light energy. The most common type of
photoconductive device is the Photoresistor which changes its electrical resistance in
response to changes in the light intensity. Photoresistors are Semiconductor devices that
use light energy to control the flow of electrons, and hence the current flowing through
them. The commonly used Photoconductive Cell is called the Light Dependent Resistor
or LDR.
The Light Dependent Resistor

Typical LDR
As its name implies, the Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is made from a piece of
exposed semiconductor material such as cadmium sulphide that changes its electrical

resistance from several thousand Ohms in the dark to only a few hundred Ohms when
light falls upon it by creating hole-electron pairs in the material.
The net effect is an improvement in its conductivity with a decrease in resistance for an
increase in illumination. Also, photoresistive cells have a long response time requiring
many seconds to respond to a change in the light intensity.
Materials used as the semiconductor substrate include, lead sulphide (PbS), lead selenide
(PbSe), indium antimonide (InSb) which detect light in the infra-red range with the most
commonly used of all photoresistive light sensors being Cadmium Sulphide (Cds).
Cadmium sulphide is used in the manufacture of photoconductive cells because its
spectral response curve closely matches that of the human eye and can even be controlled
using a simple torch as a light source. Typically then, it has a peak sensitivity wavelength
(p) of about 560nm to 600nm in the visible spectral range.
The Light Dependent Resistor Cell

The most commonly used photoresistive light sensor is the ORP12 Cadmium Sulphide
photoconductive cell. This light dependent resistor has a spectral response of about 610nm
in the yellow to orange region of light. The resistance of the cell when unilluminated (dark
resistance) is very high at about 10M's which falls to about 100's when fully
illuminated (lit resistance).
To increase the dark resistance and therefore reduce the dark current, the resistive path
forms a zigzag pattern across the ceramic substrate. The CdS photocell is a very low cost
device often used in auto dimming, darkness or twilight detection for turning the street
lights "ON" and "OFF", and for photographic exposure meter type applications.

Connecting a light dependant resistor in series with a standard resistor like this across a
single DC supply voltage has one major advantage, a different voltage will appear at their
junction for different levels of light.
The amount of voltage drop across series resistor, R2 is determined by the resistive value
of the light dependant resistor, RLDR. This ability to generate different voltages produces a
very handy circuit called a "Potential Divider" or Voltage Divider Network.
As we know, the current through a series circuit is common and as the LDR changes its
resistive value due to the light intensity, the voltage present at VOUT will be determined by
the voltage divider formula. An LDRs resistance, RLDR can vary from about 100's in the

sun light, to over 10M's in absolute darkness with this variation of resistance being
converted into a voltage variation at VOUT as shown.
One simple use of a Light Dependent Resistor, is as a light sensitive switch as shown
below.

LDR Switch
This basic light sensor circuit is of a relay output light activated switch. A potential divider
circuit is formed between the photoresistor, LDR and the resistor R1. When no light is
present ie in darkness, the resistance of the LDR is very high in the Megaohms range so
zero base bias is applied to the transistor TR1 and the relay is de-energised or "OFF".
As the light level increases the resistance of the LDR starts to decrease causing the base
bias voltage at V1 to rise. At some point determined by the potential divider network
formed with resistor R1, the base bias voltage is high enough to turn the transistor TR1
"ON" and thus activate the relay which inturn is used to control some external circuitry.
As the light level falls back to darkness again the resistance of the LDR increases causing
the base voltage of the transistor to decrease, turning the transistor and relay "OFF" at a
fixed light level determined again by the potential divider network.
By replacing the fixed resistor R1 with a potentiometer VR1, the point at which the relay
turns "ON" or "OFF" can be pre-set to a particular light level. This type of simple circuit
shown above has a fairly low sensitivity and its switching point may not be consistent due
to variations in either temperature or the supply voltage. A more sensitive precision light

activated circuit can be easily made by incorporating the LDR into a "Wheatstone Bridge"
arrangement and replacing the transistor with an Operational Amplifier as shown.
Light Level Sensing Circuit

In this basic dark sensing circuit, the light dependent resistor LDR1 and the potentiometer
VR1 form one adjustable arm of a simple resistance bridge network, also known
commomly as a Wheatstone bridge, while the two fixed resistors R1 and R2 form the
other arm. Both sides of the bridge form potential divider networks across the supply
voltage whose outputs V1 and V2 are connected to the non-inverting and inverting voltage
inputs respectively of the operational amplifier.
The operational amplifier is configured as a Differential Amplifier also known as a
voltage comparator with feedback whose output voltage condition is determined by the
difference between the two input signals or voltages, V1 and V2. The resistor combination
R1 and R2 form a fixed voltage reference at input V2, set by the ratio of the two resistors.
The LDR - VR1 combination provides a variable voltage input V1 proportional to the
light lvel being detected by the photoresistor.
As with the previous circuit the output from the operational amplifier is used to control a
relay, which is protected by a free wheel diode, D1. When the light level sensed by the
LDR and its output voltage falls below the reference voltage set at V2 the output from the
op-amp changes state activating the relay and switching the connected load. Likewise as

