APPROVAL SHEET

Complete report of Animal’s Physiology Experiment with title “Nerve System”

who is made by:
Name : Nur Rezki Octavia
Reg. No : 081404174
Group : VI (sixth)
Class : Biology ICP
Department : Biology
After checked by assistant and assistant coordinator, so this report is accepted.

Makassar, May 2010

Assistant Coordinator Assistant

Djumarirmanto, S.Pd Nuni Rismayanti Nurkalbi

Reg. No : 071404193

Known By:
Lecture Responsibility

Ir. Halifah Pagarra, Msi

NIP : 1955 0915 1983 032 001
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. Background
As far back as the 1760's, the famous philosopher Immanuel Kant proposed
that our knowledge of the outside world depends on our modes of perception. In
order to define what is "extrasensory" we need to define what is "sensory".
Traditionally, there are five senses: sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing. Each
of the senses consists of specialized cells that have receptors for specific stimuli.
These cells have links to the nervous system and thus to the brain. Sensing is
done at primitive levels in the cells and integrated into sensations in the nervous
system. Sight is probably the most developed sense in humans, followed closely
by hearing.
Senses are the physiological capacities within organisms that provide
inputs for perception. The senses and their operation, classification, and theory
are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields, most notably neuroscience,
cognitive psychology (or cognitive science), and philosophy of perception. The
nervous system has a specific sensory system or organ, dedicated to each sense.
In addition to sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing, humans also have awareness
of balance, pressure, temperature, pain, and motion all of which may involve the
coordinated use of multiple sensory organs. The sense of balance is maintained
by a complex interaction of visual inputs, the proprioceptive sensors (which are
affected by gravity and stretch sensors found in muscles, skin, and joints), the
inner ear vestibular system, and the central nervous system.
There are five main senses - touch, smell, taste, hearing and sight. These
are the external sensory system, because they tell you about the world outside
your body. Your senses tell you what is happening in the outside world. Your
body's sense organs constantly send signals about what is happening outside and
 inside it to your control center - the brain. Sensory areas such as touch, smell,
taste, hearing and sight receive messages from the skin, nose, mouth, ears and
eyes. We feel, taste, hear and see when these messages are received by the
sensory parts of the brain.
Therefore, to more know about how we breath and what is respiration, so
we done observation about respiration. This observation to prove theory about
tissue oxidation, lung permeability, respiration speed, and air volume respiration.
This is also to know the difference male and female respiration rate. Beside that,
we can compare the theory that we got in learning process from the lecture and
our observation directly.
B. Purpose
At the nerve system experiment, there are some purposes:
a. To know pupil reflection at human toward amount of light that entered and
see changing of pupil diameter related with changing of distance look.
b. To know hearing sensitivity.
c. To know smell sense and taste sense sensitivity.
C. Benefit
The benefits of nerve system experiment are:
a. The students know sense system work and their use in our life.
b. This report can be used as reference at next observation and at learning
teaching process in the class.
c. The students can know about the location of smell receptor and organ
that related with sense sytem.
 CHAPTER II
PREVIEW OF LITERATURE

