Chemical Structures and Performance of Perovskite Oxides

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Chemical Structures and Performance of Perovskite Oxides

M. A. Pea, and J. L. G. Fierro
Chem. Rev., 2001, 101 (7), 1981-2018• DOI: 10.1021/cr980129f • Publication Date (Web): 31 May 2001
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Chemical Reviews is published by the American Chemical Society. 1155 Sixteenth

Street N.W., Washington, DC 20036
Chem. Rev. 2001, 101, 1981−2017 1981
Chemical Structures and Performance of Perovskite Oxides
M. A. Peña and J. L. G. Fierro*
Instituto de Catalisis y Petroleoquimica, CSIC, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
Received September 28, 2000
Contents VI. Acknowledgment 2014

VII. References 2014
I. General Characteristics of Perovskites as 1981
Catalysts
II. Structure of Perovskites 1982 I. General Characteristics of Perovskites as
A. Crystal Structure 1982 Catalysts
B. Nonstoichiometry in Perovskites 1983
1. Oxygen Nonstoichiometry 1983 The vast majority of catalysts used in modern
2. Cation Nonstoichiometry 1984 chemical industry are based on mixed metal oxides.
C. Physical Properties 1985 The preparation of specific tailor-made mixed oxides
able to perform complex functions is one of the main
D. Adsorption Properties 1986
topics of research in the field of heterogeneous
1. CO and NO Adsorption 1986 catalysis. Achieving complex catalytic reactions re-
2. Oxygen Adsorption 1987 quires a polyfunctional catalyst with appropriate
E. Specific Surface and Porosity 1987 solid state, surface, and morphological properties.
F. Thermal Stability in a Reducing Atmosphere 1989 The extensive background knowledge in solid state-
III. Acid−Base and Redox Properties 1990 surface chemistry carried out in the field of hetero-
A. Acidity and Basicity 1990 geneous catalysis may be usefully applied in the
B. Redox Processes 1991 design of catalyst and the engineering of new high
1. Kinetics and Mechanisms 1992 performance materials. A wide cross-fertilization
2. Reduction−Oxidation Cycles 1993 bridges heterogeneous catalysis and materials science
C. Ion Mobility 1993 in the fields of physicochemical characterization,
solid-state chemistry, and routes of synthesis.1-3
1. Oxygen Transport 1993
2. Cation Transport 1994 Among the mixed metal oxides, perovskite-type
oxides remain prominent. The perovskite oxides have
IV. Heterogeneous Catalysis 1995
the general formula ABO3 (A cation of larger size
A. Oxidation Reactions 1995 than B). Although the most numerous and most
1. CO Oxidation 1995 interesting compounds with the perovskite structure
2. Oxidation of Hydrocarbons 1996 are oxides, some carbides, nitrides, halides, and
B. Pollution Abatement 2001 hydrides also crystallize in this structure. This review
1. NOx Decomposition 2001 will focus only on the study of oxides and their
2. Exhaust Treatment 2002 relevance in heterogeneous catalysis and surface
3. Stability 2004 chemistry. It will not cover physical properties such
C. Hydrogenation and Hydrogenolysis Reactions 2004 as the electric, magnetic, and optical properties of the
1. Hydrogenation of Carbon Oxides 2004 perovskites. Comprehensive studies on these proper-
2. Hydrogenation and Hydrogenolysis 2006 ties have been summarized in our previous book
Reactions review.4 The broad diversity of properties that these
D. Photocatalysis 2007 compounds exhibit is derived from the fact that
around 90% of the metallic natural elements of the
1. Photodecomposition of Water 2007
Periodic Table are known to be stable in a perovskite-
2. Other Photocatalytic Reactions 2009 type oxide structure and also from the possibility of
E. Chemical Sensors 2009 synthesizing multicomponent perovskites by partial
F. Electrocatalysis 2010 substitution of cations in positions A and B, giving
1. Oxygen Reduction 2010 rise to substituted compounds with formula of
2. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 2011
G. Structure−Activity Relationships 2012 * To whom correspondence should be addressed. Fax: +34 91 585
V. Future Perspectives 2013 4760. E-mail: [email protected].
10.1021/cr980129f CCC: $36.00 © 2001 American Chemical Society

Published on Web 05/31/2001
1982 Chemical Reviews, 2001, Vol. 101, No. 7 Peña and Fierro
are related to the stability of mixed oxidation states

or unusual oxidation states in the crystal structure.
This is illustrated by the discovery of a metallic Cu2+-
Cu3+ mixed valence La-Ba-Cu oxide, which greatly
favored the development of perovskites showing high-
temperature superconductivity.5 Besides this, be-
cause of their controllable physical and chemical
properties these isomorphic compounds offer excel-
lent models for chemists not only for catalytic reac-
tions but also for establishing correlations between
reactivity and surface and/or bulk properties.
In this review, we have attempted to avoid over-
lapping with our previous review,4 but the minimum
fundamental aspects are given to provide a sound
overview about the subject addressed. Although
Miguel A. Peña received his M.Sc. in chemistry in 1985 from the perovskite materials have not yet found application
Complutense University of Madrid, Spain. He obtained his Ph.D. in
chemistry in 1990 at the same university, working under the supervision as commercial catalysts, their importance in efforts
of Dr. L. González Tejuca and Prof. J. L. G. Fierro at the Institute of to correlate solid-state chemistry with catalytic prop-
Catalysis and Petrochemistry (CSIC). From 1990 to 1993, he was working erties, their properties as they depend on the prepa-
under contract in a project of oxidative coupling of methane funded by ration methods, and the fact that they can be tailored
REPSOL (the largest Spanish oil and petrochemisty company). At the for specific catalytic needs make these oxides proto-
end of this period, he got a staff position of researcher in the Institute of type models for heterogeneous catalysts.
Catalysis and Petrochemisty, that is his current status. In 1996−1997, he
was a Visiting Scholar in the group of Prof. A. Varma, at the University In section II, perovskite and other related struc-
of Notre Dame (USA). He has been the Head of the Department of tures are briefly summarized. Section III refers to the
Sturcture and Reactivity of the Institute of Catalysis and Petrochemistry acid-base and redox properties of the perovskites,
since 1998. His research interests are focused mainly in catalytic processes which will facilitate an understanding of the catalytic
for clean energy production, specifically in catalytic applications of action of these systems. Section IV reviews the
perovskite oxides (Ph.D. dissertation), natural gas conversion, catalytic reactions in which perovskite oxides have been used
combustion, C1 chemistry, catalyic membrane reactors, hydrogen produc-
tion, and fuel cell catalysts. He has published 30 papers and 3 patents
as catalysts. Emphasis is placed not only on reactions
and made 22 presentations at symposia and conferences. that have been studied in depth in recent years but
also on the relationship between catalytic perfor-
mance and solid-state properties. Finally, in last
section, based on the whole work, some prospective
lines of research are suggested.
II. Structure of Perovskites

