The Village and The World: A Political Reading of Rabindranath Tagore's Prose Fiction

The Village and the World:
A Political Reading of
Rabindranath Tagores Prose Fiction
Christine Marsh, BSc, BA (Hons.)
The Village and the World:
A Political Reading of
Rabindranath Tagores Prose Fiction
Christine Marsh, BSc, BA (Hons.)
[email protected]
September 2006.
The illa!e an" the #orl" $
S%&'(S)S
This essa* is the en" pro"+ct o, research into the prose ,iction o, the Ben!ali -riter,
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, -ho is best /no-n ,or his poetr*. The -or/s chosen ,or
anal*sis are short stories an" no0els in 1n!lish translation, -ritten bet-een 2340
an" 2425. The st+"* in0ol0e" a political rea"in! o, these te6ts in or"er to e6plore
ho-, in the 2420s, Ta!ore came to establish a centre ,or r+ral reconstr+ction an" an
international +ni0ersit*, as his practical contrib+tion to brin!in! into realit* his
0ision o, a -orl" o, cooperation an" comm+nit*. .eco!nisin! Ta!ore7s i"entit* as
(oet an" .e,ormer is cr+cial to interpretin! his stories an" lon!er ,iction, an" lea"s
to 8+estionin! criticism o, the -or/ accor"in! to establishe" #estern mo"els.
The )ntro"+ction p+ts the chosen te6ts in the conte6t o, Ta!ore7s li,e an" the
historical bac/!ro+n", in partic+lar loo/in! at ho- the British 1mpire "isr+pte"
0illa!e li,e, an" create" an +rban mi""le class o, lan"lor"s an" a"ministrators, -ho
became #esternise" "+e to their ha0in! bene,ite" ,rom the .a9.
The ,irst main chapter is ,oc+se" on the illa!e, an" the short stories Ta!ore
-rote "+rin! the 2340s -hilst he -as mana!in! the ,amil* estates. 'ne partic+lar
short stor*, :(+nishment7, is e6amine" closel* to re0eal the la*ers o, meanin!
+n"erl*in! Ta!ore7s metho" o, stor*;-ritin!. The st+"* re0eale" Ta!ore7s partic+lar
interest in the role o, -omen in tra"itional "omestic an" 0illa!e li,e, an" intro"+ce"
the i"ea o, :"harma7 as the "+t* o, a -i,e to-ar"s her h+sban" an" her ,amil*.
The secon" main chapter is ,oc+se" on the #orl" an" ho- the no0el ,orm
bro+!ht ,rom the #est "e0elope" in )n"ia. Three o, Ta!ore7s no0els are e6amine"<
The Wreck (2406), Gora (2404) an" The Home and the World (2425). Ta!ore
emplo*e" the techni8+e o, alle!or* to challen!e +rban 0al+es an" social "i0isions,
an" to sho- that the in"i0i"+al has a responsibilit* to sh+n !ro+p i"entit* an"
embrace +ni0ersal +n"erstan"in!, tolerance an" cooperation. The no0els ta/e the
#estern rea"er ,+rther into the )n"ian concept o, :"harma7, as the means b* -hich
the in"i0i"+al in relationship -ith others can become a practical realit*.
The concl+"in! chapter s+mmarises ho- the st+"* has "emonstrate" the nee"
to 8+estion #estern ass+mptions, in literat+re st+"ies, an" in the "ominant mo"el o,
-orl" economics an" politics, in or"er that Ta!ore7s alternati0e 0ision ma* be
appreciate" b* the -i"er -orl".
The illa!e an" the #orl" =
C'&T1&TS<
2. )&T.'>?CT)'&< .AB)&>.A&ATH TA@'.1,
H)S (.'S1 A)CT)'& )& C'&T1BT
6
2. TH1 )CCA@1< TA@'.17S SH'.T ST'.)1S 22
$. TH1 #'.C>< TA@'.17S &'1CS 22
=. C'&CC?S)'&< TH1 )CCA@1 A&> TH1 #'.C> $6
B)BC)'@.A(H% =0
The illa!e an" the #orl" 5
ACD&'#C1>@1M1&TS
To >r Barbara Mor"en an" >r Ditt* Sco+lar >atta ,or a"0ice, enco+ra!ement an"
s+per0isionE to An!ie St.Fohn (almer an" %0onne #i"!er ,or permission an"
assistance in carr*in! o+t research at the >artin!ton Hall Tr+st Archi0eE to Fohn
San,or" ,or assistance -ith boo/s b* .abin"ranath Ta!ore ,rom the >artin!ton
Colle!e o, Arts Cibrar*E an" to >a0i" @earin! ,or proo,rea"in!.
.ememberin! Mar9orie S*/es (2405;2445),
-ho -rote on m* cop* o, her boo/, Gandhi: His Gift of the Fight<
2. )&T.'>?CT)'&< .AB)&>.A&ATH TA@'.1, H)S (.'S1
A)CT)'& )& C'&T1BT
1n!lan", it is tr+e, in ca+sin! a social re0ol+tion in Hin"+stan, -as act+ate"
onl* b* the 0ilest interests, an" -as st+pi" in her manner o, en,orcin! them.
B+t that is not the 8+estion. The 8+estion is, can man/in" ,+l,il its "estin*
-itho+t a ,+n"amental re0ol+tion in the social state o, AsiaG ), not, -hate0er
ma* ha0e been the crimes o, 1n!lan" she -as the +nconscio+s tool o,
histor* in brin!in! abo+t that re0ol+tion. (Darl Mar6, F+ne 25, 235$)
2
) loo/ bac/ on the stretch o, past *ears an" see the cr+mblin! r+ins o, a
pro+" ci0iliHation l*in! heape" as !arba!e o+t o, histor*I An" *et ) shall not
commit the !rie0o+s sin o, losin! ,aith in Man, acceptin! his present "e,eat
as ,inal. ) shall loo/ ,or-ar" to a t+rnin! in histor* a,ter the catacl*sm is o0er
an" the s/* is a!ain +nb+r"ene" an" passionless.
(erhaps the ne- "a-n -ill come ,rom this horiHon, ,rom the 1ast -here
the s+n risesE an" then, +n0an8+ishe" Man -ill retrace his path o, con8+est,
"espite all barriers, to -in bac/ his lost herita!e. (.abin"ranath Ta!ore, April
2=, 24=2)
2
.abin"ranath Ta!ore (2362;24=2) sa- himsel, primaril* as a poet,
$
an" as a poet he
is still -ell;/no-n an" hi!hl* re!ar"e" in historic Ben!al (appro6imatel* )n"ian
#est Ben!al an" Ban!la"esh) an" in the )n"ian s+bcontinent. Arom earl* bo*hoo"
almost to his "*in! "a*, Ta!ore compose" poetr* constantl*, as i, he -as a,,licte"
-ith a ,orm o, s*naesthesia, -hereb* his min" t+rne" all his obser0ations an"
e6periences into poetr*. )n anni0ersar* an" commemorati0e 0ol+mes, Ta!ore is
"escribe" as also bein! a short stor* -riter,
=
an" a no0elist,
5
b+t it is more tr+e to sa*
he -as a poet -ho t+rne" to short stories an" no0els "+rin! partic+lar perio"s o, his
li,e. ?ns+rprisin!l*, there,ore, his prose -ritin! is i"ios*ncratic an" resists
cate!orisation an" comparison. Ta!ore7s 0ario+s translators, incl+"in! himsel,, ha0e
str+!!le" -ith the ,+n"amental "i,,erences bet-een the Ben!ali lan!+a!e an"
1n!lish, an" it becomes clear that Ta!ore7s prose in the ori!inal is more poetic, -ith
more -or";pla*, incl+"in! p+nnin!,
6
an" more h+mo+r, than it has in translation.
Ta!ore -as not onl* a poet b+t also a 0isionar* an" a re,ormer. The ,ocal point
o, this st+"* o, Ta!ore7s li,e an" -or/ is the 2420s, -hen he establishe" at
Santini/etan (:abo"e o, peace7, ,ormerl* his ,ather7s ashram), a centre ,or r+ral
2
Darl Mar6, :The British .+le in )n"ia7, in The First Indian War of Independence 1857-1859, b* D.
Mar6 an" A. 1n!els (Mosco-< Aorei!n Can!+a!es (+blishin! Ho+se, Jn.".K), pp.2=;22, (p.20).
('ri!inall* p+blishe" in the e!-"ork #ail$ Tri%&ne, F+ne 25, 235$)
2
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, :Crisis in Ci0iliHation7 in To!ards 'ni(ersal )an (Con"on< Asia (+blishin!
Ho+se, 2462), pp.$5$;4 (p.$54).
$
Amart*a Sen, :Aore-or"7, in *elected +etters of ,a%indranath Tagore, e". b* Drishna >+tta an"
An"re- .obinson (Cambri"!e< Cambri"!e ?ni0ersit* (ress, 244L), pp.60ii;660 (p.60ii).
=
>i-an Chan" Sharma, :The Short Stories o, .abin"ranath Ta!ore7, in Tagore -irthda$ &m%er,
.is(a--harati /&arterl$, e". b* Drishna Dripalani (JSantini/etanK, Ben!al< 24=2), pp.2$L;=2 (p.2$3).
5
@h+lam M+rshi", :Ta!ore7s &o0els7, in ,a%indranath Tagore: 0 1ele%ration of his +ife and Work
('6,or"< .abin"ranath Ta!ore ,esti0al Committee, 2436), pp.=2;=$ (p.=2).
6
(.D. Saha, :Translatin! )n"ian Citerar* Te6ts into 1n!lish7, in +iterar$ India: 1omparati(e *t&dies
in 0esthetics2 1olonialism and 1&lt&re, e". b* (atric/ Colm Ho!an an" Calita (an"it (Alban*< State
?ni0ersit* o, &e- %or/ (ress, 2445), pp.2L5;3L (p.2LL).
The illa!e an" the #orl" L
reconstr+ction, Srini/etan (:abo"e o, plent*7),
L
an" an international +ni0ersit*,
is0a;Bharati (,rom the Sans/rit ,or +ni0erse an" the name o, a Hin"+ !o""ess o,
learnin!)
3
. A,ter this he tra0elle" the -orl" propa!atin! his 0ision. Ta!ore7s prose
,iction pro0i"es insi!hts into ho- an" -h* :the 0illa!e an" the -orl"7 became
Ta!ore7s li,e7s -or/. The te6ts -hich are the s+b9ects o, this st+"* are a selection
,rom the short stories -hich Ta!ore -rote "+rin! the 2340s,
4
an" three o, Ta!ore7s
no0els -hich he -rote bet-een 2406 an" 2425.
20

This st+"* has in0ol0e" a :political rea"in!7 o, these -or/s partl* to contrast
Ta!ore7s 0ision o, a ,+t+re -orl" -ith the Mar6ist conception o, a pro!ression
thro+!h sta!es o, the economic basis o, societ*, their class "i0isions an"
s+perstr+ct+re, to-ar"s the +ltimate classless, propert*;less societ*. )t has not
become a :Mar6ist rea"in!7, re,lectin! the concern postcolonial theorists ha0e
e6presse" as Mar6ism bein! 1+rocentric,
22
an" not a !oo" mo"el o, the pro!ression
-hich too/ place in the colonise" re!ions o, the -orl". The 8+otation hea"in! this
)ntro"+ction comes ,rom an article Mar6 -rote ,or p+blication in an American
ne-spaper, one o, a series later p+blishe" in boo/ ,orm as The First Indian War of
Independence 1857-1859. Mar67s anal*sis o, the .e0olt sho-s it to be :a pro"+ct o,
socioeconomic con"itions an" the resistance o, an oppresse" people7,
22
lea"in! to
the perio" -hich ,ollo-e", the Cro-n .a9 an" Ta!ore7s li,etime.
Ta!ore7s practical pro9ects to brin! his 0ision into realit* can be lin/e" to a
-ell;/no-n sa*in! o, Mar6< :The philosophers ha0e onl* interprete" the -orl", in
0ario+s -a*sE the point is to chan!e it.7
2$
B+t -ritin! can chan!e the -orl". Fean;
(a+l Sartre asserts that :the prose;-riter is a man -ho has chosen a certain metho"
o, secon"ar* action -hich -e ma* call action b* "isclos+re,7 an" he proposes as/in!
s+ch a -riter the 8+estion< :#hat aspect o, the -orl" "o *o+ -ant to "iscloseG #hat
chan!e "o *o+ -ant to brin! into the -orl" b* this "isclos+reG7
2=
Ta!ore -as a
:committe" -riter7 in Sartre7s sense, in that his prose ,iction "iscloses a "i,,erent
-a* o, li0in! in the -orl", o, potential bene,it to people o, the 1ast an" the #est.
Ho-e0er, Ta!ore -as not a""ressin! rea"ers in the #est in this literat+re, an" so the
:messa!e7, i, -e can all it that, has to be "eco"e", pic/e" o+t ,rom -hat he is sa*in!
more "irectl* to his o-n inten"e" a+"ience. Ta!ore is :political7 in the sense that he
ha" a 0ision o, ho- people co+l" an" sho+l" li0e in the -orl", a 0ision that he
-or/e" to brin! into realit*, b+t sel"om :political7 in the sense o, en!a!in! -ith the
s*stems o, !o0ernment, an" he -as not a nationalist an" not anti;British, -hilst he
lo0e" his co+ntr* an" "esire" its ,ree"om ,rom oppression. 'ne can s+m +p the
L
:Santini/etan7 an" :Srini/etan7 are sometimes spelt :Shantini/etan7 an" :Shrini/etan7.
3
Drishna >+tta an" An"re- .obinson, e"s., 3&ra%i: 0 )iscellan$ in )emor$ of ,a%indranath
Tagore 1941-1991 (Con"on< Ta!ore Centre, 2442), p.220
4
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, *elected *hort *tories, trans. b* #illiam .a"ice (Con"on< (en!+in, 2005).
20
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, The Wreck, Jtrans. b* F.@. >r+mmon"K (Con"on< Macmillan, 24==) ,irst
p+blishe" 2406E
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, The Home and the World, trans. b* S+ren"ranath Ta!ore (Con"on< (en!+in,
2435) ,irst p+blishe" 2425E an"
t-o e"itions o, the no0el< .abin"ranath Ta!ore, Gora, Jtrans. b* #.#. (earsonK (Con"on< Macmillan,
242=) ,irst p+blishe" in Ben!ali, 2404, an" .abin"ranath Ta!ore, Gora, trans. b* S+9it M+/her9ee
(&e- >elhi< Sahita A/a"emi, 200$).
22
Cr*stal Bartolo0ich, :)ntro"+ction7, in )ar5ism2 )odernit$ and 3ostcolonial *t&dies, e". b* Cr*stal
Bartolo0ich an" &eil CaHar+s (Cambri"!e< Cambri"!e ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2002), pp.2;2L (p.2).
22
(rana0 Fani, :Darl Mar6, 1+rocentrism, an" the 235L .e0olt in British )n"ia7, in )ar5ism2
)odernit$ and 3ostcolonial *t&dies, pp.32;4L (p.40).
2$
Darl Mar6, :Theses 'n Ae+erbach7, (23=5)
http<MM---.mar6ists.or!Marchi0eMmar6M-or/sM23=5MthesesMtheses.htm Jaccesse" 25 F+l* 2006K
2=
Fean;(a+l Sartre, What is +iterat&re6, trans. b* Bernar" Arechtman (Con"on< Meth+en, 2450), p.2$.
"i,,erent -a* o, li,e he a"0ocate" as :c+lt+re an" comm+nit*7, -hich lies bet-een
in"i0i"+alistic an" competiti0e materialism, o, -hich Ta!ore -as critical, an" the
in"i0i"+al spirit+al search, -hich he sa- as not incompatible -ith en!a!in! -ith
one7s c+lt+re an" ta/in! an acti0e part in one7s comm+nit*.
A set o, "i,,ic+lties comes -ith st+"*in! a -riter an" -ritin! ,rom a ,orei!n
co+ntr*. Ta!ore -rote most o, his -or/ in Ben!ali, b+t the te6ts in 1n!lish
translation come -ith special parate6ts,
25
intro"+ctions an" translators7 notes, -hich
are help,+l ,or ma/in! sense o, the translate" -or/s, an" brin! them part o, the -a*
to-ar"s the #estern rea"er, b+t one has to be alert to them !oin! too ,ar s+ch that
some o, the ori!inal meanin! is lost.
(+ttin! Ta!ore7s stories an" no0els in historical conte6t le" to ,+rther
"i,,ic+lties. Conte6t matters ,or most approaches to serio+s literat+re st+"ies,
perhaps least ,or st+"ies s+ch as those carrie" o+t b* A... Cea0is, the pioneer in
literat+re st+"ies as an aca"emic s+b9ect, -here he is concerne" -ith ,orm,
ori!inalit*, an" the i"enti,ication o, !eni+s in literar* art.
26
10en here, conte6t
matters, an" -e ,in" Cea0is sa*in! o, Fane A+sten, :#itho+t her intense moral
preocc+pation she -o+l"n7t ha0e been a !reat no0elist,7 an" that !reatness an"
matters o, aesthetics are closel* tie" to :an +n+s+all* "e0elope" interest in li,e7 an"
:a 0ital capacit* ,or e6perience7.
2L
Another important literar* critic, >oroth* an
@hent, ma/es a "i,,erent, b+t e8+all* cr+cial, lin/ bet-een li,e an" art, -hen she
e6presses her t-o con0ictions< :Airst, that no0els ha0e their primar* interest in the
ill+mination the* cast +pon li,e, not li,e some-here else an" at another time, b+t
imme"iatel* here, imme"iatel* no-. An" secon", that no0els are able to cast
ill+mination +pon li,e onl* inso,ar as the* are coherent -or/s o, art.7
23
Aictional -or/s ,rom another co+ntr*, not -ritten to be rea" here, brin! a
,+rther "imension to the :li,e an" art7 connection, in that the c+lt+re an" the
en0ironment ma* not be "escribe" in the te6ts as ,+ll* as one nee"s in or"er to
+n"erstan" the characters an" sit+ations "epicte". 'ne is 0er* "epen"ent on material
s+ch as bio!raphies, histories, an" contemporar* -ritin! abo+t the a+thor or his
-or/s, b+t that material brin!s -ith it a host o, contra"ictions an" "isa!reements,
an" a lab*rinth o, paths one co+l" p+rs+e to tr* to resol0e them. A /e* 8+estion is
help,+l here< :#as the British .a9 !oo" or ba" ,or )n"iaG7, -hich lin/s bac/ to the
8+otation b* Mar6 abo0e, an" lea"s on to the s+mmar* belo- o, /e* points in the
historical bac/!ro+n" to Ta!ore7s -ritin!.
Mar6 is sa*in!, not that the .a9 -as :!oo"7, in"ee" he sa*s it -as :0ile7 an"
:st+pi"7, b+t that it -as necessar* to )n"ia an" the -orl", since it ,orce" a bac/-ar",
,e+"al co+ntr* thro+!h its bo+r!eois re0ol+tion into capitalism an" the mo"ern
-orl". Ta!ore7s bio!rapher, Drishna Dripalani, sa*s that :JtKhe (Ta!ore) ,amil* N
,ort+nes -ere ,rom the be!innin! lin/e" -ith the rise o, the British po-er in )n"ia,7
an" that .abin"ranath7s !ran",ather, >-ar/anath Ta!ore, amon!st man* impressi0e
entreprene+rial an" charitable achie0ements, ,o+n"e" the ,irst mo"ern ban/ -ith
)n"ian capital.
24
'ne co+l" cate!orise Dripalani7s position as :the .a9 -as !oo"7.
Fa-aharlal &ehr+, -ho became the ,irst (rime Minister o, )n"ia, ar!+es the
25
@Orar" @enette, :)ntro"+ction to the (arate6t7, e! +iterar$ Histor$, ol. 22, &o. 2, (Sprin!, 2442),
262;2L2.
26
A...Cea0is, The Great Tradition: George 7liot2 Henr$ 8ames2 8oseph 1onrad (Con"on< (en!+in,
2462), p.2L.
2L
Cea0is, pp.26;23.
23
>oroth* an @hent, The 7nglish o(el: Form and F&nction (&e- %or/< Harper Torchboo/s,
2462), p.0ii.
24
Drishna Dripalani, ,a%indranath Tagore: 0 -iograph$ (Con"on< '6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2462),
pp.2L;20.
opposite. )n his e6traor"inar* boo/, The #isco(er$ of India, -ritten -ith the help o,
ele0en er+"ite companions o0er ,i0e months in 24== -hile the* -ere incarcerate" in
Ahma"na!ar Aort prison, &ehr+ sho-s ho- )n"ia -as, +p +ntil the ei!hteenth
cent+r*, a hi!hl* "e0elope" co+ntr*. There -ere b+siness an" ,inancial ho+ses, an"
po-er,+l merchant an" man+,act+rin! classes, en!a!e" in tra"e in Asia an" in
1+rope. The mi""le classes, ho-e0er, ha" no political po-er, an" in that sense the
bo+r!eois re0ol+tion ha" not happene" in )n"ia.
20
Aor this st+"*, one nee"s to +n"erstan" the ma/e+p o, the classes in Britain
an" the #est, an" in )n"ia, ,rom -hich came Ta!ore7s rea"ership, b+t this is a h+!e
s+b9ect. An i"ea o, &ehr+7s pro0i"es a +se,+l startin! point. He -rote o, there bein!
:T-o 1n!lan"s7 in the ei!hteenth cent+r* an" into the nineteenth< the entreprene+rial
bo+r!eoisie at home -ho bro+!ht in the in"+strial re0ol+tion at )n"ia7s e6pense, an"
the ,e+"al r+mp -ho -ent to )n"ia an" ran the .a9.
22
To these one ma* a"" a :thir"
1n!lan"7, ma"e +p o, :tra"itional intellect+als7,
22
the 1n!lish scholars an"
s*mpathisers -ho participate" in an e8+al e6chan!e o, c+lt+ral an" reli!io+s i"eas,
-ith s+ch !reat )n"ian intellect+als as .ammohan .o* an" Ta!ore.
&ehr+ "escribe" ho- )n"ia7s thri0in! in"i!eno+s econom* -as "estro*e" b*
the .a9.