The nervous system is made up of two different cell types: neurons and glial
cells. Neurons are two workhorses of the nervous system. They work by generating
and conducting action potentials, which are simply changes in the polarity of the
potential difference (voltage) that exists across the membrane of a neuron. Action
potentials represent the means by which information is transmitted throughout the
nervous system (Kay, 1998:9).
The ear is the organ of hearing. The outer ear protrudes away from the head
and is shaped like a cup to direct sounds toward the tympanic membrane, which
transmits vibrations to the inner ear through a series of small bones in the middle ear
called the malleus, incus and stapes. The inner ear, or cochlea, is a spiral-shaped
chamber covered internally by nerve fibers that react to the vibrations and transmit
impulses to the brain via the auditory nerve. The brain combines the input of our two
ears to determine the direction and distance of sounds. The inner ear has a vestibular
system formed by three semicircular canals that are approximately at right angles to
each other and which are responsible for the sense of balance and spatial orientation
(Anonyma ,2010).
Taste or gustation is one of the two main chemical senses. There are at least
four types of tastes that "buds" (receptors) on the tongue detect, and hence there are
anatomists who argue that these constitute five or more different senses, given that
each receptor conveys information to a slightly different region of the brain. The
inability to taste is called ageusia. The four well-known receptors detect sweet, salt,
sour, and bitter, although the receptors for sweet and bitter have not been
conclusively identified. A fifth receptor, for a sensation called umami, was first
theorised in 1908 and its existence confirmed in 2000. The umami receptor detects
the amino acid glutamate, a flavour commonly found in meat and in artificial
flavourings such as monosodium glutamate (Anonymc, 2010).
Pada umumnya reseptor memiliki sifat yang khusus sehingga interpretasinya
juga bersifat khusus. Akan tetapi ada beberapa tempat yang dapat juga menerima
rangsangan lain. Umumnya rangsangan dapat menimbulkan kesan jika rangsangan itu
bertambah intensitasnya. Jika intensitasnya tetap maka akan terjadi adaptasi. Kecuali
rasa sakit sulit sekali terjadi adaptasi. Kesan rasa sakit dapat ditimbulkan tidak hanya
karena rangsangan tusuk atau tekan berat tetapi dapat juga oleh rangsangan apa saja
yang intensitasnya melebihi batas (Adnan, 2010: 39)
Kuncup pengecap tergolong kemoreseptor yang menerima rangsangan zat-zat
kimia dalam makanan yang kita makan. Zat-zat kimia tersebut mencapai kuncup
pengecap melalui pori pengecap. Kuncup-kuncup pengecap merespon kepada empat
rasa dasar yaitu manis, asam, pahit, dan asin. Dengan penelitian yang sederhana dapat
diketahui bahwa permukaan atas lidah terbagi menjadi empat daerah yang sensitive
terhadap rasa tertentu: pangkal lidah sensitive terhadap rasa pahit, bagian kanan dan
kiri lidah sensitive terhadap rasa asam, bagian samping depan sensitive terhadap sara
asin, dan ujung lidah sensitive terhadap rasa manis (Soewolo, 2003: 139).
Struktur telinga terdiri dari telinga bagian luar, tengah, dan dalam. Telinga
luar terdiri dari pinan atau aurikula yaitu daun kartilago yang menangkap gelombang
bunyi dan menggetarkannya ke kanal auditori external (meatus), suatu lintasan sempit
yang panjangnya 2,5 cm yang merentang dari aurikula sampai membrane tympani.
Tympani membrane is perbatasan telinga tengah yang berbentuk kerucut dan dilapisi
kulit pada permukaan external dan membrane mukosa pada permukaan internal.
Membrane ini memisahkan telinga luar dari telinga tengahdan memiliki tegangan,
ukuran, dan ketebalan yang sesuai untuk menggetarkan gelombang bunyi secara
mekanis (Sloane, 2004:189).
There are five main senses - touch, smell, taste, hearing and sight. These are
the external sensory system, because they tell you about the world outside your body.
Your senses tell you what is happening in the outside world. Your body's sense
organs constantly send signals about what is happening outside and inside it to your
control center - the brain. The cerebrum is part of the forebrain. The cerebral cortex is
the outer layer of the cerebrum. Certain areas of the cerebral cortex are involved with
certain functions (Anonymb 2010).
Vision undoubtedly can give more detailed information than any other sense.
With the aid of suitable accessory structures (eyes), light can form a detailed image of
the environment, both near and distant. An image forming eye can be based on one of
two different principles: either a multifaceted eye as in insects, or a single lens,
camera like structure as in vertebrate. The multifaceted eye has the same angle of
resolution whether an object is distant or closed by, but the lens type eye must have
some device for focusing if it is to perform equally well at different distances. It is
interesting that among the few worms that have well developed, image forming eyes,
both single lens and multifaceted eyes occur (Nielsen,1997:548).
The eye is the organ of vision. It has a complex structure consisting of a
transparent lens that focuses light on the retina. The retina is covered with two basic
types of light-sensitive cells-rods and cones. The cone cells are sensitive to color and
are located in the part of the retina called the fovea, where the light is focused by the
lens. The rod cells are not sensitive to color, but have greater sensitivity to light than
the cone cells. These cells are located around the fovea and are responsible for
peripheral vision and night vision. The eye is connected to the brain through the optic
nerve. The point of this connection is called the "blind spot" because it is insensitive
to light. Experiments have shown that the back of the brain maps the visual input
from the eyes (Anonyma ,2010).
Smell or olfaction is the other chemical sense. Unlike taste, there are hundreds
of olfactory receptors, each binding to a particular molecular feature. Odor molecules
possess a variety of features and thus excite specific receptors more or less strongly.
This combination of excitatory signals from different receptors makes up what we
perceive as the molecule's smell. In the brain, olfaction is processed by the olfactory
system. Olfactory receptor neurons in the nose differ from most other neurons in that
they die and regenerate on a regular basis. The inability to smell is called anosmia.
Some neurons in the nose are specialized to detect pheromones (Anonymc, 2010),
 CHAPTER III
EXPERIMENT METHOD

