Hungarian Shamanism

MATERIAL AND HISTORY OF RESEARCH

by JEN~~FAZEKAS
I . Introduction
The material relating to Hungarian shamanism derives from a living folk-
tradition and from folk customs.1 In addition occasional information is found
in printed and unprinted sources of historical,' literary, ecclesiastical' and
1 The material and early literature of folklore-research: Folktale-motifs: Honti
1928; BerzeNagy 1935, 1958. Dramatic folk traditions: Viski 1935. Folk customs:
SzendreySzendrey 1937; MNT 3 a (1955), 3 b (1956), 4 (1959). Child's songs,
games: MNT 1 (1951). Proverbs: Tolnai. Festival-days: Szendrey 1937; MNT 2
(1955). Ideas of the soul: Szendrey 1946. Burial customs: Munkcsi 1900; Szendrey
1928; Viski 1934b; SzendreySzendrey 1937; Sz~cs 1948. Lamentations at death:
Kodly 1937, 1956, 1960. Magical practices: Komromy 1910; Viski 1934 ab.
Superstitions: Solymossy 1937 a. Folk healing: MagyaryKossa 1929-1931. Phraseol-
ogy: BerzeNagy 1929; Kertsz 1922; Csefk 193o; Tolnai 1935. Linguistic material:
NySz; OklSz.-Recorded material and detailed research exists, in addition to the cited
literature, in Ethn, NE, AE, NyK, etc.
2 Contemporary historical sources on the ancient Hungarians can be divided into:
(I) Byzantine sources (Leo VI the Philosopher, Constantine VII Porfyrogennetos,
various chronicles) on which: MarczaliVri 1900; Macartney 193o; Gyni 1943.
(2) Eastern sources (Ibn Rosteh, Gurdzi, El-Bekr, Ibn Fadhln, Istakhr, Ibn
Haukal, Mas'di) on which: Kuun 1900; Macartney 193o; Czegldy 1943. (3) Western
sources (Annales Sithiensis Bertiniani, Conversio Bagvariorum et Carantanorum,
Description of Europe by King Alfred the Great, Annales Fuldenses, Reginonis
Abbatis Prumiensis Chronicon, Theotmar ad Papam Johannes IX, Rhabani Vir-
tunensem ad Episcopum, Versus Waldramni ad Dadonem episcopum a Salomone
episcopo missi, Ekkehardi casus Sancti Galli) on which: Marczali 1900; Macartney
193o; Der
1943.
(4) Slavic sources (Relationes Legendarum Constantini S. Cyrilli
et Methodii de Hungaris, Narratiuncula e bello UngaroBulgarico, Chronica Nestoris
de Hungaris) on which: Jagi~ThallczyHodinka 1900; Macartney 1930. (5) Hunga-
rian sources (Frater Julianus 1236: De facto Ungarie Magne a fratre Ricardo invento
tempore Domini Gregorii Pape noni, on which: FejrpatakyMarczali 1900; Mac-
artney 1930. Chronicles: Anonymus, circa 1200; Kzai, circa 1284; Chronicon
Vindobonense, circa 1358; Chronicon Budense, 1473; and other publications issued
together in SRH 1-2. A. Bonfini, Rerum hungaricarum decades, Basiliae
(1543)
1568.
On the authenticity of the chronicles: 11oman 1925; Gyrffy 1948.
3
Pintr 1921, I; 2, pp. 4
13-458.
7 654204 Edsman
98 JEN~~FAZEKAS
judicial types dating from the Middle Ages up to the 18th century, both in
Latin and in Hungarian. Material folk culturel and archaeology2 have also
had something to provide. Aided by these sources scholars have attempted to
recreate what in folkloristic literature is called the shamanistic element in
Hungarian folk tradition.
This work of research has now been in progress for some 150 years. Since
the turn of the century it has been intensified, and from the 1920's onwards
has been devoted to the assembling and collating of folklore material. It is
claimed that it is possible to recover an important segment of the religion of
pre-Christian Hungary and its intellectual culture by attempting to isolate
the shamanistic survival in Hungarian folk tradition. According to certain
scholars this shamanistic element came from the East some thousand years
ago to the region now dominated by Hungarian folk tradition along with
the migrant Hungarians.3 It should consequently be compared foremost with
shamanism in the Eastern lands where the Hungarians originated and where
shamanistic beliefs and practices were living until quite recently, principally
Siberia. At the same time, however, one must also take into account the
contact between the invaders and other tribes in Central-Asia and South-
East Europe. Furthermore, the Hungarians encountered and underwent the
influence of beliefs that already existed in the land of their adoption before
their arrival. Finally, all these traditions were again modified and overlaid
by Christian ideas and customs.
Nevertheless we find in the Hungarian material the same motifs as in
North-Eurasia. It concerns the ideas of the personality of the shaman and
the shaman-candidate, battles between shamans hidden in clouds or dis-
guised as animals, shamanistic ecstasy and the equipment of the shaman.
Shamanistic practices are described mainly in folklore, less frequently in the
form of real cultic or magic ceremonies. Traces of coherent cultic practices
are also found in the dramatic folk tradition, in the descriptions from histori-
cal sources of sacrificial rites and animals sacrificed, and in the magic prac-
tices described in witch-trial records and which were prohibited by royal
1 Ornaments, ethnographical objects: Solymossy 1937 a; Viski 1934a, 1934b.
2 Archaeological finds, horse-burials: Munkcsi 1896 b; Hampel 1900; Lszlo
1944,
1946.