A. Crystal Structure
The ideal perovskite-type structure is cubic with
space group Pm3m-Oh1. In the unit formula of per-
ovskite-type oxides ABO3, A is the larger cation and
B is the smaller cation. In this structure, the B cation
is 6-fold coordinated and the A cation is 12-fold
coordinated with the oxygen anions. Figure 1 depicts
the corner sharing octahedra that form the skeleton
Jose L. G. Fierro was born in 1948 in Leon, Spain. He received his of the structure, in which the center position is
Bachelor’s degree in Chemistry at the University of Oviedo in 1973. Then occupied by the A cation. Alternatively, this structure
he started his research on surface chemistry and catalysis at the Institute can be viewed with the B cation placed in the center
of Catalysis and Petrochemistry of the National Council of Scientific
Research in Madrid in 1976. He has been studying heterogeneous
of the octahedron and the A cation is in the center of
catalysis and surface chemistry for over 27 years. His first appointment the cube. The perovskite structure is thus a super-
was a tenure scientist position at the Institute of Catalysis and structure with a ReO3-type framework built up by
Petrochemistry in 1978 and then research scientist and professor in 1985 the incorporation of A cations into the BO6 octahedra.
and 1988, respectively. He spent two years from 1981 as a postdoctorate The significance and role of the ReO3-type framework
with Prof. J. Cunningham at University College Cork in Ireland, and then as a host structure for deriving numerous structures
with Prof. B. Delmon at the Université Catholique de Louvain in Belgium. of metal oxides has been emphasized by Raveau.6
His research interests are natural gas conversion, catalytic combustion,
petrochemistry, oil upgrading, C1 chemistry, hydrogen production, surface In the ideal structure, where the atoms are touch-
chemistry and design of metal oxides for catalytic purposes. He is ing one another, the B-O distance is equal to a/2
coordinator of Science and Chemistry Technology and member of the (a is the cubic unit cell parameter) while the A-O
Scientific Committee Board of the National Council of Scientific Research. distance is (a/x2) and the following relationship
He has published 440 papers and 10 patents and made 130 presentations between the ionic radii holds: rA + rO ) x2(rB + rO).
at symposia and conferences. However, it was found that the cubic structure was
A1-xA′xB1-xB′xO3. These characteristics account for still retained in ABO3 compounds, even though this
the large variety of reactions in which they are used equation is not exactly obeyed. As a measure of the
as catalysts. Other important aspects of perovskites deviation from the ideal situation, Goldschmidt7
Chemical Structures and Performance of Perovskite Oxides Chemical Reviews, 2001, Vol. 101, No. 7 1983
B. Nonstoichiometry in Perovskites
Besides the ionic radii requirements, another con-
dition to be fulfilled is electroneutrality, i.e., the sum
of charges of A and B equals the total charge of
oxygen anions. This is attained by means of ap-
propriate charge distribution of the form A1+B5+O3,
A2+B4+O3, or A3+B3+O3. In addition to this, partial
substitution of A and B ions is allowed, thus yielding
a plethora of compounds while preserving the per-
ovskite structure. However, deficiencies of cations at
the A- or B-sites or of oxygen anions are frequent,
which results in defective perovskites. The non-
stoichiometry in perovskites has been widely dis-
cussed in several reviews.12-14
Oxygen vacancies are more common than those
involving cationic vacancies. The best-known ex-
ample of perovskite oxide with ordered anion vacan-
cies is the browmillerite structure exhibited by
Ca2Fe2O514 and La2Ni2O5.15 The former composition
can be considered as an anion-deficient perovskite
Figure 1. ABO3 ideal perovskite structure showing oxygen with one-sixth of the oxygen ions being vacant.
octahedron containing the B ion linked through corners to Oxygen vacancies are ordered in alternate (001) BO2
form a tridimensional cubic lattice. planes of the cubic structure such that alternate [110]
rows of oxide anions are missing. Ordering of oxygen
introduced a tolerance factor (t), defined by the vacancies appears more complex in O-deficient La2-
equation: Ni2O5 perovskite. Since tetrahedral coordination of
Ni2+ is unlikely, it has been suggested that oxygen
t ) (rA + rO)/x2(rB + rO) (1) vacancies ordering in La2Ni2O5 is accommodated by
means of disordered intergrowths of octahedral and
square-planar layers. The review by Rao et al.12
which is applicable at room temperature to the covers these aspects with several examples. Until
empirical ionic radii. Although for an ideal perovskite now, only a few examples with an apparent oxygen
t is unity, this structure is also found for lower excess are known. This can be achieved by the
t-values (0.75 < t < 1.0). The ideal cubic perovskite introduction of cation vacancies at the A- and/or
structure appears in a few cases for t-values very B-site. Structural features of this type of compound
close to 1 and at high temperatures. In most cases, can be found in the reviews by Rao et al.12 and
different distortions of the perovskite structure ap- Smyth.13,14
pear. The naturally occurring compound CaTiO3 was
originally thought to be cubic, but its true symmetry 1. Oxygen Nonstoichiometry
was later shown to be orthorhombic.8
Oxygen excess nonstoichiometry in perovskite ox-
The simple perovskite structure may be appropri- ides is not as common as anion-deficient nonstoichi-
ately modified by incorporating two types of B ions ometry probably because introduction of interstitial
with suitable different size and charge. The most oxygen in perovskite structure is thermodynamically
frequent substitutions are the equiatomic proportions unfavorable. A few systems display apparent oxygen
of the two ions at the B-site, for which the general excess, including LaMnO3+λ, Ba1-λLaλTiO3+λ/2 and
formula of the perovskite is A2BB′O6 (or AB0.5B′0.5O3). EuTiO3+λ. The best-characterized perovskite showing
The resulting unit cell may be viewed as doubled oxidative nonstoichiometry is LaMnO3+λ. This sample,
along the three axes, regarding the primitive cell of prepared by calcination of the individual oxides in
ABO3. If the charge of B and B′ is different, in the air at 1473 K, proved to have a composition of
ordered structure the oxygens are slightly shifted LaMnO3.12.16 Similar λ values for lanthanum man-
toward the more charged cation although the octa- ganite were reported by Voorhoeve et al.,17 Vogel et
hedral symmetry of B and B′ cations is preserved. al.,18 Taguchi et al.,19 and Kamegashira et al.20
Deviations from the ideal structure with ortho- Neutron diffraction studies revealed that oxygen
rhombic, rhombohedral, tetragonal, monoclinic, and excess in LaMnO3.12 is accommodated by vacancies
triclinic symmetry are known, although the latter at the A- and B-sites with partial elimination of La
three ones are scarce and poorly characterized.9-11 (as La2O3), the composition of the perovskite being
The distorted structure may exist at room tempera- La0.94 0.06Mn0.98 0.02O3 (blank space is a cation va-
ture, but it transforms to the cubic structure at high cancy). The nonstoichiometry in LaMnO3+λ can also
temperature. This transition may occur in several be modified by partial substitution of A and B
steps through intermediate distorted phases. These cations.21-23 Thus, in SrxLa1-xMnO3+λ perovskites
deviations from the cubic perovskite structure may (x ) 0.0-0.5) Mizusaki et al.23 found oxygen non-
proceed from a simple distortion of the cubic unit cell, stoichiometry in the temperature range from 873 to
or an enlargement of of the cubic unit cell, or a 1273 K. For x e 0.4, the plot of 3+λ vs log P(O2) [P(O2)
combination of both. is the oxygen partial pressure] showed two pla-
teaus: one around the stoichiometric point (λ ) 0.0) The stabilization of the highly oxidized rhombohedral
and the other at low temperatures and high P(O2) at LaCuO3 is only achieved under a very high oxygen
which 3+λ was saturated. The plot of 3+λ vs log P(O2) pressure of 6.5 GPa and 1670 K.28 This stoichiometric
was rationalized in terms of a defect model, which is perovskite, containing 100% Cu3+, loses oxygen upon
based on the following assumptions: (i) Because the heating under ambient oxygen pressure, yielding
trivalent cation vacancies cause a large electronic several LaCuO3-δ oxygen deficient phases as inter-
imbalance and local lattice distortion, they do not mediates. Thus, the tetragonal, monoclinic, and
stay close to each other. (ii) with the formation of orthorhombic forms of oxygen-deficient LaCuO3-δ can
cation vacancies, a nonbonding O2p level is formed be isolated as pure phases by annealing in Ar at 573,
by the oxide ions around the vacancies. This non- 673, and 773 K, respectively.29 It was found that the
bonding O2p level serves as the hole-trap. Applying presence of a large number of ordered oxygen vacan-
this structure, nonstoichiometry of the oxygen- cies in the bulk structure and the ability to form a
deficient composition was explained by the random surface shell of CuO6 polyhedra, with Cu3+, contain-
distribution of oxide-ion vacancies. However, analysis ing very labile oxygen ions, account for the high
based on the defect equilibrium did not allow the catalytic activity in CO oxidation in the most oxygen-
identification of the cation vacancy site, whether it defective materials.30
is a La site or a Mn site, or both, because the results
were almost identical whatever the cation vacancy 2. Cation Nonstoichiometry
site. Fortunately, a detailed neutron diffraction analy-
An oxygen excess can also readily be achieved in
sis was conclusive, placing the cation vacancies
perovskites that are structurally deficient in oxygen
predominantly on the La site.
because of cation nonstoichiometry. For example, it
Many oxygen-deficient perovskites can be described has been shown that CaTiO3 can accept excess TiO2
on the basis of complex perovskite-related super- in solid solution up to 1%, and it is assumed that this
structures of general formula AnBnO3n-1, in which the is accommodated by the formation of calcium and
stacking manner depends on the size, electronic oxygen vacancies.31 The resulting oxygen vacancies
configurations, and coordination numbers of A and enhance the oxidation of the material. The minimum
B cations.24 Although most of the 3d cations have led value in the equilibrium conductivity shifts to lower
to the formation of these AnBnO3n-1 phases, the nickel oxygen activities with increasing excess TiO2 in the
family has been less studied due to the difficulty in same way that it shifts with increasing acceptor
stabilizing this element with two oxidation states. contents.31,32 TiO2-rich compositions can be consid-
Pioneering work by Crespin et al.25 revealed that the ered to be stoichiometric with respect to the oxygen
La2Ni2O5 phase, where Ni shows a 2+ formal oxida- content, i.e., with respect to oxidation-reduction
tion state, is monoclinic showing a brownmillerite- equilibria, when they are composed of a combination
type structure, i.e., with one octahedral layer alter- of the stoichiometric binary oxides, (1 - x)CaO + TiO2
nating with one tetrahedral layer along the b axis. or Ca1-xTiO3-x. On the other hand, they are obviously
However, Rao et al.26 described this material on the nonstoichiometric with respect to the cation ratio.
basis of a tetragonal cell, the oxygen vacancies giving B-site vacancies in perovskite oxides are not so
rise to square-planar and octahedral coordination for common, although a few examples displaying this
Ni2+. A detailed description of the microstructure of type of defect are known. This is a consequence of
LaNiO3-y (y ) 0.50, 0.33, 0.25, and 0.20) perovskites the fact that the B-site vacancies are not thermody-
was done by Sayagués et al.15 using high-resolution namically favored because of the large charge and
electron microscopy (HREM) and selected area elec- the small size of the B cations. B-B interactions,
tron diffraction (SAED). which can be regarded as a compensating factor, are
For the La2Ni2O5 stoichiometry, the most likely favored by the hexagonal stacking of AO3 layers.
structural model can be described as formed by an Thus, a number of hexagonal perovskites containing
octahedral layer alternating, in an ordered way, with B-site vacancies has been described.12 These vacan-
a square-planar layer along the [100]c direction. cies are usually ordered between h-h layers, where
However, the cell symmetry is, according to Crespin the BO6 octahedra share faces, in agreement with the
et al.,25 monoclinic probably due to a tilt of the Pauling’s rules for the sharing of coordination poly-
octahedra. In La4Ni4O11 unoccupied oxygen positions hedra. According to this rule, corner-sharing is more
are located on the octahedral apex of the perovskite favorable than face-sharing polyhedra in quasi-ionic
superstructure leading to square-planar coordination crystals. Thus, Ba5Ta4O15 displays a five-layer se-
for the 50% of Ni2+. Finally, oxygen nonstoichiometry quence in which the octahedral site between the h-h
in both LaNiO2.8 and LaNiO2.67 is accommodated by layers is vacant. Such an ordering gives rise to
disordered intergrowth of octahedral and square- isolated clusters of four octehedra that share each
planar layers along [100]c. According to the structural two opposite corners [Ta4O15]10-.
models,15 it appears that the square-planar coordina- Other perovskites exhibit A-site vacancies. This is
tion layers are coincident in each n planes. However, because the BO3 array in the perovskite structure
for odd members, the periodicity range is longer since forms a stable network, the large A cation at 12
the square-planar layers only coincide every 2n coordinated sites can be partially missing. One
planes, suggesting that different thermodynamic interesting example of A-site defective perovskite is
conditions would be necessary to stabilize them. the Cu0.5TaO3, which displays a pseudocubic perov-
LaCuO3-δ perovskite is stable over a remarkably skite structure. Its unit cell is orthorhombic with
wide oxygen stoichiometry range, i.e., 0.5 g δ g 0.0.27 eight formula units per cell. Tantalum atoms form a
TaO3 framework as in a cubic perovskite, while the outermost electrons, which may be localized at spe-
copper ions are ordered at the A-site. Three of them cific atomic sites or may be collective. Since localized
are located in the middle of the cube edges, while the electrons may carry a spontaneous moment, there is
fourth is statistically distributed over the three face a strong correlation between the electrical and mag-
centers. netic properties of perovskites. Rare-earth perov-
skites containing transition ions show widely differ-
C. Physical Properties ing electrical properties.9 For example, LaNiO3,
which contains nickel in the low-spin state NiIII, and
Although the physical properties of perovskite-type LaTiO3 exhibit collective d-electron behavior, showing
oxides are beyond the scope of this review, a brief a metallic conductivity and Pauli paramagnetism. In
account of those most relevant to these compounds the LnCrO3 (Ln ) lanthanide) perovskite series,
is summarized below. The ABO3 perovskites display LaCrO3 is a semiconductor. For the heavier chromites,
several interesting physical properties such as fer- there seem to be two regions of conductivity. In the
roelectricity (BaTiO3), ferromagnetism (SrRuO3), weak low-temperature region, the activation energy in-
ferromagnetism (LaFeO3), superconductivity (YBa2- creases along the lanthanide series (from 0.27 eV for
Cu3O7), large thermal conductivity due to exciton Dy to 0.37 eV for Yb), while the high-temperature
transport (LaCoO3), insulator-to-metallic transitions region is characterized by a value of about 0.23 eV.
of interest for thermistor applications (LaCoO3), a The mechanism of conduction is attributed to the
fluorescence compatible with laser action (LaAlO3: presence of high mobility Cr4+ ions giving rise to
Nd), and transport properties of interest for high- p-type extrinsic conduction. The decrease in conduc-
temperature thermoelectric power (La2CuO4). tivity in the heavier chromites may be related to a
Magnetic Properties. In the ideal cubic perovskite decrease in the covalence of the Cr-O bond and an
structure, each oxygen is shared by two B3+ ions, increased covalence of the Ln-O bond.9 LaMnO3
forming a B-O-B angle of 180°. Such a configuration perovskite exhibited an abrupt change in conductivity
is favorable for superexchange interactions between as well as in magnetic susceptibility as a function of
magnetic B3+ cations. This exchange usually results temperature close to 720 K. This behavior was
in antiparallel coupling of nearest-neighbor magnetic explained on the basis that the charge carriers would
moments. When the B3+ ions are in two sublattices be holes hopping among localized levels. LaCoO3
(A2BB′O6) other spin arrangements are possible. If displays an even more complex behavior.9 It is a
B′ is a diamagnetic ion, the B3+ ions are aligned semiconductor up to about 400 K, after which con-
antiferromagnetically, and the most important ex- ductivity increases much more rapidly up to 823 K;
change mechanism is believed to be a longer range in the region from 823 to 1200 K it passes through a
superexchange interaction through two oxygens of broad, flat maximum, and, finally, above 1200 K it
the type B-O-B′-O-B. The B-B separation is now shows a metal-like behavior. At low temperatures,
considerably longer than the 0.4 nm separation found the Co ions are mainly in the low-spin CoIII state, and
in the ideal perovskite. The LnFeO3 (Ln ) lantha- this coexists with the high-spin paramagnetic Co3+
nide) perovskites are those that have attracted the state at higher temperatures. As the temperature is
most attention because of their possible applications further increased, the Co3+ and CoIII ion pairs trans-
as technological magnetic materials.33 These com- form to Co2+ and CoIV pairs. Thus, the fraction of Co3+
pounds show a weak spontaneous magnetic moment, disappears around 1200 K when only long-range
which is attributed to a slight canting of the iron order is present, resulting in a first-order transition.
moments, which are otherwise antiferromagnetically Along with the spin behavior, the outer electrons also
aligned. The iron moments align in such a way that show a transition from the localized to a collective
the direction of easy magnetization is along the a or behavior. Conductivity can be enhanced considerably
c axis of the orthorhombic cell. The weak ferromag- by partial substitution of the lanthanide by a divalent
netic moment of 0.03-0.07 µB/mol led to the materi- ion. Thus, for SrxLa1-xMnO3 the Mn ions are Mn3+
als being considered for memory devices. Similarly, for x ) 0. However, an increase in x results in the
LnMnO3 shows very interesting magnetic properties. creation of Mn4+ holes, thereby increasing conductiv-
These manganites containing mostly Mn3+ or Mn4+ ity. For substitutions 0.2 < x < 0.4 the system
ions show antiferromagnetic behavior. However, fer- becomes ferromagnetic and shows a metal-semicon-
romagnetic behavior is observed in the range from ductor transformation. A similar type of behavior was
25 to 35% Mn4+. A weak magnetic interaction was observed in Sr-substituted cobaltites.
found between Mn3+ ions, together with a negative The electrical properties of perovskites have aroused
interaction between Mn4+ ions and a strong positive special interest since the discovery in 1986 of super-
interaction between Mn3+ and Mn4+. A similar kind conductivity at 40 K in cuprates.5 These cuprates are
of behavior was found for the combination of Co3+ and hole superconductors, exhibiting a mixed valence of
Co4+, but the Cr and Fe compounds were found to be copper CuII-CuIII. Among these, the exception is Ce-
antiferromagnetic. doped Nd2CuO4, with Tc close to 25 K,34 which
Electrical Properties. The electrical conductivity of belongs to a different structural type and is an
perovskites also shows wide variations. Several com- electron superconductor. All these compounds have
pounds have been used for their dielectric properties, a common feature, the bidimensional character of the
while others show metallic conductivity, although structure, which has been shown to be an important
most are semiconductors. As for other compounds, factor for the existence of superconductivity at high
the electrical behavior in perovskites depends on the temperature.35
Optical Properties. Compounds with the perovskite 1. CO and NO Adsorption