A. Time and Place

Day / date : Wednesday, May 12th 2010
Time : At 08.30 am until 10.00 am
Place of experiment : At the 2nd floor of Biology laboratory, the west part
Mathematic and Science Faculty, Makassar State
University
B. Tools and Materials
1. The first activity (Sight or vision sense)
a. Tools
1) Handphone electritorch
2) Ruler
b. Material: Participants (him/her)
2. The second activity (Hearing sense)
a. Tool: Watch
b. Material: Participants (him/her)
3. The third activity (Smell sense)
a. Tool: -
b. Materials
1) Perfume
2) Eucalyptus oil
3) Citrus aurantifolia
4) Coffea robusta
5) Tuber of Curcuma domestica
6) Tuber of Zingiber officinale
7) Piper nigrum
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9) Coriander
10) Participants (Her/him)
4. The fourth activity (Taste sense)
a. Tool:-
b. Materials
1) Capsicum frutescens
2) Sugar
3) Salt
4) Soybean sauce
5) Participants (Her/him)
C. Work Procedure
1. The first activity (Sight or vision sense)
a) Prepared all tools and materials.
b) Flashed handphone electritorch at participant eye.
c) Measured eye pupil diameter.
d) Wrote down into table of observation.
2. The second activity (Hearing sense)

a) Prepared all of tools and materials.

b) Made near between watch and ear and made far slowly from ear until sound
of beat watch has been heard.
c) Measured distance between ear and watch.
d) Wrote down the result of observation
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3. The third activity (Smell sense)
a) Prepared all materials
b) Smelled each material with closed eye.
c) Identified each material that has been smelled.
d) Wrote down the result of observation.

4. The second activity (Taste sense)

a) Prepared all of tools and materials.
b) Tasted each material with closed eye.
c) Identified each material that has been tasted.
d) Wrote down the result of observation
 CHAPTER IV
RESULT DAN DISCUSSION

A. Result of Observation
1. The first activity (Sight or vision sense)
No Pupil diameter to Pupil diameter to
Participants
distance look (cm) light (cm)
1 Sutrianto Hasta 1,3 0,4 0,2
2 Nur Rezki 0,3 0,1
1,1
Octavia

2. The second activity (Hearing sense)

No Participants Noisy condition Quiet condition
1 Sutrianto Hasta 2 cm 20 cm
Nur Rezki
2 3 cm 18 cm
Octavia

3. The third activity (Smell sense)

No Materials Sutrianto Nur Rezki
1 Perfume √ √
2 Eucalyptus oil √ √
3 Citrus aurantifolia √ √
4 Coffea robusta √ √
5 Curcuma domestica √ √
6 Zingiber officinale √ √
7 Piper nigrum √ √
Cinnamomun
8 √ √
burmanni
9 Coriander √ √