3 According to Marczali 1895, p. 59, about half a million people.
Hungarian Shamanism

99
edict. The magicians of folklore, the seers, quack-doctors, faith-healers,
witches, village wisemen, shepherds, wandering beggars and finally children
with special birthmarks, the so-called stigmata, or other external charac-
teristics, were regarded by the Hungarian scholars as shaman-figures with
roots in the distant pagan past.
The material is grouped around these distinct individuals as central-
figures. We therefore have different objects of research characterised by
varying shamanistic features. The most important figures are:
1) tltos (cf. Finnish taitaa, 'to know'; Orsz. "shaman, medicine-man,
priest-magician, sorcerer, wizard").
2) tuds (from Hung. tud-, 'know', `can'; has a somewhat wider meaning
than tltos; Orsz (lit.): "scientist, scholar, scientific man"; MTsz: "fortune-
teller, quack-doctor"; NySz: "scitus, doctus, peritus, eruditus, kundig").
3) garabonc(i)s (probably from Ital. gramanza, 'magi', Greek nekro-
manteia; Orsz: "wizard, disguised as travelling student able to raise storm in
popular superstition", NySz: "necromanticus, magus, praestigiator").1
4) Shamans who appear in other less characteristic forms than the three
mentioned above, i.e. magicians, wizards and seers.
5) Different types of witches, in the witch-trials of the 16th to 18th
century usually called boszorkny (from Turk. basyr, 'press', basyrqan, 'evil
spirit', `suppressio nocturna', used in the sense of 'witch', 'sorcerer', `sor-
ceress'; NySz: "lemur, strix, incubus, lamia, venefica, trivenefica; Hexe,
Nachtgespenst").
6) reg~ s (Orsz: "minstrel, gleeman, bard"; Kel: "(mittelalt.) Spielmann;
(volksbr.) Weihnachtssanger," in evidence from the 13th century; MTsz: "a
group of boys who on Boxing-Day call on houses performing their reg~ s-
song.2
The Hungarians were converted to Christianity during the reign of the
first Hungarian king, Istvn the Holy (997-1038). But beneath the new
official Church piety, the old belief lived on as a substratum. In contem-
porary historical and literary sources even as late as the 18th century there
1 For this figure see: Szendrey 1914; Solymossy 1937b; Diszegi 1958.
2 For
the terminology see: Viski 1932, p. 15; MESz 5, 1961, p. 960; otherwise:
Sebestyn 1902b; Rheim 1925; BerzeNagy 1935; Solymossy 1937a, 1937b;
Lszl 1944; Szendrey 1914, 1938, 1940; Diszegi
1954, 1958; Balzs 1954.
100 JEN~~FAZEKAS
are allusions to this. A chronicle from the 14th century in which a pagan
rebellion of the 11th century is described, contains, for example, information
on pre-Christian cult practice.'
Both in Catholic and Protestant Church literature mention is made of the
"pagan" or "devilish" belief. In the records of the witch-trials also this
belief recurs as folk tradition; cult practices are there dubbed "magic".2
z. The Religion of Ancient Hungary: Different Theories
A more systematic study of the pagan belief and rites of the Hungarians
began with Otrokocsi Fris in 1693 and Cornides in 1791.3 The first flowering
period of Hungarian religious studies occurred during the 19th century,
when under the influence of the romantic school of history an attempt was
made to reconstruct an ancient Hungarian mythology of which traces were
to be found in historical sources. This line of research is known among
Hungarian folklorists as the Romantic school of Mythology.4 In the work
of several scholars this school was predominant throughout the 19th century.5
The most important of these was Ipolyi. Influenced by Catholicism, he
accepted the theory of an original monotheism, and interpreted mythology
1 "Prepositi vero miserunt ad regem et ad proceros nuncios dicentes: 'C0ncede
nobis ritum patrum nostrorum, more paganism0 vivere, episcopos lapidare, pres-
biteros exentherare, clericos strangulare, decimatores suspendere, ecclesias destruere,
campanas confrangere' ... Interim vero prepositi plebis in eminenti suggestu resi-
dentes predicabant nephanda carmina contra fidem. Plebs autem tota congratulanter
affirmabat: 'Fiat, fiat"' (SRH 1, pp. 359 f., 337 f.). On horse-sacrifices: "Omnes p0puli
libaverunt demonibus et ceperunt comedere equinas pulpas et 0mnino pessimas
facere culpas" (ibid., p. 338). Among royal prohibitions are Istvn the 11oly's
(997-1038) decree against witches and magic, Lszl the 11oly's (1077-1095) decree
against witches and prohibition against sacrificial rites at wells, holy trees, springs,
h0ly stones, King Klmn the Wise's (1095-1116) decree against magic. The use
among peasants of cildomds, `mercipotus', still survives fr0m old times (NySz:
"sacrificium, oblatio, polluctum, epulae sacrificiales; collatio, epulae; benedicti0;
mercipotus"). As a pagan sacrificial rite aldamas is menti0ned by the chronicle-author
Anonymus: "more paganismo occiso equo pinguissimo magnum aldamas fecerunt"
(SRH 1, pp. 56, 64).
2 During the years 1565-1756 554 witch-trials were instituted in Hungary. At
these 169 death-sentences were passed involving burning at the stake (Komromy
1910, pp IXXIII, 1-783).
3 Katona 1897, pp. 61-68.
4 Katona 1897; Domanovszky 1903, pp. 234 f.; Solymossy 1937b, pp. 4o2 f.
5 11orvth 1817; Ipolyi 1854; Kllay 1862; Kandra 1897.