structure have been used as model systems for
The extent of CO adsorption on LaBO3 (B )
spectroscopic studies in the infrared, the visible, and
transition metal) perovskites at 298 K was found to
the ultraviolet. Perovskite oxides (ABO3) are particu- be dependent upon on the electron configuration of
larly suited since the effect of magnetic ordering of the B3+ cation and was seen to reach a maximum for
the transition metal ion in the B-site can be studied Fe3+,39 which mirrors the profile observed for isobutene
in addition to that of the rare earth ion A. Because adsorption on the same perovskite series. In general,
the difference in ordering temperature of the two adsorption is fast and the kinetics can be satisfacto-
types of ions is large there is little interaction. The rily described by the Elovich equation.40 Successive
absorption spectra either for the host ion of the adsorptions of CO2-CO on LaCrO3 allowed the au-
perovskite structure or after incorporation of a low- thors to conclude that CO2 and CO adsorb onto the
concentration “probe” into a diamagnetic lattice can site type of surface centers.41 By contrast, preadsorp-
be studied. In the former case of magnetically con- tion of O2 followed by CO adsorption revealed that
centrated systems, a broad spectrum is obtained, the extent of CO adsorbed at equilibrium approached
with line widths typically of 0.5-5 cm-1, while in the that measured on a clean surface. This finding
latter a sharp spectrum is obtained, with line widths indicates that O2 and CO adsorb on different surface
of about 0.1 cm-1. The optical properties of many sites.41 It was also observed that CO interaction
ABO3 compounds, in which B is a transition metal occurs with surface oxygen and metallic ions.39,41-44
ion with an empty or partially filled d-shell, have This is an activated process because the amount of
been explored. For the SrTiO3 perovskite containing adsorbed CO increases with the temperature of
an empty d-shell transition ion (Ti4+), the emission adsorption from 298 to 773 K.
spectrum shows luminescence which is independent NO adsorption at 298 K on a series of LaBO3 oxides
of sample history and contamination and shows a showed maxima for Mn and Co.39 The extent of NO
band maximum at about 500 nm, with low quenching adsorption was found to be independent of temper-
temperature (35 K) and a small Stokes shift (7000 ature for LaFeO345 and LaNiO339 over a wide tem-
cm-1). The titanate octahedra sharing corners in perature range (273-673 K). This observation sug-
SrTiO3 are favorable for energy band formation. The gests that the nature of the adsorption is not altered
broadening of the energy levels of the titanate with temperature. For LaCrO3,46 LaMnO3,42 and
octahedron results in a considerably lower energy for LaRhO3,47 the temperature interval where NO ad-
the first absorption transition, and the excited state sorption changes moderately (below 20%) was nar-
of the titanate becomes mobile. This situation has rower. NO coverage on all these oxides were found
been described as being due to the coexistence of free to be of the same order of magnitude as those
and delocalized (self-trapped) excitons.36 A large body measured for the simple oxides.48 The infrared spec-
of work on the optical properties of metal ions with tra of NO adsorbed on the manganite LaMnO3
a partially filled d-shell containing perovskites exists. showed bands of dinitrosyls and nitrite and nitrate
Ions with the d3 configuration have been extensively species.47 This finding indicates that NO molecule
used to investigate the optical properties of perov- interacts either through Mn3+ ions (dinitrosyls) or
skites. Cr3+ spectroscopy has been studied in perov- through O2- ions (nitrite and nitrates) as illustrated
skites MTiO3 (M ) Ca, Sr, Ba) and ABO3 (A ) La, in the scheme:
Gd, Y; B ) Al, Ga). In these systems, the Cr3+ ion
may show two completely different types of emission,
viz. narrow-line and spin-forbidden emission (2E f
4A ) and broad-band and spin-allowed emission
2
(4T2 f 4A2), the latter occurring for relatively weak
fields. The transition-metal doped titanates became Successive NO-CO and CO-NO adsorptions on
of interest after the discovery of photoelectrochemical LaMO3 at 298 K showed an inhibiting effect of NO
water splitting by titanates.37 It appeared possible on subsequent CO adsorption, and this was larger
to sensitize an SrTiO3 electrode for visible light by than the inhibiting effect of CO on NO adsorption.39
doping with transition metal ions.38 The optical NO adsorbs more strongly than CO, in accordance
transitions involved were shown to be of the metal- with previous observations by Yao and Shelef48 for
to-metal charge-transfer type, e.g., Cr3+ + Ti4+ f other perovskites. Consistent with this, comparison
Cr4+ + Ti3+, which are responsible for the brownish of the thermodynamic parameters for the adsorption
color of the composition. of NO and CO on LaCrO3 revealed higher adsorption
enthalpy and lower adsorption entropy for NO than
D. Adsorption Properties for CO. The almost constancy of the amounts of
adsorbed NO with temperature as well as the strength
The identification of the nature and structure of of the NO-surface bond are arguments in favor of the
the exposed sites on the perovskite surfaces as well use of NO instead CO for determining metallic
as the possible involvement of these sites in catalytic sites.39,42,44,45,47 However, the complex IR spectra of
reactions have frequently been studied by the ad- chemisorbed NO39,42,45 indicate that there is no
sorption of suitable probe molecules. Both the equi- specificity for the adsorption on metal or cation sites,
librium and the kinetics of adsorption and, in some and, therefore, the assumption of a 1:1 stoichiometry
cases, the desorption of molecules from the surface between NO and B3+ sites may not give a proper
were analyzed. estimate of the density of surface transition-metal
was attributed to lattice oxygen. The changes in

intensity of the R-type peak with x in La1-xSrxMO3
(M ) Mn, Fe, Co) have been interpreted in terms of
the nonstoichiometry and defect structure of these
perovskites.51,52-56 In a recent contribution, Yokoi and
Uchida57 observed that the amount of O2 desorbed
and the temperature of the R-type oxygen desorption
from LaMO3 (M ) Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni) tended to
decrease with the increasing atomic number of the
transition metal.57,58 The strength of the force pre-
venting O2 desorption was also estimated by model
calculations using the DV-XR cluster method.59 The
calculated bond order for M-O became smaller with
the increasing atomic number of M, which suggests
that the temperature of O2 desorption during TPD
Figure 2. Extent of total (open circles) and reversible of O2 was affected by the electronic interaction
(filled circles) oxygen adsorption on clean LaMO3 surfaces. between the adsorbed O2 and the transition metal
Reprinted from ref 49 by permission of the publisher.
Copyright 1985 by The Royal Society. ion (M3+). The β-type oxygen desorption peak was
found to be more specifically associated with the M
cation, although it is also affected by Ln-site substi-
tution.
As a general rule, oxygen adsorption on the per-
ovskite oxide surface is a complex process. As recently
reported by Au et al.,60 oxygen adsortion is dominated
by a molecular form according to a fast process
followed by a much slower, activated adsorption
kinetics, associated to formation of oxygen-charged
species (O2 f 2O2-).
E. Specific Surface and Porosity