2$
As Mar6 p+t it, :The "e0astatin! e,,ects o, 1n!lish in"+str* JonK )n"ia, a
co+ntr* as 0ast as 1+rope N are palpable an" con,o+n"in!.7
2=
B+t the "e0astation
reall* be!an at 0illa!e le0el. Thro+!ho+t &ehr+7s 9o+rne* o, "isco0er* o, the
c+lt+ral an" material aspects an" sta!es in )n"ia7s c+lt+re an" "e0elopment, an" his
acco+nt o, the -a0es o, con8+est an" assimilation, there are repeate" mentions o,
)n"ia7s sel,;!o0ernin! 0illa!e s*stems, -hich -ere treate" -ith respect b* all ne-
r+lers +ntil the British +tterl* "estro*e" them.
25
Man* -riters on )n"ian histor*,
incl+"in! Mar6 in the article ,rom -hich ) 8+ote" abo0e,
26
i"enti,* the 2L4$ Act o,
(ermanent Settlement, -hen the British 1ast )n"ia Compan* ac8+ire" the ri!ht to
ta6 the re0en+e ,rom the peasantr* collecte" b* the Hamin"ars, as the t+rnin! point
,or the 0illa!e s*stem. .omesh Ch+n"er >+tt, a "istin!+ishe" la-*er, -ritin! in
23L= abo+t the peasantr* o, Ben!al, sai" that< :Hemin"ars (sic)
2L
still (since mo0es to
re,orm the s*stem) possess to an in"e,inite e6tent the po-er to oppress, harass an"
r+in their r*ots (peasants) in a 0ariet* o, -a*s a!ainst -hich the la- o,,ers no
re"ress, an" that there,ore in most places r*ots are still hel" in a sort o, moral
ser0it+"e, an" compl*, -itho+t thin/in! o, resistance, -ith the most +n9+st "eman"s
an" or"ers o, their masters N Jan"K ma/e it simpl* impossible ,or r*ots to sa0e
an*thin!, or to learn to be pr+"ent, pro0i"ent, thin/in! bein!s, or better their
con"ition.7
23
The Ta!ore ,amil* -ere Hamin"ars, their income "eri0in! ,rom ,amil* estates,
remnants o, the once colossal -ealth o, .abin"ranath7s !ran",ather, >-ar/anath
20
Fa-aharlal &ehr+, The #isco(er$ of India (Con"on< Meri"ian, 2452), pp.262;$.
22
&ehr+, pp.262;6
22
Antonio @ramsci, :The )ntellect+als7, in 3rison ote%ooks of 0ntonio Gramsci,
http<MM---.mar6ists.or!Marchi0eM!ramsciMprison_noteboo/sMproblemsMintellect+als.htm Jaccesse" 2L
A+!+st 2006K, :The Aormation o, the )ntellect+als7, para. $ o, 20
2$
&ehr+, pp.2L6;3
2=
Mar6, p.$3.
25
&ehr+, pp. 220, 225, 242, 24L;3.
26
Mar6, pp.$$, 226.
2L
&ote< )n this essa* ) ha0e !enerall* stan"ar"ise" the spellin! o, this term as :Hamin"ar7, b+t the
-or" can also be spelt :Hemin"ar7, as here.
23
.omesh Ch+n"er >+tt, The 3easantr$ of -engal: %eing a .ie! of their 1ondition &nder the Hind&2
the )ahomedan2 and the 7nglish ,&le2 and a 1onsideration of the )eans 1alc&lated to Impro(e
their F&t&re 3rospects (Calc+tta< Thac/er, Spin/ P Co., 23L=), p.6.
Ta!ore, p+t in tr+st ,or their sec+rit* shortl* be,ore his ,ort+ne collapse".
24
)n 2334
.abin"ranath too/ o0er the mana!ement o, the ,amil* estates,
$0
an" it -as a li,e;
chan!in! e6perience ,or him an" he came to see that in 0illa!e c+lt+re -as :an i"eal
,or the -hole o, )n"ia7,
$2
-hich -as the +ni8+e political 0ision -hich he so+!ht to
brin! to the -orl" thro+!h his r+ral +ni0ersit*. >+rin! the 2340s he -rote man*
short stories abo+t the h+mble people -hose li0es he -itnesse" in r+ral Ben!al,
-hich lea"s on the ,irst set o, te6ts -hich are the s+b9ect o, this st+"*.
24
Dripalani, p.23.
$0
*elected +etters, p.25.
$2
Ta!ore, :Cit* an" illa!e7, in To!ards 'ni(ersal )an, pp.$02;22 (p.$22).
2. TH1 )CCA@1< TA@'.17S SH'.T ST'.)1S
) belon! to the class -ho b* 0ario+s "e0ices "epri0e the -or/in! people o,
necessities, an" -ho b* these "e0ices ha0e pro0i"e" a ma!ic p+rse ,or
themsel0es N -hich enables me, -itho+t e0er "oin! an* -or/, to compel
h+n"re"s an" tho+san"s o, people to -or/ ,or meQas ) am "oin!, an" )
ima!ine that ) pit* people an" -ish to help them. ) sit on a man7s bac/,
cho/in! him an" ma/in! him carr* me, an" *et ass+re m*sel, an" others that
) am 0er* sorr* ,or him an" -ish to ease his lot b* all possible meansQ
e6cept b* !ettin! o,, his bac/. (Ceo Tolsto*, 2336)
$2
Aro+n" >ecember 2340 his ,ather ha" sent him, then t-ent*;nine *ears o,
a!e, to li0e on an" to mana!e the Ta!ore ,amil* properties in 1ast Ben!al.
There he ha" ma"e t-o important "isco0eries< ,irst, that the 0illa!ers seeme"
to ha0e lost all abilit* to help themsel0esE secon"l*, that both research an"
technical assistance -o+l" be nee"e" i, the* -ere e0er to learn ho- to resc+e
themsel0es ,rom their creepin! "eca*. (Ceonar" 1lmhirst, 24L5)
$$
Accor"in! to .abin"ranath Ta!ore7s bio!rapher, Drishna Dripalani, the Ta!ore
,amil* estates -ere :,airl* lar!e an" sprea" o0er a 0ast area7, at the time -hen
Ta!ore7s ,ather, the Maharshi, "etermine" that his *o+n!est son sho+l" accept his
responsibilities an" ta/e ,+ll char!e o, their mana!ement, an" see to the -el,are o,
the tenants.
$=
)t -o+l" appear that, "espite :(rince7 >-ar/anath Ta!ore7s enormo+s
-ealth ha0in! "-in"le",
$5
the ,amil* still possesse" a :ma!ic p+rse7, in Tolsto*7s
terms, enablin! them to li0e, i, not in i"leness R since the* -ere all occ+pie" -ith
their 0ario+s creati0e p+rs+its R at least not nee"in! to earn their li0in!.
#ith some rel+ctance, b+t obli!e" to obe* his ,ather, Ta!ore ma"e
arran!ements to to+r the estates b* ho+seboat. As a res+lt he !aine" an intimac* -ith
the li0es o, the common people< :their "ail* "r+"!er* an" constant str+!!le a!ainst
the in"i,,erence o, nat+re an" the -orse in"i,,erence o, a ri!i" social ortho"o6* an"
o, an alien political r+le.7
$6
'0er the *ears, Ta!ore embar/e" on man* e6periments
to recti,* the problems he sa-. ?ma >as @+pta -rites o, some o, these e,,orts
"+rin! 2405;25, speci,icall* :a #el,are A+n" an" a #el,are Societ*7 to ta/e care o,
me"ical treatment, primar* e"+cation, "i!!in! -ells an" other :p+blic -or/s7, an"
tac/lin! in"ebte"ness an" 8+arrels.
$L
Cater he establishe" a r+ral reconstr+ction
centre, Srini/etan, -ith his 1n!lish ,rien" an" collea!+e, Ceonar" 1lmhirst. B* this
time, the :ma!ic p+rse7 -as e6ha+ste", an" Ta!ore ha" to raise mone* ,or his
pro9ects b* !oin! on lect+re to+rs, an" he e0en resorte" to appl*in! ,or an )mperial
!rant ,or a!ric+lt+ral research. )n a letter to His 16cellenc*, The icero*, "ate" 23
th
Aebr+ar* 24$0, concernin! his application, Ta!ore re,ers to 0illa!e reconstr+ction as
$2
Ceo Tolsto*, What Then )&st We #o6, trans. b* A*lmer Ma+"e (Bi"e,or"< @reen Boo/s, 2442),
pp.62;$.
$$
Ceonar" 1lmhirst, :(ersonal .eminiscences7, in 3oet and 3lo!man (Calc+tta< is0a;Bharati,
24L5), pp.25;$2 (pp.25;26).
$=
Dripalani, 2462, pp.2$6;L
$5
Dripalani, p.23
$6
Dripalani, p.2$L.
$L
?ma >as @+pta, :.abin"ranath Ta!ore on .+ral .econstr+ction< The Shrini/etan (ro!ramme,
2422;=2, in >+tta, Drishna an" An"re- .obinson, e"s., 3&ra%i: 0 )iscellan$ in )emor$ of
,a%indranath Tagore 1941-1991 (Con"on< Ta!ore Centre, 2442), pp.22L;=2 (p.22L).
:-hat has been m* li,e7s -or/.7
$3
Ta!ore -as t-ent*;nine *ears ol" -hen he ,irst too/ on responsibilit* ,or the
estates. His li,e be,ore that co+l" har"l* ha0e been more "i,,erent, an" one -on"ers
ho- a *o+n! man -ith s+ch a bac/!ro+n" co+l" become so practicall*;min"e". The
m+ch a"mire" short stories -hich Ta!ore -rote< ,i,t*;nine o, them "+rin! the 2340s,
incl+"in! the thirt* stories in a selection translate" an" intro"+ce" b* #illiam
.a"ice, -hich ) "isc+ss belo-,
$4
,orm a bri"!e or a s*nthesis bet-een Ta!ore7s t-o
li0es, as poet an" seer :an interme"iar* bet-een the h+man an" the "i0ine7,
=0
an" as
the re,ormer -ho ma"e it his li,e7s -or/, not onl* to :!et o,, the bac/s7 o, poor
0illa!ers, b+t to re;b+il" their li0es an" their comm+nities. Dripalani "escribes the
*ears o, Ta!ore7s *o+th as c+lminatin! in a pro,o+n" spirit+al e6perience, -hen
Ta!ore sa- the :+ltimate si!ni,icance7 o, :all thin!s an" all men7,
=2
a realisation
Ta!ore himsel, sa- as ha0in! a pro,o+n" impact on his -or/ in the 0illa!es.
=2
'ne
nee"s to be a-are o, the spirit+al ,o+n"ation to Ta!ore7s personalit*, incl+"in! his
/no-le"!e o, )n"ia7s c+lt+ral tra"itions, to appreciate his compassionate
+n"erstan"in! o, ho- 0illa!e people mi!ht li0e, an" also to ma/e sense o, the
stories he -rote an" to see the moti0e behin" the practical -or/ he s+bse8+entl*
became so passionate abo+t.
An appropriate startin! point ,or a political rea"in! o, )n"ian prose ,iction is to
8+estion the pres+mption that the short stories, as -ell as the no0els, m+st ha0e
"eri0e" ,rom a #estern literar* tra"ition. T.#. Clar/, in his st+"* o, )n"ian ,iction in
0ernac+lar lan!+a!es, i"enti,ies a point in 2362 -hen a Ben!ali -riter, c+rio+sl*
name" :H+tom the '-l7, achie0e" :or!anic +nit* N bet-een narrati0e an"
"escripti0e -ritin!7 an" sho-e" that contemporar* li,e can s+ppl* ample material
,or ,iction -riters, an" this le" to a tra"ition embracin! :some o, Ben!al7s !reatest
names7 incl+"in! Ta!ore7s.
=$
Mar* Ca!o, a translator o, Ta!ore7s -or/, -rites<
:There -as no in"i!eno+s Ben!ali tra"ition, at that time (the 2340s), o, the mo"ern
short stor*. N Ta!ore seems to ha0e /no-n the stories o, (oe an" Ha-thorneJ, also
Arench an" .+ssian -riters.K7
==
)n his intro"+ction to his st+"* o, the mo"ern short
stor* in the #est, Aran/ M*sHor i"enti,ies the same -riters, &athaniel Ha-thorne
(230=;236=) an" 1"!ar Allan (oe (2304;23=4), to!ether -ith &i/olai @o!ol (2304;
2352), as -riters o, :JtKhe earliest !oo" e6amples o, the ,orm7.
=5
So the p+blishin! o,
short stories ma* ha0e been ne- in )n"ia in the nineteenth cent+r*, b+t it -as ne- in
the #est too.
Stor* tellin! in )n"ia nee"e" no #estern mo"el or ori!in. Stories -ere alrea"*
present in narrati0e tra"ition, most ob0io+sl* in the ,ama$ana an" )aha%harata.
=6
$3
The >artin!ton Hall Tr+st Archi0e, (apers o, Ceonar" Dni!ht 1lmhirst, CD1 )n"ia, CD1M)&M25
Aol"er A, :is0a;Bharati correspon"ence7
$4
#illiam .a"ice, :)ntro"+ction7, in .abin"ranath Ta!ore, *elected *hort *tories, trans. b* #illiam
.a"ice (Con"on< (en!+in, 2005), pp.2;23 (p.2).
=0
Dripalani, pp.2;$.
=2
Dripalani, p.202.
=2
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, :The ision7, in The ,eligion of )an: -eing the Hi%%ert +ect&res for 199:
(Boston< Beacon, 2462), pp.40;203 (pp.4=;5).
=$
T. #. Clar/, :Ben!ali (rose Aiction +p to Ban/imcan"ra7, in The o(el in India: Its -irth and
#e(elopment, e". b* T. #. Clar/ (Con"on< @eor!e Allen P ?n-in, 24L0), pp.22;L= (pp.=2;L).
==
Mar* Ca!o, :Ta!ore7s Short Aiction7, in ,a%indranath Tagore: 0 1ele%ration of his +ife and Work
('6,or"< .abin"ranath Ta!ore Aesti0al Committee, 2436), pp.==;5 (p.==).
=5
Aran/ M*sHor, The )odern *hort *tor$ (Cambri"!e< Cambri"!e ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2002), p.3.
=6
These stories ha0e ,o+n" there -a* to the #est too, in 0er* re"+ce" ,orm in 0ersions li/e<
#illiam B+c/, ,ama$ana: ;ing ,ama<s Wa$: .almiki<s .ama*ana told in 7nglish 3rose (Cali,ornia<
Cali,ornia ?ni0ersit* (ress, 24L3)E
C. .a9a!opalachari, )aha%harata (Bomba*< Bharati*a i"*a Bha0an, 24L4).
The illa!e an" the #orl" 2$
Ta!ore7s recollections in )$ -o$hood #a$s are ri""le" -ith stories< those he -as
tol" b* relati0es, ser0ants an" 0isitin! pla*ers, stories -hich arose ,rom his o-n
ima!ination an" the atmosphere o, "ar/ corners o, his ol" ramblin! ,amil* home,
an" simpl* in his o-n -a* o, relatin! episo"es in his li,e.
=L
M*sHor mentions
>ic/ens7 *ketches %$ -o= (23$5;6),
=3
an" man* o, Ta!ore7s stories are more li/e
s/etches, -ith ,ictionalise" elements, b+t closel* resemblin! anec"otes he relates in
his letters, especiall* those p+blishe" as Glimpses of -engal.
=4
'ne o, Ta!ore7s most antholo!ise" stories is :(+nishment7, -hich is a0ailable
in at least three "i,,erent translations.
50
A /e* aspect to the process o, e6plorin!
Ta!ore7s stories R or perhaps an* -or/ o, his R is that la*ers o, meanin! !ra"+all*
emer!e i, one is open to lin!+istic s+btleties an" "i,,erences o, c+lt+ral bac/!ro+n",
an" the 0ario+s translations are help,+l here. .ather s+rprisin!l*, this is the onl*
stor* in the .a"ice selection -hich is act+all* abo+t 0illa!e c+lti0ators. As .a"ice
obser0es< :man* o, the characters in the stories are not Ssimple 0illa!e peopleT, b+t
o, the mi""le class or !entr* class Jan" sKome are more +rban than r+ral.7
52

'n ,irst rea"in!, :(+nishment7 is a cr+el an" br+tal stor*, not sho-in! Ta!ore7s
s*mpath* -ith simple 0illa!e people, rather the re0erse. .a"ice ma/es onl* one
mention o, the stor* in his intro"+ction, sa*in! that it ill+strates :"eh+maniHin!
po0ert*7,
52
an" certainl* the absol+te po0ert* o, the main characters R rather than
"isparities o, -ealth an" stat+s, or str+!!les o0er mone*, as in other stories R is a
cr+cial element.
The stor* is abo+t t-o brothers, >+/hiram .+i an" Chi"am .+i an" their
-i0es, .a"ha an" Chan"ara. The brothers are lan"less labo+rers, an" the ,o+r (pl+s
.a"ha7s bab* son) share a ho+se as s+btenants o, the 0illa!e /no-;all abo+t le!al
matters, .amlochan Cha/rabarti. The la*erin! o, tenanc*, ,ra!mentation o,
lan"hol"in!s an" lan"lessness -ere en"emic in r+ral li,e in Colonial )n"ia, an" in
Ben!al in partic+lar became pro!ressi0el* -orse ,rom the (ermanent Settlement o,
2L4$ on-ar"s, as "etaile" in a report on the pro!ress o, lan" re,orms in Ben!al
,ollo-in! )n"epen"ence.
5$
)t -as not onl* impo0erishe" c+lti0ators an" tenants -ho
s+,,ere" ,rom Ben!al7s lan" problems, since the ma9orit* o, lan"lor"s or Hamin"ars
ha" tin* lan"hol"in!s, an" str+!!le" to realise their "+e rent.
5=
So in Ta!ore7s stories
,eat+rin! Hamin"ars or the !entr* class concerne" abo+t their -ealth, matters o,
inheritance, an" so on, he is ne0ertheless o,ten -ritin! abo+t r+ral problems.
The basic plot o, :(+nishment7 is as ,ollo-s. The t-o brothers ret+rn ,rom a
lon! "a* -or/in! on the Hamin"ar7s o,,ice;b+il"in!, ha0in! been ,orcibl* -ith"ra-n
,rom c+ttin! pa""* b* the baili,, (an" .ana9it @+ha "escribes ho- ,orce" labo+r -as
a ,eat+re o, r+ral li,e in Colonial )n"ia
55
) to ,in" their -i0es i"lin! at home.
>+/hiram, the el"er brother, "eman"s ,oo" ,rom his -i,e, an" -hen she protests
=L
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, )$ -o$hood #a$s (&e- >elhi< .+pa, 2005)
=3
M*sHor, pp.2L;23.
=4
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, Glimpses of -engal: *elected from the +etters of *ir ,a%indranath Tagore
1885-1895 (Con"on< Macmillan, 24=5)
50
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, :(+nishment7, in .a"ice, pp.225;$$E
in .abin"ranath Ta!ore, *elected *hort *tories, e". b* S+/anita Cha+"h+ri (&e- >elhi< '6,or"
?ni0ersit* (ress, 2000), pp. 220;20E
in .abin"ranath Ta!ore, *elected *hort *tories, trans. b* Drishna >+tta an" Mar* Ca!o (Con"on<
Macmillan, 2442), pp.6L;L4.
52
.a"ice, p.6.
52
.a"ice, p.2$.
5$
Dar+namo* M+/er9i, :(ro!ress o, Can" .e,orms in #est Ben!al7, ,a%indra%harati Fo+rnal, ol.)
(F+l* 2463), pp.53;L6 (pp.53;4).
5=
Sachin Sen, The 3ermanent *ettlement in -engal >0 *t&d$ on its 7conomic Implications? (Calc+tta<
M.C. Sar/ar P Sons, 24$$) J>artin!ton Hall Tr+st Archi0e, CD1M)&M=$K
The illa!e an" the #orl" 2=
moc/in!l* that he hasn7t pro0i"e" an* ,oo" ,or her to coo/, he loses his temper,
lashes o+t an" /ills her -ith his /ni,e. .amlochan arri0es to collect his o0er"+e rent
an" Chi"am, the *o+n!er brother, tries to co0er +p his brother7s "ee" b* blamin! it
on his o-n -i,e. He then tells Chan"ara she is to a"mit to the m+r"er, b+t to sa* it
-as in sel,;"e,ence. '+t o, st+bborn pri"e she simpl* tells the police an" later the
ma!istrate, :%es, ) /ille" her,7 an" "enies there -as an* bra-l or attac/ to pro0o/e or
e6c+se the crime, an" she is con"emne" to "eath. Be,ore the han!in! she is as/e" i,
she -ill see her h+sban", -ho -ants to see her, an" she re,+ses.
So, a nast* stor*, an" not entirel* consistent or pla+sible. The stor* is set o+t in
three parts. )n the ,irst part all ,o+r characters appear -ea/ an" c+lpable in one -a*
or another, e0en Chan"ara seems as 8+arrelsome an" laH* as .a"ha. )n the secon"
part the *o+n!er co+ple are presente" in a m+ch more positi0e li!ht. )n contrast to
the other co+ple, the* are bea+ti,+l an" !race,+l an" e0en their m+t+al s+spicions
an" possessi0eness sho-s the* are in lo0e -ith each other. )n that part, the
characters mi!ht belon! in a ,air* stor* or ,ol/ tale, -ith the ba" an" there,ore +!l*
ol"er brother an" the !oo" an" there,ore han"some *o+n!er one. Chan"ara7s sel,;
"estr+cti0e stance an" the o+tcome is "escribe" in the thir" part o, the stor*, an" one
-on"ers -h* she -o+l" act that -a*E is she 9+st st+pi"G
Anita >esai obser0es in her intro"+ction to the selection o, stories translate"
b* Drishna >+tta an" Mar* Ca!o that m+ch o, Ta!ore7s ,iction is "i"actic, -ith
man* o, his stories en"in! :accor"in! to the ictorian concept -ith a th+mpin!
moral7.