Hungarian Shamanism 101
in the manner of Jakob Grimm. As early as 1854 Ipolyi was criticised by
Csengery for his dependence on these two assumptions. A more basic
criticism of the mythological viewpoint was put forward by Katona in 1897,
who instead argued an ethnological and religio-historical approach.
In addition to the "ur"-monotheistic theory, another hypothesis played
a big role in 19th century Hungarian religious studies, that is to say, the
dependence of Hungarian pre-Christian religion on Iranian Zoroastrianism.
This theory, championed mainly by Horvth, claimed to discover in the
religion of Ancient Hungary a dualistic world-concept closely related to
that of Ancient Iran. An important support for the theory of Iranian in-
fluence was found in the derivation (since proved erroneous) of the Hunga-
rian adj. rmnyos from the Iranian Evil Spirit, Angra Mainyu/Ahriman.1
Ipolyi was the first to use authentic folklore material, an example that was
followed by other scholars. The tltos-figure was dealt with in various
works, and as early as the 1840's was interpreted by one scholar as an ancient
Hungarian shaman-type. Apart from Ipolyi, this identification is found
among other 19th century scholars, such as Kllay, Csengery, and Kandra. A
thorough and up-to-date description of the contribution made by the
mythological school as seen from the religio-historical viewpoint, is still lack-
ing. There exists only the outline made by de Ferdinandy in 1963 (pp. 255 ff.).
It is his opinion that the scholars of this school, despite their historical
fallacy, came close to the truth when they maintained that the religion of
Ancient Hungary was of a dualistic nature.
In spite of all the criticism that has been made and continues to be made of
the mythological school, one must still point out its positive sides. Its
adherents have assembled evidence from historical and folkloristic sources,
and several of the most important subjects now being treated in the most
recent research had already been handled by Cornides and above all by
Ipolyi, as for example, sacrificial rites and places, idols, pagan cultic prac-
tices in connection with wells, sacred trees and stones, swearing by blood,
wolf or dog. With Horvth the tltos-motif and a number of other animistic
conceptions, sacrificial customs and burial traditions were for the first time
compared with Finno-Ugric material. Horvath was inspired to take up this
1 de Ferdinandy 1963, p. 253.
IO2
JEN6 FAZEKAS
comparative method by Engel's investigations in 1791, and through Engel by
the Finno-Ugric studies of the 19th century. As a result a new line of research
in the religion of ancient Hungary was opened up, the so-called comparative
Finno-Ugric Mythology which was further developed by Csengery in the
middle of the 19th century by giving it an Ural-Altaic perspective. Horvth
compared the Hungarian shamanistic material with Finno-Ugric and
Samoyedic elements, while Csengery and Kllay compared it with Turco-
Mongolian elements.
But at the turn of the century this comparative method was exposed to
the criticisms of Katona. He established as the primary goal the need to
define the meaning of the religion of Ancient Hungary and describe the aims
and principles of Hungarian ethnological research. He dealt also with the
problem of monotheism, the relationship between religion and mythology,
and the various ideas on these matters from those of the apologists of the
Early Church and the Church-historian, Eusebius, through de Brosse, down
to Tylor and Mannhardt.1
The pure ethnological approach is met with more regularly at the turn of
the century in Hungarian religious studies. It came into favour partly as a
result of the recording of folk-belief in which various shamanistic elements
were discovered, partly as a result of an intensified study of the regs-
material. One collection of material made by Sebestyn with the help of the
Kisfaludy Society revealed contemporary evidence of the shaman-drum, and
established the regs-figure at the centre of their studies.
In 1900 Janke dealt with the regs-, garaboncis-, boszorkny-, and
tltos-motifs, and expressed the hope that it would be possible to reconstruct
the religion of Ancient Hungary against the background of Ural-Altaic
shamanism. In the historical and historico-cultural work of this period
shamanism was put forward as the most important ingredient in the religion
of Ancient Hungary with regs, tltos or the sacred tribal chief as the principal
figure.2
1 Katona 1896a, 1896b, 1897.
2 Cf. Marczali 1895, pp. 59-63 (tltos); Sebestyn 1902a, 1902b, 1906a, 1906b
(regs); Bn 1908 (regs); Vikr 1907 (regs); Pintr 1921, 1, pp. 19 f.; Rheim 1925
(tltos); Hman 1928, pp. 111-117 (sacred chief); 1940, pp. 77-82 (various priest-
figures along with the sacred chief); Solymossy 1932, 1937a (tltos).
Hungarian Shamanism

103
Anew approach was made by Solymossy (1932,
1937b),
with a stricter
formulation of aims in the ethnological investigation of the religion of
Ancient Hungary. He argued that it developed out of shamanism and
animism of the same primitive type as is found among other Finno-Ugric
tribes. This religion was influenced and modified through the contact of the
Hungarians with Turkish and Bulgarian tribes. In his opinion the principal
figure in the religion of Ancient Hungary was tltos.
Homan uses both folkloristic and historical material. The picture that he
gave of the religion of Ancient Hungary in 1928 and 1940 presents it as more
strongly differentiated than the usual tribal shamanism found among Northern
and Central-Asiatic nomadic tribes. The Hungarians are said to have had a
religion of the same type as other contemporary warrior and steppe peoples
(Huns, Persians, Avars, Chazars, Turks, and Scythians). Animistic con-
cepts from primitive epochs survived among the ancient Hungarians, but out
of a cult of mythic ancestors there developed a tribal chieftainship of charis-
matic character, an early form of sacral kingship. According to Homan there
were priests for public ceremonies as well as magicians for everyday matters.