Many different methods have been used in the
preparation of perovskite oxides; the choice of a
particular one basically depends on the expected
Figure 3. Temperature-programmed desorption profiles application of these oxides. The application of per-
of CO2 from BaSnO3 perovskites: (I) prepared ex-tin oxide ovskite oxides in the field of heterogeneous catalysis
and (II) prepared ex-chloride. Reprinted from ref 116 by requires materials with a well-developed porous
permission of the publisher. Copyright 1996 by Elsevier.
network. Since this review is mainly concerned with
the surface and catalytic properties of perovskites,
sites. Thus, the CO molecule, whose interaction with emphasis is placed on the specific area and porosity
B3+ ions is weaker than with NO at temperatures of powdered samples. Preshaped perovskite oxides in
close to ambient, is recommended for evaluating B3+ honeycomb type structures and highly ordered thin
cations in perovskite oxides. films are also briefly examined.
2. Oxygen Adsorption Classical methods of the preparation of perovskite
oxides include: (i) equimolecular oxide mixing syn-
Oxygen adsorption on perovskite oxides has been thesis and (ii) decomposition synthesis. Type i method
studied mainly because of the importance of these requires a high calcination temperature (1300-1500
compounds as oxidation-reduction catalysts. The K) for the solid state reaction to occur and often
oxygen adsorption profiles on LaMO3 (M ) Cr, Mn, results in the formation of coarse aggregation. The
Fe, Co, Ni) were reported by Kremenic et al.49 These grain size of the powder obtained by this method is
profiles displayed maxima for Mn and Co (Figure 2) relatively large and the specific area is too small,
that coincide with the maxima observed by Iwamoto making it unsuitable for catalytic applications. An-
et al.50 for the respective single transition metal other major drawback of this method is that the
oxides (M2O3) and also for the catalytic activity of purity of the product is not high. Type ii method,
oxidation of this series of perovskites.40 It can also however, requires lower synthesis temperatures,
be noted in Figure 3 that the amount of reversible usually below 1100 K; thus high purity and homo-
adsorbed oxygen represents a very small fraction of geneity of the product are attainable. The differences
the total adsorption, in agreement with previous between methods i and ii were clearly shown by
findings.51 Berndt et al.61 These authors found that the solid-
Oxygen TPD peaks from perovskites appeared to state reaction of mixtures of separately precipitated
be rather complex. Yamazoe et al.52 and Seiyama et hydroxides proceeded much faster than that of physi-
al.53 observed two oxygen desorption peaks after cal mixtures of single oxides (ceramic method).
adsorption on La1-xSrxCoO3 at 1023 K. The low- Spray-drying, freeze-drying, and coprecipitation
temperature peak (R-type) was ascribed to adsorbed methods are simple techniques for preparing ag-
oxygen, whereas the high-temperature peak (β-type) glomeration-free submicrometer powders, with high
purity, controlled stoichiometry, crystallinity, and (MBE) using an atomic force microscope (AFM) with
relatively narrow particle-size distribution. These a surface-modified tip. Both terminated surfaces
three methods were compared in the preparation of displayed a terrace structure consisting of an atomi-
substituted manganites of the type La1-xMxMnO3 cally flat plane and steps of height 0.4 nm corre-
(M ) Sr, K, Pb, Ce, Co, Ni, Mg, Li).62 The former sponding to the unit cell step. When measured using
method yielded solids with some compositional seg- a TiO2-coated tip, the friction force of the SrO-
regation and specific areas below 17 m2/g, while the terminated surface was found to be larger than that
latter led to well-crystallized oxides, with specific of the TiO2-terminated surface. This suggests that
areas smaller than 10 m2/g. Even larger specific areas the forced friction would be caused by the bonding
were obtained with freeze-drying because of the lower energy present at the interface, which provides a
temperature required in the calcination step. method for measuring the chemical energy present
Some novel low-temperature preparation methods in oxide compounds of the nanometer order between
include carbonate,63 hydroxide,64,65 cyanide, and mixed the surface and the tip of the microscope.
nitrate decomposition,63,64 oxalate coprecipitation, Chemical vapor deposition was also used for the
and urea homogeneous precipitation followed by preparation of dense perovskite films, i.e., nonvolatile
thermal decomposition,66 as well as the sol-gel random access memory ferroelectrics, possessing an
processes using citric acid67 poly(acrylic acid),68 poly- extremely low porosity.84,85 Other approaches con-
(ethylene glycol),69,70 poly(vinyl alcohol),71 malic acid,72 sisted of the epitaxial growth of a thick perovskite
and stearic acid73 as the media for protecting the layer on an ordered substrate. The epitaxial thin film
colloidal particles. However, the powders prepared of the ordered double Sr2FeMoO6 perovskite has been
by most of these methods still have low specific areas, successfully prepared on SrTiO3 (001) and (111)
usually below 10 m2/g, except that the sol-gel substrates by pulsed laser deposition in a narrow
methods yield well-crystallized samples with larger window of temperature and oxygen pressure.79 The
specific areas (11-20 m2/g) mainly because the diffraction patterns of the (111) oriented film exhib-
calcination temperatures are as low as 823-923 K, ited the reflection peaks of a double perovskite unit
i.e., 200-300 K lower than that used in the carbonate cell (ao ≈ 0.8 nm), indicating B-site ordering. The in
process.63 Among the sol-gel processes, the use of situ reflection high-energy electron diffraction pat-
stearic acid in the preparation offers the possibility tern revealed clear 2-fold superstructure correspond-
of synthesizing high purity homogeneous nanocom- ing to the double perovskite unit cell. The surface
posites with relatively larger specific areas at reason- topology of these films was revealed by atomic force
ably low processing temperatures.74 Following this microscopy. The (001) oriented film showed an atomic-
method for the preparation of LaCoO3 perovskite, the scale step-and-terrace structure. The step height was
synthesis conditions can easily be controlled, and about 0.4 nm, which corresponds to single perovskite
crystalline structures are obtained at temperatures unit cell height. This agrees with the expectation for
as low as 773-873 K. The ultrafine perovskite the Sr2FeMoO6: each perovskite sheet is equivalent
particles (20-70 nm) are spherical, of uniform size, and includes the same number of FeO6 and MoO6
and have specific areas higher than 30 m2/g, sub- octahedra arranged like a checkerboard. Since the
stantially higher than that obtained by the conven- direction of the steps is almost identical in the entire
tional methods. region of the sample, the structure should reflect the
The hysteresis loops of the adsorption isotherms surface steps of the SrTiO3 substrate, as also ob-
recorded on samples prepared by freeze-drying and served for (La,Sr)MnO3 films.86 On the other hand,
explosion methods belong to the A-type according to the (111) ordered oriented film displayed triangular-
de Boer’s classification,75 while the adsorption iso- shaped grains. A spiral structure of atomic-scale
therms of the samples prepared by ceramic and steps was observed on the grains, indicating that the
coprecipitation methods give type B-loops. This clear growth mode of the film is two-dimensional spiral
differentiation proves that the porous texture of the growth mediated by screw dislocation. It was ob-
powdered samples is strongly dependent on the served that the height of each step was about 0.45
preparation method. It seems worth mentioning that nm, which corresponds to the (111) d-spacing of the
some powdered perovskites showed stepwise adsorp- Sr2FeMoO6 unit cell and half of this. This implies that
tion isotherms. Since the adsorption of different probe the growth of the (111) oriented film takes place with
molecules on oxide surfaces pointed to the existence the chemical formula as a growth unit and that there
of an energetically heterogeneous surface, it appeared exists a preferred surface termination of the B-site
that step formation in these systems must be due to cation.
lateral interactions of adsorbed nitrogen molecules The atomic layered perovskite films reported here
rather than to the presence of a homogeneous sur- are excellent model surfaces to investigate chemical
face.76 reactions between adsorbed molecules at atomic
Flat perovskite surfaces can readily be obtained by scale. Atomic force microscopy becomes an extremely
epitaxial thin film growth on well-defined sub- useful tool not only to investigate the topology of the
strates.77-81 Of particular interest is the SrTiO3 surface at very high resolution but also to develop
perovskite that serves as a substrate for growing specific adsorbed molecule-surface site locations,
oxide superconducting films.82,83 Tanaka et al.81 which opens the possibility of investigating chemical
studied the atomic configuration and chemical prop- reactions on the catalytic surfaces.
erties of a SrO- and TiO2-terminated SrTiO3 (001) Since perovskites had demonstrated excellent per-
surface produced by laser molecular beam epitaxy formance in exhaust treatment (see section IV.B), it
was believed that they could be supported on an inert based perovskites supported on a commercial silica-
ceramic substrate such as cordierite (2Al2O3‚5SiO2‚ alumina fiber blanket. The system was particularly
2MgO), as already done in the three-way catalysts suitable for use in the combustion of lean natural gas
used in the car engine exhaust gases. In the first mixtures. The perovskite deposit (12-15%) was
attempts87 to deposit a perovskite layer on a cor- achieved by incipient wetting of the fiber blanket
dierite monolith, the procedure basically included with the precursor solution, followed by fast freezing
dipping the ceramic monolith in an aqueous slurry of the solution wet blanket by immersion in liquid
of powdered perovskite, followed by drying and firing nitrogen and vacuum-drying. These systems exhib-
to bind the perovskite to the surface. It was found ited activities comparable to those of commercial
that in alumina-based monoliths the decrease in fiber-supported platinum and were found to be stable
catalytic performance might partly be due to a solid- at temperatures below 1000 K.
state reaction between the perovskite and the alu-
mina substrate. An approach used by Mizuno et al.88 F. Thermal Stability in a Reducing Atmosphere
to circumvent reaction of the active phase (La0.8Sr0.2-
CoO3) with a high specific area substrate consists of The thermal stability of perovskites is determined
precoating the cordierite with a La2O3 layer. A by the cations at position A and also at position B.
Arakawa et al.94 showed that the extent of H2-
maximum in activity for the combustion of propene
reduction of cobalt in LnCoO3 (Ln ) lanthanide)
at 673 K was observed for 18% La2O3 incorporated,
increased from Ln ) La to Ln ) Eu, i.e., with
which correlates well with the fraction of the mono-
decreasing ionic radius of the lanthanide element.
clinic La2O3 phase present. Nudel et al.89 used Al2O3
The same reduction sequence was observed by Futai
(25 m2/g) previously stabilized by impregnation with
et al.,95 although the perovskites of Gd, Tb, and Dy
La(NO3)3. Subsequent impregnation with an equimo-
were less reducible. These later authors also reported
lecular solution of Co2+ and La3+ nitrates, followed
a direct relationship between the reducibility and the
by firing at 1173 K gave rise to a complex solid
sum of the energies of the Ln-O and Co-O bonds; i.e.,
containing γ-Al2O3, LaAlO3, CoAl2O4, and LaCoO3
the ease of reduction increases with decreasing
phases. This example is a good illustration of the
metal-oxygen bond energy. On the other hand, the
difficulty involved in obtaining a pure perovskite
stability in hydrogen of LaFeO3 and LaRhO3 was
phase on a reactive substrate.
found to be higher than that of the corresponding
Recently, Schneider et al.90 prepared La0.84Sr0.16- yttrium perovskites.96
Mn0.67Co0.33O3 perovskite-coated and perovskite- In a systematic study of the Gibbs free energy of
extruded monolith catalysts and tested the combus- formation (∆G°) of several ferrates from the starting
tion of several aliphatic chlorinated hydrocarbons. metal oxides: Fe2O3 + Ln2O3 f 2 LnFeO3, in the
The coated monolith catalysts were prepared by a temperature range from 1150 to 1300 K, Katsura et
two-step procedure. First, the monolith cordierite al.97 found a linear relationship between the values
ceramic support was impregnated with a solution of ∆G° and the Goldschmidt tolerance factor (t). That
containing appropriate amounts of the corresponding is, ∆G° becomes more negative with increasing values
nitrates. After air-calcination at 873 K, the impreg- of t or increasing ionic radius of the lanthanide cation.
nated monoliths were coated with a bulk perovskite- A similar relationship was observed for the ∆G° of
water suspension. Then, the dried sample was again formation of LnFeO3 oxides starting from metallic
calcined at 873 K. The perovskite-extruded monoliths iron, Ln2O3, and oxygen at 1470-1570 K.98 All these
were prepared by extrusion of a mixture of precipi- results clearly indicate that the stability of the
tated perovskites and a cordierite precursor in mono- perovskite structure increases with increasing size
lith form. A rather high specific area (57 m2/g) was of the lanthanide ion in the temperature interval
obtained after calcination at 823 K. Honeycomb studied and are consistent with those of Arakawa et
monolith perovskite catalysts were prepared by Ciam- al.94 for LnCoO3 oxides.
belli et al.91 from ultradispersed powders of mixed Partial substitution of the A ion by another ion of
oxides of rare-earth metals (La-Ce or Dy-Y) and a lower oxidation state such as Sr (La1-xSrxCoO3) may
transition metals (Ni, Fe, Mn) by mechanochemical also induce important changes in stability. With
methods. The honeycombs were then obtained by increasing the values of x, the concentration of
extrusion of plastic pastes of the perovskite powders unstable Co4+ and/or of oxygen vacancies also in-
and additives. The best performance for methane crease, which favors the diffusion of lattice oxygen
combustion was exhibited by La-Ni oxides-containing from the bulk to surface, as charge compensators.
monoliths that, in turn, display the highest pore Thus, increasing the strontium content in the defec-
volume and fraction of macropores (20% above 1 µm). tive structure of La1-xSrxCoO3 accounts for the un-
Other preshaped structures such as foams92 and stability of the lattice in a reducing environment.51
silica-alumina fibers93 have been used as support of In contrast, the stability of the hole-doped La0.8Th0.2-
perovskites. Podyacheva et al.92 employed Ni and Ni- CoO3 perovskite is higher than that of LaCoO3
Cr foam substrates to deposit a LaCrO3 perovskite because part of the cobalt is present as Co2+.99
phase. In both cases, preliminary washcoating of the The thermal stability of perovskite oxides was
metal surface was required in both cases to facilitate found to depend also on the type of cation at the B
the anchorage of the perovskite phase. The perovskite position. Nakamura et al.100 studied the structural
was the only phase detected by diffraction methods changes of a series of LaBO3 (B ) V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co,
and was stable upon calcination up to 1273 K. In a Ni) oxides induced by H2-reduction at 1273 K as a
recent contribution, Klvana et al.93 prepared Ni-Co- function of the oxygen partial pressure. Among the
crystalline products produced by reduction, the dis- III. Acid−Base and Redox Properties
mutation La2MO4 phases were detected, with the
exception of La2MnO4, which is unstable at temper- In this section, two important properties of per-
atures above 1200 K.101 Other possible intermediate ovskite-type oxides directly related to catalytic per-
reduced mixed oxides such as La2Co2O5, La2Ni2O5, formance such as acid-base and redox are examined
and LaNiO2 phases were not observed because they briefly. Since the surface of perovskites may be
are unstable. The following order of stability in terms primarily related to their catalytic properties, the