56
)n an inter0ie- -ith >esai, Calita (an"it ma/es a connection bet-een
:Ta!ore7s representation o, the isolation an" entrapment o, )n"ian -omen7 an"
>esai7s -or/ on this theme. At this point >esai sa*s she onl* "isco0ere" Ta!ore
recentl*, in a"+lthoo", an" rea" him onl* in 1n!lish.
5L
Cater >esai is as/e" abo+t
Ta!ore7s :compromise en"in!s7, -hereb* his ,emale prota!onists are allo-e" a
certain "e!ree o, ,ree"om b+t ret+rn to the place the* "e0iate" ,rom. )n repl* >esai
sa*s Ta!ore -as :a ictorian -riter in a ictorian a!e7, an" that :it -o+l" be
+nrealistic o, him to sho- societies chan!in!, to sho- in"i0i"+alism chan!e
societ*.7
53
)n m* 0ie-, that /in" o, mo"ern ,eminist rea"in! o, Ta!ore7s stories, an"
the point abo+t ictorian moralistic en"in!s, ha0e some 0ali"it*, b+t ,ail to "o
Ta!ore 9+stice, both as a ,eminist himsel, an" as a -orl" chan!er.
Comparin! three "i,,erent translations o, the stor* pro0i"es cl+es to a more
satis,actor* an" challen!in! interpretation. ) -as alerte" to the 0ersions o, this stor*
bein! "i,,erent b* noticin! that in .a"ice7s translation the t-o brothers !o to -or/
-ith their :hea0* ,arm;/ni0es7, in Cha+"h+ri7s the* ha0e :choppers7, an" in >+tta
an" Ca!o the* each ha0e a :billhoo/7.
54
)ntri!+in!l*, in Ta!ore7s )$ -o$hood #a$s
there is a mention o, a !*ps* -oman -ith a :bill;hoo/7, a tool or -eapon -hich in
the same para!raph is re,erre" to as a :sic/le7.
60
Cater in the boo/, there is a
re,erence to the !o""ess Dali7s :hea0* c+r0e" bla"e7,
62
not +nli/e >eath bein!
"epicte" -ith a sc*the in #estern icono!raph*. Altho+!h this ma* seem a tri0ial
55
.ana9it @+ha "escribes the e6ploitation o, %egar or ,orce" labo+r b* e0er* "ominant !ro+p,
incl+"in! lan"lor"s. (.ana9it @+ha, #ominance !itho&t Hegemon$: Histor$ and 3o!er in 1olonial
India (Cambri"!e Massach+setts< Har0ar" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 244L), pp.26;$0.)
56
>esai, :)ntro"+ction7, in >+tta an" Ca!o, pp.2;2L (p.26).
5L
Calita (an"it, :A Sense o, >etail an" a Sense o, 'r"er< Anita >esai )nter0ie-e" b* Calita (an"it7,
in ,a%indranath Tagore: 'ni(ersalit$ and Tradition e". b* (atric/ Colm Ho!an an" Calita (an"it,
(Cranb+r*, &F< Associate" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 200$), pp.25$;2L2 (p.260).
53
(an"it, pp.266;L.
54
.a"ice, p.225, Cha+"h+r, p.220, >+tta an" Ca!o, p.6L.
60
Ta!ore, -o$hood, p.20.
62
Ta!ore, -o$hood, pp. 24;$0.
"etail, it is si!ni,icant. Airst o, all, e"+cate" +rban people, s+ch as translators, are
!enerall* alienate" ,rom the lan", an" so -ill not be ,amiliar -ith ,arm implements.
Mar9orie S*/es, -ho translate" )$ -o$hood #a$s, ha" a ,arm in )n"ia man* *ears
later, b+t in 24=2 she co+l" con,+se a bill;hoo/ -ith a sic/le.
62
This technical "etail
is a s*mptom o, the "ecline o, r+ral li,e, a s+b9ect -hich "eepl* concerne" Ta!ore.
Secon"l*, the s*mbolism o, the ima!e o, this "eath;"ealin! implement, ele0ates the
in"i0i"+al stor* to somethin! +ni0ersal, -hich is consistent -ith Ta!ore7s
philosoph*, as "etaile" in his essa* :The .elation o, the )n"i0i"+al to the
?ni0erse7.
6$
The ,inal -or" in the ori!inal short is apparentl* maran, literall* simpl*
:"eath7, b+t both .a"ice an" Cha+"h+ri a"" notes to in"icate more potent meanin!s,
-hich are lin/e" to a more si!ni,icant Ben!ali -or", the :+ntranslatable7 a%himan.
6=
1ach o, the three translators e6presses the sense o, a%himan "i,,erentl*<
.a"ice !i0es< :S+ch ,ierce, "isastro+s pri"eI7, Cha+"h+ri< :Ho- terrible -as this
pri"e o, hersI7, an" >+tta an" Ca!o< :#hat +nrelentin! resentmentI7.
65
.a"ice alone
a""s a ,ootnote< :a%himan< there is no sin!le 1n!lish -or" ,or this emotion. )t
incl+"es h+rt pri"e, br+ise" ,eelin!s, an" re9ection b* someone -e lo0e. Chan"ara is
a%himan incarnate.7
66
His ,ootnote to maran at the close o, the stor* mentions
a%himan a!ain<
:maranI7 Cit. :"eathI7 R a common ironic e6pression partic+larl* amon!
0illa!e;-omen. The comple6 implications here incl+"e Chan"ara7s re9ection
o, the h+sban" she still lo0es, the a%himan that pre0ents her ,rom bac/in!
"o-n, an" a sh* rel+ctance to "ispla* her tr+e marital ,eelin!s in p+blic.
6L
Cha+"h+ri7s translation o, the ,inal line (Chan"ara7s repl* to bein! as/e" i, she -ill
see her h+sban") is :Chan"ara sai" S>eathIT7
63
, -ith an en"note<
:>eathI7< a literal ren"erin! o, the Ben!ali inter9ection :)aranI7, o, comple6
an" +ntranslatable implications< an!er, e6asperation, hatre", b+t also (,rom its
common +se in or"inar* amoro+s conte6ts) a s+ppresse" eroticism.7
64

.a"ice7s o-n translation o, the ,inal line is -ea/er than this< :STo hell -ith him,T
sai" Chan"ara.7
L0
, an" >+tta an" Ca!o ha0e< :S)7" rather be "ea"IT she replie".7
L2

So -hat is the stor* meant to con0e*G )s this one o, the :"i"actic7 Ta!ore
stories >esai re,ers toG, an" i, so, -hat co+l" the moral lesson beG )s Chan"ara to be
a"mire" or con"emne" ,or her incarnation o, a%himanG ) ha0e i"enti,ie" some
in!re"ients to-ar"s sol0in! this p+HHle, an" ,in"in! a satis,actor* meanin! ,or the
stor*. )t "epicts "eh+maniHin! po0ert*, iss+es o, ,orce" labo+r an" ,ra!mentation o,
lan", the ,amil* an" the h+sban" an" -i,e, the 8+estion o, -ho matters more< a
brother or a -i,eG )n the "rama -e ha0e m+r"er, per9+r*, pri"e, lo0e, societ*, la-,
62
Martha >art, )ar@orie *$kes: /&aker Gandhian (%or/< Sessions, 244$), :Santini/etan -ith Ta!ore
24$4;=27, pp.$0;$L, :.as+lia 24L4;337, pp.223;$=.
6$
Ta!ore, :The .elation o, the )n"i0i"+al to the ?ni0erse7, in *adhana (Con"on< Macmillan, 2425),
pp.$;22.
6=
An internet search ,or the meanin! o, the Be!ali -or" :abhiman7 (or :abhimaan7) bro+!ht +p Antara
>e0 Sen sa*in! that this is man* people7s can"i"ate ,or :the most +ntranslatable -or" in Ben!ali7,
:(ri"e an" abhimaan7, http<MM---.the;-ee/.comM2=sep05Mcol+mns_home.htm Jaccesse" 2$ Ma*
2006K
65
.a"ice, p.2$2, Cha+"h+ri, p.223, >+tta an" Ca!o, p.L6.
66
.a"ice, p.2$2.
6L
.a"ice, p.2$$.
63
Cha+"h+ri, p.220.
64
Cha+"h+ri, p.$20.
L0
.a"ice, p.2$$.
L2
>+tta an" Ca!o, p.L4.
9+"!ement, p+nishment, "eath, the in"i0i"+al an" the +ni0ersal, +ntranslatable -or"s
an" c+lt+ral "i,,erences. There is also a ,eminist interpretation s+!!este" b* >esai,
-ho a"mires Chan"ara7s :+n,linchin! "etermination7, her :pri"e an" ,+r*7, an" her
bein! other than :the lon!;s+,,erin! -i,e o, Hin"+ tra"ition7.
L2
)t is -orth pointin!
o+t at this point that stan"ar" theoretic perspecti0es in0ol0in! hi""en an" el+si0e
meanin!s< Machere*7s i"eolo!* l+r/in! in :!aps an" silences7, "econstr+ction an"
:The >eath o, the A+thor7 an" so on
L$
,

"o not appl* here. This is abo+t i"enti,*in! a
meanin! an" :lesson7 that the a+thor co+l" ha0e inten"e", an" his contemporar*
rea"ers -o+l" ha0e reco!nise".
There is another in!re"ient that m+st be a""e" to the mi6, -hich lin/s to >esai
an" (an"it7s 9+"!ement o, Ta!ore7s -ea/ en"in!s, an" also >esai7s sense that
:Ta!ore -as in a h+rr* -hen he -rote these stories7, -ritin! rapi"l* to ,ill iss+es o,
the ,amil* ma!aHine *adhana -ith :stories, poems, pla*s an" essa*s7.
L=
A "i,,erent
/in" o, stor* is nee"e" ,or p+blication in a monthl* ma!aHine ,rom one to be
p+blishe" in a boo/ as part o, a collection. Ta!ore -rites in )$ -o$hood #a$s abo+t
the e6citement o, recei0in! an iss+e o, -angadarsan, the ma!aHine e"ite" b*
Ban/im Chan"ra Chatter9i, in its he*"a*.
L5
:(+nishment7 -as -ritten ,or, an" ,irst
p+blishe" in, *adhana, F+l*;A+!+st 234$,
L6
an" one nee"s to bear that in min" -hile
consi"erin! the meanin! an" p+rpose o, the stor*. F+st as rea"ers -ere hel" in
s+spense -aitin! ,or the ne6t episo"e o, a serialise" Ban/im Chan"ra no0el, an"
tal/e" abo+t it mean-hile, a short stor* -o+l" ha0e been a topic ,or "isc+ssion. The
en"in!, an" the moral, co+l" act+all* be more interestin! to rea"ers i, +nresol0e" or
contro0ersial. 'ne can ima!in! contemporar* rea"ers ta/in! positions on -hether or
not Chan"ara "i" the ri!ht thin!. B+t ,or that to be interestin!, there has to be a
moral, not simpl* the "epiction o, a ,allible h+man bein!.
)nstea" o, ta/in! >esai7s rea"in! o, Chan"ara as a pro+" an" an!r* in"i0i"+al,
an asserti0e -oman ,i!htin! bac/ a!ainst a patriarchal societ* an" the morall* -ea/
men in her li,e, s+ppose -e !i0e her the role o, :the lon!;s+,,erin! -i,e o, Hin"+
tra"ition7 -hich >esai "ispara!esE "oes that necessaril* ma/e Chan"ara a passi0e
0ictimG Ar!+abl*, her stren!th an" her an!er can also ma/e sense i, she embo"ies
Hin"+ dharma,
LL
actin! accor"in! to principle, as the sadharmini o, her h+sban".
L3
There is a stron! cl+e to this bein! -hat Ta!ore inten"e" in the three;part str+ct+re
o, the stor*. (art ) is the initial "rama ,oc+se" on the home an" the ,amil*. (art )) is
abo+t the *o+n!er co+ple, !i0in! them attrib+tes o, bea+t*, !race an" lo0e, thereb*
i"ealisin! them s+ch that the* become the +ni0ersal h+sban" an" -i,e, ,ace" -ith a
"i,,ic+lt sit+ation ,or -hich he re8+ires sel,;sacri,ice ,rom his -i,e. (art ))) is abo+t
:the -orl"7< the le!al process an" the o+tcome.
Ta!ore spo/e on the s+b9ect o, :#oman7 in one o, his American lect+res,
p+blishe" as 3ersonalit$.
L4
He sai"< :#oman is en"o-e" -ith the passi0e 8+alities
o, chastit*, mo"est*, "e0otion an" po-er o, sel,;sacri,ice in a !reater meas+re than
L2
>esai, p.22.
L$
)odern +iterar$ Theor$: 0 ,eader, e". b* (hilip .ice an" (atricia #a+!h (Con"on< Arnol",
Ho""er Hea"line, 2002), Machere*, pp.2$=;=2, Barthes, pp.235;34.
L=
>esai, p.20.
L5
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, -o$hood, p.L2.
L6
.a"ice, p.244.
LL
The Sans/rit -or" transliterate" as :"harma7 appears +n;italicise" in the 1n!lish "ictionar*,
ho-e0er ) ha0e +se" it in italics or not accor"in! to conte6t an" the +sa!e o, -riters cite".
L3
(atric/ Colm Ho!an, :'rtho"o6* an" ?ni0ersalism< .abin"ranath Ta!ore7s Gora7, in 1olonialism
and 1&lt&ral Identit$: 1rises of Tradition in the 0nglophone +iterat&res of India2 0frica2 and the
1ari%%ean (Alban*< State ?ni0ersit* o, &e- %or/ (ress, 2000), pp.22$;55 (pp.22=;5).
L4
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, :#oman7, in 3ersonalit$: +ect&res #eli(ered in 0merica (Con"on<
Macmillan, 2424), pp.264;3=.
The illa!e an" the #orl" 2L
man is,7
30
the 0er* attrib+tes that ,eminists re!ar" as impose" on -omen b*
patriarchal s*stems. B+t in his lect+re, Ta!ore -as not s+!!estin! the attrib+tes are
-ea/nesses, rather that the -orl" nee"s the stabilit* that is inherent in -oman7s
nat+re. :All her ,orces instincti0el* -or/ to brin! thin!s to some shape o, ,+lness
(sic),Q,or that is the la- o, li,e7.
32
The i"ea o, :the la- o, li,e7 lin/s to Ho!an7s
+n"erstan"in! o, "harma<
)t is the "harma o, -ater to ,lo-, o, hea0* ob9ects to ,all to earth N. )t is the
nat+re o, h+man/in" to act accor"in! to principle. Hence, ,or men an" -omen,
"harma means "+t*, -hat ) sho+l" "oQnot onl* N Smorall*T b+t in respect o,
e0er* social lin/.
32
)t ma* seem incon!r+o+s to interpret Chan"ara7s st+bborn re,+sal to obe* her
h+sban"7s instr+ctions an" sa0e hersel,, her pri"e an" an!er, an" (b* one translation
an*-a*) resentment to-ar"s him, an" her ,inal re9ection R in"ee" p+nishment R o,
him to embrace "eath, as an act o, -i,el* "+t*, as spo+sal "harma. Ho-e0er, )
belie0e this is a 0ali" interpretation. Chan"ara "oes obe* her h+sban" to the e6tent
o, sa*in! she /ille" .a"ha, th+s e6oneratin! >+/hiram, the hea" o, the ,amil*. She
re,+ses to per9+re hersel, ,+rther ,or the sa/e o, her h+sban"7s "harma, in the interest
o, their share" reli!io+s "+t*. ), Ho!an is ri!ht abo+t "harma bein! h+man nat+re, as
nat+ral as the ,lo- o, -ater, the ,all o, hea0* ob9ects to earth, Chan"ara has no
choiceE no -on"er then that she is ,+rio+s.
The concept o, "harma is cr+cial to +n"erstan"in! tra"itional )n"ian societ*
an" c+lt+re, an" ,or interpretin! m+ch o, Ta!ore7s -ritin!. Arom Ho!an7s o+tline o,
the 0ario+s ,orms o, "harma one can see that there can be con,licts bet-een an
in"i0i"+al7s birth or caste "harma, their sta!e o, li,e "harma, s+ch as -i,el* "+t*,
an" +ni0ersal "harma relatin! to h+man ethical principles, -hich can o0erri"e all
others.
3$
Hence, one co+l" interpret Chan"ara7s sit+ation as a con,lict bet-een her
"+t* o, obe"ience to her h+sban" an" the +ni0ersal principle o, tellin! the tr+th. B+t
i, her moti0e in re,+sin! to tell the ,alsehoo"s her h+sban" instr+cts her in to sa0e
hersel,, is act+all* to sa0e him R in a reli!io+s sense R that -o+l" seem to be an
instance o, :sati"harma7 or :sati7. Sati is +s+all* +n"erstoo" in the narro- sense o, a
-i"o-7s sel,;immolation on her h+sban"7s ,+neral p*re. The prime initiator o, the
)n"ian renaissance, .a9a .ammohan .o*, is cre"ite" -ith campai!nin! -ith the
British ,or the bannin! o, -i"o- immolation, citin! ancient script+res in
9+sti,ication.
3=
Ta!ore ,ollo-e" .ammohan in see/in! the best o, both -orl"s in his
relationship -ith the British, his "isill+sionment brin!in! !reat an!+ish, as -e see in
his last essa*, :Crisis in Ci0ilisation7.
35
The i"eolo!* o, the s+ppose" :ci0ilisin!
mission7 o, the British !a0e rise to a patronisin! arro!ance to-ar"s the !reat men o,
the )n"ian renaissance, s+ch as .ammohan an" Ta!ore, -hich persists to"a*, ,or
e6ample, in the ass+mption that )n"ian prose ,iction is imitati0e an" there,ore
in,erior to #estern literat+re. 'ne -a* o, opposin! this ten"enc* is to see/ the
comple6it* behin" tar!ets ,or moralisin!, s+ch as :sati7.
1sha &i*o!i >e re,ers to the :i"eal o, satidharma7 in an essa* on Ta!ore7s
i"eas on ho- harmon* in the -orl" co+l" be bro+!ht abo+t b* social practices
con"+cin! ,ree"om rather than en,orcin! po-er. >isc+ssin! t-o critical essa*s
30
Ta!ore, p.2L$.
32
Ta!ore, p.2L2.
32
Ho!an, p.22=.
3$
Ho!an, pp.226;L.
3=
(ranab .an9an @hosh, :.a9a .ammohan .o*7, in The )odern ,e(ie!, September, 24L2, ,rom The
>artin!ton Hall Tr+st Archi0e, Ceonar" Dni!ht 1lmhirst Collection, CD1M)&M=$, p.2$4.
35
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, :Crisis in Ci0ilisation7, p.$55.
Ta!ore -rote in 2402 abo+t *hak&ntala, a "rama b* the Sans/rit poet, Dali"asa, >e
-rites<
.abin"ranath7s essa* N +ncriticall* celebrate" Dali"as7s "istillation o, the
"e,inin! ,eat+res o, Sha/+ntala7s ,eminine h+manit* N as constit+te" b* the
+nchan!in! 8+alities (+n"er a"0ersit*) o, ,orbearance an" ,or!i0eness an",
o0erall, b* the Si"eal o, satidharma,T that is, the Sreli!ionT o, sel,;sacri,ice,
obe"ience, an" emotionalMse6+al "e0otion o, the normati0e Hin"+ -i,e.
36
This "oes seem to con,irm that the -i,el* "harma o, Chan"ara in :(+nishment7 can
be calle" :sati"harma7. )n the essa*s >e re,ers to, Ta!ore re,ers to the role o, the
-i,e in more positi0e terms, s+ch as< :Marria!e is the prel+"e to e0er*"a* "omestic
li,eE it is part o, the social or"er7E :J-omenK !i0e birth to o,,sprin!, hence the* are
!reat o, so+l, ob9ects o, -orship, an" the shinin! li!ht o, the home7E :the lo0e o,
man an" -oman cannot be lastin! or bea+ti,+l i, it is barren, i, it remains constricte"
-ithin itsel,Qi, it "oes not !i0e birth to bene,icence an" sprea" itsel, across the
-orl" as a 0arie" ran!e amon! o+r chil"ren, !+ests, an" ,ello- h+mans7E :)n )n"ian
script+ral e"ict, the manR-oman relationship is restraine" an" con,ine" b* stern
en9oinmentsE in Dali"asa7s poetr*, it is ,ashione" ,rom the in!re"ients o, bea+t* N
ra"iant -ith the li!ht o, comeliness, mo"est* an" bene,icence N ,+l,ille" thro+!h
ren+nciation, !rati,ie" thro+!h s+,,erin!.7
3L
This is an important instance o, the rich
0eins in Ta!ore7s bo"* o, literat+re -hich one is "ra-n to -hen st+"*in! him
s*mpatheticall*.
.et+rnin! to the short stor*, :(+nishment7, as a -hole, the "rama abo+t
Chan"ara7s a"mission o, !+ilt ,or the m+r"er o, her sister;in;la- "ra-s the rea"er7s
attention a-a* ,rom the real !+ilt* parties, not onl* the m+r"erer, >+/hiram, b+t
-hat p+t him in the moo" to /ill. 10er* element co+nts in this care,+l plot.
>+/hiram7s -i,e, .a"ha, ma* ha0e been laH* an" incline" to lo+" bra-lin!, b+t she
-as a mo"el -i,e in tra"itional terms beca+se she ha" !i0en her h+sban" a son,
-hich is necessar* not onl* to pro0i"e the ne6t !eneration o, a!ric+lt+ral -or/ers,
b+t ,or the h+sban"7s :spirit+al sal0ation7.
33
Marrie" to the el"er brother, .a"ha -as
:the mistress o, the ,amil*7, the hi!hest stat+s ,or a Hin"+ -i,e.
34
The ,irst para!raph o, the stor* re,ers to :the t-o -i0es in this k&ri;caste
ho+sehol"7, an" .a"ice7s !lossar* entr* ,or :/+ri7 e6plains that, "espite the .+i
brothers in :(+nishment7 bein! lan"less labo+rers, the* are o, a hi!h caste,
tra"itionall* s+ppliers o, con,ectioner* to Brahmins.