These different officials performed the same functions as the Central-
Asiatic shamans. They were subordinate to the different sacral chiefs or to
the high-chief common to all the tribes. The religion was polytheistic with a
supreme deity as the creator of heaven and earth, and a series of special gods
for woods, mountains, water, etc. Such a sky-god with sons as this is found
in Vogulic folk tradition in the person of Numi Tarem, creator of the world
and its guardian. According to Homan and Hungarian historians, however,
the Hungarians came into contact with pure monotheism as early as the
7th century through the influence of Byzantine Christian, Jewish and
Islamic missionaries.1
The same historical approach was made by Lszlo in 1944 and 1946. In his
treatment of ancient Hungarian intellectual culture he used a wide range of
historical and archaeological material, supplemented by folkloristic evidence.
The archaeological discoveries, especially the burial of stuffed horse-skins,
indicates a religious system well-known from the Vlkerwanderung Period.
Hman as well as Lszlo assume a totemistic ancestor-cult in the religion of
1 MHK 1900; Zichy 1923, 1939; Hman 1928, pp. 113 ff., 1940, pp. 79 ff.;
MO1943.
104. JEN~~FAZEKAS
Ancient Hungary. This important element they found behind certain motifs
preserved in chronicles.
In 1951 and 1954. Rheim used in a more systematic fashion than his
predecessors Vogulic and Ostyakian parallels. He deals also with the question
of the supreme deity of Ancient Hungary, totemism, shamanism and the
sacral kingship. He argues somewhat daringly that Ugric mythology has
features in common with the myths of the North-American Indians. R-
heim frequently uses concepts and views deriving from psychoanalytical
speculations, but he has a firm grip on the material he quotes.
3. Ancient Hungarian Shamanism in General and
Different Shaman-Types
The question of the origin and signification of shamanism was dealt with as
early as the period of Ipolyi, Kllay, Csengery and Kandra in connection
with the discussion on the tltos-figure. Sebestyn provided in 1902 (b) a
broad historical and ethnological background to another key-figure, regs,
using quotations from Central-European kolinda material and certain ancient
Roman cultic customs. The contributions made by Katona in 1896 and
Jank) in 1900 were linked with the animistic theories of the ,9th century and
descriptions of Siberian shamanism in Western and Russian sources.
In 1908 B n filled in a richly-detailed picture of shamanism itself and of
the investigations into it, relying mainly on the theories of Lubbock, Tylor
and Wundt. Following Lehmann, B n assumes the following stages of
development: primitive magic (pre-animism)primitive animismhigher
animism. Shamanism is regarded by Bn as the higher animistic stage. In
contrast to the wizard (magus) the shaman has virtually a priestly function.
The wizard has, certainly, a knowledge of magic powers, but unlike the
shaman is not in their service. Bn also pays attention to the shaman's social
role and his different duties: fortune-telling, healing and exorcism. These
were eventually taken over by three separate practitioners, the seer, the
healer and the exorcist. Even in today's research the problem of the splitting-
up of the shaman's functions, his social downgrading or replacement by new
officials as social changes occur still remains to be solved. According to Bn
shamanism is only an aspect of animism, not a religious system in itself. It is
Hungarian Shamanism 105
made up of certain religious elements which can appear in certain combina-
tions, but without any stronger ethnic characteristic or relation.1 In the
matter of the ethnic differentiation, which, following Lubbock, B n takes up,
there is a complex of problems which also interest scholars dealing with
legends and fairy tales: motif-diffusion, motif-contamination, ethnic homo-
geneity, regional characteristics, and isolated motif-variations.2
In 1910 Munkcsi gave a thorough description of Vogulic shamanism
based on comprehensive folkloristic material. Among these people the
shaman's main role is to establish contact with the gods in order to further
the people's interests. But among the Voguls there are also black shamans
who use their gifts to injure others.
Even in 1937 Solymossy based his interpretation of the nature of shaman-
ism on Tylor's dream-theory and other doctrines dating from the 19th
century and the turn of the century. This is also partly the case with Diszegi
who in 1954 aligned himself with the sociological and evolutionist interpreta-
tions put forward by the Russian scholar, Tokarjev.3 Diszegi, in contrast to
Zichy for example, in his works from 1923 and 1939 and to the traditional
Finno-Ugric culture anthropologists, argues for the postulate that a general
`primitive communism' existed among the Finno-Ugric tribes as late as
500 A.D. This Marxistic theory of society and its application in shamanistic
research derives from its use in the 19th century by Changalov in 1883.4
Research into the term Mhos (tltos) was begun by Horvth in 1817, and
this figure has also been dealt with, as is described above, more or less
thoroughly by other adherents of the mythological school. On the basis of
these early investigations, the conclusion was tentatively reached in 1874
that the tltos was an ancient Hungarian priest-figure.5 Amore comprehen-
sive collection of folklore material was published between 1910 and 192o in
the journal Ethnographia. The fight-motif was discussed by Klmny in 1917
and by Kodolnyi in 1945. In 1925 and 1927 Rheim made a thorough
ethnological analysis of the figure in question. Solymossy placed him in the
1 Cf. on these matters: Findeisen 1957, pp. 200 f.
2 11onti 1935, 1940.