of the -log PO2 values can be established: LaNiO3 < nature and concentration of the surface sites can be
LaCoO3 < LaMnO3 < LaFeO3 < LaCrO3 ≈ LaVO3. evaluated by analysis of the interactions of suitable
This order parallels the Madellung constant except probe molecules and the surfaces of these oxides. Acid
for LaNiO3 and LaCoO3, which show higher con- sites in perovskite-type oxides have been investigated
stants. The origin of this discrepancy may be the by adsorption of a basic molecule such as pyridine,
existence of stable La2MO4 compounds for Ni and Co. whereas basic sites have been evaluated by adsorp-
tion of acid molecules such as carbon dioxide. Fur-
Crystal structures of titanium (SrTiO3, BaTiO3)102 thermore, the reduction of perovskites and the oxy-
and chromium (LaCrO3)103 perovskites exhibited a gen adsorption-reaction on their surfaces play a
very high stability after being exposed to a reducing central role in the catalytic activity of oxygen-
atmosphere at temperatures as high as 1200 K. mediated reactions.104,106
Other perovskites containing reducible first transi-
tion row ions in their structure underwent important A. Acidity and Basicity
crystalline and chemical transformations after less
severe treatments. An exhaustive account of this was Acid sites in perovskite oxides have been deter-
offered in our previous review.104 For example, Cres- mined by adsorption of pyridine. The infrared spectra
pin and Hall102 found that the crystal structure of of pyridine adsorbed on LaMnO3 and LaFeO3 at room
LaCoO3 is slightly altered upon quantitative H2- temperature107 exhibited bands at 1595, 1490, and
reduction of Co3+ to Co2+. However, the diffraction 1440 cm-1, due to the vibration modes of the pyridine
pattern of the perovskite in which Co3+ is quantita- bonded to Lewis sites. Pyridine adsorbed on the
tively reduced to metallic cobalt shows only the LaCrO3 sample108 showed similar bands but of lower
diffraction lines of La2O3, indicating that highly intensity suggesting the presence of a smaller con-
dispersed metallic Co0 would remain trapped in the centration of acid Lewis sites.
La2O3 phase. This was already confirmed by sintering
the metallic Co0 phase upon heating at 1073 K in an Brönsted site: MO-H+: N(C5H5)
He atmosphere, then after which the diffraction lines
of metallic Co particles appeared. Lewis site: OM: N(C5H5)
In a recent study on the reduction-oxidation of
LnCoO3 (Ln ) La, Pr, Nd, Sm, Gd) perovskites,105 it A similar spectrum to that of the unreduced samples
was demonstrated that cobalt reduction occurs in two was recorded upon pyridine adsorption on H2-reduced
steps: near 633 K (Co3+ to Co2+) and at 783-845 K LaBO3 oxides, exhibited similar infrared spectra
(Co2+ to Co0), the maximum of the second peak together with a weak Brönsted band at 1540-1545
decreasing from La to Gd. Diffraction studies re- cm-1. The intensity of this later band increased
vealed that the perovskite NdCoO3 is reduced in two slightly upon adsorption of water at 423 K. The
steps, first to NdCoO2.5 and then further to Co0/ increase in Brönsted acidity can be understood by
Nd2O3, and in both stages it was demonstrated that assuming that water molecules adsorb dissociatively
the reoxidation with oxygen is capable of recovering on pairs of surface acid-base sites (O2- ions). The
the perovskite structure. Temperature-programmed band at 1490-1495 cm-1 is related to the pyridine
oxidation with reduced LnCoO1.5 systems indicated adsorbed on coordinatively unsaturated exposed cat-
that the reoxidation of cobalt also takes place in two ions, which constitute Lewis acid sites. The presence
steps: first by oxidation of the supported Co0 to the of La3+ and M3+ ions in these perovskites with very
spinel Co3O4 followed by a further oxidation of Co2+ different charge/radius ratios probably generates acid
to Co3+, with a simultaneous solid-state reaction with sites of markedly different strength. In any case, the
Ln2O3, regenerating the perovskite structure. The weak intensity of the infrared bands of adsorbed
nature of the Ln affects the stability of the perovskite pyridine and the removal of these bands upon out-
LnCoO3. The Goldschmidt tolerance factor (t) for gassing at 673-873 K point to a low acidic character
these perovskites indicates that, considering only of these oxides.107
geometric factors, lanthanum, the largest lanthanide It has been observed that calcined, and specifically
ion in the series, forms the most stable perovskite H2-reduced, perovskite surfaces exposed to water
structure. This and other examples mentioned above vapor enhances the hydroxyl groups concentration.103
show that by reduction treatments or redox cycles, The infrared hydroxyl groups spectra recorded upon
the metal in position B remains in a high degree of water adsorption at 423 K on oxidic and reduced
dispersion on a matrix of the Ln2O3 oxide. Consider- LaCrO3 samples gave bands, in both cases at 3680
ing the importance of dispersed metals in heteroge- cm-1, of isolated OH groups (site I) and at 3550 cm-1
neous catalysis, the reduction or reduction-oxidation of acid OH groups (site II). The adsorption and
of perovskites under controlled conditions may offer dissociation of water was assumed to take place on
a promising methodology for the preparation of pairs of surface acid-base sites, yielding an acidic
highly active catalysts. OH and an anion vacancy placed between coordina-
tively unsaturated La3+ and reduced metal ions (M2+ at 340-425 K and 540-920 K.107,108,112,113,115 The peak
or M+) (site I) and a basic OH- on a coordinatively at 340-425 K originates from the decomposition of
unsaturated oxygen ion bonded to a La or M ion (site a monodentate carbonate, the least stable CO2 ad-
II). As the dissociation of water takes places even on sorbed species. However, the CO2 desorption peak at
the oxidic samples, this suggests that during the 540-920 K probably arises from the decomposition
outgassing step some O2- vacancies are generated on of bidentate and/or bridged carbonates, whose pres-
the surface, although presumably at a low concentra- ence was also revealed by infrared spectroscopy. A
tion, as above. In addition, the formation of these mechanism for the formation of this type of species
vacancies is strongly enhanced by H2 treatment, has been advanced and consists of pair sites including
which favors water dissociation on the reduced a lattice oxygen and an anion vacancy. Support to
surface. this interpretation is provided by experiments on the
Many perovskite oxides exhibit basic properties adsorption of CO2 on partially reduced samples in
which can be used to conduct several catalytic reac- which the concentration of these carbonates in-
tions.104 Among the methods proposed to measure creased with the extent of oxide reduction.107,112,113
surface basicity the adsorption of benzoic acid (Brön- The high-temperature desorption peak after CO2
sted basicity) and more specifically CO2 adsorption- adsorption on reduced LaCoO344 and LaNiO3111
desorption experiments109-111 remain prominent. The samples was quite different from that of the other
extent of CO2 adsorption as well as the heats of perovskite oxides. The intensity of the CO2 desorption
adsorption on LaBO3 (B ) Cr, Fe, Co) oxides were peaks showed maxima for prereduced LaCoO3 and
studied over a wide temperature range by Tejuca LaNiO3 samples at 573 K and then decreases at
et al.112,113 The CO2 coverage follows the order higher reduction temperatures. This finding suggests
LaCrO3 > LaFeO3 > LaCoO3. Activated adsorption an interaction of bidentate or bridged carbonates with
was found to occur at temperatures above 420 K on intermediate reduction states of cobalt and nickel,
LaCrO3 and LaCoO3; however, the extent of CO2 such as Co2+ and Ni2+.
adsorption on LaFeO3 decreased continuously with Petit et al.116 prepared tin-containing ASnO3 (A )
increasing temperature. A modelistic analysis of the Ca, Sr, Ba) perovskites by a sol-gel method starting
equilibrium data of CO2 adsorption allowed to sat- from an oxide (SnO) or from chlorinated precursors
isfactorily describe isotherms by the Freundlich (SnCl4) and used them in the oxidative coupling of
model of adsorption. Sets of data of CO2 adsorption methane. They found that 10 times more CO2 is
and that of other simple molecules led the authors adsorbed on BaSnO3 ex-oxide than on BaSnO3 ex-
to propose the Freundlich equation as an additional chloride. This difference agrees with other findings
tool to evaluate specific areas of metal oxides and in the literature107-111,116,117 concerning other cata-
perovskites.108 lysts. Since the specific areas of the two catalysts
Because CO2 is a slightly acid molecule its adsorp- were similar, the extent of CO2 adsorption can
tion on basic sites is strong. Upon CO2 adsorption therefore not be directly attributed to it. As shown
on BaTiO3114 and LaMO3 (M ) Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, in Figure 3, the shape of CO2 TPD profiles strongly
Ni)107,108,112,113 perovskites and monodentate and bi- depends on the precursors used in the preparation
dentate carbonates are formed. The former carbon- of the two perovskites. Peaks below 470 K, very
ates are favored at low temperatures, and in some intense for ex-oxide and weak for the ex-chloride
cases transformation of these species into bidentate sample, were assigned to weakly adsorbed CO2.
carbonates with increasing temperatures was ob- Other peaks located in the 500-750 K temperature
served. The broad carbonate infrared bands range were attributed to strongly adsorbed carbon-
ates,110 whereas peaks at 860 K (ex-oxide) and 910
K (ex-chloride) corresponded to the decomposition of
bulk carbonates. CO2, which is a poison for the
coupling reaction, is less strongly adsorbed on the
catalyst ex-chloride. Thus, chlorine appears to sta-
bilize the sites that are active in the coupling reaction
provide evidence of the presence of energetically with respect to the poisoning by CO2.
different adsorption sites. On LaFeO3, CO2 adsorp-
tion gives rise to infrared bands of carbonates at B. Redox Processes
1600, 1325, 1218, 1050, and 840 cm-1. The former
two bands decrease in intensity upon reduction The reduction and oxygen adsorption properties of
treatments, suggesting that they are associated with several LaBO3 (B ) first-row transition element)
monodentate structures.113 The opposite trend ob- perovskite oxides41,49,118 conclusively demonstrated
served for the band at 1050 cm-1 points to the that these parameters are directly involved in the
formation of a carbonate of higher thermal stability, catalytic activity of these oxides for oxidation reac-
such as bidentate species. Finally, the band at 1218 tions. It was observed that the more easily reducible
cm-1 can be associated to a very labile carbonate perovskite oxides (LaNiO3, LaCoO3, and LaMnO3)
since it was removed by outgassing at room temper- resulted in better catalysts for oxidation reactions
ature.113 than the less reducible one (LaCrO3).118 Because of
CO2 temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) the importance of this, the kinetics and mechanisms
measurements were also used to evaluate surface of the reduction of some perovskite oxides were
basicity in perovskites. TPD profiles after CO2 ad- briefly examined. Attention was also paid on the
sorption on LaBO3 oxides revealed two major peaks oxidation rates of prereduced samples. Additionally,
1 - (1 - R)1/n ) kt + b
where R is the reduction degree (if determined by
microgravimetry, it is the ratio between the experi-
mental weight change and the theoretical one for a
complete reduction); k and b are constants; n ) 2
corresponds to a two-dimensional growth, and n ) 3
to a three-dimensional growth of the reduction layer.
This equation holds over the middle range of R
values.
Kinetic experiments for the deep reduction of Co2+
to Co0 in PrCoO3 (Figure 4c) within the temperature
range from 716 to 784 K showed, as expected, a fast
reduction corresponding to the reduction of Co3+ to
Co2+, which is then followed by a slower reduction.
The reduction curves showed a sigmoidal shape for
the second reduction step and the extent of reduction
corresponds to the quantitative reduction of Co2+ into
metallic Co0 (Co2+ + H2 f Co0). Thus, the reduction
of Co2+ to Co0 is controlled by the formation and
growth of metallic reduction nuclei on the surface of
Figure 4. H2-reduction profiles of PrCoO3: (a) tempera- the reduced phase in step a (nucleation model). When
ture programmed reduction (4 K/min); (b,c) isothermal reduction starts, the rate increases because of the
reduction in the first (1 e- per molecule) and second (3 e-
per molecule) steps, respectively, of diagram (a). Reprinted growth of nuclei already formed and the appearance
from ref 119 by permission of the publisher. Copyright 1988 of new ones. Once the surface has become covered
by Chapman & Hall. by these reduction nuclei, they overlap to a certain
extent. Thus, at the inflection point of the curves of
a brief account on the differences in oxygen content reduction both the interface of the oxidized and
of the perovskite structure brought about by reduc- reduced phases and the rate of reduction begin to
tion-oxidation cycles is also given in this section. decrease. This process can be described by the
Avrami-Erofeyev equation:121
1. Kinetics and Mechanisms
tn ) 1/k[-ln(1 - R)] (2)
Analysis of the reduction profiles of perovskites
oxides provides useful information for interpreting where n, k, and R have the same meaning as in eq 2,
the reduction mechanism of these materials. These which holds over R values from 0.05 to 0.95.
mechanisms can be studied by recording kinetic data For LaNiO3 perovskite, the kinetic reduction curves
under isothermal conditions. To illustrate this meth- were virtually the same as that of PrCoO3.121 How-
odology, the temperature-programmed reduction (TPR) ever, for LaFeO3 and LaRhO3 the cation at the
profiles of a PrCoO3 perovskite oxide are shown in B-position is reduced the metal, following the con-
Figure 4a.119 The reduction profile shows that the tracting-sphere model. For the substituted LaFex-
overall reduction Co3+ f Co0 occurs in two steps: (i) Ni1-xO3+δ samples, reducibility was found to depend
reduction of Co3+ to Co2+ (PrCoO3 + 1/2H2 f PrCoO2.5) strongly on x122 (Figure 5a). LaFeO3+δ exhibited
at temperatures near 660 K and (ii) reduction of Co2+ oxidativenonstoichiometry, with the principal reduc-
to Co0 (PrCoO2.5 + H2 f 1/2Pr2O3 + Co0) at temper- tion step associated with the reduction of Fe3+ to Fe0
atures about 800 K. taking place at temperatures of about 1000 K.23
An in-depth analysis of families of kinetic curves There was also a small reduction in the 500-700 K
of reduction, each one recorded at constant temper- range due to the nonstoichiometry of the oxide
ature, results extremely valuable to understand the (oxygen excess and Fe4+). The oxygen excess (δ )
mechanisms involved in the reduction of these mixed 0.05) was lower than that previously reported for the
oxides. The plot of the reduction degree (R) versus same perovskite prepared at lower temperature,23
the time of reduction (t) for the first step in Figure since δ decreased with the calcination temperature.
4b shows that the reduction rate decreases continu- Substitution with Ni led to a decrease in the reduc-
ously with time, indicating that the reduction of the tion temperature, which changed from 1000 K for
perovskite oxide particles occurs according to the x ) 1 to 650 K for x ) 0 (Ni2+ f Ni0). For the partially
contracting-sphere model. The reduction starts with substituted (0.15 e x e 0.75) samples, this latter peak
a very fast nucleation rate, which results in the overlaps with the reduction of Fe3+ into metallic Fe0.
complete saturation of the grains by a thin layer of Additionally, a first reduction step appeared in the
the reduced phase after which the rate is attenuated range 450-500 K (Ni3+ f Ni2+).
until the bulk reduction is completed. This mecha- The kinetic curves of reduction at three different
nism implies a continuous drop of the rate of the temperatures (726, 749, and 784 K) for LaFe0.1-
reduction until the unreduced phase in the core of Ni0.9O3122 are shown in Figure 5b. For the sake of
the grains has been consumed in the reaction. The simplicity, only kinetic curves in the temperature
reduction process can be precisely described by the region where Ni3+ is reduced to Ni2+ are included.
Mampel’s law:120 The sigmoidal shape of these curves indicates that
as above did not restore the original perovskite phase.

