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Sensation and
Perception

Destiny Diaz, Seeing the World
for the First Time

I can see Mariah Carey. Shes American and she has the same skin as me. Her pants are red,
exclaimed 11-year-old Destiny Diaz, who had been legally blind since birth, after receiving an arti -
cial cornea. Just 24 hours after her transplantan arti cial cornea was used because her immune
system had rejected human transplantsDestinys doctor asked her to tell him how many ngers he
was holding up and then to touch his nose. As she reached out and touched it, her aunts, watching
from a corner of the room, wept with joy. This formerly blind little girl could see.
The rst organ transplant was a double cornea transplant performed about a century ago by a
Czech doctor, Eduard Zirm, on a 43-year-old man named Alois Gloger. After the surgery, Glogers eyes
were sewn shut for 10 miserable days, but when the stitches were removed, he could see. Today,
40,000 cornea transplants are performed each year. These transplants generally depend on eye banks,
to which individuals can promise to donate their organs after death. The operation is complex but
not nearly as difcult as that rst one. Imagine 40,000 people a year undergoing this procedure
in some cases seeing for the rst time. For these individuals, sight is truly a gift bestowed not by
nature but by science, technology, and the generosity of others.
Vision and all of our other senses connect us to the world. We see a beloved friends face, feel a
comforting hand on our shoulder, or hear our name called from across a room. Our ability to perceive
the world is what allows us to reach out into that world in the many ways we do every day.











What is your
favorite song
or food?
What role do
your senses
play in
determining
these favorite
things?
How do these
favorites
relate to your
self-identity?
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In this chapter we explore sensation and perception, the processes by which we connect
with the world. We rst examine vision, the sense about which scientists know the most.
We then probe the nature of hearing, the skin senses, taste, smell, and the kinesthetic
and vestibular senses.





How We Sense and
Perceive the World
Sensation and perception researchers represent a broad range of specialties, including
ophthalmology, the study of the eyes structure, function, and diseases; audiology, the
science concerned with hearing; neurology, the scientic study of the nervous system;
and many others. Understanding sensation and perception requires comprehending the
physical properties of the objects of our perceptionlight, sound, the texture of material
things, and so on. The psychological approach to these processes involves understanding
the physical structures and functions of the sense organs, as well as the brains conver-
sion of the information from these organs into experience.


The Processes and Purposes
of Sensation and Perception

Our world is alive with stimuliall the objects and events that surround us. Sensation
and perception are the processes that allow us to detect and understand these various
stimuli. It may seem strange to think about it this way, but we do not actually experience
these stimuli directly; rather, our senses allow us to get information about aspects of our
environment, and we then take that information and
form a perception of the world. Sensation is the pro-
cess of receiving stimulus energies from the external
sensation
The process of
environment and transforming those energies into receiving stimulus
energies from the














Through sensation we take in information from the world; through
perception we identify meaningful patterns in that information.
Thus sensation and perception work hand in hand when we enjoy
neural energy. Physical energy such as light, sound,
and heat is detected by specialized receptor cells in
the sense organseyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue.
When the receptor cells register a stimulus, the energy
is converted to an electrochemical impulse or action
potential that relays information about the stimulus
through the nervous system to the brain (Sani & oth-
ers, 2009; Wang & Hatton, 2009). Recall from Chap-
ter 2 that an action potential is the brief wave of
electrical charge that sweeps down the axon of a neu-
ron for possible transmission to another neuron.
When it reaches the brain, the information travels to
the appropriate area of the cerebral cortex (Gruber &
ODonnell, 2009).
The brain gives meaning to sensation through per-
ception. Perception is the process of organizing and
external environ-
ment and trans-
forming those
energies into
neural energy.







perception
The process of
organizing and
interpreting sen-
sory information
so that it makes
a hug and the sweet fragrance of a ower.