3 Borg. S0vj. Enc. 6x,
1934, pp. 802 f.; 47, 1957,
pp. 505 f.
4 UG 10, 1952, p. 146.
5 CzF6, 1874, coll. 145
106 JEN~~FAZEKAS
centre of the Ancient Hungarian shamanistic religion. Homan on the
other hand gave him a more subordinate place along with blcs (`wise man'),
b~bjos (`magus'), and orvos ('medicine man') and with the sacral tribal
chief. Diszegi argued that tuds had been at least as important as tltos.
According to Solymossy (193713, p. 443) "tltos is always well-disposed and
wishes to help people. In different places he enters a dwelling as a stranger,
asks for milk and eggs to eat, but does not care for bread. He is reticent and
quiet by nature, but if he is denied food or turned away with harsh words, he
takes revenge by bringing on sudden bad weather and hail." These charac-
teristics are strikingly similar to those possessed by the garaboncis. The
conclusion is that some of the features associated with this medieval magician
originally belonged to tltos. It is indisputable that here is a case of motif-
blending, in addition it is clear that certain characteristics of witches have
become attached to the tltos-figure.1 Further attempts to trace the features
of this figure have been made by Szendrey (1914), Gunda (1963, p. 23) and
de Ferdinandy (1963, pp. 248 ff.).2
Subsequent to the Second World War, some 12o folklorists have compiled
a comprehensive collection of material which so far has been used primarily
by Diszegi (1958). There still remains a considerable amount of unpublished
material in archives.
The shamanistic features in the Hungarian material have a strongly
heterogeneous character. Some of them strikingly recall central-asiatic
phenomena,3 others have more in common with north-eurasian elements.
1 Cf. Komromy 1910, p. 778. Klein 1934 stressed this feature in tltos, while
Rheim 1926 a, p. 35, and Gunda 1963, p. 45, claim that it is insignificant.
2 Evidence from the 13th century exists in historical sources, Pais 1958, pp. 273
276; NySz, OklSz: "magus, Zauberer"; adj. "magicus, Hexen". Current inter-
pretations according to MESz 6, 1962, p. 462: "magical horse, wise-horse that can
talk and swallow fire; the shaman among the ancient Hungarians; a man with mira-
culous powers who was born with teeth and six fingers; horse; child with extraordin-
ary talents". Related terms are: tltos 16; tltos paripa, 'magic steed'; tltosbika, 'magic
bull'; tltosgyerek, 'magic child', `shamancandidate'; tltossg, ttossg, NySz: "ars
magica, Zauberkunst"; (christ.) "priestly occupation". The etymology is uncertain,
cf. Finn. taitaa, `know'; mong. dalda, daldu, "secret, mystrieux; le secret, le mystre"
(CzF); Turk. talty, from the stem tal-, talt-, "schwach werden, ohnmachtig werden;
ermden, matt machen; schlagen bis zur Ohnmacht" (Pais 1958); "Schlager, Prg-
ler; einer, der bis zum Taumel, bis zur Besinnungslosigkeit schlagt, prgelt" (Gunda
1963).
3 Cf. UG 12, 1955; Eliade 1957; Findeisen 1957.
Hungarian Shamanism 107
This mixture of shamanistic elements from different geographical regions
has been pointed out by Solymossy (1932, 1937b). He explains it by saying
that during their migrations the Hungarians came into contact with Bul-
garian and Turkish peoples. This cultural contact is generally accepted by
scholars in Ancient Hungarian studies.1
The shamanistic material divides into two motif-groups, of which one
concerns the shaman-candidate, the other the shaman. For the shaman-
candidate the following stages are laid down: the call, the sign of election,
(shaman-tooth, -finger, "superfluous bones") and initiation as a shaman
("the dismemberment", shaman-trees or heavenly trees). For the shaman's
part his equipment has been described (drum or sieve, tltos-horse, head-
dress in the form of feathers or horns, heavenly ladder) as well as his ecstasy,
battles of shamans disguised as animals (horse or bull) or hidden in clouds,
or between a white and black shaman, shaman-songs and cultic practices.
The richest material concerns the shaman-candidate, the shaman's equip-
ment (except for the drum), his battles in cloud- or animal-shape. The
material on the shaman's ecstasy is based on a word-group (rejtez, "hid-
es"; rvl, "falls into ecstasy") which has shamanistic significance and
ethnological associations in Vogulic and Ostyakian. This word-group has
occupied the attention of Hungarian linguists for over a hundred years, and
their research on it has been recorded by Balzs in 1954 and 1963. Con-
cerning cultic practices the material is less abundant. Research so far has
mainly relied on certain exclamations and interjections that have parallels in
Vogulic and Ostyakian folklore. Moreover there exist descriptions of
ecstasy from the 17th century relating to the Moldau-Hungarians, a group
outside the compact area settled by the Hungarians. Traces of cubic prac-
tices are found also in records of the witch-trials and in statements on
"devilish" songs and rites.2 In folk tradition there are formulas for oath-
making which are overlaid with Christian concepts.3 There is much room
for research here. Battles in animal-shape as well as magical animals have
been linked up with totemic ideas.4
Hman 1928, 1940; Nmeth 1930; de Ferdinandy 1963, pp. 211 f., 217.
2 Komromy 8980, passim, and p. 219.
3 Solymossy 1937a, pp. 381-386.
4 Solymossy 1937b; DiOszegi 1953, 1954, 1958; Balks 1963; Gunda 1963; de
Ferdinandy 1963, pp. 248-250.