40
)n ma/in! .a"ha the m+r"er
0ictim, Ta!ore -as si!nallin! to the rea"er that somethin! 8+ite +nto-ar" ha"
pro0o/e" >+/hiram7s ,+r*. As ) to+che" on earlier, the circ+mstances -ere his bein!
or"ere" a-a* ,rom !atherin! rice to -or/ ,or the Hamin"ar, +npai" e0en -ith his
share o, the !athere" rice. The ,act that those circ+mstances are li!htl* "ra-n -o+l"
not re"+ce their si!ni,icance ,or the Ben!ali rea"ership, an" possibl* the point
nee"e" to be "o-npla*e" in or"er ,or those in0ol0e" in the perio"ical, *adhana, not
to be cens+re" b* the @o0ernment, -hose British personnel -ere all instr+cte" in
36
1sha &i*o!i >e, :>ecoloniHin! ?ni0ersalit*< (ostcolonial Theor* an" the U+an"ar* o, 1thical
A!enc*7, #iacritics, ol. $2, &o. 2 (S+mmer, 2002), =2;54 (p.=4).
3L
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, :D+marasambha0an an" Sha/+ntala7 in *elected Writings on +iterat&re and
+ang&age, e". b* Sisir D+mar >as an" S+/anta Cha+"h+ri (&e- >elhi< '6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress,
2002), pp.226;$6E Ta!ore, :Sha/+ntala7, in *elected Writings, pp.2$L;52.
33
Tapan .a*cha+"h+ri, :Co0e in a Colonial Climate< marria!e, Se6 an" .omance in &ineteenth;
Cent+r* Ben!al7 ()odern 0sian *t&dies, ol. $=, &o. 2. (Ma*, 2000), $=4;$L3 (p.$50).
34
.a*cha+"h+ri, p.$62.
40
.a"ice, p.$2$.
the local 0ernac+lar.
42
The =amindari s*stem, an" the "isr+ption ca+se" b* the
(ermanent Aamindari Settlement o, 2L4$, m+st ha0e been sensiti0e s+b9ects, an"
"i,,ic+lt ,or the Calc+tta %hadralok or !entr* class to "isc+ss openl*, not least
beca+se the* ha" been its bene,iciaries.
42
A "etaile" st+"* o, this sin!le short stor*, :(+nishment7, "emonstrates ho-
one ma* "isco0er la*ers o, meanin! an" rele0ance i, one is open;min"e" abo+t
)n"ian c+lt+re. 10en the simplest stor* ma* ha0e hi""en "epths, an" one is tempte"
to !+ess at these. Aor e6ample, in the .a"ice selection is a 0er* simple short stor*
entitle" :Ho+se-i,e7.
4$
This is abo+t a small bo*, Ash+, :the !oo"*;!oo"* o, the
class7, -ho is !i0en a teasin! nic/name b* his sa"istic an" sarcastic teacher, a,ter the
teacher sa- him pla*in! at a "olls7 -e""in! -ith his sister. :Ho+se-i,e7 ma* be
e8+i0alent to :siss*7 in 1n!lish pla*!ro+n" banter, -ith its s+!!estion that the tar!et
is e,,eminate. A possible rea"in! o, the stor* is that it act+all* re,ers to the British
colonisers attrib+tin! ,emininit* an" lac/ o, martial pro-ess to Ben!ali men, -ho
-ere /eenl* a-are o, their helplessness in the ,ace o, 1+ropean po-er. This
rep+tation -as a 0er* sore point -ith e"+cate" Ben!ali males, as )n"ira Cho-"h+r*
relates in her boo/ abo+t ho- this !ro+p trie" to re;,ashion an" re"eem itsel, ,rom
:the sl+r o, e,,eteness7 b* :claimJin!K an asserti0e an" Smasc+lineT histor*7 an"
p+ttin! on an ann+al ,esti0al, the Hin"+ Mela, -hich ,eat+re" "emonstrations o,
martial arts, ph*sical stren!th an" athletics.
4=
Shibanath, the horrible teacher in :Ho+se-i,e7, e6pects the bo*s to re0ere him
as a !o", an" the stor* contains re,erences to Hin"+ !o"s, in partic+lar to %ama, the
!o" o, "eath. The narrator, one o, the p+pils, sa*s that h+man !o"s are more tro+ble
than immortal !o"s, an" i, the* ,ail :the* s-oop, re";e*e" -ith ,+r*, not at all
!o"li/e to loo/ at.7
45
Some research into the names an" terms +se" ma* or ma* not
con,irm m* rea"in! o, the stor* as bein! abo+t Ben!ali male i"entit*. The stor* ma*
simpl* be base" on Ta!ore7s o-n e6periences o, the schoolroom, -hich -ere so
ne!ati0e that, in 2402, he set +p an alternati0e r+ral school ,or his o-n chil"ren an"
a ,e- other bo*s.
46
The stor* co+l" e8+all* -ell be an elaboration o, an anec"ote
to+che" on in his memories o, his bo*hoo" "a*s, in -hich he -as the !+est at a
"olls7 -e""in! set +p b* a brother7s chil" bri"e,
4L
pres+mabl*, Da"ambari, the -i,e
o, his el"er brother, F*otirin"ranath. She -as a chil"hoo" companion,
43
an" later
enco+ra!e" the b+""in! poet.
44
T+rnin! to other stories in the .a"ice selection, t-ent* stories o+t o, the thirt*
ha0e -omen< -i"o-s, -i0es, "a+!hters, sisters, ser0ant !irls, as central characters,
or as central to the sit+ation o, a male main prota!onist. The ,irst stor* .a"ice
incl+"es is a poi!nant an" "ar/ tale, :The Ci0in! an" the >ea"7, -hich tells o,
Da"ambini, -ho :po+re" o+t her ,r+strate" -i"o-7s lo0e7 on a relati0e7s son, an"
then s+""enl* -ent into a coma, -as ta/en ,or cremation b+t re0i0e", an" ha" to "ie
a!ain to pro0e that she -as not a !host.
200
There is :16ercise Boo/7, abo+t the chil"
42
Clar/, p.4.
42
#olpert, Stanle*, 0 e! Histor$ of India, Lth e"n ('6,or"< '6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 200=), pp.246,
2=3.
4$
.a"ice, pp.5=;L.
4=
)n"ira Cho-"h+r*, The Frail Hero and .irile Histor$: Gender and the 3olitics of 1&lt&re in
1olonial -engal (>elhi< '6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2443), pp.252;$.
45
.a"ice, p.5=.
46
Drishna >+tta an" An"re- .obinson, ,a%indranath Tagore: The )$riad-)inded )an (Con"on<
Bloomsb+r*, 2445), p.2$5.
4L
Ta!ore, -o$hood, p.5=.
43
Dripalani, p.55.
44
>+tta an" .obinson, p.6$.
200
Ta!ore, :The Ci0in! an" the >ea"7, in .a"ice, pp.$2;=2.
bri"e, ?ma, -ho -as moc/e" b* her sisters;in;la- ,or -ritin! in her treas+re"
e6ercise boo/, -hich -as con,iscate" b* her h+sban", a -riter o, :0ario+s s+btl*
barbe" essa*s7.
202
'ther stories li/e these t-o ill+strate Ta!ore7s concerns abo+t
certain tra"itional Hin"+ practices re!ar"in! -omen, b+t he -as ambi0alent in his
0ie-s, accor"in! to a lect+re he !a0e on :Hin"+ marria!e7 three *ears a,ter his o-n
marria!e to a ten;*ear ol" bri"e.
202
The pre"ominance o, -omen7s stories is almost certainl* not simpl* a
re,lection o, .a"ice7s choice o, theme. Ta!ore ma/es clear in an essa* on the )n"ian
epic, the ,ama$ana, ho- important the "omestic sta!e o, li,e is ,or )n"ian societ*.
He "e,ines the ,ama$ana as :a tale o, "omestic matters on an immense scale7, in
-hich lo0e an" respect bet-een ,ather an" son, brother an" brother, an" h+sban"
an" -i,e are appropriate s+b9ects ,or epic. Con8+est o, territories an" con,licts
bet-een po-er,+l anta!onists pro0i"e e6citement in an epic, b+t the !reatness o, the
-ar bet-een .ama an" .a0ana also !lori,ies the con9+!al lo0e bet-een .ama an"
Sita, a son7s obe"ience to his ,ather, one brother7s sel,;sacri,ice ,or another, an" the
"+t* o, a /in! to-ar"s his s+b9ects. Accor"in! to Ta!ore, no epic o, an* other
co+ntr* has ta/en +p the "omestic concerns o, an in"i0i"+al as its s+b9ect matter,
-hich sho-s ho- m+ch the home means in )n"ia, -here "omestic li,e is not 9+st ,or
com,ort an" con0enience, b+t +n"erpins societ* an" ma/es h+man bein!s tr+l*
h+man.
20$
)n his t-o bio!raphies o, his earl* li,e, Ta!ore re,ers to hearin! stories ,rom
the ,ama$ana.
20=
Ta!ore li/ens the ,ama$ana an" the )aha%harata to the Iliad an"
the 0eneid o, ancient @reece an" .ome, an" sa*s that in her t-o epics :)n"ia has
-ithhel" nothin! o, hersel,.7 1n"+rin! ,or cent+r* a,ter cent+r*, :JtKhe* are still rea"
in e0er* 0illa!e, in e0er* home.7
205
)n the ,irst article in the Tagore -irthda$ &m%er
o, the .is(a--harati /&arterl$ in hono+r o, Ta!ore7s ei!htieth birth"a*, .amanan"a
Chatter9ee "escribes in !lo-in! terms the enormo+s scope an" 0ariet* o, Ta!ore7s
-ritin!. Then Chatter9ee sa*s, possibl* -ith a to+ch o, re!ret, that Ta!ore :has not
-ritten an* epic poem7 b+t then a""s that :JtKhe a!e ,or epics is "ea" an" !one,7
206
-hich Ta!ore also sa*s< :The* are no- an e6tinct bree".7
20L
B+t i, these epics are the
+ltimate so+rce o, stories, -hat are the mo"ern short stories Ta!ore -rote meant to
con0e*E -hat is their p+rposeG
Ta!ore in"icates a role ,or the mo"ern short stor* in an essa* he -rote in 2423
entitle" :Cit* an" illa!e7.
203
At the be!innin! o, the essa*, Ta!ore traces h+man
"e0elopment ,rom the :primiti0e a!e J-henK men -an"ere" alone N pre"ator* Jan"K
+nsocial7, thro+!h the "isco0er* o, a sec+re ,oo" s+ppl* b* :tillin! the all+0ial soil7,
-hen men "isco0ere" the a"0anta!e an" satis,action o, m+t+al ai", ,ello-ship an"
,esti0it* in the 0illa!e. Then the to-n e0ol0e" as the centre ,or !o0ernment, "e,ence,
tra"e, the p+rs+it o, /no-le"!e, an" comm+nication -ith the o+tsi"e -orl", an"
to-n li,e ,a0o+rs competition an" in"i0i"+alism. #hile the 0illa!e an" the to-n are
in balance, all is -ell, b+t the to-n becomes the cit* an" !ro-s li/e a t+mo+r< :the
enem* o, the -hole bo"* on -hich it ,ee"s as it s-ells N +pon the social or!anism
202
Ta!ore, :16ercise Boo/7, in .a"ice, pp.2=0;5.
202
>+tta an" .obinson, pp.45;6.
20$
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, :The ,ama$ana7, in *elected Writings, pp.252;5L (p.255).
20=
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, )$ ,eminiscences (Con"on< Macmillan, 2422), p.2L, -o$hood, p.=5.
205
:The ,ama$ana7, p.25$.
206
.amanan"a Chatter9ee, :.abin"ranath Ta!ore7, in Tagore -irthda$ &m%er, e". b* Drishna
Dripalani (Santini/etan, Ben!al, )n"ia< 24=2), pp.2;$0 (p.2).
20L
:The ,ama$ana7, p.25$.
203
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, :Cit* an" illa!e7, in To!ards 'ni(ersal )an (Con"on< Asia (+blishin!
Ho+se, 2462), pp.$02;22.
that r+ns thro+!h the 0illa!es.7
204
Ta!ore then sa*s< :illa!es are li/e -omen N
pro0i"Jin!K people -ith their elemental nee"s, -ith ,oo" an" 9o*, -ith the simple
poetr* o, li,e.7
220
Ta!ore "oes not sa* in this essa* that literat+re is capable o,
healin! the ri,t bet-een cit* an" 0illa!e, brin!in! the c+lt+ral li,e bloo" o, the
0illa!e bac/ to alienate" +rban in"i0i"+als, b+t his short stories co+l" ,+l,il that role,
each one a see" to re;!ro- the ,ama$ana i"eal.
204
Ta!ore, :Cit* an" illa!e7, pp.$02;=, $22.
220
Ta!ore, :Cit* an" illa!e7, p.$22.
$. TH1 #'.C>< TA@'.17S &'1CS
JTKhe act+al possibilit* o, Ssel,;"eterminationT ,or all ethnic !ro+ps or
other-ise "e,ine" nationalities is a +topia N J1Kthnic relics bear -itness to
the +phea0als an" intermi6t+res -hich characterise" the march o, historical
"e0elopment in the past. 10en in his time, Mar6 maintaine" that these
national s+r0i0als ha" no other ,+nction b+t to ser0e as bastions o, the
co+nter;re0ol+tion, +ntil the* sho+l" be completel* s-ept ,rom the ,ace o,
the earth b* the !reat h+rricane o, re0ol+tion or -orl" -ar. (.osa
C+6emb+r!, 2404)
222
&either the colo+rless 0a!+eness o, cosmopolitanism, nor the ,ierce sel,;
i"olatr* o, nation;-orship, is the !oal o, h+man histor*. An" )n"ia has been
tr*in! to accomplish her tas/ thro+!h social re!+lation o, "i,,erences, on the
one han", an" the spirit+al reco!nition o, +nit* on the other. (.abin"ranath
Ta!ore, 2422)
222
)n the pre0io+s chapter, ) 8+estione" the ass+mption that prose -ritin! bein! ne- in
)n"ia in the ,irst hal, o, the nineteenth cent+r* means that the short stor* is a
#estern;"eri0e" !enre.
22$
There is no s+ch 8+estion mar/ o0er the )n"ian no0el,
-hich clearl* "i" come ,rom the #est, more than a cent+r* later than the literar*
,orm be!an in 1+rope. The ,irst )n"ian no0elist -as the Ben!ali -riter Ban/im
Chan"ra Chatter9i, -ho -rote at least a "oHen no0els bet-een 2365 an" 233$,
22=
an"
Ta!ore mentions in his a+tobio!raph* his enco+nters -ith :Ban/im Bab+7.
225
This
pro0enance !i0es the )n"ian no0el an international "imension, an" in this chapter on
:The #orl"7, ) mo0e on ,rom Ta!ore7s short ,iction an" local concerns, to his no0els
an" his !lobal enco+nters.
)t can be +se,+l as a startin! point to appl* #estern critical mo"els to Ta!ore7s
no0els, an" to i"enti,* in them reco!nisable no0elistic tropes, as lon! as it is
reco!nise" that Ta!ore7s -ritin! has a poetic "epth an" ,l+i"it*, so that he +ses prose
in his o-n +ni8+e -a* -hich resists cate!orisation an" anal*sis. A similar challen!e
arises -hen tr*in! to lin/ Ta!ore7s no0els to his politics or philosoph*. He "enie"
bein! a scholar or a philosopher,
226
an" ha" a rep+tation ,or bein! inconsistent, a
,a+lt -hich -as sim+ltaneo+sl* a stren!th.
22L
The no0els -hich are the s+b9ect o, this chapter on :The #orl"7 are< a&ka-
d&%i (2406), translate" into 1n!lish b* F.@. >r+mmon" as The Wreck (2422)E
223
Ghare -aire (2425), translate" b* S+ren"ranath Ta!ore as The Home and the World
222
C+6emb+r!, .osa, :the .i!ht o, &ations to Sel,;>etermination7, in The ational /&estion, e". b*
Horace B >a0is (Jn.p.K< Monthl* .e0ie- (ress, 24L6)
http<MM---.mar6ists.or!Marchi0eMl+6emb+r!M2404Mnational;8+estion Jaccesse" 22 F+l* 2005K, (art ))),
para. 3 o, 22.
222
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, ationalism (Con"on, Macmillan, 2422), p.5.
22$
Clar/, p.4.
22=
@h+lam M+rshi", :Ta!ore7s &o0els7, in ,a%indranath Tagore: 0 1ele%ration of his +ife and Work,
e". b* Ale6 Aronson ('6,or"< .abin"ranath Ta!ore Aesti0al Committee an" the M+se+m o, Mo"ern
Art, 2436), pp.=2;$ (p.=2).
225
,eminiscences, pp.252;2.
226
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, The ,eligion of )an: -eing the Hi%%ert +ect&res for 199: (Boston< Beacon,
2462), p.40.
22L
Ho!an, (atric/ Colm, :'rtho"o6* an" ?ni0ersalism< .abin"ranath Ta!ore7s Gora7, in 1olonialism
and 1&lt&ral Identit$: 1rises of Tradition in the 0nglophone +iterat&res of India2 0frica2 and the
1ari%%ean (Alban*< State ?ni0ersit* o, &e- %or/ (ress, 2000), pp.22$;55 (pp.22=;5).
The illa!e an" the #orl" 2$
(2424),
224
an" Gora (2404), in t-o translations< b* #.#. (earson (242=),
220
an" b*
S+9it M+/her9ee (200$).
222
Accor"in! to S.D. Baner9ee, (ro,essor o, 1n!lish at (resi"enc* Colle!e,
Calc+tta, Ta!ore7s earl* e6periments -ith the no0el, ,rom 233= to 2402, ma* ha0e
been haH*, a-/-ar" an" ,anci,+l, b+t he soon "isco0ere" a "istincti0e metho".
222
Ta!ore7s !enerall* most a"mire" no0el, Gora, has consi"erable "epth an"
comple6it* an" as s+ch en!a!es critical attention an" is open to -i"el* "i,,erin!
scholarl* interpretation. Ashis &an"* sees Gora as en!a!in! -ith the political
str+!!les o, the "a*, b* :,oc+sin! on the t-o con,lictin! ,orms o, response to
imperialism.
22$
(atric/ Colm Ho!an sees the no0el, in one essa*, as a correcti0e
re0ision o, Diplin!7s ;im an" t-o Fane A+sten no0els,
22=
an" in another essa* as
bein! :abo+t colonial i"entit* N concei0e" o, as dharma.7
225

Se0eral critics ha0e rea" Gora an" The Home and the World as bein!
:alle!ories o, the nation7,
226
an" this is an e6ample o, a #estern trope bein! an
interestin! ,oc+s, b+t Ta!ore7s pres+me" a"option o, it nee"in! care,+l e6amination.
>+rin! the time Ta!ore -as /no-n be*on" )n"ia, his antipath* to-ar"s the i"ea o,
:&ation7< his -or", capitalise", ,or the nation;state,
22L
-as as -ell /no-n as the boo/
o, poems, Gitan@ali, ,or -hich he -as a-ar"e" the &obel (riHe ,or Citerat+re.
Ta!ore ,irst -rote abo+t the i"ea o, a &ation in 2402, 8+estionin! national i"entit*
an" +ni,ormit*, an" concl+"in! that s+ch an i"entit* -as impose" b* the State, an"
that the i"ea -as a #estern import ,or -hich there -as no )n"ian e8+i0alent.
223
T-ent* *ears later, he !a0e lect+res in Fapan an" in the ?nite" States, p+blishe" in
ationalism,
224
-hich sho- his a"amant an" passionate hostilit* to the i"ea o, the
&ation.
@i0en Ta!ore7s 0ie-s, it seems mista/en ,or a critic to s+!!est that an* Ta!ore
no0el is an :alle!or* o, the nation7, comparable to the 1+ropean nineteenth cent+r*
no0el in bein! :the s*mbolic ,orm o, the nation state7, let alone :Jha0in!K to -rest
Jthe nationK ,rom other !eo!raphical matrices that -ere 9+st as capable o, !eneratin!
narrati0e.7
2$0
This is an i"ea a"opte" b* literat+re scholars ,rom Bene"ict An"erson7s
insi!hts abo+t :ima!ine" comm+nities7, an" nations an" nationalism bein! :c+lt+ral
arte,acts o, a partic+lar /in".7
2$2
The +nthin/in! -a* the -or" :nation7 is +se" b*
almost e0er*one in the mo"ern -orl" in"icates ho- s+ccess,+l this i"eolo!ical
223
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, The Wreck, trans. b* F.@. >r+mmon" (Con"on< Macmillan, 24==) ,irst
p+blishe" as a&ka-d&%i 2406.
224
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, The Home and the World, trans. b* S+ren"ranath Ta!ore (Con"on< (en!+in,
2435) ,irst p+blishe" as Ghare -aire 2425.
220
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, Gora, Jtrans. b* #.#. (earsonK (Con"on< Macmillan, 242=) ,irst p+blishe"
2404.
222
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, Gora, trans. b* S+9it M+/her9ee (&e- >elhi< Sahita A/a"emi, 200$).
222
S.D. Baner9ee, :The &o0els an" Short Stories o, .abin"ranath Ta!ore7, in Tagore -irthda$
&m%er, pp.222;$5 (pp.222;$).
22$
Ashis &an"*, The Illegitimac$ of ationalism: ,a%indranath Tagore and the 3olitics of *elf
((>elhi< '6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2445), p.$6.
22=
(atric/ Colm Ho!an, :Gora, Fane A+sten an" the Sla0es o, )n"i!o7, in ,a%indranath Tagore:
'ni(ersalit$ and Tradition e". b* (atric/ Colm Ho!an an" Calita (an"it (Cranb+r*, &F< Associate"
?ni0ersit* (ress, 200$), pp.2L5;43 (pp.2L6;32).
225
(atric/ Colm Ho!an, :'rtho"o6* an" ?ni0ersalism< .abin"ranath Ta!ore7s Gora7, in 1olonialism
and 1&lt&ral Identit$, pp.22$;55 (p.22=)
226
'ni(ersalit$ and Tradition, pp.224;222, 2=3, 200
22L
&an"*, p.5.
223
.a* Mon/, :Ta!ore on &ationalism7, in 1ele%ration, pp.26;4 (p.26).