the light level increases the output will switch back turning "OFF" the relay. The
hysteresis of the two switching points is set by the feedback resistor Rf can be chosen to
give any suitable voltage gain of the amplifier.
The operation of this type of light sensor circuit can also be reversed to switch the relay
"ON" when the light level exceeds the reference voltage level and vice versa by reversing
the positions of the light sensor LDR and the potentiometer VR1. The potentiometer can
be used to "pre-set" the switching point of the differential amplifier to any particular light
level making it ideal as a simple light sensor project circuit.
Photojunction Devices
Photojunction Devices are basically PN-Junction light sensors or detectors made from
silicon semiconductor PN-junctions which are sensitive to light and which can detect both
visible light and infrared light levels. Photo-junction devices are specifically made for
sensing light and this class of photoelectric light sensors include the Photodiode and the
Phototransistor.
The Photodiode.

Photo-diode
The construction of the Photodiode light sensor is similar to that of a conventional PNjunction diode except that the diodes outer casing is either transparent or has a clear lens
to focus the light onto the PN junction for increased sensitivity. The junction will respond
to light particularly longer wavelengths such as red and infrared rather than visible light.

This characteristic can be a problem for diodes with transparent or glass bead bodies such
as the 1N4148 signal diode. LED's can also be used as photodiodes as they can both emit
and detect light from their junction. All PN-junctions are light sensitive and can be used in
a photo-conductive unbiased voltage mode with the PN-junction of the photodiode always
"Reverse Biased" so that only the diodes leakage or dark current can flow.
The current-voltage characteristic (I/V Curves) of a photodiode with no light on its
junction (dark mode) is very similar to a normal signal or rectifying diode. When the
photodiode is forward biased, there is an exponential increase in the current, the same as
for a normal diode. When a reverse bias is applied, a small reverse saturation current
appears which causes an increase of the depletion region, which is the sensitive part of the
junction. Photodiodes can also be connected in a current mode using a fixed bias voltage
across the junction. The current mode is very linear over a wide range.
Photo-diode Construction and Characteristics

When used as a light sensor, a photodiodes dark current (0 lux) is about 10uA for
geranium and 1uA for silicon type diodes. When light falls upon the junction more
hole/electron pairs are formed and the leakage current increases. This leakage current
increases as the illumination of the junction increases. Thus, the photodiodes current is
directly proportional to light intensity falling onto the PN-junction. One main advantage
of photodiodes when used as light sensors is their fast response to changes in the light
levels, but one disadvantage of this type of photodevice is the relatively small current flow
even when fully lit.
The following circuit shows a photo-current-to-voltage convertor circuit using an
operational amplifier as the amplifying device. The output voltage (Vout) is given as Vout
= Ip Rf and which is proportional to the light intensity characteristics of the photodiode.
This type of circuit also utilizes the characteristics of an operational amplifier with two
input terminals at about zero voltage to operate the photodiode without bias. This zerobias op-amp configuration gives a high impedance loading to the photodiode resulting in
less influence by dark current and a wider linear range of the photocurrent relative to the
radiant light intensity. Capacitor Cf is used to prevent oscillation or gain peaking and to set
the output bandwidth (1/2RC).
Photo-diode Amplifier Circuit

Photodiodes are very versatile light sensors that can turn its current flow both "ON" and
"OFF" in nanoseconds and are commonly used in cameras, light meters, CD and DVDROM drives, TV remote controls, scanners, fax machines and copiers etc, and when
integrated into operational amplifier circuits as infrared spectrum detectors for fibre optic
communications, burglar alarm motion detection circuits and numerous imaging, laser
scanning and positioning systems etc.
The Phototransistor

Photo-transistor
An alternative photo-junction device to the photodiode is the Phototransistor which is
basically a photodiode with amplification. The Phototransistor light sensor has its
collector-base PN-junction reverse biased exposing it to the radiant light source.
Phototransistors operate the same as the photodiode except that they can provide current
gain and are much more sensitive than the photodiode with currents are 50 to 100 times
greater than that of the standard photodiode and any normal transistor can be easily
converted into a phototransistor light sensor by connecting a photodiode between the
collector and base.
Phototransistors consist mainly of a bipolar NPN Transistor with its large base region
electrically unconnected, although some phototransistors allow a base connection to
control the sensitivity, and which uses photons of light to generate a base current which
inturn causes a collector to emitter current to flow. Most phototransistors are NPN types

whose outer casing is either transparent or has a clear lens to focus the light onto the base
junction for increased sensitivity.
Photo-transistor Construction and Characteristics