Instead, a Co3O4 phase was formed.102 The irrevers-
ibility in the redox cycle is mainly caused by the
drastic increase in the crystal size of cobalt particles
brought about by thermal treatment at high temper-
atures. A similar increase in Ni0 metal particle size
was observed upon reduction of LaNiO3 at 703 K
followed by heating in He up to 1173 K; this proved
to be greater than one order of magnitude.121 The
intermediate reduction products LanNinO2n+1 (Ni2+)
and LaNiO2 (Ni+) were fully oxidized by O2 at 453
K.123 This result is similar to that observed for the
reduction at 773 K of LaCoO3 to Co0 + La2O3 followed
by reoxidation with pure O2 at 673 K.102 Under these
conditions, important amounts of separate phases
Co3O4 and La2O3 as well as LaCoO3 perovskite were
obtained. Formation of the simple oxides of large
crystal size may be avoided by carrying out reoxida-
tion of the reduced phases under very mild condi-
tions, e.g., at very low oxidation rate by using highly
diluted oxygen (or air) in an inert gas stream as an
oxidizing agent. According to this careful operation,
the perovskite structure of LaRhO346 and PrCoO3119
samples was completely restored through reversible
reduction-oxidation cycles. In these two cases,46,119
the crystal size of the regenerated perovskite was
found to be even smaller than that seen for the
original samples.
These and other examples already mentioned
above (LaCoO3102 and LaNiO3123) show that by reduc-
Figure 5. (a) Temperature-programed reduction (10 K/min) tion treatments or reduction-oxidation cycles, the
of LaFexNi1-xO3+δ samples; (b) kinetic curves of reduction metal at position B is in a highly dispersed state on
at different temperatures for LaFe0.1Ni0.9O3 sample. a matrix composed of the oxide at position A. Highly
dispersed metals have also been obtained by applying
the process of reduction can be reasonably described reduction-oxidation-reduction cycles to supported
by the shell-type contracting model, which is math- metal oxide catalysts.124,125 This methodology is nicely
ematically described by the Mampel equation (eq 2). illustrated by the work of Kobylinski et al.124,125 on
The maximum rate of the reduction can be ap- the reduction of CoO and NiO phases deposited on
proached to the reciprocal of the time required to ceramic substrates. These authors found that catalyst
achieve a 50% reduction (rmax∝1/t0.5). Thus, activation activation through reduction-oxidation-reduction
energies (Ea) were calculated by means of the Arrhe- cycles leads to Co and Ni crystal sizes smaller than
nius plot of ln(1/t0.5) against 1/T. The Ea values found that obtained through a single reduction process.
for the temperature windows of 490-580 K (Ni3+ f Since catalyst activity is associated with the metal
Ni2+) and 726-784 K (Ni2+ f Ni0) are 103 and 111 phase dispersion, combined reduction-oxidation-
kJ mol-1, respectively.122 reduction cycles may represent a promising pathway
It should be emphasized here that the distinction for the development of highly dispersed metal cata-
of the two reduction mechanisms is somewhat arbi- lysts.
trary because the contracting-sphere model accounts
for a rapid nucleation process and the nucleation C. Ion Mobility
mechanism ends according to a contracting-sphere
model. This observation is illustrated by the close 1. Oxygen Transport
similarity of the shape of the curves of reduction after
the inflection point in step b in Figure 4c and in step Some perovskite oxides are found to be good mixed-
a in Figure 4b. conducting materials. Owing to their high electronic
and ionic conductivity, they can be used as oxygen
2. Reduction−Oxidation Cycles semipermeable membranes without electrodes or
external circuits.126 Teraoka et al.127,128 were the first
Perovskite oxides may be reversibly reduced and to demonstrate that the oxygen permeation fluxes
oxidized at temperatures at which sintering of the through the LaCoO3-based perovskites membranes
reduced or oxidized phases is absent. This is il- were 2-4 orders of magnitude higher than those of
lustrated by LaCoO3 perovskite. For this sample, the stabilized zirconia (YSZ) at the same tempera-
reoxidation at 673 K of LaCoO3 previously reduced tures. Ceramic membranes of perovskite-related
to Co0 + La2O3 fully restores the perovskite structure. oxide phases La(Sr)Co(Fe)O3-δ were used success-
However, the reduced phases Co0 + La2O3 heated in fully in several external conditions.129-131 The high-
an inert atmosphere (He) at 1073 K and reoxidation est oxygen permeation fluxes are characteristic of
SrCo1-xFexO3-δ solid solutions at 0.3 g x g 0.2. For cations at the saddle point position. In other words,
the most SrCoO3-δ-based perovskites, oxygen perme- the even distribution of relaxation between the
ability is limited by both bulk ionic transport and rate cations is an important factor for the low energy
of oxygen exchange between the oxides and the gas barriers to oxygen ion migration.
phase.132,133 It was found that an increase in oxygen It has been widely documented that the incorpora-
nonstoichiometry results in decreasing electrical tion of dopant ions to the LaMO3 oxides is crucial for
conductivity and oxygen permeability. This effect was promoting catalytic activity and high ion conduc-
observed when cobalt was substituted with lower tivity.140-144 These oxides are commonly acceptor-
valence cations in SrCo(M)O3-δ (M ) Ni, Cu) oxide doped with low-valent cations (e.g., Sr2+), which
systems.134,135 Conversely, the introduction of copper substitute La3+. This reduction of the effective va-
into the cobalt sublattice of SrCo(Fe,Cu)O3-δ consid- lence of A-site cations leads to the formation of a
erably improved the sinterability and mechanical compensating population of oxygen vacancies at low
strength of strontium cobaltites/ferrites.135 oxygen partial pressure, which in turn gives rise to
As stated above, Co- or Fe-based perovskites have the observed high ionic conductivity.
mainly been investigated as mixed electronic-oxide The energy of the resulting solution reaction (La-
ionic conductors.136 However, these oxides are easily BO3 + MO f MxLa1-xO3-δ, M ) alkaline earth
reduced in a reducing atmosphere, resulting in the element) can be evaluated theoretically by combining
formation of cracks.137 Recently, Ishihara et al.138 appropriate defect and lattice energy terms.145 The
found that LaGaO3-based perovskite doped with a results revealed that the most favorable solution
transition metal cation at the Ga site is effective for energy and hence the highest solubility is expected
increasing the conductivity of the oxide ion and also for Sr2+ in all the LaBO3 hosts. The solution energy
was found to be a minimum at Sr2+ (close to the La3+
the oxygen permeation rate. In particular, for
radius of 0.106 nm). This agrees with experimental
Sr0.2La0.8Ga1-xNixO3, the oxygen permeation rate
studies demonstrating that the incorporation of Sr,
increased with increasing Ni-contents and reached
and to a lesser extent Ca, results in an increase in
a maximum at x ) 0.25 at all temperatures. The
the oxygen diffusion coefficient and to high catalytic
oxygen permeation rate of this sample of 2.2 mL cm-2
activity in oxidation reactions. Theoretical calcula-
min-1 at 1273 K is substantially higher than the tions also showed that the solution of MgO and BaO
permeation rate of Sr0.4La0.6Fe0.8Co0.2O3 at the same is somewhat endothermic, in keeping with the ob-
temperature (1.5 mL cm-2 min-1),137 which is con- served low solubility.
sidered to be a promising mixed ion conductor for
Information about the fundamental mechanistic
oxygen separation. The improved oxygen permeation
features and migration activation energies is limited.
rate of the Ni-doped LaGaO3 perovskite is also
It is generally accepted that oxygen diffusion is based
accompanied by a stable conductivity and the absence on rapid transport of vacancies, which migrate by a
of Ni reduction in a reducing environment. conventional hopping mechanism, although there is
The size of the A and B cations in the ABO3 no experimental evidence to support this. These
perovskite structure is an important factor for high factors were analyzed by looking at the potential
ion conductivity. Using defined potentials, Cherry et energy surface.139 The surface energy maps were
al.139 calculated the migration energies of the vacancy constructed by calculating the defect energy of the
jump for a range of A and B cation radii. The results migration ion along the diffusion path and allowing
indicated two main points. First, the calculations relaxation of the lattice at each position. According
exhibited a clear trend toward lower migration ener- to this calculation, the results confirmed the migra-
gies with smaller A-site cations. There was an tion of oxygen ion vacancies as the lowest energy
optimum value of about 0.095 nm, below which the path. The calculated migration activation energy for
migration energy rose steeply. Second, there was a LaMnO3 was 0.86 eV, in agreement with the value
decrease in energy with increasing size of the B of 0.73 eV reported by Belzner et al.146 Similarly, the
cation, with a minimum at 0.075 nm. To assess these activation energy for LaCoO3 was 0.61 eV, which is
results, the relationship between the tolerance factor in good agreement with the experimental value
(t) was also established.140 The calculations suggested measured by Carter et al.147 The location of ions and
that perovskites with t ≈ 0.81 may lead to lower the available space in the perovskite lattice suggest
migration energies and faster diffusion, a result with that interstitial diffusion is unlikely. This is cor-
practical consequences for oxidation catalysis and for roborated by the high-energy barriers (>1.5 eV)
operating fuel cells at lower temperatures and at calculated for the interstitial migration. Therefore,
higher rates. Moreover, this value of the tolerance the ion diffusion in perovskite-type LaBO3 comes
factor (t) would encompass several perovskite elec- from the mobility of oxygen ion vacancies.
trolytes, such as PrMnO3 and GdMnO3. These find-
ings can be rationalized in terms of lattice relaxation 2. Cation Transport
effects. As the mobile oxygen approaches the saddle Despite the extensive work devoted to oxygen
point, it must pass through the center of a triangle transport, little efforts have been devoted to inves-
of cations. Calculations have shown that the repul- tigating cation diffusion in perovskite oxides. Cation
sive overlap interactions can be reduced by the mobility plays an important role not only in the
outward relaxation of these cations. It appears that processing steps, but also in their operation and
the minimum in t values corresponds to the most degradation. Thus, it is believed that in membrane
effective balance of the relaxation of the A and B perovskites cation mobilities occur in such a way that
the high oxygen pressure side favors enrichment with IV. Heterogeneous Catalysis
the fast moving of cations.148
For manganites, lanthanum diffusion is likely to A. Oxidation Reactions
take place by vacancy migration between neighboring
sites. The values of the activation energies for this 1. CO Oxidation
La vacancy mechanism calculated by Islam149 indi- The oxidation of CO over perovskite oxides was
cate a value of 3.93 eV for the cubic structure with a taken as a probe reaction on a number of perovskite
clear trend toward higher energies as the perovskite oxides with the aim of correlating the observed
lattice becomes more distorted from the cubic struc- activity with electronic state of the transition metal
ture. This fact is associated with the Mn-O-Mn ions or the defect chemistry of these compounds.104,157
bending and MnO6 octahedra tilting. The calculations In LnBO3 (Ln ) lanthanide) perovskites, the Ln3+
reveal a correlation between the shortest O-O sepa- ions are essentially inactive in catalysis and the
ration across the octahedral interstice and the acti- active M3+ transition metal ions are located at
vation energy for La migration.149 As expected, this relatively large distances from each other (around 0.4
activation energy increases as the O-O distance nm), which make them excellent catalytic models for
decreases. It should be stressed that the predicted study the interactions of CO and O2 on single surface
value for the vacancy mechanism is consistent with sites.
the calculated activation energy of 4.70 eV for The first study on the CO oxidation on perovskite
LaGaO3150 and the experimental value of 4.98 eV for oxides was carried out by Parravano in the early
La diffusion in the solid-oxide electrolyte fuel cell 50s.158 Later on, Kawai et al.115 observed a disconti-
interconnect LaCrO3 perovskite.151 nuity in the activation energy for the oxidation of CO
The calculated migration energies for Mn migra- with O2 or N2O on BaTiO3 ferroelectrics near the
tion are extremely high, lying around 14 eV, although Curie temperature (Tc ) 393 K) of this catalyst. The
in this case the perovskite distortion does not alter reaction rate is very slow in the temperature range
the energy barrier.149 Working on Sr-substituted from 373 to 473 K and under steady-state conditions
manganites, SrxLa1-xMnO3+δ, Wofenstine et al.150 is limited by the rate of the desorption of CO2. Both
calculated activation energies on the order of 4-5 eV facts were taken as conclusive that the oxidation
for bulk self-diffusion, although these authors were reaction proceeds via surface defects. Many other
unable to assign these values to a given cation perovskite oxides have been proposed and used in CO
diffusion. By modeling cation transport in Ca- and oxidation. Looking at most of the works discussed in
Sr-substituted manganites, in which the divalent our previous review,104 it is apparent that CO oxida-
dopant cations are compensated by electron holes tion over perovskites proceeds according to a supra-
(Mn4+ sites), it was found that the migration energies facial process, in which the electronic band structure
decrease in the order La > Sr > Ca.149 This trend is, near the Fermi level is believed to play a key
in principle, unexpected because the ionic radius of role.104,159 Thus, for the LaBO3 (B is transition atom
La3+ lies between that of Sr2+ and Ca2+. It can be from V to Ni) perovskite series, LaCoO3 proved to be
explained assuming that electrostatic and ion polar- the one most active159-163 and LaCrO3 among the
izibility factors, as well as steric hindrance at the least active for CO oxidation.164,165
saddle point, are important. On the basis of kinetic and spectroscopic data,
Tascon et al.166 proposed a simple reaction mecha-
Recently, perovskite oxides have received great nism for CO oxidation on LaCoO3:
deal of attention as high-temperature proton conduc-
tors with promising applications in several fields such O2(g) f O2-(ad) f 2O2-(ad) (3)
as hydrogen sensors, fuel cells, and electrolyzers.152
The best studied perovskites for this purpose are
CO(g) f CO(ad) (4)
A2+B4+O3, particularly ACeO3 (A ) Sr, Ba)153,154 and
AZrO3 (A ) Ca, Sr),155 with only a few studies on
A3+B3+O3 oxides.156 As revealed by isotope effect (H+/ CO(ad) + 2O-(ad) f CO32- (ad) (slow) (5)
D+) analysis of perovskite oxides, the conduction
mechanism is due to proton hopping between adja- CO3(ad) f CO2(ad) + O2-(ad) f CO2(g) + O2-(ad) (6)
cent oxygen ions, rather than by hydroxyl ion migra-
tion. Proton jump involves quantum effects (tunnel- where eq 6 should be the rate-determining step.
ing) and cooperative motions of the structure (lattice Oxygen is adsorbed as molecular O2- species on Co2+
phonons), both leading to modulations of O-O dis- ions, which subsequently dissociates yielding atomic
tance. Using ab initio Harthree-Fock techniques, oxygen (O-) adsorbed on the same site. On the other
Cherry et al.139 studied the proton-transfer process hand, CO adsorbs on surface oxide ions, leading to a
and calculated energy barriers for proton conductivi- labile species that interacts with adsorbed atomic
ties of less than 0.2 eV, which are 2-3 times lower oxygen, producing a carbonate structure that then
than that observed in perovskite oxides.153-156 It decomposes to afford adsorbed CO2 and oxygen.
should be emphasized that these calculations yield LaCuO3-δ (δ ) 0.05-0.45) perovskites offer a useful
the energy and geometry of the ground and barrier model catalyst system in which the concentration of
state configurations. However, they provide no in- oxygen vacancies can be gradually changed by con-
formation concerning the relaxation of the surround- trolled annealing under high oxygen pressures at
ing lattice, which would accompany the proton mi- temperatures from 1073 to 1273 K.167 These defect
gration. structures were carefully characterized using the
Figure 6. Temperature dependence of the intrinsic activ-