224
.abin"ranath Ta!ore, ationalism (Con"on< Macmillan, 2422).
2$0
Fonathan C+ller, :An"erson an" the &o0el7, #iacritics, ol.24, &o.= (#inter, 2444), 24;$4 (p.25).
2$2
C+ller, p.20.
The illa!e an" the #orl" 2=
ima!inin! has been.
)n an essa* entitle" :C+lt+re, State, an" the .e"isco0er* o, )n"ian (olitics7,
&an"* contrasts the :nation;state;oriente"7 societ* -ith a :c+lt+re;oriente"7
alternati0e, -ith the latter possibl* re!ar"in! the state as a protector an" internal
critic, b+t not allo-e" to "ictate terms.
2$2
&an"* points o+t that the nation;state;
oriente" approach seems nat+ral in mo"ern times, an" the c+lt+re;oriente"
:+nnat+ral, irrational, or primiti0e.7
2$$
He also e6plores ho- the statist mo"el ,irst
came to )n"ia in the nineteenth cent+r*, an" mani,este" as a reacti0e, sel,;"e,ensi0e
Hin"+ism.
2$=
), -e thin/ o, )n"ia as tra"itionall* c+lt+re;oriente", -ith Ta!ore
-or/in! to re;0italise that ,orm o, societ*, then one can rea" Gora an" The Home
and the World, an" also The Wreck2 -hich is "isc+sse" ne6t, as :alle!ories o, )n"ia7
as a potentiall* c+lt+re;oriente" co+ntr*.
Scholarl* an" other comment has o,ten i!nore" or "ispara!e" Ta!ore7s no0el,
a&ka-d&%i or The Wreck. Ta!ore7s bio!rapher, Dripalani, sa*s that a&ka-d&%i -as
:the onl* no0el he -rote merel* ,or entertainin! the rea"er -ith an in!enio+sl*
constr+cte" stor*7, an" then comments that no other boo/ o, Ta!ore7s, apart ,rom
Gitan@ali, has been translate" into so man* lan!+a!es.
2$5
'ther commentators are
less ,latterin!, -ith his ,rien", an" translator an" critic o, his poetr*, 1"-ar"
Thompson, ,in"in! it :incre"ibl* ba",7
2$6
an" @h+lam M+rshi", an associate
pro,essor o, Ben!ali at the .a9shahi ?ni0ersit* in Ban!la"esh, 9+"!in! it as a
contin+ation o, Ta!ore7s obsession -ith Ban/im Chan"ra7s no0els an" their
promotion o, Hin"+ ortho"o6*.
2$L
Ta!ore himsel, seems not to ha0e been 0er*
con,i"ent o, its s+ccess as a complete no0el. )n a letter to the translator, F.@.
>r+mmon", he e6plains that he -rote it ,or serialiHation as he -ent alon!, a metho"
-hich :has "isa"0anta!es7.
2$3
Ho-e0er, The Wreck can be rea" in a better li!ht as
bein! an :alle!or* o, )n"ia7 (or perhaps better still an :alle!or* o, Bharat7)
2$4
, an" as
artic+latin! the same political "ilemma as Ta!ore con0e*e" in the lon!er no0els.
#hat is more, The Wreck +ses the techni8+e o, alle!or* in a more thoro+!h ,orm.
Baner9ee comments that, in The Wreck, the interest lies more in inci"ents than
in character, b+t he then contra"icts himsel, some-hat b* sa*in! that the plot7s basis
o, mista/en i"entit* is /ept +p arti,iciall* to prolon! the central character, .amesh7s
inner con,lict. Baner9ee -o+l" +n"o+bte"l* o,,en" mo"ern;"a* ,eminists -hen he
sa*s< :10en the sli!htest "ose o, the in8+isiti0eness, nat+ral to 10e7s "a+!hters,
-o+l" ha0e cleare" +p the m*ster* abo+t Damala in no time an" c+t the central /not
o, the entan!lement.7
2=0
Accor"in! to Baner9ee, the ,eat+re o, the no0el -hich e6c+ses its lac/ o,
pla+sibilit* is :those bea+ti,+l scenes o, the ri0er;0o*a!e -hich are a 0er*
entertainin! recor" o, the +neas* str+!!les in .amesh7s heart.7 Si!ni,icantl*,
Baner9ee contin+es< :#e cannot, ho-e0er, a,,or" to be too se0ere on a lapse -hich
pro0i"es the 0er* basis o, the no0el.7
2=2
The in0ol0e" 9o+rne*in! b* ri0er +n"er!one
2$2
Ashis &an"*, :C+lt+re, State, an" the .e"isco0er* o, )n"ian (olitics7, in +iterar$ India:
1omparati(e *t&dies in 0esthetics2 1olonialism and 1&lt&re, e". b* (atric/ Colm Ho!an an" Calita
(an"it (Alban*< State ?ni0ersit* o, &e- %or/ (ress, 2445) pp.255;L= (p.255;6).
2$$
&an"*, p.256.
2$=
&an"*, p.253.
2$5
Dripalani, 2462, pp.244;200.
2$6
1"-ar" Thompson, 2442, p.24=.
2$L
M+rshi", p.=2.
2$3
Ta!ore, *elected +etters, p.224.
2$4
The translator o, Gora, 200$ +ses the retaine" -or"s :Bharat7 rather than :)n"ia7 an" :Bharati*a7
rather than :)n"ian7 (Gora, 200$, p.=30.)
2=0
Baner9ee, p.225.
2=2
Baner9ee, p.225.
b* .amesh, an" his "ilemma o, -hich o, t-o -omen sho+l" be his -i,e, are the
basic elements o, The Wreck as an alle!or*.
)n the (re,ace to her series o, st+"ies o, the 1n!lish no0el, >oroth* an @hent
e6plains that to +n"erstan" a no0el as a -or/ o, art, the matter o, techni8+e is
cr+cial, an" each o, her st+"ies pa*s attention to a sin!le "ominant proce"+re. 'ne
o, these st+"ies is o, The 3ilgrim<s 3rogress, an" its +se o, :s*mbolism an"
alle!or*7.
2=2
an @hent !i0es the ,ollo-in! "e,inition o, alle!or* ,rom Coleri"!e<
:JAKlle!or* is the emplo*ment o, a certain set o, characters, actions, an"
circ+mstances in s+ch a -a* that these con0e* to the min", +n"er the "is!+ise o,
sense ob9ects, certain moral 8+alities or conceptions, an" so that all the parts
combine to ,orm a conscio+s -hole.7
2=$
As she "isc+sses B+n*an7s alle!or* o,
pil!rima!e, an @hent emphasises the importance o, place, in this -or/ speci,icall*
the :ph*sical topo!raph*7, ,or con0e*in! moral meanin!.
2==
)n The Wreck as an alle!or*, the central character, .amesh, personi,ies the
people o, )n"ia R or perhaps one sho+l" sa*, the -harati$a to a0oi" the concept o,
)n"ia as nation R an" the plot centres aro+n" -hich -oman he sho+l" ma/e his li,e
-ith< the ortho"o6 Hin"+ !irl bri"e, Damala, or the Brahmo st+"ent, Hemnalini.
This is the same i"ea -hich &an"* ,in"s in Gora< :the t-o con,lictin! ,orms o,
response to imperialism7, re,erre" to abo0e. #hat !i0es The Wreck its moral ,orce is
the 9o+rne* .amesh +n"erta/es, ,rom Calc+tta, the cit* -here he is st+"*in! la-,
an" is co+rtin! Hemnalini, to his home 0illa!e b* train, then b* ri0er to the bri"e7s
0illa!e ,or the marria!e arran!e" b* his ,ather, bac/ on the ri0er, (a"ma, a trib+tar*
o, the @an!es, -here a storm -rec/s the boat lea0in! .amesh stran"e" alone on a
san"* islan" -ith Damala, an" later to other to-ns in r+ral Ben!al an" also the hol*
cit* o, Benares. This -o+l" seem to accor" -ith Baner9ee7s comment that .amesh7s
:ri0er;0o*a!e7 is :the 0er* basis o, the no0el7.
)nterestin!l*, Baner9ee e6presse" a stron! pre,erence ,or the character o, the
Brahmo st+"ent, Hemnalini, sa*in!< :)t is Hemnalini -ho is easil* the most li0in!
character o, the boo/, an", in the s-eet per,+me that is the breath o, her li,e an" her
,irm, +n-a0erin! alle!iance to her i"eal, is the protot*pe o, the later heroines o,
.abin"ranath.7
2=5
This perhaps re,lects Baner9ee7s inclination to-ar"s re,orme"
Hin"+ism an" the Brahmo Sama9. )n "ramatic terms, it is little Damala, the ortho"o6
Hin"+ bri"e, -ho is the tr+l* heroic one, -ith her sel,;sacri,icin! "etermination not
to brin! shame to her h+sban" b* re0ealin! that she has li0e" as the -i,e o, another
man, albeit, o, co+rse, ha0in! been entirel* innocent an" chaste.
)n Ta!ore7s letter to the translator, he re,ers to not /no-in! as he -rote the
serialisation ho- the stor* -o+l" en", an" in ,act, altho+!h he pairs Damala o,, -ith
her ortho"o6 "octor h+sban", the hero .amesh7s ,+t+re is le,t +ncertain. A
/no-le"!e o, Ben!ali -o+l" +n"o+bte"l* re0eal s*mbolism an" moral si!ni,icance
in the names o, people an" places. The name :.amesh7 is a case in point.
2=6
#hilst
this is a common )n"ian name, it incl+"es the name :.ama7, as in the ,ama$ana,
2=2
2462), p.0iii.
2=$
an @hent, p.22.
2==
an @hent, pp.2$;5.
2=5
Baner9ee, p.225.
2=6
&ote< ) ha0e been in,orme" b* >r Deta/i >*son that the name o, the hero in the Ben!ali ori!inal
has been con,+sin!l* translate"< :)t is not .aamesh -ith a lon! a, it is .amesh -ith a short 0o-el
(prono+nce", in Ben!ali, as .a-mesh). A mo"ern translator sho+l" probabl* spell the name .omesh
to a0oi" con,+sion.7 (personal correspon"ence 25M20M06) ) ha0e ho-e0er, le,t m* tentati0e
et*molo!ical points as in the 0ersion o, the "issertation s+bmitte" ,or the MA.
co+ple" -ith :)sh-ar7, the Sanscrit -or" ,or the S+preme Cor" or @o",
2=L
an" so, as
-ith the short stories, one can rea" this no0el as part o, a ne-, or re;-ritten, epic o,
-oman, "omesticit* an" 0illa!e, contraste" -ith the alienatin! cit* o, Calc+tta,
-here .amesh can hi"e an" is lost in the con,+sion o, -here his "esires an" his
responsibilities lie.
The ne6t no0el ,or consi"eration is The Home and the World, -hich cannot be
i!nore" in an* e6ploration o, Ta!ore7s politics. )t -as poorl* recei0e", b+t is
interestin! ,or -hat 0ario+s people sai" abo+t it, as m+ch as ,or its meanin! or its
narrati0e metho". )t is important to reco!nise that Ta!ore7s -ritin!, in !eneral, "oes
not tra0el, beca+se o, problems o, lan!+a!e an" c+lt+re, -hich is a pit* since his
i"eas are so ,ascinatin! an" 0al+able. Ale6 Aronson, e"itor o, a commemorati0e
-or/ on Ta!ore, incl+"es an essa* :Ta!ore Thro+!h #estern 1*es7, -hich o+tlines
the a"9+stment -hich :#estern rea"ers ha" to ma/e to an alien c+lt+re7, -hen
Ta!ore came to ,ame, an" -as a-ar"e" the &obel (riHe ,or Citerat+re in 242$, an" a
/ni!hthoo" in 2425. There -ere patches o, a"+lation an" "ispara!ement e0en earl*
on, an" a 8+ite rapi" ,allin! a-a* o, interest later.
2=3

The Home and the World ha" a mi6e" reception -hen it -as p+blishe" in
1+rope, in 2424. Anita >esai la+nches into this in her )ntro"+ction to the no0el,
-here she mentions in the 0er* ,irst line the scathin! re0ie- b* @eor! C+/Vcs in the
Berlin perio"ical, #ie rote Fahne,
2=4
-hich ma* be e6plaine" b* -hat Aronson sa*s
abo+t Ta!ore7s reception in @erman*, -here the mi""le classes "eclare" that Ta!ore
ha" helpe" them to :-a/e +p the @erman so+l7
250
, -hich -o+l" not ha0e appeale" to
the atheist Mar6ist C+/Vcs. >esai also 8+otes 1.M. Aorster sa*in! that, :the #orl"
pro0e" to be a sphere N ,or a boar"in!;ho+se ,lirtation that mas/s itsel, in patriotic
tal/7.
252

The no0el -as "ispara!e" in Ben!al, -hen it -as ,irst p+blishe" in 2425, "+e
to its blatant criticism o, the con"+ct o, the S-a"eshi political protests in the
pre0io+s "eca"e a!ainst the (artition o, Ben!al, -hich Ta!ore ha" le", an" then
-ith"re- ,rom in "is!+st at the comm+nitarian 0iolence that it "escen"e" into.
Dripalani -rites that :JtKhe a+thor -as acc+se" o, bein! both immoral an"
+npatriotic. Aor three lon! *ears a,ter its p+blication the critics contin+e" to tear the
no0el to piecesQa trib+te to its impact on their min"s.7
252

M+rshi" incl+"es The Home and the World in a !ro+p o, Ta!ore7s no0els on
the theme o, :the eternal trian!le7.
25$
The three central characters are< the beni!n an"
enli!htene" lan"lor" &i/hilesh, or &i/hilE his -i,e, Bimala, -hom &i/hil brin!s o+t
o, secl+sion to be his helpmeet, th+s ma/in! her 0+lnerableE an" &i/hil7s ,rien",
San"ip, Bimala7s -o+l" be se"+cer, an" a S-a"eshi terrorist. )n the stor*, Bimala is
almost se"+ce", b+t her ,ascination ,a"es an" she ret+rns to &i/hil in the en".
M+rshi" comments that, as is +s+al -ith Ta!ore, the "rama an" intimac* is
ps*cholo!ical, rather than ph*sical, +nli/e in Sat*a9it .a*7s ,ilm,
25=
-hich lea0es
2=L
http<MMen.-i/ipe"ia.or!M-i/iM.amesh Jaccesse" 24 A+!+st 2006K,
http<MMen.-i/ipe"ia.or!M-i/iM)sh-ar Jaccesse" 24 A+!+st 2006K
2=3
Ale6 Aronson, :Ta!ore Thro+!h #estern 1*es7, in 1ele%ration, pp.22;25.
2=4
Anita >esai, :)ntro"+ction7, in The Home and the World, pp.L;2= (p.L)E @eor!e C+/Vcs, :Ta!ore7s
@an"hi &o0el, in George +&kBcs2 7ssa$s and ,e(ie!s, (Con"on< Merlin (ress, 243$)
---.mar6ists.or!Marchi0eMl+ca/sM-or/sM2422Mta!ore.htm Jaccesse" 20 April 2006K
250
Aronson, p.2$.
252
.>esai, p.L.
252
Dripalani, p.252.
25$
M+rshi", p.=$.
25=
Ghare--aire (The Home and the World). >ir. Sat*a9it .a*. &ational Ailm >e0elopment
Corporation o, )n"ia. 243=.
The illa!e an" the #orl" 2L
onl* &i/hil7s character as inten"e" b* Ta!ore (act+all* .a* has &i/hil "ie in the
en", -hereas the latter7s ,ate is le,t +ncertain in the no0el), an" e6a!!erates San"ip7s
0illain* an" Bimala7s response. M+rshi"7s comment on the no0el en"s -ith the
remar/ that, :the nationalistic bac/"rop to the "rama, the S-a"eshi mo0ement, ta/es
a tro+ncin!, earnin! Ta!ore a ,e- more bric/bats ,rom his compatriots, some o,
-hom l+"icro+sl* labelle" him a British collaborator.7
255
Critics -ho ha0e rea" the no0el as an :alle!or* o, the nation7 see Bimala as
representin! the nation. Dathleen Dol9ian ar!+es that in this no0el Ta!ore 8+estions
-orship o, the nation as !o""ess, an" also sho-s his ambi0alence to-ar"s the
-omen7s liberation mo0ement.
256
>esai sees &i/hil as Ta!ore7s :Tolsto*an hero N a
-ealth* lan"o-ner -ho is altr+istic, bene0olent, rational an" #esterniHe" in his
i"eas, b+t "ra-s bac/ ,rom Spro!ressT as e6empli,ie" b* San"ip, the re0ol+tionar*
-ho stops at nothin! R neither robber* nor m+r"er R to achie0e his en"s.7
25L
@i0en
Ta!ore7s hostilit* to-ar"s the &ation as nation;state, one co+l" see &i/hil as
representin! Ta!ore7s i"eal )n"ia, an" San"ip, the se"+cti0e an" r+thless +rban
terrorist, representin! the &ation, in the sense Ta!ore "eplore". San"ip can also
represent the cit*, in the sense o, the !iant, "eh+maniHin! machine o, Ta!ore7s
-arnin! in :Cit* an" illa!e7.
253

M+rshi"7s theme o, :the eternal trian!le7 is an e8+all* 0ali" rea"in!, -hich can
coe6ist -ith the alle!orical one, especiall* since alle!or* as a narrati0e techni8+e
"oes not "ominate the plot. #ith Ta!ore7s characteristic ,oc+s on the "omestic scene
as central to the -omanM homeM 0illa!e i"eal, one can rea" The Home and the World
as "epictin! a "*s,+nctional ,amil*, -ith &i/hil brin!in! Bimala o+t ,rom the
protecti0e Henana, at ris/ ,rom the "an!ero+s intr+"er, San"ip. Ta!ore7s narrati0e
0oice a""s a ,+rther element to this, -ith the three characters tellin! the i"entical
stor* in t+rn, in a "iar* ,orm, s+!!estin! their alienation ,rom each other. &an"*
points to this "e0ice sa*in! that there is no :.oshomon e,,ect7 (m+ltiple 0ersions o,
the same e0ent), the aim bein!, &an"* sa*s, :to re0eal "i,,erences in personalit*
thro+!h "i,,erences in perspecti0e, not the pl+ral nat+re o, realit* itsel,.7
254

&an"*7s re,erence to the :nat+re o, realit*7 lea"s to a cr+cial aspect o, a
:political rea"in!7 o, Ta!ore7s prose ,iction. A political rea"in! o, an* -ritin!, ,rom
-hat is terme" a :Mar6ist7 perspecti0e, -hich means that it i"enti,ies an" challen!es
i"eolo!* s+pporti0e o, the capitalist s*stem R incl+"in! imperialism as part o, that
s*stem R re8+ires one to 8+estion some o, the most ,irml* embe""e" ass+mptions.
)n literat+re st+"ies, one s+ch ass+mption is that nineteenth cent+r* prose ,iction,
an" m+ch ,ictional -ritin! ,ollo-in! that perio", is :realist7, not in the sense o,
"epictin! :li,e ,rom the seam* si"e7, b+t beca+se it re,lects philosophical realism,
-hich is the basis o, mo"ern li,e. )an #att "e0elops this i"ea in his boo/, The ,ise
of the o(el.
260
an @hent pro0i"es her o-n 0ersion o, the same conception, in
terms borro-e" ,rom science, -here she sees the no0el as procee"in! b* h*pothesis,
sa*in!, implicitl*< :@i0en s+ch an" s+ch con"itions, then s+ch an" s+ch -o+l" ta/e
place.7 The no0el presents, an" at the same time challen!es, the implie" r+le
!o0ernin! societ*, so that the no0el becomes a so+rce o, insi!ht.
262
Ho-e0er, #att7s an" an @hent7s anal*sis ma* not appl* to Ta!ore7s no0els,
255
M+rshi", p.=$.
256
Dathleen Doli9ian, :N M*tholo!*, &ationalism, an" (atriarchal Ambi0alence in The Home and
the World7, in 'ni(ersalit$ and Tradition, pp.224;23 (p.224).
25L
>esai, p.4.
253
Ta!ore, :Cit* an" illa!e7, pp.$05;6.
254
&an"*, p.22.
260
)an #att, The ,ise of the o(el: *t&dies in #efoe2 ,ichardson and Fielding (Con"on< (imlico,
2000), pp.22;2=.
beca+se Ta!ore -as not a realist in that sense. Altho+!h he "i" not "e0elop this
aspect o, his tho+!ht e6plicitl* +ntil some *ears later, in "isc+ssion -ith 1instein,
Ta!ore -as not a realist philosophicall*, he -as a positi0ist, seein! the +ni0erse as
an acc+m+lation o, h+man /no-le"!e, not o, an ob9ecti0e -orl" :o+t there7, b+t
mani,estin! as -hat some -o+l" see as a spirit+al conception, -hen he re,erre" to
the :+ni0ersal min"7, b+t -hich )l*a (ri!o!ine (&obel (riHe in Chemistr*, 24LL)
pre"icte" -o+l" be the basis o, a science o, the ,+t+re.
262
Ta!ore7s o0erall conception
can be seen as his politics, his philosoph*, his reli!ion or his science accor"in! to
-hat interests a partic+lar :"isciple7, -hich one ten"s to become -hen st+"*in! him.
Ta!ore7s positi0ism +n"erlies his naW0e;seemin! "eclaration, :) -rote ,rom
-hat ) sa-, -hat ) ,elt in m* heart R m* "irect e6perience,7
26$
-hich is -hat he
act+all* "i", in his poetr*, his essa*s an" lect+res, an" also in his prose ,ictionE the*
are all base" on in"i0i"+al concrete obser0ations, the* are not concepts. The
"istinction bet-een collections o, in"i0i"+al memories, !ro+pe" accor"in! to
associate" a,,ecti0e char!e, an" rational concepts "eri0e" ,rom mer!e" collections
o, tho+!ht, is e6plore" in a st+"* o, co!nition b* >a0i" @elernter, -ith a partic+lar
,oc+s on tr*in! to +n"erstan" ho- poets thin/.