In the NPN transistor the collector is biased positively with respect to the emitter so that
the base/collector junction is reverse biased. therefore, with no light on the junction
normal leakage or dark current flows which is very small. When light falls on the base
more electron/hole pairs are formed in this region and the current produced by this action
is amplified by the transistor.
Usually the sensitivity of a phototransistor is a function of the DC current gain of the
transistor. Therefore, the overall sensitivity is a function of collector current and can be
controlled by connecting a resistance between the base and the emitter but for very high
sensitivity optocoupler type applications, Darlington phototransistors are generally used.

Photo-darlington
Photodarlington transistors use a second bipolar NPN transistor to provide additional
amplification or when higher sensitivity of a photodetector is required due to low light
levels or selective sensitivity, but its response is slower than that of an ordinary NPN
phototransistor.
Photo darlington devices consist of a normal phototransistor whose emitter output is
coupled to the base of a larger bipolar NPN transistor. Because a darlington transistor
configuration gives a current gain equal to a product of the current gains of two individual
transistors, a photodarlington device produces a very sensitive detector.
Typical applications of Phototransistors light sensors are in opto-isolators, slotted opto
switches, light beam sensors, fibre optics and TV type remote controls, etc. Infrared filters
are sometimes required when detecting visible light.
Another type of photojunction semiconductor light sensor worth a mention is the Photothyristor. This is a light activated thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier, SCR that can
be used as a light activated switch in AC applications. However their sensitivity is usually
very low compared to equivalent photodiodes or phototransistors. To increase their
sensitivity to light photo-thyristors are made thinner around the gate junction. The
downside to this process is that it limits the amount of anode current that they can switch.
Then for higher current AC applications they are used as pilot devices in opto-couplers to
switch larger more conventional thyristors.

Photovoltaic Cells.
The most common type of photovoltaic light sensor is the Solar Cell. Solar cells convert
light energy directly into DC electrical energy in the form of a voltage or current to a
resistive load such as a light, battery or motor. Then photovoltaic cells are similar to a
battery because they supply DC power. Unlike the other photo devices above which use
light intensity even from a torch to operate, photvoltaic cells work best using the suns
radiant energy.
Solar cells are used in many different types of applications to offer an alternative power
source from conventional batteries, such as in calculators, satellites and now in homes
offering a form of renewable power.

Photovoltaic Cell
Photovoltaic cells are made from single crystal silicon PN junctions, the same as
photodiodes with a very large light sensitive region but are used without the reverse bias.
They have the same characteristics as a very large photodiode when in the dark. When
illuminated the light energy causes electrons to flow through the PN junction and an
individual solar cell can generate an open circuit voltage of about 0.58v (580mV). Solar
cells have a "Positive" and a "Negative" side just like a battery.
Individual solar cells can be connected together in series to form solar panels which
increases the output voltage or connected together in parallel to increase the available
current. Commercially available solar panels are rated in Watts, which is the product of
the output voltage and current (Volts times Amps) when fully lit.

Characteristics of a typical Photovoltaic Solar Cell.

The amount of available current from a solar cell depends upon the light intensity, the size
of the cell and its efficiency which is generally very low at around 15 to 20%. To increase
the overall efficiency of the cell commercially available solar cells use polycrystalline
silicon or amorphous silicon, which have no crystalline structure, and can generate
currents of between 20 to 40mA per cm2.
Other materials used in the construction of photovoltaic cells include Gallium Arsenide,
Copper Indium Diselenide and Cadmium Telluride. These different materials each have a
different spectrum band response, and so can be "tuned" to produce an output voltage at
different wavelengths of light.
In this tutorial about Light Sensors, we have looked at several examples of devices that
are classed as Light Sensors. This includes those with and those without PN-junctions
that can be used to measure the intensity of light. In the next tutorial we will look at output
devices called Actuators. Actuators convert an electrical signal into a corresponding
physical quantity such as movement, force, or sound. One such commonly used output
device is the Electromagnetic Relay.

A photoresistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) is a resistor whose resistance

decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits
photoconductivity.
A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is
of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons
enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its hole
partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has
its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, for example, silicon. In
intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon
must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic
devices have impurities, also called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to
the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons
(that is, longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a
sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there
will be extra electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic
semiconductor. Photoresistors are basically photocells.
LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor
circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1000 000
ohms, but when they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically.

When the light level is low the resistance of the LDR is high. This prevents current
from flowing to the base of the transistors. Consequently the LED does not light.
However, when light shines onto the LDR its resistance falls and current flows into the
base of the first transistor and then the second transistor. The LED lights.