ity in the catalytic CO oxidation on LaCuO3-δ catalysts:
(a) LaCuO2.55; (b) LaCuO2.55; (c) LaCuO2.73; (d) LaCuO2.95;
and (e) La2CuO4.
Rietveld method and photoelectron spectroscopy and

were then tested in the catalytic oxidation of CO
under flow conditions. Stationary-state activity data
of the LaCuO3-δ systems, expressed as moles of CO
converted per square meter and per minute, as a
function of temperature, are shown in Figure 6.
Although all the samples display measurable activity
at 423 K, differences among them become apparent
at higher temperatures. The orthorhombic sample
LaCuO2.55 shows the strongest activity; its monoclinic
counterpart LaCuO2.65 is less active, and the tetrago-
nal samples LaCuO2.73 and LaCuO2.95 exhibit still
lower activity. Catalytic activity in CO oxidation is
largely controlled by the number of oxygen vacancies
present in the crystal structure. The almost stoichio-
metric tetragonal LaCuO2.95 perovskite, with 90%
Cu3+, exhibits a moderate activity well below that of
the most nonstoichiometric compound (LaCuO2.55)
with only 10% Cu3+ irrespective of the temperature Figure 7. Temperature dependence of the intrinsic activ-
range considered. As has been observed in the series ity in the catalytic CO oxidation on Ln1-xSrxNiO3 (Ln )
of superconducting materials of the YBa2Cu3O7-δ Pr, Sm, and Eu).
family, the oxygen vacancies seem to be responsible
for this reaction.51 The thermal decomposition under at lower temperatures than the respective undoped
reducing conditions of the orthorhombic LaCuO2.55 compounds, activity is related to the ease of oxygen
phases at temperatures significantly lower than the removal. The reduction temperature decreases when
remaining LaCuO3-δ phases167 suggests that the the Ni valence is enhanced using a suitable Ln
activity is also related to the ease of oxygen removal, partner in the crystal lattice. The larger the Ln3+
either from the adsorbed state or from the lattice, as cation, the higher is its basic character, and the more
observed in LaCoO3-δ series.168 enhanced is the actual valence for Ni. For Pr0.95Sr0.05-
A strong enhancement in the catalytic activity for NiO3 sample, the formal valence of Ni is +3.05, which
CO oxidation has recently been reported on hole results in a shorter Ni-O bond, and therefore re-
doped Ln1-xSrxNiO3 (Ln ) Pr, Sm, Eu) perovskites.169 duced at lower temperatures.169 Thus, the lattice
Figure 7 shows the influence of reaction temperature oxygens are more labile and can participate more
on the intrinsic activity for CO oxidation. To normal- easily in the external redox process, as depicted by
ize differences in the specific areas of the SrxLn1-xNiO3 eqs 4-7.
samples, activity was expressed here as intrinsic
activity, which represents the number of moles of CO 2. Oxidation of Hydrocarbons
converted per square meter of catalyst and unit time. The reports by Libby170 and Pedersen and Libby171
As expected for the three series of perovskites, in the early 70s opened the possibility of using
intrinsic activities increased with the reaction tem- perovskite oxides for the oxidation of hydrocarbons.
perature. In addition, the Sr-substituted samples Following this, the large body of work ensued solid
were more active than the respective undoped Ln- arguments to explain the catalytic performance of
NiO3 counterparts. However, the effect of Sr-substi- these materials in terms of the relative ease with
tution was much more marked in Pr0.95Sr0.05NiO3, in which oxygen species can be released from the
which activity was nearly 3-fold activity of the surface. The oxidation of paraffins,172-190 olefins,49,52
unsubstituted PrNiO3 sample. Sr-substitution had a aromatics,185-187 and oxygenate compounds53,185,188-193
less marked effect in Sm0.90Sr0.10NiO3 and even less are the most representative examples.
effect in the Eu0.99Sr0.01NiO3 sample. Since the hole- The combustion of methane over perovskite oxides
doped samples underwent the first reduction process has been extensively investigated, particularly in
ferrites exhibited very high oxidation activities com-