26=
&an"* "escribes Ta!ore as a political "issenter, -ho "i" not claim to be a
s*stematic political thin/er, b+t -as :artic+latin! N +nspo/en concerns o, )n"ian
conscio+sness at that time.7
265
A similar "issentin! ten"enc* is present in Ta!ore7s
reli!io+s tho+!ht an" his philosoph*, altho+!h he claime" to be no scholar or
philosopher.
266
The more one st+"ies Ta!ore, the more one enco+nters the necessit*
o, settin! asi"e #estern ass+mptions. Ta!ore7s no0el, Gora, is the s+b9ect o, the
remain"er o, this chapter, -hich ta/es this i"ea o, 8+estionin! ,+rther. Can!+a!e is
the /e* to appreciatin! ho- ,ar the #estern rea"er can be ,rom !ettin! at the
meanin! o, a no0el li/e this.
&an"* sees Gora as en!a!in! -ith the political str+!!les o, the "a*, b*
:,oc+sin! on the t-o con,lictin! ,orms o, response to imperialism7.
26L
The t-o ,orms
o, response he re,ers to are the mo0in! to-ar"s the #est o, the Hin"+ .enaissance,
an" a reaction a!ainst this tren" mani,estin! as a mo0e to reclaim Hin"+ ortho"o6*.
These t-o are personi,ie" in the no0el as a ,amil* belon!in! to the Brahmo Sama9, a
re,orme" Hin"+ !ro+p, an" a ,amil* o, ortho"o6 Hin"+s, a"herin! to some e6treme
co"es o, rit+al p+rit* -ith se0ere impacts on their li,est*le an" relationships, as -ell
as "eterminin! their politics. At one le0el, the stor* is a romance, rather li/e a
"o+ble ,omeo and 8&liet, -ith t-o co+ples ,allin! in lo0e -ith the opposite si"es,
b+t the "Ono+ement is "i,,erentE there is a happ* en"in! to the romance, b+t the
epon*mo+s hero has to "rop his political an" c+lt+ral i"entit*, to en!a!e
a+thenticall* -ith his co+ntr*<
S)sh-ar "i" not !rant me the ima!ine" state ) pra*e" ,orQinstea" he has
startle" me b* s+""enl* p+ttin! his tr+th into m* han"s. ) co+l" ha0e ne0er
"reame" that he -o+l" -ipe o,, m* soile" state so thoro+!hl*. ) am so p+re
262
2462), pp.$;=.
262
:Appen"i6 2< Ta!ore an" 1instein7, in *elected +etters, pp.52L;$6 (p.5$=).
26$
.a"ice, *elected *hort *tories, p.2$.
26=
>a0i" @elernter, The )&se in the )achine: 1omp&teri=ing the 3oetr$ of H&man Tho&ght (&e-
%or/< Macmillan, 244=)
265
&an"*, The Illegitimac$ of ationalism, p.0ii.
266
2462), p.40.
26L
&an"*, p.$6.
no- that ) "o not ,ear bein! "e,ile" e0en in a lo-;caste ho+sehol". (oresh
Bab+, ) ha0e ta/en birth this mornin!, -ith an +tterl* na/e" conscio+sness, in
m* o-n Bharat0arsha. A,ter so lon! ) ha0e ,+ll* +n"erstoo" -hat a mother7s
lap means.T (Gora, 200$, p.=L6)
As a no0el, Gora :-or/s7 ,or the !eneral #estern rea"er. The ,eat+res o, the
no0el ,orm -hich #att i"enti,ies in The ,ise of the o(el are present in it.
263
)t has
an ori!inal plot in0ol0in! in"i0i"+al characters, an" is not base" on a tra"itional plot
in0ol0in! m*thical heroes or archet*pes, altho+!h some characters are t*pical
members o, sections o, societ*, an" as s+ch +n"er!o little "e0elopment as the stor*
+n,ol"s. The characters ha0e cre"ible in"i0i"+al names, altho+!h /no-le"!e o, the
Ben!ali lan!+a!e an" tra"itional literat+re sho-s that some names contain some
re,erence to the t*pe o, character. The episo"es o, the plot ta/e place in e0er*"a*
sit+ations in sim+late" real time an" act+al locations. Ho-e0er, Gora -as not
-ritten ,or +s in the #est, an" this is cr+cial. The remain"er o, this chapter
concentrates on t-o lin/e" 8+estions< :#hat boo/ is this, an" -ho -as it -ritten
,orG7 an"< :#as Ta!ore S-ritin! bac/T in the no0el, an" i, so, to -homG7 A thir"
8+estion applies thro+!ho+t this st+"*, :#hat "oes the no0el tell +s abo+t Ta!ore7s
politicsG7
'n :#hat boo/ is this, an" -ho -as it -ritten ,orG7, as -ith so m+ch o,
Ta!ore7s -ritin!, his poetr*, his essa*s an" his prose ,iction, Gora -as -ritten ,or
p+blication in a perio"ical. )t -as serialise" in the Ben!ali monthl*, 3ro%asi bet-een
240L an" 2404, an" p+blishe" as a Ben!ali boo/ in 2404, ha0in! been s+bstantiall*
e"ite" b* the a+thor, an" in 2423, an" a!ain in 24=2, the no0el -as re;p+blishe" in
Ben!ali -ith some "eletions restore".
264
The Gora -hich is the s+b9ect o, this st+"*
is in t-o e"itions< a cop* o, the :some-hat erratic translation7 into 1n!lish p+blishe"
in 242=, -hich Ta!ore ha" "isli/e", an" a cop* o, the 200$ paperbac/ -ith a ne-
translation ,irst p+blishe" in 244L o, the 24=2 stan"ar" Ben!ali te6t.
2L0
'b0io+sl*,
Ta!ore ne0er sa- the 244L translation. (ossibl*, in the last *ear o, his li,e, he "i"
appro0e the 24=2 Ben!ali e"ition, or, a!e" an" ill, ma"e no ob9ection to the bits an"
pieces ,rom his c+ttin! room ,loor bein! re0erentl* reinstate". B+t the point is,
neither o, the translations is -hat Ta!ore -rote, an" he "i" not -rite it ,or rea"ers in
the #est, b+t ,or the Calc+tta %hadralok, or !entr* class, an" it -as their belie,s an"
attit+"es he -as hol"in! +p a mirror to.
Meena/shi M+/her9ee, in her )ntro"+ction to the 200$ e"ition o, Gora, re,ers
to the :"i0erse rea"in!s an" m+ltiple interpretations in Ban!la thro+!h these ei!ht
"eca"es an" more7, an" hopes that the ne- translation (,irst p+blishe" in 244L) -ill
res+lt in more :critical scr+tin*7, an" that :a "i,,erent sector o, rea"ers N mi!ht
brin! the theoretical an" i"eolo!ical perspecti0es o, their o-n !eneration ,or
openin! o+t this ol" te6t to ne- rea"in!s.7
2L2
The st+"* b* Ashis &an"* o, Ta!ore7s
:three e6plicitl* political no0els7< Ghare--aire or The Home and the WorldE GoraE
an" 1har 0dh$a$ or Fo&r 1hapters, ,orms a bri"!e bet-een t-o !ro+ps o, critical
rea"in!.
2L2
#ritten in 1n!lish, &an"*7s essa* is base" on the a+thor7s st+"ies o, the
Ben!ali ori!inals, as -ell as the no0els in translation. The essa* -as p+blishe" in
2445, so &an"* re,ers onl* to the 242= translation o, Gora, an" comments that it has
:the -orst 1n!lish translation o, the three (political no0els) an" almost in0ariabl*
263
#att, pp.22;$0.
264
S+9it M+/her9ee, :Translator7s (re,ace7, in Gora, 200$, p.0ii.
2L0
S+9it M+/her9ee, p.0ii.
2L2
Meena/shi M+/her9ee, :)ntro"+ction7, in Gora, 200$, pp.i6;66i0 (p.66i0).
2L2
&an"*, The Illegitimac$ of ationalism, pp.4;20.
The illa!e an" the #orl" $0
"isappoints the 1n!lish;spea/in! rea"er.7
2L$

&an"*7s 9+"!ement o, the 242= translation ma* "epen" on the rea"er7s
co+ntr* o, ori!in an" bac/!ro+n". An 1n!lish rea"er -o+l" relate more easil* to< :)t
-as the rain* season in Calc+ttaE the mornin! clo+"s ha" scattere", an" the s/*
o0er,lo-e" -ith clear s+nli!ht.7 (Gora, 242=, p.2) to :The clo+"s ha" "isperse" on
this Shra0an mornin!, lea0in! the Doli/ata s/* ,+ll o, clear s+nli!ht.7 (Gora, 200$,
p.2) #ith its retaine" Ben!ali terms, this is a partic+lar e6ample o, the "i,,erences
bet-een the t-o translations. 1lse-here it is o,ten the st*le o, -ritin! -hich "i,,ers.
To ta/e another e6ample, in the 242= translation, Chapter BB) be!ins<
@ora, on lea0in! the ho+se, "i" not -al/ at his +s+al pace, an" instea" o,
!oin! strai!ht home he absentl* sa+ntere" "o-n to the ri0er. )n those "a*s
the @an!es an" its ban/s ha" not been in0a"e" b* the +!liness -hich
commercial !ree" has since bro+!ht in its train. There -as no rail-a* besi"e
it, an" no bri"!e across it, an" the s/* on a -inter e0enin! -as not obsc+re"
b* the soot;la"en breath o, the cro-"e" cit*. The ri0er +se" then to brin! its
messa!e o, peace ,rom the stainless pea/s o, the "istant Himala*as into the
mi"st o, Calc+tta7s "+st* b+stle. (Gora, 242=, p.206)
The correspon"in! para!raph in the 244L translation rea"s<
@ora -al/e" home-ar"s, not at his +s+al rapi" pace b+t slo-l* an" absent;
min"e"l*. )nstea" o, the "irect ro+te, he too/ a more ro+n"abo+t -a* alon!
the ri0er ban/. )n those "a*s the @an!a at Doli/ata an" its t-o ban/s ha" not
*et been a,,ecte" b* the pro,it;ma/in! an" +!l* enterprise o, a merchant
ci0iliHation. ), (sic) "i" not *et -ear the shac/les o, a bri"!e across the
c+rrent an" rail-a* trac/s on the si"es. The blac/ breath o, the cit* "i" not,
at that time, obsc+re the s/* on -inter e0enin!s. The ri0er still bore a
messa!e o, peace ,rom lonel* Himala*an pea/s "o-n to the "+st* b+stle o,
Doli/ata. (Gora, 200$, p.2$4)
Some o, the "i,,erences are insi!ni,icant< the ,irst sentence o, the earl* translation is
not better e6presse" than the ,irst t-o sentences o, the later one. Ho-e0er, :the
+!liness Jo,K commercial !ree",7 "oes seem to con0e* the same sense in a more
ele!ant -a* than :the pro,it;ma/in! an" +!l* enterprise o, a merchant ci0iliHation.7
Ta/in! the no0el as a -hole, ) pre,er the 242= translation to the later one, b+t ) can
see that the latter ma* be pre,erre" b* an )n"ian 1n!lish;spea/er, ,or -hom the
no0el ma* ha0e 8+ite a "i,,erent set o, meanin!s an" rele0ance.
2L=
B+t the
"i,,erences bet-een the t-o ha0e a "eeper an" more interestin! si!ni,icance, -hich
be!ins -ith the stor* o, ho- the no0el came to be translate".
?ntil the p+blication o, a s+bstantial selection o, Ta!ore7s letters in 244L, the
histor* o, the 242= 1n!lish translation -as +ncertain, an" 8+estions remain. The
translator is anon*mo+s in the boo/, b+t he ac/no-le"!es re0isions b* the a+thor7s
nephe-, S+ren"ranath Ta!ore.
2L5
)n the 1lmhirst Archi0e in >artin!ton, there is
correspon"ence bet-een Ta!ore an" the Macmillan p+blishin! compan* on the
matter o, the American translation ri!hts, -hich sho-s that it -as #.#. (earson,
-ho translate" Gora.
2L6
(earson -as an 1n!lishman, a one;time Christian
2L$
&an"*, p.4.
2L=
Bar9 B. Dachr+ :1n!lish as an Asian Can!+a!e7 (?rbana< ?ni0ersit* o, )llinois, 244L),
http<MM---.bib.+ab.esMp+bMlin/san"lettersM22$$L$4Ln5p34.p", Jaccesse" 26 F+l* 2005K, p.34.
2L5
Gora, 242=, p.0.
2L6
:Correspon"ence 2422;24547, >artin!ton Hall Tr+st Archi0e, Ceonar" 1lmhirst Collection,
CD1MTA@M2MA
missionar* -ho became a "e0otee an" ,rien" o, Ta!ore.
2LL
)n a letter to Thomas
St+r!e Moore, 20 Ma* 242=, Ta!ore complains that :Macmillan in their haste onl*
ha" the hal, o, the correcte" 0ersion an" the latter hal, remains +nto+che" -ith its
l+"icro+s mista/es an" cr+"ities. ), *o+ co+l" rea" the Ben!ali boo/ *o+ -o+l" at
once /no- ho- e6tremel* +nsatis,actor* the translation is.7
2L3
)t is har" to tell ,rom comparin! the t-o translations, -hich correspon" 0er*
closel* chapter b* chapter, -hat cr+cial "i,,erences Ta!ore re,ers to. (ossibl*
Ta!ore7s ob9ection -as more to "o -ith his not ha0in! ,+ll e"itorial control, an" the
,inal sa*, on the -or"in! o, the onl* 1n!lish translation o, the no0el ma"e "+rin! his
li,etime, than -ith an* serio+s "e,ects it ma* ha0e. St+"ies o, the 242= translation
ha0e been carrie" o+t b* critics -ith e6pert /no-le"!e o, )n"ian c+lt+re an" belie,E
in partic+lar, Ho!an ma/es close re,erence to it to "eri0e an anal*sis thoro+!hl*
s*mpathetic to Ta!ore7s 0ie-s as e6presse", in his o-n 1n!lish, in lect+res an"
essa*s.
2L4
Ho-e0er, there is a "istinction bet-een the t-o translations that operates
on the rea"er at another le0el ,rom "etaile" :mista/es7, or "i,,erences in st*le o,
e6pression.
)n the :Translator7s &otes7 at the bac/ o, the 200$ e"ition o, Gora, three -or"s
or concepts in the :Ban!la7 lan!+a!e are mentione" as :rec+rrin! items7 -hich are
transliterate", "espite there bein! satis,actor* 1n!lish e8+i0alents. The ,irst is
;olkata, -hich is retaine" instea" o, Calc+tta, :in the hope o, con0e*in! some
,la0o+r o, the ori!inal te6t an" place7. The ne6t is Ish!ar, an" also -haga(an,
:rather than S@o"T beca+se this -or" carries an +na0oi"abl* Christian connotation
o, !o"hoo". That -o+l" be inappropriate in the Hin"+ or Brahmo conte6ts o, the
stor*.7 Castl*, -harat(arsha an" -harat ha0e been retaine" an" not replace" b*
:)n"ia7, :since the ori!inal terms more easil* re,lect the 0ision o, his co+ntr* or
homelan" as seen b* @ora an" others.7 Man* o, the pa!e;re,erence" notes -hich
,ollo- ha0e similar moti0es behin" them, -here Ban!la -or"s ,or historical,
c+lt+ral or reli!io+s terms or practices ha0e been retaine". Some notes pro0i"e
0erbatim translations o, the ori!inal, a ,e- !i0in!, -itho+t comment, the 242= or
:ol"7 translation7. The rea"er o, the recent e"ition is constantl* bro+!ht +p short b*
these retaine" terms an" translator7s notes, res+ltin! in a Brechtian :alienation
e,,ect7, "istancin! the #estern rea"er ,rom becomin! ,+ll* absorbe" in the plot or
i"enti,*in! -ith the main characters.
The t-o e6amples cite" abo0e both contain :retaine" terms7, an" ill+strate the
"istancin! bro+!ht abo+t b* this "e0ice in the later translation, b+t the ,+ll e,,ect is
onl* apparent -hen one enco+nters it repeate"l*. Another e6ample, belo-, !oes
,+rther b* inter,erin! -ith 9+"!ements the rea"er mi!ht ma/e, an" also ill+strates
ho- the i"eas con0e*e" b* the no0el are con0e*e" "i,,erentl* in the t-o
translations. )n Ho!an7s :'rtho"o6* an" ?ni0ersalism7 anal*sis, he i"enti,ies
pairin!s o, characters -ho represent the t-o oppose" social !ro+ps in mi""le class
Calc+tta societ*< the ortho"o6 Hin"+s an" the Brahmo Sama9. 'ne s+ch pairin! is a
Brahmo -oman, Bara"as+n"ari, calle" :Mistress Baro"a7 in the ol" translation, an"
an ortho"o6 Hin"+ -oman, Harimohini, an impo0erishe" -i"o-, a+nt o, S+charita,
the a"opte" "a+!hter o, Bara"as+n"ari, -ho ha" come to lo"!e -ith the Brahmo
,amil*, an" str+!!le" to a"here to her ortho"o6 practices.
230
The chapter n+mberin!
o, the t-o e"itions are +ns*nchronise" at 0ario+s points, an" the ,irst para!raphs o,
Chapter $4 an" Chapter BC in the recent an" ol" e"itions respecti0el* are as
2LL
*elected +etters, p.26$.
2L3
*elected +etters, pp.$20;22.
2L4
Ho!an, :'rtho"o6* an" ?ni0ersalism7, pp.22$;255.
230
Ho!an, :'rtho"o6* an" ?ni0ersalism7, pp.2$0;$$.
,ollo-s<
Bara"as+n"ari be!an in0itin! home 8+ite ,re8+entl* Brahmo -omen -ho
-ere her ,rien"s. Sometimes the* -o+l" ha0e their meetin! on the terrace.
Harimohini so+!ht, o+t o, her nat+ral r+ral simplicit*, to -elcome these
0isitors, b+t it became clear to her soon that the* -ere contempt+o+s o, her.
#hen Bara"as+n"ari -o+l" ma/e critical comments abo+t Hin"+ c+stoms in
her presence, some o, the other -omen 9oine" the "isc+ssion -hile loo/in!
pointe"l* at Harimohini. (@ora, 200$, p.2=2)
Mistress Baro"a o,ten in0ite" her Brahmo la"* ,rien"s to the ho+se, an"
sometimes the* -o+l" all con!re!ate on the terrace in ,ront o, Harimohini7s
room. 'n s+ch occasions Harimohini, in the simplicit* o, her nat+re, -o+l"
tr* to help in ma/in! them -elcome, b+t the* on their si"e har"l* "is!+ise"
their contempt. The* -o+l" e0en loo/ pointe"l* at her, -hile Baro"a -as
ma/in! p+n!ent comments on ortho"o6 manners an" c+stoms, in -hich
some o, them -o+l" 9oin. (@ora, 242=, p.245)
#e see here merel* insi!ni,icant "i,,erences o, st*le. A similar pict+re is presente"<
snobbish la"ies loo/in! "o-n r+"el* on a social in,erior, an" o+r s*mpathies are
-ith the latter. A+rther into the same episo"e, the ,ollo-in! occ+rs<
'ne "a* a Brahmo !irl -ante" to satis,* her c+riosit* an" -as abo+t to step
insi"e -earin! her shoes -hen S+charita barre" the -a*, sa*in!, S(lease
"on7t !o into that room.T
S#h* notGT
SHer tha/+r is in that room.T
SHer tha/+r is thereI >o *o+ -orship him e0er*"a* (sic)
232
.T
Harimohini sai", S%es, Cittle Mother, ) -orship him e0er*"a*.T
S%o+ ha0e ,aith in *o+r tha/+rGT (Gora, 200$, p.2=2)
'ne "a* one o, the Brahmo 0isitors, 9+st o+t o, c+riosit*, -as abo+t to step
into Harimohini7s room -ith her shoes on, -hen S+charita bloc/e" the -a*,
sa*in!< S&ot into this room pleaseIT
S#h*, -hat7s the matterGT
SM* a+nt7s ,amil* !o" is /ept there.T
SAh, an i"olI An" so she -orships i"olsGT
S%es, mother, o, co+rse ) "o,T replie" Harimohini.
SHo- can *o+ ha0e ,aith in i"olsGT (Gora, 242=, p.245)
There is a m+ch more si!ni,icant "i,,erence here. )n the 200$ 0ersion, the -or"
:tha/+r7 is +se" -here the earlier translation +ses other terms, ,irstl*, b* S+charita,
:,amil* !o"7, an" then, b* the Brahmo 0isitor, :i"ol7. There is no translator7s note in
the 200$ 0ersion to :tha/+r7, b+t earlier in the boo/ there is a note to :>a"a;tha/+r7,
in"icatin! that :#ada7 is :el"er brother7 an" :Thak&r7 is :i"ol or "i0ine presence or at
least re0ere" person7, both bein! :terms o, respect7. (Gora, 200$, p.=3L) :Tha/+r7 is
also Ta!ore7s ,amil* name in Ben!ali.
There is a lesson containe" in both 0ersions o, the passa!e. )n the 200$ 0ersion
o, this episo"e, there is the :alienation e,,ect7 o, the retaine" -or", :tha/+r7,
si!nallin!< :there is somethin! here *o+ "on7t +n"erstan",7 pl+s, once one
in0esti!ates the meanin! o, the -or", there is the lesson that in the c+lt+re "epicte"
in the boo/ there is a tra"ition o, re!ar"in! an i"ol as somethin! -orth* o, respect
232
&ote< :e0er* "a*G7 -o+l" be more correctE slips li/e this are 8+ite ,re8+ent in this translation.
The illa!e an" the #orl" $$
an" re0erence. )n the 242= 0ersion, the lesson co+l" seem to be simpl* abo+t ta/in!
care to be co+rteo+s an" tolerant, perhaps especiall* to-ar"s someone -ho has
"i,,erent c+lt+ral or reli!io+s practices. Ho-e0er, +se o, the -or" :i"ol7 R a
pe9orati0e term R ten"s to shi,t the s*mpathies o, a #estern rea"er to-ar"s the
#esternise" Brahmos, "espite their snobber*, an" there are other sit+ations in the
no0el -hich ha0e the same potential bias.