Here in our project to avoid the light from led to fall on to LDR we place a box in
which we will keep our jewelry. If any one removes the box the light from led falls
directly on to the LDR and then the transistor will be on which is monitored by the
microcontroller.
Light-emitting diode (LED)
Light-emitting diodes are elements for light signalization in electronics. They are
manufactured in different shapes, colors and sizes. For their low price, low consumption
and simple use, they have almost completely pushed aside other light sources- bulbs at
first place. They perform similar to common diodes with the difference that they emit light
when current flows through them.

\
It is important to know that each diode will be immediately destroyed unless its current is
limited. This means that a conductor must be connected in parallel to a diode. In order to
correctly determine value of this conductor, it is necessary to know diodes voltage drop in
forward direction, which depends on what material a diode is made of and what colour it
is. Values typical for the most frequently used diodes are shown in table below: As seen,
there are three main types of LEDs. Standard ones get ful brightness at current of 20mA.
Low Current diodes get ful brightness at ten times lower current while Super Bright
diodes produce more intensive light than Standard ones.

Since the 8051 microcontrollers can provide only low input current and since their pins
are configured as outputs when voltage level on them is equal to 0, direct connectining to

LEDs is carried out as it is shown on figure (Low current LED, cathode is connected to
output pin).
Transistor:A bipolar junction transistor (BJT or bipolar transistor) is a type of transistor
that relies on the contact of two types of semiconductor for its operation. BJTs can be used
as amplifiers, switches, or in oscillators. BJTs can be found either as individual discrete
components, or in large numbers as parts of integrated circuits.
Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes.
These two kinds of charge carriers are characteristic of the two kinds of doped
semiconductor material. In contrast, unipolar transistors such as the field-effect transistors
have only one kind of charge carrier.
Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction
between two regions of different charge concentrations. The regions of a BJT are called
emitter, collector, and base. A discrete transistor has three leads for connection to these
regions. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected
from a high-concentration emitter into the base where there are minority carriers that
diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier devices.

PNP

NPN

Schematic symbols for

PNP- and NPN-type
BJTs.

In our circuit we used BC 557 & BC 547

Zener diode:A Zener diode is a diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the
same manner as an ideal diode, but will also permit it to flow in the reverse direction
when the voltage is above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage, "zener knee
voltage", "zener voltage" or "avalanche point".
The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property.
Many diodes described as "zener" diodes rely instead on avalanche breakdown as the
mechanism. Both types are used. Common applications include providing a reference
voltage for voltage regulators, or to protect other semiconductor devices from momentary
voltage pulses.

Zener diode symbol

RELAYS:
Thus far we have seen a selection of Input devices that can be used to detect or
"sense" a variety of physical variables and signals and are therefore called Sensors. But
there are also a variety of devices which are classed as Output devices used to control or
operate some external physical process. These output devices are commonly called
Actuators.
Actuators convert an electrical signal into a corresponding physical quantity such as
movement, force, sound etc. An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one type
of physical quantity into another and is usually activated or operated by a low voltage
command signal. Actuators can be classed as either binary or continuous devices based
upon the number of stable states their output has.
For example, a relay is a binary actuator as it has two stable states, either energised and
latched or de-energised and unlatched, while a motor is a continuous actuator because it
can rotate through a full 360o motion. The most common types of actuators or output
devices are Electrical Relays, Lights, Motors and Loudspeakers and in this tutorial we
will look at electrical relays, also called electromechanical relays and solid state relays or
SSR's.
The Electromechanical Relay
The term Relay generally refers to a device that provides an electrical connection between
two or more points in response to the application of a control signal. The most common
and widely used type of electrical relay is the electromechanical relay or EMR.

Electrical Relay
The most fundamental control of any equipment is the ability to turn it "ON" and "OFF".
The easiest way to do this is using switches to interrupt the electrical supply. Although
switches can be used to control something, they have their disadvantages. The biggest one
is that they have to be manually (physically) turned "ON" or "OFF". Also, they are
relatively large, slow and only switch small electrical currents.
Electrical Relays however, are basically electrically operated switches that come in many
shapes, sizes and power ratings suitable for all types of applications. Relays can also have
single or multiple contacts with the larger power relays used for high voltage or current
switching being called "contactors".
In this tutorial about electrical relays we are just concerned with the fundamental
operating principles of "light duty" electromechanical relays we can use in motor control
or robotic circuits. Such relays are used in general electrical and electronic control or
switching circuits either mounted directly onto PCB boards or connected free standing and
in which the load currents are normally fractions of an ampere up to 20+ amperes.
As their name implies, electromechanical relays are electro-magnetic devices that convert
a magnetic flux generated by the application of a low voltage electrical control signal
either AC or DC across the relay terminals, into a pulling mechanical force which operates
the electrical contacts within the relay. The most common form of electromechanical relay
consist of an energizing coil called the "primary circuit" wound around a permeable iron
core.