4. The fourth activity (Taste sense)

No Materials Taste Sutrianto Nur Rezki
1 Sugar Sweet √ √
2 Salt Salty √ √
Capsicum Hot
3 √ √
frutescens
4 Soybean sauce Sweet √ √
B. Discussion
1. The first activity (Sight or vision sense)
Pengamatan ini bertujuan untuk melihat refleks pupil ketika
mendapatkan rangsangan. Rangsangan yang diberikan berupa cahaya dari
lampu senter handphone. Hal ini dimaksudkan untuk melihat reaksi pupil
ketika menghadapi situasi yang banyak cahaya. Selain itu, pengamatn juga
dilakukan dengan menguji refleks pupil ketika melihat benda yang jauh. Hal
ini dimaksudkan untuk mengetahui refeleks pupil ketika penglihatan berfokus
pada objek yang jauh. Pada probandus I pupil diameter change 0,4 to 0,2 cm
and probandus II pupil diameter change 0,3 to 0,1 cm.
In the dark, a substance produced by the rod cells increases the
sensitivity of the eye so that it is possible to detect very dim light. In strong
light, the iris contracts reducing the size of the aperture that admits light into
the eye and a protective obscure substance reduces the exposure of the light-
sensitive cells. The human eye is not sensitive to the polarization of light, i.e.,
light that oscillates on a specific plane (Anonymc, 2010)
Hasil pengamatan menunjukkan bahwa pupil pada dua probandus
cenderung mengecil ketika berada dalam tempat yang terang. Hal ini tentu
berkaitan dengan fungsi pupil sebagai regulator cahaya yang memasuki mata.
Pupil akan mengecil pada tempat yang terang untuk membatasi cahaya yang
akan memasuki mata, sedangkan bila berada pada daerah minim cahaya, maka
pupil akan membesar untuk memasukkan cahaya semaksimal mungkin.
Pada pengujian refleks pupil terhadap objek yang jauh, kita dapat
melihat data dari dua probandus yang menunjukkan bahwa pupil cenderung
mengecil ketika melihat objek dengan jarak titik focus yang lebih dekat, dan
membesar ketika melihat objek yang titik fokusnya relative lebih jauh. Hal ini
disebabkan oleh spectrum cahaya yang dipantulkan oleh objek pada jarak
focus tertentu berbeda-beda. Semakin dekat jarak focus objek maka semakin
besar cahaya yang dipantulkan. Hal ini menyebabkan pupil berakomodasi
 minimal untuk membatasi cahaya yang memasuki mata. Sedangkan objek
yang berada pada jarak focus yang lebih jauh, memantulkan cahaya yang
lebih sedikit sehingga membutuhkan akomodasi maksimal. Hal ini membuat
ukuran pupil mata cenderung lebih besar. Berdasarkan hasil pengamatan
tersebut berarti hasil pengamatan telah sesuai dengan teori.
2. The second activity (Hearing sense)
Pada pengamatan ini kita akan mencoba mengobservasi kepekaan
pendengaran probandus dalam mendengar. Observasi dilakukan dengan
memberikan sumber bunyi pada probandus, yaitu jam tangan kemudian
probandus mengatur jarak dengan sumber bunyi tersebut sampai batas
minimal sampai probandus tidak dapat lagi mendengar bunyi dari sumber
bunyi tersebut. Percobaan dilakukan dengan dua perlakuan yaitu dtempat yang
rebut dan ditempat yang sepi. Pada tempat yang rebut probandus I memiliki
jarak maksimum pendengaran 2 cm and probandus II 3 cm. Pada tempat yang
sepi probandus I memiliki jarak maksimum pendengaran 20 cm and
probandus II 18 cm.
The human ear can perceive frequencies from 16 cycles per second,
which is a very deep bass, to 28,000 cycles per second, which is a very high
pitch. Bats and dolphins can detect frequencies higher than 100,000 cycles per
second. The human ear can detect pitch changes as small as 3 hundredths of
one percent of the original frequency in some frequency ranges. Some people
have "perfect pitch", which is the ability to map a tone precisely on the
musical scale without reference to an external standard (Anonymc, 2010).
Berdasarkan hasil pengamatan dapat diketahui bahwa semakin jauh
probandus dari sumber bunyi, maka semakin kecil pula bunyi yang didengar
oleh probandus. Hal ini disebabkan oleh kepekaan daun telinga untuk
menangkap frekuensi getaran bunyi dari sumber bunyi akan berkurang seiring
dengan bertambahnya jarak antara probandus dengan sumber bunyi. Dari data
hasil pengamatan juga diketahui bahwa kepekaan pendengaran antara satu
 probandus dengan probandus lainnya berbeda-beda. Hal ini disebabkan oleh
perbedaan kemampuan organ pendengaran masing-masing probandus dalam
menerima rangsangan bunyi. Sehingga hasil pengamatan langsung yang kita
lakukan telah sesuai dengan teori.
3. The third activity (Smell sense)
Berdasarkan hasil pengamatan, each probandus dapat mengidentifikasi
setiap bau dari setiap bahan dengan normal. Bahan yang diujikan seperti
Perfume, Eucalyptus oil, Citrus aurantifolia, Coffea robusta, Curcuma
domestica, Zingiber officinale, Piper nigrum, Cinnamomun burmanni,
Coriander. Hidung di bagi menjadi dua bagian yang sama oleh dinding
penyekat. Rongga hidung dilapisi dengan rambut dan membran yang
mensekresi lendir lengket. Silia pada sel-sel reseptor (sel olfaktori) terletak di
bagian atas di dalam rongga hidung. Bau diproses oleh bagian yang sama dari
otak yang berhubungan dengan memori dan emosi sehingga dapat
menghasilkan respon emosional yang kuat.
Indra pembau berupa kemoreseptor yang terdapat di permukaan dalam
hidung, yaitu pada lapisan lendir bagian atas. Reseptor pencium tidak
bergerombol seperti tunas pengecap. Epitelium pembau mengandung 20 juta
sel-sel olfaktori yang khusus dengan aksonakson yang tegak sebagai serabut-
serabut saraf pembau. Di akhir setiap sel pembau pada permukaan epitelium
mengandung beberapa rambut-rambut pembau yang bereaksi terhadap bahan
kimia bau-bauan di udara (Anonyma, 2010).
4. The fourth activity (Taste sense)
Berdasarkan hasil pengamatan, setiap probandus dapat
mengidentifikasi rasa manis, asin, dan pedas dari setiap bahan yang dicicipi.
Setiap probandus dapat merasakan tempat-tempat rasa itu pada bagian-bagian
lidah dengan mata tertutup, hal ini berarti setiap probandus memiliki
kemampuan dalam mengecap rasa normal.
 Kuncup pengecap tergolong kemoreseptor yang menerima rangsangan
zat-zat kimia dalam makanan yang kita makan. Zat-zat kimia tersebut
mencapai kuncup pengecap melalui pori pengecap. Kuncup-kuncup pengecap
merespon kepada empat rasa dasar yaitu manis, asam, pahit, dan asin. Dengan
penelitian yang sederhana dapat diketahui bahwa permukaan atas lidah terbagi
menjadi empat daerah yang sensitive terhadap rasa tertentu: pangkal lidah
sensitive terhadap rasa pahit, bagian kanan dan kiri lidah sensitive terhadap
rasa asam, bagian samping depan sensitive terhadap sara asin, dan ujung lidah
sensitive terhadap rasa manis (Soewolo, 2003: 139).
 CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