108 JEN~~FAZEKAS
What is generally called in Hungarian folk tradition half-tltos, such as
are born or brought up as half-shamans (Komromy 191o, pp. 420, 475),
have not so far received any thorough treatment. Interesting folklore material
on such figures has been set out by Szendrey in 1914 and 1938, and three of
these figures (as has been shown above) have been placed on an equal footing
with Mhos by Homan.
It remains to investigate what these seers, fortune-tellers, incantators,
healers, quack-doctors, wise-men and -women, witches, and sorcerers' were
originally, what social role they played, and in what historical relationship
they stood with the ordinary shaman. It could be a question of performers of
lesser cultic ceremonies and magic rites, or of shaman-figures that as a result
of conquest and consequent social changes lost their former standing and
sunk to the rank of black shamans or magicians. Arichly diversified collec-
1 In Hungarian folklore there are several other terms for a seer or magician: 1)
lt, 'seer', 'clairvoyant(e)'; NySz (16th C.): "propheta, Seher"; lom-lt, "interpres
somniorum, Traumdeuter"; isten-lt, "exorcista, Beschwrer"; Szendrey 1914 (11ung.
`see'). 2) mond, 'oracle', `soothsayer'; NySz: jvend~-mond (16th C.), "propheta,
vates, mantis, auspex, haruspex, hariolus, sibylla" (Hung. mond, `say'). 3) feIel~,
`responder'; Diszegi 1958 (Hung. felel, 'respond'). 4) idz~', 'conjurer' (of spirits);
Diszegi 1958 (Hung. idz, 'conjure up'). 5) nz~~(15th C.), NySz: "pytho, pytho-
nissa; Wahrsager"; oltron-nz~, "Opferschauer"; nzs, "augurium"; madr-nzs,
"auspicium; Vogelschau"; baromblnzs, "haruspicium" (Hung. nz, `look'), 6) igz ~~
(18th C.), NySz: "Zauberer, 11exenmeister" (Hung. igz, `zaubern'). 7) kuruzsl,
`quack(-doctor)' (11ung. kuruzsol, NySz (18th C.): "incanto, fascino, ope magiae
medeor"). 8) varzsl, NySz varsl (16th C.): "genethliacus, praestigiator, in-
cantator; Zauberer" (11ung. varzsol, varsol, NySz: "incanto, divino, vaticinor"). 9)
bles, 'wise man'; NySz: "doctus, eruditus, considiosus, literatus, sophus, sapiens,
philosophus" (Turk. `magus'); varzsl &Res, "magus, Zauberer". 10) b~vs (15th C.),
NySz: "incantator; Zauberer" (Hung. b~, NySz: "magia, incantamentum, veneficium").
11) b~vl~, NySz: "incantator; Zauberer" (11ung. b~vl, NySz: "incanto"). 12) bjol,
NySz: "magus, incantator; Zauberer" (Hung. bjol, NySz: "incanto, incantatione utor;
zaubern"; bj, NySz: "magia, incantatio, veneficium, superstitio; Zauberei, Hexerei").
13) b~bjos, NySz: "magus, incantator; Zauberer" (Hung. b~bj, NySz: "cantamen,
magia, incantatio, veneficium; Zauberei, Hexerei"). 14) bobol, Szendrey 1938: "saga,
midwife" (Hung. bobol, "scrying with the aid of beans, maize and sieve" (Hung. bab,
`bean'). 15) js, (16th C.), NySz: "magus, saga incantator, incantatrix, pytho, divinus
vates; Zauberer, Wahrsager", javas (16th C.), the same; javas asszony, javas ember,
"respectively female and male quack-doctor; saga, magus". 16) orvos (13th C.), NySz:
"medicus; Arzt" (earlier: "magus, wizard"); more detailed material in Pais 1958.
17) hejget~, Wichmann 1907: "Weihnachtssanger, Weihnachts-zauberer", correspond-
ing to reels among the MoldauHungarians. 18) Different types of "wise-men and
-women", Szendrey 1938. 19) sirat, Orsz: "mourner, weeper."
Hungarian Shamanism 109
tion of comparative material also exists in Vogulic, Ostyakian and Samoyedic
folklore.'
In a large group with as many as ten witch-figures2 the luca and the imple-
ment associated with this witch, from a shamanistic point of view, is of a
particular interest. The luca-szke is a "magic seat, witch-stool, made of
different types of wood, nine or thirteen different types." Its occupant can
`foresee', if he succeeds in smuggling it in to Christmas-Day mass, make a
magic circle, and sit on the stool within this circle. After this pagan rite
the stool should be burnt up. It figures in the witch-trials of the 18th century
as a banned and criminal witch-implement.' The luca-stool and other
characteristics of the luca have together with their European parallels
been dealt with thoroughly by Rheim in 1915 and 1916. Sebestyn (1906,
pp. 149-168) edited a collection from Dunntl in western Hungary, where
1 Munkcsi 1910; Karjalainen 1900, 1921-27; Ppay 1905 a; Lehtisalo 1924; Hajdd
1963; also in other works (UG 12, 1955; Park 1938).