This iron core has both a fixed portion called the yoke, and a moveable spring loaded part
called the armature, that completes the magnetic field circuit by closing the air gap
between the fixed electrical coil and the moveable armature. The armature is hinged or
pivoted allowing it to freely move within the generated magnetic field closing the
electrical contacts that are attached to it. Connected between the yoke and armature is
normally a spring (or springs) for the return stroke to "reset" the contacts back to their
initial rest position when the relay coil is in the "de-energized" condition, ie. turned
"OFF".
Electromechanical Relay Construction

In our simple relay above, we have two sets of electrically conductive contacts. Relays
may be "Normally Open", or "Normally Closed". One pair of contacts are classed as
Normally Open, (NO) or make contacts and another set which are classed as Normally
Closed, (NC) or break contacts. In the normally open position, the contacts are closed
only when the field current is "ON" and the switch contacts are pulled towards the
inductive coil.
In the normally closed position, the contacts are permanently closed when the field current
is "OFF" as the switch contacts return to their normal position. These terms Normally

Open, Normally Closed or Make and Break Contacts refer to the state of the electrical
contacts when the relay coil is "de-energized", i.e, no supply voltage connected to the
inductive coil. An example of this arrangement is given below.

The relays contacts are electrically conductive pieces of metal which touch together
completing a circuit and allow the circuit current to flow, just like a switch. When the
contacts are open the resistance between the contacts is very high in the Mega-Ohms,
producing an open circuit condition and no circuit current flows.
When the contacts are closed the contact resistance should be zero, a short circuit, but this
is not always the case. All relay contacts have a certain amount of "contact resistance"
when they are closed and this is called the "On-Resistance", similar to FET's.
With a new relay and contacts this ON-resistance will be very small, generally less than
0.2's because the tips are new and clean, but over time the tip resistance will increase.
For example. If the contacts are passing a load current of say 10A, then the voltage drop
across the contacts using Ohms Law is 0.2 x 10 = 2 volts, which if the supply voltage is
say 12 volts then the load voltage will be only 10 volts (12 - 2). As the contact tips begin
to wear, and if they are not properly protected from high inductive or capacitive loads,
they will start to show signs of arcing damage as the circuit current still wants to flow as
the contacts begin to open when the relay coil is de-energized.

This arcing or sparking across the contacts will cause the contact resistance of the tips to
increase further as the contact tips become damaged. If allowed to continue the contact
tips may become so burnt and damaged to the point were they are physically closed but do
not pass any or very little current.
If this arcing damage becomes to severe the contacts will eventually "weld" together
producing a short circuit condition and possible damage to the circuit they are controlling.
If now the contact resistance has increased due to arcing to say 1's the volt drop across
the contacts for the same load current increases to 1 x 10 = 10 volts dc. This high voltage
drop across the contacts may be unacceptable for the load circuit especially if operating at
12 or even 24 volts, then the faulty relay will have to be replaced.
To reduce the effects of contact arcing and high "On-resistances", modern contact tips are
made of, or coated with, a variety of silver based alloys to extend their life span as given
in the following table.
Contact Tip Materials
Contact
Material

Tip

Characteristics
Electrical and thermal conductivity are the highest of all

Ag

metals, exhibits low contact resistance, is inexpensive and

(fine silver)

widely

used.

Contacts tarnish through sulphur influence.

AgCu

"Hard silver", better wear resistance and less tendency to

(silver copper)

weld, but slightly higher contact resistance.

AgCdO

Very little tendency to weld, good wear resistance and arc

(silver cadmium oxide) extinguishing properties.

AgW

Hardness and melting point are high, arc resistance is

(silver tungsten)

excellent.
Not

precious

metal.

High

contact

pressure

is

required.

Contact resistance is relatively high, and resistance to

corrosion is poor.
AgNi

Equals the electrical conductivity of silver, excellent arc

(silver nickel)

resistance.

AgPd

Low

(silver palladium)

Expensive.

platinum,

gold

silver alloys

contact

wear,

greater

hardness.

and Excellent corrosion resistance, used mainly for low-current

circuits.

Relay manufacturers data sheets give maximum contact ratings for resistive DC loads
only and this rating is greatly reduced for either AC loads or highly inductive or capacitive
loads. In order to achieve long life and high reliability when switching AC currents with
inductive or capacitive loads some form of arc suppression or filtering is required across
the relay contacts.
Extending the life of relay tips by reducing the amount of arcing generated as they open is
achieved by connecting a Resistor-Capacitor network called an RC Snubber Network
electrically in parallel with the contact tips. The voltage peak, which occurs at the instant
the contacts open, will be safely short circuited by the RC network, thus suppressing any
arc generated at the contact tips. For example.