The 8+estion< :-hat boo/ is thisG7 has re0eale" three main 0ersions o, the
no0el< the Ben!ali ori!inal (at 0ario+s sta!es)E a :poor7 1n!lish translation, ,rom a
Ben!ali or )n"ian perspecti0eE an" a translation into 1n!lish, as an )n"ian lan!+a!e.
Consi"erin! those 0ersions points to a 0ariet* o, rea"ership< Ben!alis, )n"ian
1n!lish;spea/ers, Ben!ali;spea/in! aca"emics, an" 1n!lish spea/ers be*on" )n"ia.
Ho-e0er, /no-in! the ,orms the no0el came to ta/e, an" -ho -as then able to rea"
it, "oes not ans-er the 8+estion< :#ho -as Ta!ore ori!inall* -ritin! ,or in the
no0elG7 an" hence< :#as he S-ritin! bac/T, to -hom an" -h*G7
Ar+stratin!l*, there is no simple ans-er to those lin/e" 8+estionsE one -o+l"
ha0e to !o -a* be*on" the scope o, this st+"*. ) can onl* s+!!est -here the ans-er
co+l" come ,rom in or"er to /eep the 8+estion open, partic+larl* on the :-ritin!
bac/7 iss+e. 'ne co+l" start -ith &ehr+7s :T-o 1n!lan"s7 an" the :Thir" 1n!lan"7
scholars an" the Hin"+ .enaissance intellect+als. Mar67s boo/ on the 235L;54
.e0olt a""s m+ch that -o+l" be +se,+l. An anal*sis b* @ramsci o, :The
)ntellect+als7 in societ*, is also /e*.
232
Se0eral o, the essa*s on :1+rocentrism, Sthe
#estT, an" the -orl"7 in a collection a""ressin! the "isp+tes bet-een Mar6ist an"
postcolonialist scholars are rele0ant too.
23$
Clearl*, Ta!ore -as not -ritin!, in Ben!ali, ,or rea"ers in the metropolitan
centre in Con"on. He co+l" ha0e been -ritin! ,or the risin! bo+r!eoisie in Calc+tta,
b+t the* -ere ,e- in n+mber, since, accor"in! to &ehr+, the !ro-th o, in"+str* -as
still bein! se0erel* restricte" in the earl* t-entieth cent+r*.
23=
An )n"ian rea"ership
correspon"in! to the !ro+p in 1n!lan" -hich #att i"enti,ie", mainl* -omen< the
-i0es o, the risin! bo+r!eoisie, an" their "omestic ser0ants, -o+l" be ,e- in n+mber
too.
235
@ramsci7s class o, :r+ral intellect+als7,
236
responsible ,or local an" state
a"ministration, incl+"in! the pro,essions, -o+l" seem to ,it the Ben!ali mi""le
classes in Calc+tta, "espite the ,act that the* -ere li0in! in -hat -as still the capital
cit* o, the .a9. Ta!ore reache" them as a 9o+rnalist, as contrib+tor an" e"itor o,
perio"icals, b+t he -o+l" not ha0e been conscio+sl* creatin! an ima!ine"
comm+nit*, bro+!ht to!ether onl* to be his rea"ersE he -ante" real comm+nities o,
people -ho /ne- an" relate" to each other. The ,irst rea"ers o, Gora rea" it in the
perio"ical -here it -as serialise" bet-een 240L an" 2404, an" in the complete
e"ite" 0ol+me p+blishe" in 2404. To the e6tent that Ta!ore -as conscio+s that these
rea"ers ha" a"opte", or else -ere challen!in!, #estern i"eas an" aspirations, the
no0el co+l" ha0e been respon"in! to those 0al+es an" 9+"!ements -hich ha" been
emplo*e" he!emonicall* -ith the aim o, r+nnin! the .a9 +nchallen!e", an" th+s
Ta!ore -o+l" ha0e been :-ritin! bac/7.
)n one o, his essa*s on Gora, Ho!an "escribes the no0el as a correcti0e
re0ision o, Diplin!7s ;im an" o, t-o Fane A+sten no0els, 3ride and 3re@&dice an"
232
@ramsci, Antonio, :The )ntellect+als7, in 3rison ote%ooks of 0ntonio Gramsci,
http<MM---.mar6ists.or!Marchi0eM!ramsciMprison_noteboo/sMproblemsMintellect+als.htm Jaccesse" 2L
A+!+st 2006K
23$
Mar6ism, Mo"ernit* an" (ostcolonial St+"ies, pp.22;4L.
23=
&ehr+, p.$04.
235
#att, pp.$5;=L.
236
@ramsci, section entitle" :The >i,,erent (osition o, ?rban an" .+ral )ntellect+als7, para. 2.
The illa!e an" the #orl" $=
)ansfield 3ark.
23L
Meena/shi M+/her9ee is "ismissi0e o, the 0ario+s critical essa*s
:si"e;trac/e"7, into comparin! Gora -ith Diplin!7s ;im :beca+se both no0els ha0e
orphan heroes o, )rish ori!in !ro-in! +p in )n"ia.7
233
She cites an essa* b* Calita
(arr* in this connection, b+t those b* &an"* an" Ho!an are !+ilt* o, this too, an"
M+/her9ee is s+rel* ri!ht that the comparison is an ob0io+s one to ma/e, b+t tri0ial
an" not +se,+l. The parallel Ho!an "ra-s bet-een Gora an" )ansfield 3ark is less
ob0io+s, b+t rather contri0e". )n an* case, s+ch a comparison is mislea"in! beca+se
o, )ansfield 3ark bein! the te6tboo/ :con"ition o, the nation (1n!lan")7 no0el an",
as ) mentione" earlier, Ta!ore -as hi!hl* critical o, the concept o, nation. Ho-e0er,
the parallel bet-een some characters an" themes in Gora -ith 3ride and 3re@&dice
is 0er* ob0io+s, b+t is it :-ritin! bac/7G
Gora resembles 3ride and 3re@&dice in that there is a ,amil* li/e the Bennets,
-ith a li/eable, eas*!oin! ,ather, (oresh Bab+, an" a rather abs+r" an"
embarrassin!, social;climbin! mother, Mistress Baro"a or Bara"as+n"ari ("epen"in!
on the translation), -ith their se0eral "a+!hters, incl+"in! S+charita an" Colita as
the 1liHabeth an" Fane heroines, -ho en"+re 0ario+s trials an" lessons be,ore
marr*in! @ora an" Bino*, the >arc* an" Bin!le* e8+i0alents, -ho are also p+t
thro+!h the mill to earn their happ* en"in!s. Ho!an re,ers to a ,orm o, in"i!eno+s
response to metropolitan literat+re that is the res+lt o, seein! it as similar to an
in"i!eno+s tra"ition, in this case romantic come"*.
234
'ne can see a more material
0ariant o, this, in that marr*in! o,, "a+!hters is in realit* a ma9or preocc+pation in
)n"ian societ*, an" one can ima!ine the A+sten no0el bein! !reete" b* 1n!lish;
e"+cate" )n"ians -ith !reat hilarit*. A mo"ern mani,estation o, this is the recent
An!lo;)n"ian ,ilm calle" -ride C 3re@&dice,
240
-hich a""s an :1ast meets the #est7
t-ist b* ha0in! an American >arc* "isr+pt Mrs Ba/shi7s plans to ,in" s+itable
matches ,or her ,o+r "a+!hters, incl+"in! the hea"stron! "a+!hter, Calita, -ho is
"etermine" to marr* ,or lo0e.
242
Ho!an "ra-s a "etaile" comparison bet-een the entire cast o, Gora an" that
o, 3ride and 3re@&dice, some o, -hich allo- him to ma/e interestin! points, b+t
the* ta/e one7s attention a-a* ,rom i"eas in the no0el -hich are partic+lar to )n"ia,
i"eas -hich Ho!an himsel, e6plores in his other Gora essa* ,oc+sse" on "harma.
242
Ho!an remar/s that :(areshQthat is, Mr. Bhattachar*aQis more i"ealise" than Mr.
Bennet7, later commentin! that :Ta!ore ha" no nee" to criticiHe the e6cesses o, lo0e
marria!e N JtKh+s there -as no reason to sta!e a "estr+cti0e elopement.7
24$
B+t
Ho!an ,ails to point o+t in this essa* that Ta!ore ma* be sa*in! that the sense o,
responsibilit* o, )n"ian ,athers, an" the con0entions re!ar"in! the protection an"
+pbrin!in! o, "a+!hters, -hich persist "espite lo0e marria!e becomin! accepte",
means that a C*"ia s+b;plot -o+l" be o+t o, place in an )n"ian 3ride and 3re@&dice.
This is s+rel* a "emonstration o, ho- :"harma7, as :ri!ht con"+ct7, operates to a0oi"
calamities in )n"ian societ*.
So, there is no C*"ia scan"al in Ta!ore7s 3ride and 3re@&dice no0el, hence,
s+rel*, no C*"ia character, -ith her imp+lsi0eness an" 0+lnerabilit*. )n the research
to-ar"s this "issertation, ha0in! ,ollo-e" all the a0en+es a0ailable to a non;
Ben!ali;spea/er, -ho has no insi"e /no-le"!e o, )n"ian societ*, an" no e6pert
bac/!ro+n" in )n"ian literat+re an" c+lt+re, this ,inal point< :there is no C*"ia,7
23L
(atric/ Colm Ho!an, :Gora, Fane A+sten an" the Sla0es o, )n"i!o7, pp.2L6;32.
233
Meena/shi M+/her9ee, :)ntro"+ction7, in Gora, 200$, (p.66i0).
234
Ho!an, :Gora, Fane A+sten an" the Sla0es o, )n"i!o7, p.230.
240
-ride C 3re@&dice. >ir. @+rin"er Cha"ha. Mirama6. 200=.
242
http<MM---.mirama6.comMbri"eM Jaccesse" 23 A+!+st 2006K
242
(atric/ Colm Ho!an, :'rtho"o6* an" ?ni0ersalism, p.22=.
24$
Ho!an, :Gora, Fane A+sten an" the Sla0es o, )n"i!o7, pp.23=;5.
so+n"s anticlimactic, b+t this is the n+b o, Ta!ore7s :messa!e7, an" the startin! point
,or m* concl+sion.
=. C'&CC?S)'&< TH1 )CCA@1 A&> TH1 #'.C>
)n so ,ar as millions o, ,amilies li0e +n"er economic con"itions o, e6istence
that separate their mo"e o, li,e, their interests, an" their c+lt+re ,rom those o,
the other classes, an" p+t them in hostile opposition to the latter, the* ,orm a
class. )n so ,ar as there is merel* a local interconnection amon! these small;
hol"in! peasants, an" the i"entit* o, their interests be!ets no comm+nit*, no
national bon", an" no political or!aniHation amon! them, the* "o not ,orm a
class. The* are conse8+entl* incapable o, en,orcin! their class interests in
their o-n name, -hether thro+!h a parliament or thro+!h a con0ention. the*
cannot represent themsel0es, the* m+st be represente". (Darl Mar6, 2352)
24=
J)n >ele+He, tK-o senses o, representation are bein! r+n to!ether<
representation as :spea/in! ,or7, as in politics, an" representation as :re;
presentation7, as in art or philosoph*. Since theor* is also onl* :action7, the
theoretician "oes not represent (spea/ ,or) the oppresse" !ro+p. N The
banalit* o, le,tist intellect+als7 lists o, sel,;/no-in!, politicall* cann*
s+balterns stan"s re0eale"E representin! them, the intellect+als represent
themsel0es as transparent. (@a*atri Cha/ra0ort* Spi0a/, 2433)
245
To e6plain ho- the :missin! C*"ia7, in Ta!ore7s 3ride and 3re@&dice no0el, is a
pointer to the concl+sion o, this "issertation, re8+ires a sli!ht "i!ression R not
inappropriate -ith a st+"* o, the merc+rial Ta!ore, -hereb* ne- aspects constantl*
open +p -hich re8+ire !oin! bac/ o0er -ritin!s o, his -hich one tho+!ht one ha"
penetrate". )n her st+"* o, Ta!ore7s ,rien"ship -ith the "istin!+ishe" Ar!entinean,
ictoria 'campo, Deta/i D+shari >*son re0eals a s+rprisin!l* sens+o+s, or e0en
erotic, si"e to Ta!ore.
246
(C+rio+sl*, this helps one +n"erstan" some o, Ta!ore7s
paintin!s< those -ith the stran!e animate armchairs enclosin! h+man ,orms.
24L
)
Ta!ore7s eroticism is present 0er* clearl* in one o, his most a"mire" short stories,
:The H+n!r* Stones7,
243
b+t loo/in! bac/ at the -or/s st+"ie" ,or this essa*, one
sees that all Ta!ore7s heroines ha0e -hat one mi!ht call a :chaste erotic7 character<
Chan"ara in :(+nishment7, Damala in The Wreck, Bimala in The Home and the
World, an" S+charita in Gora. Coo/e" at in that -a*, C*"ia is present in Gora, as
S+charita -ho re9ects the man she -as s+ppose" to marr* in ,a0o+r o, her o-n
choice, as Colita -ho r+ns a-a* to 9oin Bino* on the ,err*, ca+sin! a minor scan"al.
B+t all Ta!ore7s heroines are chaste, an" in that sense, C*"ia is missin!.
Tapan .a*cha+"h+ri7s essa*, :Co0e in a Colonial Climate7, sho-s ho-
colonial r+le "isr+pte" the most pri0ate concerns o, the Ben!ali Hin"+ %hadralok,
an" concl+"es -ith a poem b* Ta!ore sho-in! ho- :JtKhe ,amil* as ha0en ac8+ire"
a ne- meanin! in the colonial conte6t.7
244
B+t ,or Ta!ore, the ,amil* -as more than
a real;li,e ha0en, it -as a metaphor ,or all he belie0e" in, to!ether -ith -oman an"
24=
Mar6, Darl, :The 1i!hteenth Br+maire o, Co+is Bonaparte7, in ;arl )ar5: *elected Writings, e".
b* >a0i" McCellan ('6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 24LL), pp.$23;$26 (pp.$24;20).
245
@a*atri Cha/ra0ort* Spi0a/, :Can the S+baltern Spea/G7, in 1olonial #isco&rse and 3ost-
1olonial Theor$: 0 ,eader, e". b* (atric/ #illiams an" Ca+ra Chrisman, (Harlo-, 1sse6< (earson
1"+cation, 244=), pp.66;222 (p.L0).
246
Deta/i D+shari >*son, In "o&r -lossoming Flo!er-Garden: ,a%indranath Tagore and .ictoria
Dcampo (&e- >elhi< Sahita A/a"emi, 2433), p.20.
24L
>*son, (late $2.
243
.a"ice, pp.2$$;=$.
The illa!e an" the #orl" $L
0illa!e, an" )n"ia;in;the;-orl" as a c+lt+rist societ* o, comm+nit* an" cooperation.
)n the )n"ia;in;the;-orl" o, Ta!ore7s 0ision, there -o+l" be no C*"ia, beca+se
she represents the 0ictim o, the nation;state;oriente" societ* o, the mo"ern -orl".
She has nee"s an" "esires, an" notional ri!hts an" ,ree"oms, also protection an"
restrictions +n"er the la- R one co+l" see her as the proletarian, -ith the ,ree"om to
be e6ploite" in the !lobal 9ob mar/et R b+t she lac/s the sec+rit* o, belon!in! to a
c+lt+rist societ*, base" on -ell;+n"erstoo" "+ties an" m+t+al responsibilities, or
"harma. B+t perhaps that is ta/in! a :political rea"in!7 too ,ar ,or a literat+re st+"ies
"issertation.
Arom a postcolonial literat+re st+"ies perspecti0e, the main concl+sion to this
"issertation is that Ta!ore "i" not represent the 0illa!er or r$ot (peasant) in his prose
,iction, as i, anticipatin! Spi0a/7s assertion< :The s+baltern cannot spea/.7
200
The
short stor*, :(+nishment7, is +n+s+al in that the main characters are ,rom a peasant
,amil*, b+t e0en here, the +n"erl*in! meanin! t+rns o+t to be a +ni0ersal one, abo+t
-i,el* an" "omestic "harma. Ta!ore +s+all* -rote ,rom a mi""le;class perspecti0e,
sometimes pri0ile!e", more o,ten h+mble, an" !i0en that this class -as s+bser0ient
to the British .a9, this -as s+baltern too. 10en so, Ta!ore -as comm+nicatin!,
thro+!h alle!or*, principles relatin! to a +ni0ersal mo"el o, li,e.
M* e6ploration o, Gora, in partic+lar, has sho-n that one m+st 8+estion the
i"ea that Ta!ore -as :-ritin! bac/7 on behal, o, the people o, his co+ntr*, in or"er to
:represent7 them artisticall* or philosophicall*, in Spi0a/7s terms. As -ith Ta!ore7s
short stories, so in Gora, this -as real li,e, -hat the a+thor sa-, an" -hat became
his li,e7s -or/, his personal "harma, to t+rn aro+n". ?ma >as @+pta "e0otes her
bio!raph* o, Ta!ore to con0e*in! the lesser /no-n aspects o, Ta!ore7s li,e, as an
e"+cator an" r+ral re,ormer. This -as -or/ he be!an -hilst mana!in! the ,amil*
estates, an" t+rne" his ,+ll attention to a,ter -ith"ra-in! ,rom the S-a"eshi
mo0ement.
202
As this -or/ pro!resse", an" as a res+lt o, his search ,or someone -ith
e6pert /no-le"!e to brin! to the 0illa!e reconstr+ction pro9ect, he recr+ite" the
1n!lishman, Ceonar" 1lmhirst, -ho -ent on to establish a r+ral reconstr+ction
pro9ect o, his o-n in >artin!ton in >e0on.
202
Ta!ore7s international +ni0ersit* -as
inten"e" to be the see" o, his i"eas on :the 0illa!e an" the -orl"7 sprea"in!
e0er*-here.
Ta!ore7s no0el, The Home and the World, is a 0ehicle ,or his :anti;politics7,
-hich is present in Gora too as a re9ection o, both o, the t-o ,actions competin! to
ta/e political po-er in )n"ia. #hat Ta!ore -as a!ainst, politicall*, coinci"es -ith
-hat &iall Aer!+son in his boo/, 7mpire: Ho! -ritain )ade the )odern World
belie0es )n"ia o-es the 1mpire<
#itho+t the sprea" o, British r+le aro+n" the -orl", it is har" to belie0e that
the str+ct+res o, liberal capitalism -o+l" ha0e been so s+ccess,+ll*
establishe" in so man* "i,,erent economies aro+n" the -orl". Those empires
that a"opte" alternati0e mo"els R the .+ssian an" the Chinese R impose"
incalc+lable miser* on their s+b9ect peoples. #itho+t the in,l+ence o, British
imperial r+le, it is har" to belie0e that the instit+tions o, parliamentar*
"emocrac* -o+l" ha0e been a"opte" b* the ma9orit* o, states in the -orl",
244
.a*cha+"h+ri, Tapan, :Co0e in a Colonial Climate< marria!e, Se6 an" .omance in &ineteenth;
Cent+r* Ben!al7 ()odern 0sian *t&dies, ol. $=, &o. 2. (Ma*, 2000), $=4;$L3 (pp.$LL;3).
200
Spi0a/, p.20=.
202
?ma >as @+pta, ,a%indranath Tagore: 0 -iograph$ (&e- >elhi< '6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 200=),
p.26.
202
Michael %o+n!, :The 1n!lish 16periment7, in The 7lmhirsts of #artington (Totnes, >e0on<
>artin!ton Hall Tr+st, 2446), pp.20$;24 (pp.22L;3).
as the* are to"a*.
20$
The ass+mption -hich Ta!ore7s political tho+!ht ma/es one 8+estion is that
:liberal capitalism7 pl+s :parliamentar* "emocrac*7, on the one han", an" the
totalitarianism calle" :comm+nist7, on the other, are the onl* t-o possible options R
to!ether -ith the more s+btle point that there ha0e to be :economies7 an" :states7 in
the -orl" -ith the po-er to choose bet-een them. Ta!ore -rote abo+t :this
or!aniHation o, politics an" commerce, -hose other name is the &ation7 as ,ollo-s<
#hen it (societ*) allo-s itsel, to be t+rne" into a per,ect or!aniHation o,
po-er, then there are ,e- crimes -hich it is +nable to perpetrate. N #hen
this en!ine o, or!aniHation be!ins to attain a 0ast siHe, an" those -ho are
mechanics are ma"e into parts o, the machine, then the personal man is
eliminate" to a phantom, e0er*thin! becomes a re0ol+tion o, polic* carrie"
o+t b* the h+man parts o, the machine, -ith no t-in!e o, pit* or moral
responsibilit*.
20=
&an"* "escribes Ta!ore as a "issenter politicall*.
205
>+rin! the perio" -hen
Ta!ore -as -ritin! the no0els -hich are the s+b9ect o, this st+"*, ri!ht +p to the
time o, his "eath, the Calc+tta mi""le classes, -hether belon!in! to the reactionar*
ortho"o6 Hin"+ !ro+p, or to the #esterniHe" ten"enc*, -hether Brahmo Sama9 or
sec+lar li/e &ehr+ an" his collea!+es, -ere ea!er an" impatient to !et their han"s on
this or!aniHation o, po-er. )n 242L, )n"ian men -ith political ambitions -ere
ne!otiatin! -ith the @o0ernment ,or a transition to :responsible !o0ernment in
)n"ia, as an inte!ral part o, the British 1mpire.7
206
)t -as -hen the* became
"isenchante" -ith the ,alse promises ,rom the a+thorities that @an"hi bro+!ht to
their str+!!le his :@i,t o, the Ai!ht7.
20L
@an"hi share" Ta!ore7s aspiration ,or a
c+lt+rist ,+t+re ,or )n"ia, an" belie0e" that an in"epen"ent )n"ia -o+l" re;claim its
0illa!e;base" tra"itions, b+t @an"hi "i" not share Ta!ore7s 0ision o, international
in0ol0ement in a mo"ern )n"ia.