2 Except 1) boszorkny also: 2) bba (12th C.), NySz: "anus, vetula, obstetrix,
maga, venefica; 11exe". Motif-blending with boszorkny can be shown. In fairy tales
appears Vasorr bba (Orsz: "old witch in folktales"), who recalls the primitive,
animistic god-images among, for example, the Voguls and the Ostyaks and a widely
known goddess from the north-eurasian area (VNGy 1, pp. Lx f.). Such god-images are
mentioned frequently in travel-books, as in Strahlenberg, Mller, Gondatti, Pallas,
and others. The evidence of bbabukra, `regnbge', points also to a divine figure
(Solymossy 1927). 3) babona (16th C.), NySz: "fascinum, superstitio"; babons:
"superstitiosus, magicus; aberglaubisch, zauberisch." 4) banya, NySz "anus, vetula;
11exe". 5) lidrc (15th C.), `nightmare'; NySz: "ephialtes [nightmare in Greek
mythology] incubus, cacodaemon, lamia; bser Geist, Feuermannchen". 6) srkny,
`dragon'; MTsz: "dark cloud of rain, typhoon" (Turk.). This figure is of Ural-Altaic
origin, derives from the ancient 11ungarian religion and is met with in folk tales partly
as a fabulous creature and partly as an underworld demon in the shape of a human
being (BerzeNagy 1935, 1958, Solymossy
1937b,
pp. 439 f.). 7) tndr (16th C.),
`elf, fay'; NySz: "magus, praestigiator, qui se in varias species pro libitu transformat,
empusa; Zauberer". 8) szp-asszony, MTsz: "elf, fay, witch, evil spirit (fern.)";
szp-asszonyok szele or szp-asszonyok tnca, `typhoon'; Szp Mikls, a fairy-tale hero'
(BerzeNagy 1935). 9) tt-asszony `witch'; Szendrey 1937 a: "on Luca-Eve the tt-
women (tt-witches) go round to frighten the children." This figure might be
related to ttos. 10) luca; Luca-asszony, 'female witch'; Szendrey 1937 a: "the demons'
chief"; luczs, 'Luca-procession', "band of boys that goes round before Christmas
and performs a certain magic rite to bring g00d luck to animals, etc." Latin texts
before the 16th C. speak of witches as strix or striga, but we do not know which
11ungarian figures they are that lie behind these names. (Komromy 1910, Szendrey
1914; BerzeNagy 1935; Solymossy 1937 a,
1937b).
3 Viski 1934 b; Szendrey 1937 b.
1 1 0 JEN~~FAZEKAS
the stool is replaced by a tree-stump, a log, a beam or a sheaf of straw, which
were probably the objects originally used. The luca-stool or the luca-stump
are probably the same magic requisites as the sejdhjll (the sejd-stool) in
Nordic regions or the sibyl's tripod among the Greeks. The tree-stump, has,
then, developed via the magic seat into the 'official chair', and then 'throne',
the chief's sacral seat.1
Finally, as concerns the regs, 2 the recording of regs-songs3 began as early
as the 1830's, but as late as the 1890's only eight variants were known. Since
the turn of the century the collecting and publishing of material has been
thoroughly carried out.4
The so-called regs-song is a composite "chain"-song of the kolinda-type
consisting of different small verses of varying content: introduction, greeting,
1 On ecstasy in Indo-European, 11ellenic and Germanic regions, see Eliade 1957,
pp. 358-375.
2 Concerning the translation "combibator" for regus in OklSz Szab explained in
1881, p. 558, that this word was not found in Ducange. It must consequently be a
medieval ad hoc word-coinage from bibo. Szab claims that combibator in the docu-
ment in question has the same meaning as joculator. Hungarian scholars have ac-
cepted this explanation and so render combibator with "cantor, Sanger, Spielmann".
In classical latin, however, there is found combibo, -ere; combibo, -nis, combibiones
(Georges), in medieval latin combibiosus (Ducange). Of these words, the medieval
Hungarian form, combibator, could easily have been constructed out of an earlier
convivator, "Ausrichter des Gastmahles" (Georges), cf. convivium, "Gastmahl,
Schmaus, Opferschmaus" (Georges, MengeGthling) and convive. Regus or
"convivator" could thus have been master of ceremonies at the royal court or among
the nobility, where he also performed religious rites, functioned as a story-teller, and
later became a minstrel- or jester-figure. This medieval minstrel-type might thus
have descended from an earlier, more religiously engaged, royal or general func-
tionary, i.e. a cultic and shamanistic figure. Such an explanation of the evidence
combibator-regus would be more logical than Szab's and Sebestyn's 'drinking
companions', 'fiddler'.
3 The song that is sung is called regs nek (Kel: "Weihnachts-, Zauberlied") and
the custom itself regls (Orsz: "minstrelsy, recital of ancient popular lays," (11ung.
regal, Kel: "Weihnachtszauberlied singen"). Belonging to the same stem are also:
reg- in Regtelek, `reg-field'; Regvlgy, `reg-valley' (14th C.); regus (i.e. reges, regs),
OklSz: "cantor, Sanger" (13th C.); "possessionis combibatorum Regalium con-
dicionariorum vulgariter regus dictorum" (14th C.), Szab 1881; OklSz; Sebestyn
1902b; regeM ht (16th C.), 'regel~-week', Sebestyn 1902b, pp. 85-88; regel~~htf~,
`regel~'-monday', Sebestyn 1902b, p. 89; Dmtr 1959; regs nagy tit (16th C.),
`regs-long way (to heaven)', Vikr 1907.
4 Sebestyn 1902: 52 songs with commentaries and 28 musical supplements.
MNT 2,1955, pp. 807-987: in addition 101 songs with notes (nr. 776-876). See also
Kodly 1956,1960.