Relay Snubber Circuit

Relay Contact Types.

As well as the standard descriptions of Normally Open, (NO) and Normally Closed, (NC)
used to describe how the relays contacts are connected, relay contact arrangements can
also be classed by their actions. Electrical relays can be made up of one or more individual
switch contacts with each "contact" being referred to as a "pole". Each one of these
contacts or poles can be connected or "thrown" together by energizing the relays coil and
this gives rise to the description of the contact types as being:
SPST

Single

Pole

Single

Throw

SPDT

Single

Pole

Double

Throw

DPST

Double

Single

Throw

Pole

DPDT - Double Pole Double Throw

with the action of the contacts being described as "Make" (M) or "Break" (B). Then a
simple relay with one set of contacts as shown above can have a contact description of:
"Single Pole Double Throw - (Break before Make)", or SPDT - (B-M).

Examples of just some of the more common contact types for relays in circuit or
schematic diagrams is given below but there are many more possible configurations.
Relay Contact Configurations

Where:

C is the Common terminal

NO is the Normally Open contact

NC is the Normally Closed contact

One final point to remember, it is not advisable to connect relay contacts in parallel to
handle higher load currents. For example, never attempt to supply a 10A load with two
relays in parallel that have 5A contact ratings each as the relay contacts never close or
open at exactly the same instant of time, so one relay contact is always overloaded.
While relays can be used to allow low power electronic or computer type circuits to
switch a relatively high currents or voltages both "ON" or "OFF". Never mix different
load voltages through adjacent contacts within the same relay such as for example, high
voltage AC (240v) and low voltage DC (12v), always use sperate relays for safety.
One of the more important parts of any relay is the coil. This converts electrical current
into an electromagnetic flux which is used to operate the relays contacts. The main
problem with relay coils is that they are "highly inductive loads" as they are made from
coils of wire. Any coil of wire has an impedance value made up of resistance ( R ) and
inductance ( L ) in series (RL Series Circuit).

As the current flows through the coil a self induced magnetic field is generated around it.
When the current in the coil is turned "OFF", a large back emf (electromotive force)
voltage is produced as the magnetic flux collapses within the coil (transformer theory).
This induced reverse voltage value may be very high in comparison to the switching
voltage, and may damage any semiconductor device such as a transistor, FET or
microcontroller used to operate the relay coil.

One way of preventing damage to the transistor or any switching semiconductor device, is
to connect a reverse biased diode across the relay coil.
When the current flowing through the coil is switched "OFF", an induced back emf is
generated as the magnetic flux collapses in the coil.
This reverse voltage forward biases the diode which conducts and dissipates the stored
energy preventing any damage to the semiconductor transistor.
When used in this type of application the diode is generally known as a Flywheel Diode,
Free-wheeling Diode and even Fly-back Diode, but they all mean the same thing. Other
types of inductive loads which require a flywheel diode for protection are solenoids,
motors and inductive coils.

As well as using flywheel Diodes for protection of semiconductor components, other

devices used for protection include RC Snubber Networks, Metal Oxide Varistors or
MOV and Zener Diodes.
The Solid State Relay.
While the electromechanical relay (EMR) are inexpensive, easy to use and allow the
switching of a load circuit controlled by a low power, electrically isolated input signal,
one of the main disadvantages of an electromechanical relay is that it is a "mechanical
device", that is it has moving parts so their switching speed (response time) due to
physically movement of the metal contacts using a magnetic field is slow.
Over a period of time these moving parts will wear out and fail, or that the contact
resistance through the constant arcing and erosion may make the relay unusable and
shortens its life. Also, they are electrically noisy with the contacts suffering from contact
bounce which may affect any electronic circuits to which they are connected.
To overcome these disadvantages of the electrical relay, another type of relay called a
Solid State Relay or (SSR) for short was developed which is a solid state contactless,
pure electronic relay. It has no moving parts with the contacts being replaced by
transistors, thyristors or triacs. The electrical separation between the input control signal
and the output load voltage is accomplished with the aid of an opto-coupler type Light
Sensor.
The Solid State Relay provides a high degree of reliability, long life and reduced
electromagnetic interference (EMI), (no arcing contacts or magnetic fields), together with
a much faster almost instant response time, as compared to the conventional
electromechanical relay. Also the input control power requirements of the solid state relay
are generally low enough to make them compatible with most IC logic families without
the need for additional buffers, drivers or amplifiers. However, being a semiconductor
device they must be mounted onto suitable heatsinks to prevent the output switching
semiconductor device from over heating.