A. Conclusion
Based on observation that we is done, we can conclude that:
1. Semakin besar intensitas cahaya yang memasuki mata, maka semakin kecil
ukuran pupil dan semakin kecil intensitas cahaya yang memasuki mata maka
ukuran pupil akan semakin besar.
2. setiap individu memiliki kemampuan yang berbeda dalam menerima dan
menanggapi rangsangan bunyi.
3. Dari hasil pengamatan dapat diperoleh bahwa letak dari reseptor pembau
terletak pada hidung bagian atas.
4. pangkal lidah sensitive terhadap rasa pahit, bagian kanan dan kiri lidah
sensitive terhadap rasa asam, bagian samping depan sensitive terhadap rasa
asin, dan ujung lidah sensitive terhadap rasa manis.
B. Suggestion
1. I hope laboratory equipment can be completed, thus practicant can do
observation well.
2. Assistant can do practicum early and regulary.
3. Practicants can do observation well, especially in our corporate.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adnan, Arsyad, and Halifah. 2010. Penuntun Praktikum Perkembangan Hewan.

Makassar: Jurusan Biologi FMIPA Universitas Negeri Makassar.

Anonyma. 2010. Anatomy and Structure of Human Sense Organs.

http://www.wikipedia.com. Access on May 15th 2010 in Makassar.

Anonymb. 2010. Sense. http://www.about.com. Access on May 15th 2010 in

Makassar.

Anonymc. 2010. Sense. http://www.wikipedia.com. Access on May 15th 2010 in

Makassar.

Kay, Ian. 1998. Animal Physiology. UK: Bios Scientific Publisher.

Nielsen, Knut Schmidt. 1997. Animal Physiology Adaptation and Environment Fifth
Edition. America: Cambridge University Press.

Sloane, Ethel. 2004. Anatomi dan Fisiologi. Jakarta: Buku Kedokteran EGC

Soewolo. 2003. Fisiologi Manusia. Malang: Jurusan Pendidikan Biologi FMIPA

Universitas Negeri Malang.
Anonyma

Anatomy and Structure of Human Sense Organs

Sight.

The eye is the organ of vision. It has a complex structure consisting of a transparent
lens that focuses light on the retina. The retina is covered with two basic types of
light-sensitive cells-rods and cones. The cone cells are sensitive to color and are
located in the part of the retina called the fovea, where the light is focused by the lens.
The rod cells are not sensitive to color, but have greater sensitivity to light than the
cone cells. These cells are located around the fovea and are responsible for peripheral
vision and night vision. The eye is connected to the brain through the optic nerve. The
point of this connection is called the "blind spot" because it is insensitive to light.
Experiments have shown that the back of the brain maps the visual input from the
eyes.