Hungarian Shamanism

1I1
wedding-song, ox-rhymes, deer-songs, allusions to gifts, altar-motifs, among
others. They are linked by the refrain: "haj, regi (reg) rejtem!"4 According
to Sebestyn (1902 b) the Ancient Hungarian elements have been mixed with
motifs and customs which are spread over the greater part of Europe.2 The
custom of going round from farm to farm and from village to village is known
from north-eurasian shamanism 3 In this connection religious rites have
been carried out in the different families and a collection made for the
shaman's upkeep. Presumably the Ancient Nordic `sejd' was connected with
similar practices.4 Such practices presumably lie as a substratum under
the Hungarian 'star-boy' procession, the English carols and the Swedish
`Staffansvisorna' (songs of St Stephen), which were subsequently overlaid by
ecclestiastical elements.
According to Sebestyn the word regs is of Ugric origin. The meaning
`singer' is supposed to have developed secondarily from the older 'magician',
`shaman', which in their turn go back to the regi, reg in the refrain in the
sense of 'song', 'charm'. According to Sebestyn this regs was the shaman in
Ancient Hungarian religion. The significance of the refrain should therefore
be: "Ho! Charm, I (the shaman) produce it (now) by magic!" Vikr (1907,
p. 34) takes as a basis a longer refrain made up of certain variants: "Rejtekem
rgi trvny / haj regl rejtem!" which is, according to Viski's interpretation
(1932, p. zo): "Berg' mich recht nach alten Regeln / Hei, ich sage es in
Gesang!" that is to say, "mein Zauber ist das alte Gesetz / Hej, ich zaubere
es in Gesang!" The obscure refrain has subsequently been interpreted in
different ways, depending on the way in which the word regi I reg (`song',
`ecstasy') is understood. Thus, Rheim on one occasion explains it (1925,
p. 235) as follows: "Ho! I am now in ecstasy!", on another (1926 b, p. 364):
"Ho, song, I sing!" Pais interpreted the refrain in 1949: "Ho! I now produce
magic by ecstasy!" Diszegi (1958, p. 146) takes another reconstructed
form as his basis: "rvlssel rvlk", which he translates as: "Ho!
By ecstatic rapture I lapse into ecstatic rapture!" According to this more
1 Afew variants exist in translation in Rheim 1926b; Viski 1932, pp. 15-27; de
Ferdinandy
1963,
pp. 241 f.
2
Cf. Jahn 1884; Sartori 1910-3914; Usener 1911; Nilsson 1916-19; Caraman
1933; Schneeweis 1935, 1953.
3 Munkcsi 1910; Karjalainen 1927; Nioradze 3925.
4 Strmback
1935, pp. 142-350.
112 JEN~~FAZEKAS
recent interpretation of regi, reg as 'ecstasy', regs is then an ecstatic and the
refrain originally an incantation which the shaman used to call down super-
natural powers.' Whether the refrain really has this meaning is extremely
disputable.2
In connection with the treatment of the reg~s-problem there has been
produced a rich literature on the musico-historical standing of regs-songs.
The basic musical form is of the kolomejka-type, with four beats in 2/4 with
an ascending final fifth.'
The investigation into Hungarian shamanism has therefore resulted in the
differentiation of four main figures (tltos, tuds, garaboncis, and regs) and
a series of so-called half-shamans. These are often reduced to one single
Ancient Hungarian shaman figure. This idea of one single shaman in ancient
times goes back to the 19th century when the main interest was in clan-
shamanism. The religion of both the nomadic horsemen and the hunters,
however, gives in general a more highly differentiated picture of society with
place for various shaman roles. Agreeing with Hman one can therefore
presume the existence of several shaman types among the Hungarians.
Traces of these are extant in the related Vogulic, Ostyakian and Samoyedic
material, which therefore strengthens such a thesis.
1 Diszegi 1953, p. 432.
2 Corresponding conjurations of gods and spirits, songs, prayers and sacrificial
rites of Vogul, Ostyakian, Samoyedic and other tribes show another character
(VNGy 2: I, pp. 311-431; Ppay 1905b, pp. 268-282; Karjalainen 1927, pp. 69-331;
Lehtisalo 1947, pp. 469-550). It is true that there is the cry to heaven (Ppay 1905 b;
Munkcsi 1910, p. 102) in the form of kaj, kaja-juj, and others which are com-
parable with the Hungarian haj in the regs-refrain, but without any mention of
ecstasy. The word kaj occurs also in the Vogul kaj-saw, 'hymn', 'prayer'; kajji,
`sing', i.e. 'loud words', 'cry', the meanings of which, however, point to cultic con-
nections.
3 On this, see Bartk 1925 (Hungarian ceremonial music of a special character);
Kodly 1935, pp. 39 ff., 1952, p. 56, 1956, pp. 75-81, 1960, pp. 34 ff. (a type of hexa-
choral melody both primitive and European, which displays a similarity to nursery
rhymes as well as gregorian music; some of the hexachord motifs derive from the
pentatonic scale, and the refrain points to western european models); Kerenyi 1953
(the melody derives from 11ungarian nursery rhymes; the refrain and even the whole
song-type can be of Western origin, possibly from the Middle Ages); Vargyas 1957
(ancient ritual music of hitherto unknown derivation, that displays Mediterranean
features, not however, Finno-Ugrian melody-style). On the regs-problem, see in addi-
tion Sebestyn 1902 a, 1902b; Vikr 1907; Viski 1932, 1937; Pais 1949; Balzs 1954,
1963; Dioszegi 1958; de Ferdinandy 1963, p. 242; Szomjas-Schiffert 1963.
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