78 C H A P T E R 3 Sensation and Perception
interpreting sensory information so that it makes sense.
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sense. Receptor cells in our eyes recordthat is, sensea sleek silver object in
the sky, but they do not see a jet plane. Recognizing that silver object as a
plane is perception. Sensing and perceiving give us views of the setting sun,
the sounds of a rock concert, the touch of soft caresses, the taste of sweets,





Humans cannot smell
as well as dogs. Your dog might
pick up the scent of another dog
and the fragrance of owers. Of all the various stimuli that are present in your
environment right now, you are able to sense and perceive only some of them.
Every species is adapted to sense and perceives stimuli that matter to that spe-
cies ability to survive in its environment.
yards away, while you might never
smell that other caninebecause,
unlike your dog, you dont need to.


bottom-up
processing
The operation in
sensation and
perception in
which sensory
receptors register
information
about the exter-
nal environment

Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing Psychologists distinguish
between bottom-up and top-down processing in sensation and perception. In bottom-up
processing, sensory receptors register information about the external environment and
send it up to the brain for interpretation. Bottom-up processing means taking in infor-
mation and trying to make sense of it (Weidner & others, 2009). An example of
bottom-up processing might be the way you experience a song the rst time you hear it:
You listen carefully to get a feel for it. In contrast, top-down processing starts with
cognitive processing at the higher levels of the brain; in top-down processing we begin
with some sense of what is happening and apply that framework to information
from the world (Balaguer-Ballester & others, 2009; Johnson & Johnson, 2009).










Have you ever begged a
and send it up to
the brain for
interpretation.

top-down
processing
You can experience top-down processing by listening to your favorite song in
your head right now. As you hear the song in your minds ear, you are
engaged in perceptual experience.
Both bottom-up and top-down processing take place in sensing and per-
ceiving the world (Liu & others, 2009), and these processes work together
friend to taste your favorite
food or listen to your favorite
song, only to be disappointed
when your pal reacted to trying
The operation in
sensation and
perception,
launched by cog-
nitive processing
at the brains
higher levels,
to allow us to function accurately and ef ciently. By themselves our ears
provide only incoming information about sound in the environment. Only
when we consider both what the ears hear (bottom-up processing) and what
the brain interprets (top-down processing) can we fully understand how we
perceive sounds in our world. In everyday life, the two processes of sensation
it out with a shrug and Eh? In
this scenario, both tongues and
all four ears register the same
information, but perception is a
very subjective interpretation
that allows the
organism to
sense what is
happening and
to apply that
framework to in-
formation from
the world.
and perception are essentially inseparable. For this reason, most psychologists
refer to sensation and perception as a unied information-processing system
(Goldstein, 2010).
The Purposes of Sensation and Perception Why do we perceive
the world? From an evolutionary perspective, the purpose of sensation and perception is
adaptation that improves a species chances for survival (Hartman & Smith, 2009; Mader,
2010). An organism must be able to sense and respond quickly and accurately to events
of that information.








Most predatory animals
have eyes at the front of
their faces; most animals
that are prey have eyes on
the side of their heads.
Through these adaptations,
predators perceive their
prey accurately, and prey
gain a measure of safety
from their panoramic view
of their environment.











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in the immediate environment, such as the approach of a predator, the presence of prey,
or the appearance of a potential mate. Not surprisingly, therefore, most animalsfrom
goldsh to gorillas to humanshave eyes and ears, as well as sensitivities to touch and
chemicals (smell and taste). Furthermore, a close comparison of sensory systems in
animals reveals that each species is exquisitely adapted to the habitat in which it evolved
(Molles, 2010). Animals that are primarily predators generally have their eyes at the front
of their faces so that they can perceive their prey accurately. In contrast, animals that are
more likely to be someone elses lunch have their eyes on either side of their heads,
giving them a wide view of their surroundings at all times.
A marvelous example of evolutionary accomplishment appears in a sh called Anab-
leps microlepis, which has four eyes. This remarkable adaptation allows the Anableps
microlepis to swim just at the surface of the water, with two aerial eyes monitoring the
dangerous world above the water and two aquatic eyes looking for food in the world
below.


Sensory Receptors and the Brain

All sensation begins with sensory receptors. Sensory receptors are specialized cells
that
detect stimulus information and transmit it to sensory (afferent ) nerves and the brain
(Kaltenbach, Yu, & Holland, 2009). Sensory receptors are the openings through which
the brain and nervous system experience the world. Figure 3.1 shows the human



























sensory receptors
Specialized cells
that detect stim-
ulus information
Yes, there it is again:
afferent nerves. Remember
that afferent nerves bring
information to the brain, and
efferent nerves send messages
away from the brain to
sensory receptors for vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste.
The sensory receptors of all animal species have evolved so that animals are
adapted to their environments. For example, the sensory receptors that a bat
uses to nd food are very different frombut no more specialized thanthose
that an eagle uses. Bats use sound to locate prey at night, whereas eagles hunt
with their eyes from great heights to avoid detection from potential prey.
Figure 3.2 depicts the ow of information from the environment to the brain.
and transmit it to
sensory (afferent)
nerves and the
brain.
the body.