Solid State Relay

The AC type Solid State Relay turns "ON" at the zero crossing point of the AC sinusoidal
waveform, prevents high inrush currents when switching inductive or capacitive loads
while the inherent turn "OFF" feature of Thyristors and Triacs provides an improvement
over the arcing contacts of the electromechanical relays.
Like the electromechanical relays, a Resistor-Capacitor (RC) snubber network is generally
required across the output terminals of the SSR to protect the semiconductor output
switching device from noise and voltage transient spikes when used to switch highly
inductive or capacitive loads. In most modern SSR's this RC snubber network is built as
standard into the relay itself reducing the need for additional external components.
Non-zero crossing detection switching (instant "ON") type SSR's are also available for
phase controlled applications such as the dimming or fading of lights at concerts, shows,
disco lighting etc, or for motor speed control type applications.
As the output switching device of a solid state relay is a semiconductor device (Transistor
for DC switching applications, or a Triac/Thyristor combination for AC switching), the
voltage drop across the output terminals of an SSR when "ON" is much higher than that of
the electromechanical relay, typically 1.5 - 2.0 volts. If switching large currents for long
periods of time an additional heat sink will be required.

Input/Output Interface Modules.

Input/Output Interface Modules, (I/O Modules) are another type of solid state relay
designed specifically to interface computers, micro-controller or PIC's to "real world"
loads and switches. There are four basic types of I/O modules available, AC or DC Input
voltage to TTL or CMOS logic level output, and TTL or CMOS logic input to an AC or
DC Output voltage with each module containing all the necessary circuitry to provide a
complete interface and isolation within one small device. They are available as individual
solid state modules or integrated into 4, 8 or 16 channel devices.
Modular Input/Output Interface System.

The main disadvantages of solid state relays (SSR's) compared to that of an equivalent
wattage electromechanical relay is their higher costs, the fact that only single pole single
throw (SPST) types are available, "OFF"-state leakage currents flow through the
switching device, high "ON"-state voltage drop and power dissipation resulting in
additional heat sinking requirements. Also they can not switch very small load currents or
high frequency signals such as audio or video signals although special Solid State
Switches are available for this type of application.

In this tutorial about Electrical Relays, we have looked at both the electromechanical
relay and the solid state relay which can be used as an output device (actuator) to control a
physical process. In the next tutorial we will continue our look at output devices called
Actuators and especially one that converts a small electrical signal into a corresponding
physical movement using electromagnetism.

Fig: Circuit symbol of a relay

Operation:
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core,
an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron
armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The
armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving
contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an
air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the

relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer
sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire
connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the
moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB)
via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
activates the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either
makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the
set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the
contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the
current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half
as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a
spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high
voltage or current application it reduces arcing.
When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would
otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some
automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection
network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may absorb the
surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper
"shading ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase
current which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.[1]
A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the
control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (a lightemitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and
controlled circuits.

Fig: Relay Operation and use of protection diodes

Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage 'spike' produced
when the relay coil is switched off. The above diagram shows how a signal diode (eg
1N4148) is connected across the relay coil to provide this protection. The diode is
connected 'backwards' so that it will normally not conduct. Conduction occurs only when
the relay coil is switched off, at this moment the current tries to flow continuously through
the coil and it is safely diverted through the diode. Without the diode no current could
flow and the coil would produce a damaging high voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep the
current flowing.
In choosing a relay, the following characteristics need to be considered:
1. The contacts can be normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC). In the NC type, the
contacts are closed when the coil is not energized. In the NO type, the contacts are closed
when the coil is energized.
2. There can be one or more contacts. i.e., different types like SPST (single pole single
throw), SPDT (single pole double throw) and DPDT (double pole double throw) relays.

3. The voltage and current required to energize the coil. The voltage can vary from a few
volts to 50 volts, while the current can be from a few milliamps to 20milliamps. The relay
has a minimum voltage, below which the coil will not be energized. This minimum
voltage is called the pull-in voltage.
4. The minimum DC/AC voltage and current that can be handled by the contacts. This is
in the range of a few volts to hundreds of volts, while the current can be from a few amps
to 40A or more, depending on the relay.

Block Diagram of Power Supply:

Step
down
T/F

Bridge
Rectifier

Filter
Circuit

Regulator
Power supply to all sections

POWER SUPPLY:
The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e.,
230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a
rectifier. The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to
get a pure d.c voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any
a.c components present even after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage
regulator to obtain a pure constant dc voltage.