.et+rnin! to -hat Ta!ore ,a0o+re", c+lt+rall* an" politicall*, his 0ision -as
not abo+t :representation7 in the alternati0e sense, -hich both Mar6 an" Spi0a/ re,er
to. ), "e0elope" as a political mo"el, Ta!ore7s :0illa!e an" -orl"7 -o+l" in0ol0e
cooperation at the local le0el, -ith a sharin! o, /no-le"!e an" s/ills internationall*,
rather than a hierarch* o, po-er -or/in! thro+!h cities an" nation;states, an" so
-o+l" in0ol0e participati0e or "irect "emocrac*, rather than representati0e
"emocrac*. The i"ea o, "harma, -hich -e ha0e seen bro+!ht o+t in the short stories
as a ne- ,ama$ana, -ith the ,oc+s on "omesticit* as 0illa!e, home an" the role o,
-omen, is cr+cial to re;creatin! the sel,;!o0ernin! r+ral comm+nit* -hich &ehr+
an" Mar6 -rote o, ha0in! been "estro*e" b* the British .a9, in both its Compan*
an" its Cro-n incarnations.
This st+"* has sho-n ho- ,ascinatin! Ta!ore7s i"eas an" his -a*s o,
e6pressin! them become, -hen one sets asi"e #estern ass+mptions, an" ho-
potentiall* 0al+able is his 0ision. B+t that lea0es +s -ith a 8+estion abo+t ho-
20$
&iall Aer!+son, 7mpire: Ho! -ritain )ade the )odern World (Con"on< (en!+in, 200=), pp.$65;6.
20=
Ta!ore, ationalism, p.22.
205
&an"*, p.0ii.
206
:A Foint A""ress ,rom 1+ropeans an" )n"ians to His 16cellenc* the icero* an" @o0ernor;
@eneral an" the .i!ht Hono+rable the Secretar* o, State ,or )n"ia7 (Calc+tta< C.H. Har0e*, 242L),
>artin!ton Hall Tr+st Archi0e, Ceonar" Dni!ht 1lmhirst Collection< CD1M)&M=$.
20L
Mar9orie S*/es, :@an"hi an" Ta!ore< The Can"i" Arien"s7, in Fehan!ir (. (atel an" Mar9orie
S*/es, Gandhi: His Gift of the Fight (.as+lia, Hoshan!aba", )n"ia< Arien"s .+ral Centre, 243L),
pp.4;24.
Ta!ore7s i"eas an" 0ision co+l" reach the #est, !i0en the barriers o, lan!+a!e an"
!eneral #estern arro!ance. Accor"in! to >*son, :Ta!ore "oes not belon! to the
Ben!alis or to the )n"ians onl*. N He belon!s to the -hole -orl", i, onl* the -orl"
-o+l" care to claim its ri!ht,+l herita!e.7
203
Cater in her boo/, >*son con"emns
:e6cessi0e reliance on 1n!lishN J-hichK enco+ra!es a monoc+lt+re o, the min"N
obliteratin! N n+ances that !en+inel* matter.7 A+rthermore, >*son ar!+es, 1n!lish
is connecte" -ith Britain7s imperial past an" the ne- po-er o, the ?.S.A., an"
brin!s -ith it :man* tro+blesome neo;colonial ass+mptions.7
204
)n the closin! "a*s o, e"itin! this essa*, ) rea" t-o boo/s< Ta!ore7s The
,eligion of )an (24$2),
220
-hich ) ha" not been "ra-n to beca+se its title is o,,;
p+ttin! to an atheist, an" ?pton Sinclair7s The 8&ngle (2406).
222
Ta!ore7s
correspon"ence -ith Sinclair is re,erre" to in *elected +etters, -ith the e"itors
sa*in! that :Ta!ore co+l" ne0er ha0e a"opte" socialism as a cree"7 b+t share"
Sinclair7s :rep+!nance ,or commercialism an" the "eh+manisin! e,,ect o,
machines.7
222
'""l* eno+!h, these t-o boo/s b* Ta!ore an" Sinclair share a
-ea/ness, in that the* are both rich, in their "i,,erent -a*s, b+t +ni;"imensional, so
a rea"er m+st accept or re9ect them -holesale. )n contrast, the po-er o, Ta!ore7s
prose ,iction is its hi""en "epths, an" insi!hts one has so+!ht o+t an" ,o+n" ,or
onesel, are li,e;chan!in!, an" ha0e !lobal implications.
203
>*son, p.20.
204
>*son, p.$5$.
220
2462)
222
?pton Sinclair, The 8&ngle (Con"on< (en!+in, 24$6) ,irst p+blishe" 2406.
222
*elected +etters, pp.$0=;5.
The illa!e an" the #orl" =0
B)BC)'@.A(H%
Primary Texts: subjects of the study
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, *elected *hort *tories, e". b* S+/anita
Cha+"h+ri (&e- >elhi< '6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2000)
Cha+"h+ri
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, *elected *hort *tories, trans. b* Drishna
>+tta an" Mar* Ca!o (Con"on< Macmillan, 2442)
>+tta an" Ca!o
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, Gora, Jtrans. b* #.#. (earsonK (Con"on<
Macmillan, 242=) ,irst p+blishe" in Ben!ali, 2404
Gora 242=
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, Gora, trans. b* S+9it M+/her9ee (&e-
>elhi< Sahita A/a"emi, 200$)
Gora 200$
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, The Home and the World, trans. b*
S+ren"ranath Ta!ore (Con"on< (en!+in, 2435) ,irst p+blishe"
2425
Home and the World
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, *elected *hort *tories, trans. b* #illiam
.a"ice (Con"on< (en!+in, 2005) stories ,irst p+blishe" 2340s
.a"ice
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, The Wreck, Jtrans. b* F.@. >r+mmon"K
(Con"on< Macmillan, 24==) ,irst p+blishe" 2406
Wreck
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, :(+nishment7,in .a"ice, pp.225;$$in
Cha+"h+ri, pp. 220;20Ein >+tta an" Ca!o, pp.6L;L4
:(+nishment7
Other Primary Texts
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, )$ -o$hood #a$s (&e- >elhi< .+pa,
2005)
-o$hood
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, The -roken est, trans. b* Mar* M. Ca!o
an" S+pri*a Bari (>elhi< Macmillan, 24L$) ,irst p+blishe",
serialise", in Ben!ali, 2402
-roken est
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, -roken Ties and other *tories (Macmillan,
2425)
-roken Ties
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, :Cit* an" illa!e7, in To!ards 'ni(ersal
)an (Con"on< Asia (+blishin! Ho+se, 2462), pp.$02;22
:Cit* an" illa!e7
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, :Crisis in Ci0iliHation7, in To!ards
'ni(ersal )an (Con"on< Asia (+blishin! Ho+se, 2462), pp.$5$;
54
:Crisis in Ci0ilisation7
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, Fare!ell2 )$ Friend, trans. b* D...
Dripalani (Con"on< &e- )n"ia, Jn.".K) ,irst p+blishe" 2424
Fare!ell2 )$ Friend
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, Gitan@ali (Con"on< The )n"ia Societ*,
2422)
Gitan@ali
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, Glimpses of -engal: *elected from the
+etters of *ir ,a%indranath Tagore 1885-1895 (Con"on<
Macmillan, 24=5)
Glimpses of -engal
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, I Won<t +et "o& Go: *elected 3oems, trans.
b* Deta/i D+shari >*son (&e-castle +pon T*ne< Bloo"a6e, 2442)
I Won<t +et "o& Go
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, +ect&res C 0ddresses %$ ,a%indranath
Tagore2 *elected from the *peeches of the 3oet, e". b* Anthon* B.
Soares, M.A., CC.B. (ro,essor o, 1n!lish Citerat+re, The Colle!e,
Baro"a (Con"on< Macmillan, 2423)
+ect&res C 0ddresses
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, *elected Writings on +iterat&re and
+ang&age e". b* Sisir D+mar >as an" S+/anta Cha+"h+ri (&e-
>elhi< '6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2002)
+iterat&re and
+ang&age
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, ationalism (Con"on< Macmillan, 2422) ationalism
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, 3ersonalit$: +ect&res #eli(ered in
0merica (Con"on< Macmillan, 2424)
3ersonalit$
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath an" Ceonar" 1lmhirst, ,a%indranath
Tagore: 3ioneer in 7d&cation: 7ssa$s and 75changes %et!een
,a%indranath Tagore and +E;E 7lmhirst (Con"on< Fohn M+rra*,
2462)
3ioneer in 7d&cation
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, /&artet, trans. b* Daiser Ha8 ('6,or"<
Heinemann, 244$) ,irst p+blishe" 2426
/&artet
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, The ,eligion of )an: -eing the Hi%%ert
+ect&res for 199: (Boston< Beacon, 2462) ,irst p+blishe" 24$2
,eligion of )an
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, )$ ,eminiscences (Con"on< Macmillan,
2422)
,eminiscences
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, *adhana: The ,ealisation of +ife (Con"on<
Macmillan, 2425)
*adhana
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, *elected +etters of ,a%indranath Tagore,
e". b* Drishna >+tta an" An"re- .obinson (Cambri"!e<
Cambri"!e ?ni0ersit* (ress, 244L)
*elected +etters
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, Talks in 1hina (Calc+tta< is0abharati,
J2425K)
Talks in 1hina
Ta!ore, .abin"ranath, To!ards 'ni(ersal )an (Con"on< Asia
(+blishin! Ho+se, 2462)
'ni(ersal )an
Secondary Texts: Books and Articles
Allen, .ichar" an" >ennis #al"er, :Can .ealist &o0els S+r0i0eG7, in The ,ealist
o(el, e". b* >ennis #al"er (Con"on< .o+tle"!e, 2445), pp.242;20$
Aronson, Ale6, e"., ,a%indranath Tagore: 0 1ele%ration of his +ife and Work
('6,or"< .abin"ranath Ta!ore Aesti0al Committee an" the M+se+m o, Mo"ern Art,
2436)
Ashcro,t, Bill, @areth @ri,,iths an" Helen Ti,,in, The 7mpire Writes -ack: Theor$
and 3ractice in 3ost-colonial +iterat&res (Con"on< .o+tle"!e, 2002)
Bannet, 10e Ta0or, 3ostc&lt&ral Theor$: 1ritical Theor$ after the )ar5ist 3aradigm
(Basin!sto/e, Hampshire< Macmillan, 244$)
Bartolo0ich, Cr*stal an" &eil CaHar+s, )ar5ism2 )odernit$ and 3ostcolonial *t&dies
(Cambri"!e< Cambri"!e ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2002)
Boehmer, 1lle/e, 1olonial and 3ostcolonial +iterat&re: )igrant )etaphors, 2
n"
e"n
('6,or"< '6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2005)
Bose, S+!ata an" A*esha Falal, )odern *o&th 0sia: Histor$2 1&lt&re2 3olitical
7conom$, 2n" e"n (&e- %or/< .o+tle"!e, 200=)
B+c/, #illiam ,ama$ana: ;ing ,ama<s Wa$: .almiki<s .ama*ana told in 7nglish
3rose (Cali,ornia< Cali,ornia ?ni0ersit* (ress, 24L3)
B+r/e, SeVn, The #eath and ,et&rn of the 0&thor: 1riticism and *&%@ecti(it$ in
-arthes2 Fo&ca&lt and #errida, 2
n"
e"n (1"inb+r!h< 1"inb+r!h ?ni0ersit* (ress,
2443)
Carroll, Foseph, 7(ol&tion and +iterar$ Theor$ (Col+mbia, Misso+ri< ?ni0ersit* o,
Misso+ri (ress, 2445)
Cha/ra0art*, Ami*a, e", 0 Tagore ,eader (Con"on< Macmillan, 2462)
Chatman, Se*mo+r, :Stor* an" &arrati0e7, in +iterat&re in the )odern World: 1ritical
7ssa$s and #oc&ments, e". b* >ennis #al"er ('6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2440),
pp.205;25
Chatter9ee, Ban/im;Chan"ra, ;rishnakanta<s Will, trans b* F.C. @osh (&e- %or/<
&e- >irections, 2462) ,irst p+blishe" 23L3
Cha+"h+ri, S+/anta, San/a @hosh an" Sisir D+mar >as, e"s. ,a%indranath Tagore:
*elected Writings on +iterat&re and +ang&age (&e- >elhi< '6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress,
2002)
Cho-"h+r*, )n"ira, The Frail Hero and .irile Histor$: Gender and the 3olitics of
1&lt&re in 1olonial -engal (>elhi< '6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2443)
Clar/, T. #., e". The o(el in India: Its -irth and #e(elopment (Con"on< @eor!e
Allen P ?n-in, 24L0)
Connor, Ste0en, Theor$ and 1&lt&ral .al&e ('6,or"< Blac/-ell, 2442)
C+ller, Fonathan, :An"erson an" the &o0el7, #iacritics, ol.24, &o.= (#inter, 2444),
24;$4
>art, Martha, )ar@orie *$kes: /&aker Gandhian (%or/< Sessions, 244$)
>as @+pta, ?ma, ,a%indranath Tagore: 0 -iograph$ (&e- >elhi< '6,or" ?ni0ersit*
(ress, 200=)
>e, 1sha &i*o!i, :>ecoloniHin! ?ni0ersalit*< (ostcolonial Theor* an" the U+an"ar*
o, 1thical A!enc*7, #iacritics, ol. $2, &o. 2 (S+mmer, 2002), =2;54
>+tt, .omesh Ch+n"er, The 3easantr$ of -engal: %eing a .ie! of their 1ondition
&nder the Hind&2 the )ahomedan2 and the 7nglish ,&le2 and a 1onsideration of the
)eans 1alc&lated to Impro(e their F&t&re 3rospects (Calc+tta< Thac/er, Spin/ P Co.,
23L=)
>+tta, Drishna an" An"re- .obinson, e"s., 3&ra%i: 0 )iscellan$ in )emor$ of
,a%indranath Tagore 1941-1991 (Con"on< Ta!ore Centre, 2442)
The illa!e an" the #orl" =$
>+tta, Drishna an" An"re- .obinson, ,a%indranath Tagore: The )$riad-)inded
)an (Con"on< Bloomsb+r*, 2445)
>*son, Deta/i D+shari, In "o&r -lossoming Flo!er-Garden: ,a%indranath Tagore
and .ictoria Dcampo (&e- >elhi< Sahita A/a"emi, 2433)
1lienne Balibar an" (ierre Machere*, :Citerat+re as an )"eolo!ical Aorm7 in )odern
+iterar$ Theor$: 0 ,eader, e". b* (hilip .ice an" (atricia #a+!h (Con"on< Arnol",
Ho""er Hea"line, 2002), pp.2$=;=2
1lmhirst, Ceonar", 3oet and 3lo!man (Calc+tta< is0a;Bharati, 24L5)
1lmhirst, Ceonar", ,a%indranath Tagore2 3ioneer in 7d&cation: 7ssa$s and
75changes %et!een ,a%indranath Tagore and +eonard 7lmhirst (Con"on< Fohn
M+rra*, 2462)
Aanon, ArantH, :'n &ational C+lt+re7, in >ennis #al"er, e". +iterat&re in the )odern
World: 1ritical 7ssa$s and #oc&ments ('6,or"< '6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2440), pp.
265;2L2
Aer!+son, &iall, 7mpire: Ho! -ritain )ade the )odern World (Con"on< (en!+in,
200=
Aorster, 1.M. 0 3assage to India, e". b* 'li0er Stall*brass (Con"on< (en!+in, 2434)
@elernter, >a0i", The )&se in the )achine: 1omp&teri=ing the 3oetr$ of H&man
Tho&ght (&e- %or/< Macmillan, 244=)
@enette, @Orar", :)ntro"+ction to the (arate6t7, e! +iterar$ Histor$, ol. 22, &o. 2,
(Sprin!, 2442), 262;2L2
@ramsci, Antonio, :The )ntellect+als7, in 3rison ote%ooks of 0ntonio Gramsci,
http<MM---.mar6ists.or!Marchi0eM!ramsciMprison_noteboo/sMproblemsMintellect+als.htm
Jaccesse" 2L A+!+st 2006K
@reenblatt, Stephen, :.esonance an" #on"er7, in )odern +iterar$ Theor$: 0 ,eader,
=th e"n, e". b* (hilip .ice an" (atricia #a+!h (Con"on< Arnol", 2002), pp.$05;2=
@+ha, .ana9it, #ominance !itho&t Hegemon$: Histor$ and 3o!er in 1olonial India
(Cambri"!e, Massach+setts< Har0ar" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 244L)
Ho"!e, .obert, +iterat&re as #isco&rse: Te5t&al *trategies in 7nglish and Histor$
(Baltimore< Fohn Hop/ins ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2440)
Ho!an, (atric/ Colm an" Calita (an"it, e"s, +iterar$ India: 1omparati(e *t&dies in
0esthetics2 1olonialism and 1&lt&re (Alban*< State ?ni0ersit* o, &e- %or/ (ress,
2445)
Ho!an, (atric/ Colm an" Calita (an"it, e"s, ,a%indranath Tagore: 'ni(ersalit$ and
Tradition (Cranb+r*, &F< Associate" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 200$)
Ho!an, (atric/ Colm, :Gora, Fane A+sten an" the Sla0es o, )n"i!o7, in ,a%indranath
Tagore: 'ni(ersalit$ and Tradition e". b* (atric/ Colm Ho!an an" Calita (an"it
(Cranb+r*, &F< Associate" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 200$), pp.2L5;43
Ho!an, (atric/ Colm, :)idnight<s 1hildren< Dashmir an" the (olitics o, )"entit*7,
T!entieth 1ent&r$ +iterat&re, ol. =L, &o. = (#inter, 2002), 520;5==
Ho!an, (atric/ Colm, 1olonialism and 1&lt&ral Identit$: 1rises of Tradition in the
0nglophone +iterat&res of India2 0frica2 and the 1ari%%ean (Alban*< State ?ni0ersit*
o, &e- %or/ (ress, 2000)
Ho!an, (atric/ Colm, :'rtho"o6* an" ?ni0ersalism< .abin"ranath Ta!ore7s Gora7, in
1olonialism and 1&lt&ral Identit$: 1rises of Tradition in the 0nglophone +iterat&res
of India2 0frica2 and the 1ari%%ean (Alban*< State ?ni0ersit* o, &e- %or/ (ress,
2000), pp.22$;55
Fameson, Are"ric, )ar5ism and Form: T!entieth-1ent&r$ #ialectical Theories of
+iterat&re ((rinceton, &e- Ferse*< (rinceton ?ni0ersit* (ress, 24L=)
The illa!e an" the #orl" ==
Dachr+, Bra9 B., :1n!lish as an Asian Can!+a!e7 (?rbana< ?ni0ersit* o, )llinois,
244L), http<MM---.bib.+ab.esMp+bMlin/san"lettersM22$$L$4Ln5p34.p", Jaccesse" 26
F+l* 2005K
Dea*, Fohn, India #isco(ered: The ,eco(er$ of a +ost 1i(ili=ation (Con"on<
HarperCollins, 2002)
Dhilnani, S+nil, The Idea of India (Con"on< (en!+in, 200$)
Diplin!, .+"*ar", ;im (Con"on< (en!+in, 2000)
Dripalani, Drishna, e"., Tagore -irthda$ &m%er, .is(a--harati /&arterl$
(JSantini/etanK, Ben!al, )n"ia< 24=2)
Dripalani, Drishna, ,a%indranath Tagore: 0 -iograph$ (Con"on< '6,or" ?ni0ersit*
(ress, 2462)
Ca!o, Mar*, :Ta!ore7s Short Aiction7, in ,a%indranath Tagore: 0 1ele%ration of his
+ife and Work ('6,or"< .abin"ranath Ta!ore ,esti0al Committee, 2436), pp.==;5
Cea0is, A..., The Great Tradition: George 7liot2 Henr$ 8ames2 8oseph 1onrad
(Con"on< (en!+in, 2462)
C+/Vcs, @eor!, The Historical o(el (Con"on< Merlin, 2462)
C+6emb+r!, .osa, The ational /&estion, e". b* Horace B >a0is, Jn.p.K< Monthl*
.e0ie- (ress, 24L6) http<MM---.mar6ists.or!Marchi0eMl+6emb+r!M2404Mnational;
8+estion Jaccesse" 22 F+l* 2005K
Mar6, D. an" A. 1n!els, The First Indian War of Independence 1857-1859 (Mosco-<
Aorei!n Can!+a!es (+blishin! Ho+se, Jn.".K)
Mar6, Darl, :The 1i!hteenth Br+maire o, Co+is Bonaparte7, in ;arl )ar5: *elected
Writings, e". b* >a0i" McCellan ('6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 24LL), pp.$23;$26
Mar6, Darl, :The A+t+re .es+lts o, British .+le in )n"ia7, in ;arl )ar5: *elected
Writings, e". b* >a0i" McCellan ('6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 24LL), pp.$$2;$$6
Mitra, )n"rani, :S) #ill ma/e Bimala 'ne #ith M* Co+ntr*T< @en"er an"
&ationalism in Ta!ore7s The Home and the World7, )odern Fiction *t&dies, =2.2
(2445), 2=$;26=
Morton, Stephen, e"., Ga$atri 1hakra(ort$ *pi(ak (Con"on< .o+tle"!e, 200$)
M+/er9i, Dar+namo*, :(ro!ress o, Can" .e,orms in #est Ben!al7, ,a%indra%harati
8o&rnal, ol.) (F+l* 2463), pp.53;L6
M+rshi", @h+lam, :Ta!ore7s &o0els7, in ,a%indranath Tagore: 0 1ele%ration of his
+ife and Work, e". b* Ale6 Aronson ('6,or"< .abin"ranath Ta!ore Aesti0al
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M*sHor, Aran/, The )odern *hort *tor$ (Cambri"!e< Cambri"!e ?ni0ersit* (ress,
2002)
&an"*, Ashis, 0n 0m%ig&o&s 8o&rne$ to the 1it$: The .illage and Dther Ddd ,&ins of
the Indian Imagination (&e- >elhi< '6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2002)
&an"*, Ashis, The Illegitimac$ of ationalism: ,a%indranathTtagore and the 3olitics
of *elf (>elhi< '6,or" ?ni0ersit* (ress, 2445)
&an"*, Ashis, :C+lt+re, State, an" the .e"isco0er* o, )n"ian (olitics7, in +iterar$
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pp.255;L=
&ehr+, Fa-aharlal, The #isco(er$ of India (Con"on< Meri"ian, 2452)
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