FIGURE 3.1
Sensory receptors take in information from the environment, creating local electri-
cal currents. These currents are graded; that means they are sensitive to the intensity
of stimulation, such as the difference between a dim and a bright light. These receptors
trigger action potentials in sensory neurons, which carry that information to the central



Vision Hearing Touch Smell







Taste
Human Senses: Organs,
Energy Stimuli, and Sensory
Receptors The receptor cells for
each sense are specialized to receive
particular types of energy stimuli.


Sensory
Receptor
Cells





Type of
Energy
Reception



Sense
Organ









Photoreception:
detection of
light, perceived
as sight






Eyes









Mechano-
reception:
detection of
vibration,
perceived as
hearing





Ears









Mechano-
reception:
detection of
pressure,
perceived as
touch





Skin









Chemoreception:
detection of
chemical stimuli,
perceived as
smell





Nose









Chemoreception:
detection of
chemical stimuli,
perceived as
taste





Tongue




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nervous system. Because sensory neurons (like all neurons) follow
the all-or-nothing principle, described in Chapter 2, the intensity
of the stimulus cannot be communicated to the brain by chang-
ing the strength of the action potential. Instead, the receptor
varies the frequency of action potentials sent to the brain. So,
if a stimulus is very intense, like the bright sun on a hot
day, the neuron will re more frequently (but with the
same strength) to let the brain know that the light
Sensory





Sensation and Perception

Vision
Taste
Smell
Hearing
Balance
Touch
is, indeed, very, very bright.
Other than frequency, the action potentials of all
sensory nerves are alike. This sameness raises an
intriguing question: How can an animal distinguish
among sight, sound, odor, taste, and touch? The
answer is that sensory receptors are selective and
have different neural pathways. They are special-
ized to absorb a particular type of energylight
energy, sound vibrations, or chemical energy,
for exampleand convert it into an action
potential.
Sensation involves detecting and trans-
mitting information about different kinds of
Neuron



Action
potential


Cell membrane


Receptor
protein
energy. The sense organs and sensory recep-
tors fall into several main classes based on the
type of energy that is transmitted. The functions
of these classes include
Sensory Receptor
Cell

Photoreception: detection of light, perceived
as sight
Mechanoreception: detection of pressure,
vibration, and movement, perceived as
touch, hearing, and equilibrium
Chemoreception: detection of chemical


Chemical

FIGURE 3.2
Information Flow in Senses The
diagram shows a general ow of sensory
stimuli, perceived as smell and taste Mechanical
Light information from energy stimulus to sensory
receptor cell to sensory neuron to sensation
Each of these processes belongs to a particular
class of receptors and brain processes. There are
Energy Stimulus and perception.
rare cases, however, in which the senses can become confused. The term synaesthesia
describes an experience in which one sense (say, sight) induces an experience in another
sense (say, hearing). Some individuals see music or taste a color, for example. One
woman was able to taste sounds, so that a piece of music might taste like tuna sh (Beeli,
Esslen, & Jancke, 2005). Neuroscientists are exploring the neurological bases of synaes-
thesia, especially in the connections between the various sensory regions of the cerebral
cortex (Cohen & Henik, 2007). One proposal is that the posterior parietal cortex, which
is linked to normal sensory integration, is a key brain region involved in synaesthesia
(Muggleton & others, 2007; Mulvenna & Walsh, 2006).
Phantom limb pain might be another example of confused senses. As many as 95 per-
cent of individuals who have lost an arm or a leg report alarming and puzzling pain in
the amputated arm or leg. Although the limb that contains the sensory receptors is gone,
the areas of the brain and nervous system that received information from those receptors
are still there, causing confusion (Casale & others, 2009; Kollewe & others, 2009).
Amputee veterans of combat in Iraq and Afghanistan have found some relief in an unex-
pected place: looking in a mirror. In this treatment, individuals place a mirror in front
of their existing limb and move the limb around while watching the mirror. So, if a
persons left leg has been amputated, the mirror is placed so that the right leg is seen
moving in the mirror where the left leg would be if it had not been amputated. This
procedure seems to trick the brain into perceiving the missing limb as still there, allowing



How We Sense and Perceive the World 81