The brain combines the input of our two eyes into a single three-dimensional image.
In addition, even though the image on the retina is upside-down because of the
focusing action of the lens, the brain compensates and provides the right-side-up
perception. Experiments have been done with subjects fitted with prisms that invert
the images. The subjects go through an initial period of great confusion, but
subsequently they perceive the images as right side up

Hearing.

The ear is the organ of hearing. The outer ear protrudes away from the head and is
shaped like a cup to direct sounds toward the tympanic membrane, which transmits
vibrations to the inner ear through a series of small bones in the middle ear called the
malleus, incus and stapes. The inner ear, or cochlea, is a spiral-shaped chamber
covered internally by nerve fibers that react to the vibrations and transmit impulses to
the brain via the auditory nerve. The brain combines the input of our two ears to
determine the direction and distance of sounds.

The inner ear has a vestibular system formed by three semicircular canals that are
approximately at right angles to each other and which are responsible for the sense of
balance and spatial orientation. The inner ear has chambers filled with a viscous fluid
and small particles (otoliths) containing calcium carbonate. The movement of these
particles over small hair cells in the inner ear sends signals to the brain that are
interpreted as motion and acceleration.
Anonymb

Senses
There are five main senses - touch, smell, taste, hearing and sight. These are the
external sensory system, because they tell you about the world outside your body.
Your senses tell you what is happening in the outside world. Your body's sense
organs constantly send signals about what is happening outside and inside it to your
control center - the brain.

The cerebrum is part of the forebrain. The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the
cerebrum. Certain areas of the cerebral cortex are involved with certain functions.

Sensory areas such as touch, smell, taste, hearing and sight receive
messages from the skin, nose, mouth, ears and eyes. We feel, taste, hear and
see when these messages are received by the sensory parts of the brain

Anonymc

Sense
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Senses are the physiological capacities within organisms that provide inputs for
perception.

[edit] Taste

Taste or gustation is one of the two main "chemical" senses. There are at least four
types of tastes[5] that "buds" (receptors) on the tongue detect, and hence there are
anatomists who argue[citation needed] that these constitute five or more different senses,
given that each receptor conveys information to a slightly different region of the
brain[citation needed]. The inability to taste is called ageusia.

The four well-known receptors detect sweet, salt, sour, and bitter, although the
receptors for sweet and bitter have not been conclusively identified. A fifth receptor,
for a sensation called umami, was first theorised in 1908 and its existence confirmed
in 2000[6]. The umami receptor detects the amino acid glutamate, a flavour commonly
found in meat and in artificial flavourings such as monosodium glutamate.
Note: that taste is not the same as flavour; flavour includes the smell of a food as well
as its taste.

[edit] Smell

Smell or olfaction is the other "chemical" sense. Unlike taste, there are hundreds of
olfactory receptors, each binding to a particular molecular feature. Odor molecules
possess a variety of features and thus excite specific receptors more or less strongly.
This combination of excitatory signals from different receptors makes up what we
perceive as the molecule's smell. In the brain, olfaction is processed by the olfactory
system. Olfactory receptor neurons in the nose differ from most other neurons in that
they die and regenerate on a regular basis. The inability to smell is called anosmia.
Some neurons in the nose are specialized to detect pheromones.

[edit] Touch

Touch, also called tactition or mechanoreception, is a perception resulting from

activation of neural receptors, generally in the skin including hair follicles, but also in
the tongue, throat, and mucosa. A variety of pressure receptors respond to variations
in pressure (firm, brushing, sustained, etc). The touch sense of itching caused by
insect bites or allergies involves special itch-specific neurons in the skin and spinal
cord.[7] The loss or impairment of the ability to feel anything touched is called tactile
anesthesia. Paresthesia is a sensation of tingling, pricking, or numbness of the skin
that may result from nerve damage and may be permanent or temporary.

[edit] Balance and acceleration

Balance, equilibrioception, or vestibular sense is the sense which allows an

organism to sense body movement, direction, and acceleration, and to attain and
maintain postural equilibrium and balance. The organ of equilibrioception is the
vestibular labyrinthine system found in both of the inner ears. Technically this organ
is responsible for two senses of angular momentum and linear acceleration (which
also senses gravity), but they are known together as equilibrioception. The vestibular
nerve conducts information from sensory receptors in three ampulla that sense motion
of fluid in three semicircular canals caused by three-dimensional rotation of the head.
The vestibular nerve also conducts information from the utricle and the saccule which
contain hair-like sensory receptors that bend under the weight of otoliths (which are
small crystals of calcium carbonate) that provide the inertia needed to detect head
rotation, linear acceleration, and the direction of gravitational force.