Circuit Diagram of Regulated Power Supply

230V AC
50Hz

D.C
Output

Step down

Bridge

transformer

Rectifier

Filter

Regulator

Fig: Power supply

Transformer:
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling
between its winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying
magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through the

secondary winding. This varying magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force
(emf) or voltage in the secondary winding.
Transformers range in size from thumbnail-sized used in microphones to units weighing
hundreds of tons interconnecting the power grid. A wide range of transformer designs are
used in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers are essential for the
transmission, distribution, and utilization of electrical energy.
Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these
voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c
input available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required
voltage level. This is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to
decrease the voltage to a required level.

Rectifier:
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit
configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When
used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input
into a direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier
provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and

weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a centertapped secondary winding. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits
like good stability and full wave rectification.

Filter:
Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions,
specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance
wanted ones, or both. Electronic filters can be:

passive or active

analog or digital

high-pass, low-pass, bandpass, band-reject (band reject; notch), or all-pass.

discrete-time (sampled) or continuous-time

linear or non-linear

infinite impulse response (IIR type) or finite impulse response (FIR type)
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of

rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output

received from this filter is constant until the

mains voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied,
D.C. voltage received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output
stage.

Voltage regulator:

As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A

voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant

voltage level. In this project, power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain
these voltage levels, 7805 and 7812 voltage regulators are to be used. The first number 78
represents positive supply and the numbers 05, 12 represent the required output voltage
levels.

7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear
voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not
give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a

constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide.
7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be
connected at input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels.

Pin Diagram:

Pin Description:

Pin
No
1

Function

Name

Input voltage (5V-18V)

Input

2
3

Ground (0V)
Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V)

Ground
Output

WORKING PROCEDURE:
voltage regulator ICs (78xx se- ries) provide a steady output voltage, as against a
widely fluctuating input supply, when the common terminal is grounded. Any voltage
about zero volt (ground) con- nected in the common terminal is add- ed to the output
voltage. That means the increase in the common terminal voltage is reflected at the
output. On the other hand, if the common terminal is disconnected from the ground, the
full input voltage is available at the output.
This characteristic is utilised in the present circuit. When the common terminal is
connected to the ground, the regulator output is equivalent to the rated voltage, and
as soon as the terminal is disconnected from the ground, the output increases up to
the input voltage. The common terminal is control- led by a transistor, which works as
a switch on the terminal. For automatic control of light, a light-dependent re- sistor
(LDR1) is connected to the base of the transistor. In this way, the volt- age regulator is
able to operate a light bulb automatically as per the ambient light.
To derive the power supply for the circuit, the 50Hz, 230V AC mains is stepped
down by transformer X1 to deliver a secondary output of 12V, 250 mA. The secondary
output of the transformer is applied to a bridge rec- tifier comprising diodes D1 through
D4, filtered by capacitor C1 and fed to the input terminal of the regulator (IC1). The
common terminal (pin 2) of IC1 is connected to the ground line of the circuit through
transistor BC557 (T1). The transistor is biased by R2, R3, VR1 and LDR1. The
grounding of IC1 is controlled by transistor T1, while light is sensed by LDR1. Using
preset VR1, you can adjust the light-sensing level of transistor T1.
The output of IC1 is fed to the base of transistor T2 (through resistor R4 and zener
diode ZD1) and relay RL1. LED1 connected across the positive and ground supply
lines acts as a power-on indicator. Normally, the resistance of LDR1 is low during
daytime and high dur- ing nighttime. During daytime, when light falls on LDR1, pnp
transistor T1 conducts. The common terminal of IC1 connects to the ground and IC1
outputs 5V. As a result, transistor T2 does not conduct and the relay remains de-energised. The light bulb remains off as the mains connection is not completed through the
relay contacts.
During nighttime, when no light falls on LDR1, it offers a high resist- ance at the
base junction of transistor T1. So the bias is greatly reduced and T1 doesnt conduct.
Effectively, this removes the common terminal of IC1 from ground and it directs the
full input DC to the output. Transistor T2 conducts and the relay energises to light up
the bulb as mains connection completes through the relay contacts.

As LDR1 is in parallel to VR1+R3 combination, it effectively applies only half

of the total resistance of the network formed by R3, VR1 and LDR1 to the junction
at T1 in total darkness. In bright light, it greatly reduces the total effective
resistance at the junction.
Application
T h e c i r c u i t i s simple and can be assembled on a small g e n e r a l - p u r p o
s e PCB. Use a heat-sink for IC1. Make sure that LDR1 and the light bulb are well
separated. The circuit can be used for streetlights, t u b e l i g h t s o r a n y other home
electrical lighting system that needs to be automated.

Reference:
1. WWW. howstuffworks.com
2. EMBEDDED SYSTEM BY RAJ KAMAL
3. 8051 MICROCONTROLLER AND EMBEDDED SYSTEMS BY MAZZIDI
4. Magazines
5. Electronics for you
6. Electrikindia
7. WWW.google.com
8. WWW.Electronic projects.com