parable with the activity of a Pt/Al2O3 combustion
catalyst.172 High catalytic activities for methane
combustion over perovskite oxides were also reported
by McCarty and Wise.141 An interesting characteristic
of these perovskites is the possibility of varying the
dimensions of the unit cell by substitution of the A
ion, and thereby the covalency of the B-O bond in
the ABO3 structure. Moreover, partial substitution
at the A-site can strongly affect catalytic activity due
to stabilization of unusual oxidation states of the B
component and to the simultaneous formation of
structural defects. Structural defects are responsible
not only for part of the catalytic activity, but also for
oxygen mobility within the crystal lattice, due to the
nonstoichiometry created by substituting the A-site.
An overview of these aspects as well as the implica-
tions in methane combustion have been compiled in
our previous reviews.4,104
In a recent contribution, Ferri and Forni55 demon-
strated that the type of substitution at the A-site in
families of La1-xA′xBO3 (B ) Co, Fe, Ni) oxides has a
strong influence on methane combustion. Substitu-
tion at the A-site with a bivalent cation (A′ ) Sr, Eu)
or a tetravalent cation (A′ ) Ce) led to a decrease or
an increase, respectively, of methane combustion
Figure 8. Rates of propylene (open symbols) and isobutene activity. The Eu- or Sr-substitution for La leads to
(filled symbols) oxidations on LaMO3 oxides at 573 K. Molar higher oxidation states for Co, so that the higher the
ratio HC:O2 ) 0.25:1 (circles) or 2:1 (triangles). Reprinted amount of Sr, the higher is the concentration of Co4+.
from ref 49 by permission of the publisher, Copyright 1985
by The Royal Society. However, since Co4+ is unstable, then oxygen release
can take place ending in the formation of oxygen
recent years (see below). The performance of these vacancies. By contrast, insertion of Ce4+ leads to a
compounds for the combustion of other long chain partial reduction of the Co3+ to Co2+, thus affording
hydrocarbons has also been examined. Thus, Naka- a large amount of active sites for oxygen adsorption
mura et al.51 and Nitadori and Misono54 studied from gas-phase. Consistent with these observations,
propane combustion on Sr- or Ce-substituted LaMO3 O2 TPD patterns revealed a high-temperature peak,
(M ) Fe, Co) perovskites. The activity of La1-xSrxMnO3 attributed to structural lattice oxygen, and a low-
varied in a parallel way to the reducibility of the temperature peak corresponding to oxygen originated
catalyst surface, the amount of reversibly adsorbed by the reduction process involving the B-site cation
oxygen, and the rate of isotopic equilibration of and the formation of anion vacancies. At low tem-
oxygen. Since all these properties are related to the peratures, methane combustion on these catalysts is
surface oxygen, it can be inferred that the catalytic a suprafacial reaction194 involving oxygen coming
activity is controlled by the nonstoichiometric char- from the gas phase or sitting in the oxygen vacancies
acter of the surface. In another contribution, Kre- of the catalyst.160 In fact, at low temeperature meth-
menic et al.49 studied the combustion of propylene ane combustion rate is of zero order with respect to
and isobutene at 573 K on LaBO3 (B ) Cr, Mn, Fe, the oxygen partial pressure due to a rapid incorpora-
Co, Ni) oxides and found the rates of isobutene tion of gaseous oxygen into the lattice:
combustion to be higher than those of propylene. In
both cases, a twin peak pattern with maxima for Mn r ) k1PCH4 (7)
and Co was observed (Figure 8), matched with that
obtained upon oxygen adsorption on the perovskites. where k1 is the specific rate constant and PCH4 is the
Finally, the close parallelism between O2 adsorption methane partial pressure. However, at high-temper-
and catalytic activity in the combustion of propylene ature methane reacts with the oxygen supplied by
and i-butene suggests that these reactions occur the catalyst and coming from the bulk (intrafacial
through a suprafacial mechanism, in which adsorbed mechanism).194 On the basis of these considerations,
oxygen is the dominant species participating in the the overall rate of CH4 combustion throughout the
reaction. whole temperature range can be described by the
a. Methane Combustion. Perovskite-type oxides sum of two parallel reactions.
show particular promise for the combustion of meth-
ane (or natural gas) owing to their good stability, at K2PCH4(KO2PO2)1/2
least below 1300 K, and high catalytic activity. Arai r) + k1PCH4 (8)
et al.172 studied the catalytic combustion of methane 1 + (KO2PO2)1/2
over LaBO3 (B ) transition element) and Sr-substi-
tuted La1-xSrxBO3 (0 < x < 0.4) perovskites. Particu- where PO2 and KO2 are the partial pressure and
larly, the Sr-substituted manganites, cobaltites, and adsorption constant for oxygen. At high tempera-
tures, the reaction rate can be expressed simply as gas on proton conductive MCeO3 (M ) Sr, Ba)
r ) Ka PCH4(KO2PO2)1/2, if the oxygen coverage is small perovskites. In particular, the Nd-doped BaCeO3
(1 . (KO2PO2)1/2. Equation 9 will thus be: material shows significantly higher proton conduc-
tion in wet air than SrCeO3. This oxide was used as
r ) KaPCH4(KO2PO2)1/2 + K1PCH4 (9) a solid electrolyte in a steam electrolyzer producing
H2 and in a H2/air fuel cell. In the latter case, the
resistance of the solid electrolyte was the main factor
The contribution of each oxygen species to the limiting cell performance. Hamakawa et al.200 re-
overall rate can be estimated separately by plotting ported data on CH4 coupling using SrCe0.95Yb0.05O3-δ
the experimental rate r vs PO1/2.57 The intercepts of (SCYO) as a solid electrolyte in an electrochemical
the straight lines (PO2 ) 0) represent the contribution cell. Because there is no gaseous O2, which is
of lattice oxygen, which is expected to increase with responsible for the combustion reaction, this may
increasing reaction temperature. These consider- lead to a much better C2-selectivity than can be
ations are consistent with the simultaneous partici- obtained with the conventional catalytic process.
pation of suprafacial and intrafacial processes during Chiang et al.201 also investigated the dehydrogenative
hydrocarbon oxidations taking place at low and high dimerization of methane using SCYO proton-con-
temperatures, respectively, on perovskite oxides.104,159 ducting membranes and proposed that the rate-
Monolith perovskites prepared from ultradispersed determining step is the formation of a CH3‚ radical
powders of mixed oxides of rare earths (La-Ce or Dy- by proton abstraction. Comparison of the activity
Y) and transition metals (Ni, Fe, Mn) have recently data using different reactors for this reaction indi-
been used in methane combustion.91 These preshaped cates that the SCYO membrane reactor affords a
structures were seen to be active and selective in the substantially larger yield than the corresponding
target reaction over a wide range of temperatures. conventional catalytic reactor.202 The experimental
The scale of the specific activity and apparent activa- results clearly show that the equilibrium conversion
tion energy for monoliths paralleled that found for of the dehydrogenation reaction can be dramatically
powder samples. The catalyst decreased the ignition changed by using a proton-conducting membrane in
temperature, up to 200 K for the temperature re- an electrochemical reactor cell.
quired to achieve a 10% methane conversion, and
enhanced the selectivity to CO2 with respect the c. Partial Oxidation of Methane. Several perovskite
uncatalyzed process. oxides have been studied as catalysts for the partial
b. Oxidative Coupling of Methane. Elshof et al.195 oxidation of methane to syngas (CH4 + 1/2O2 f
studied the oxidative coupling of methane on a La0.6- CO + 2H2).105,203-205 Slagtern and Olsbye203 reported
Sr0.4Co0.8Fe0.2O3 membrane using O2 partial pressures the in situ formation and high activity of metal
between 0.01 and 1 bar. Methane was converted to species for synthesis gas production on LaBO3 (B )
C2H6 and C2H4 with selectivities of up to 70% but at Rh, Ni, Co) perovskites, where the perovskite struc-
conversion levels of only about 1-3%. An important ture decomposed during the reaction. The best sys-
requirement for the reaction is that the O2 flux tem, LaRhO3, displayed high activity at 1073 K for
should be limited by exchange kinetics, because long times on stream (120 h), and exhibited good
otherwise reduction of the membrane would occur, dispersion of Rh particles on the La2O3 phase, while
with the subsequent decrease in C2 selectivity. The both LaNiO3 and LaCoO3 were deactivated, probably
same reaction was studied in a membrane reactor due to coke formation during the reaction. In the
with BaCe0.8Gd0.2O3-δ,196 which is a mixed oxide ion- series of Ca0.8Sr0.2Ti1-yNiyO3, Hayakawa et al.205
electron hole conductor. By passing CH4 over one side reported that the catalyst with a composition of y >
of the membrane and O2 over the other side, reason- 0.1 shows high activity for CH4 combustion at tem-
able conversions of methane were obtained, with peratures around 873 K but suddenly changes to
much greater selectivity than when both CH4 and O2 synthesis gas formation at 1073 K. An increase in y
were fed to the same side of the membrane. This results in high activity for CH4 combustion, and the
means that the O species released from the mem- highest selectivity to synthesis gas at 1073 K is
brane at the CH4 side is more active for C2 formation obtained with catalyst y ) 0.2. Under the conditions
than gaseous O2. By considering both the surface of synthesis gas formation, the overall reaction ap-
reactions on the membrane-gas interface and the pears to occur through two consecutive processes: the
diffusion of the different charged species in the solid, first part of the catalyst bed catalyzes CH4 combus-
equations for the transport of oxygen through thin tion under the O2-rich atmosphere, and the second
mixed conducting membranes were derived.197 The part of the bed catalyzes CH4 reforming with the H2O
calculations show that the use of highly permeable and CO2 produced in the first part, under the O2-
ceramic membranes with a catalytically active sur- deficient atmosphere. Either Ni species in the per-
face for the coupling reaction affords one the pos- ovskite structure or the NiO phase originally sepa-
sibility of achieving much higher C2 yields than with rated from the perovskite structure during catalyst
a packed-bed reactor. The high C2 yield can only be preparation is easily reduced to Ni0 under the O2-
attained when the oxygen flux, the CH4 flow rate, deficient environment at high temperature, and the
and the intrinsic reaction rate match each other. Ni metal thus formed in the second zone shows high
Other perovskite membranes display proton con- activity for synthesis gas formation.
ductivity when exposed to a H-containing atmosphere Lago et al.105 investigated a series of LnCoO3
at high temperatures. Iwahara et al.198,199 discussed (Ln ) La, Pr, Nd, Sm, Gd) perovskites as catalyst
the application to steam electrolysis to produce H2 precursors for the partial oxidation of methane to
Figure 10. Temperature-programmed (10 K/min) reduc-

tion profiles of LnCoO3 perovskite oxide precursors.
thanides. This finding agrees with the thermody-

Figure 9. (A) Methane conversion; (B) H2; and (C) CO namic calculations made by Katsura et al.98 for the
selectivity in the presence of LnCoO3 systems prereduced oxidation of iron to the rare earth perovskite between
at 1023 K. 1473 and 1673 K, who showed that reoxidation to
synthesis gas. Among these compounds, the Gd- form the perovskite is favored in the order La >
Co-O system showed exceptional performance for Nd > Sm > Gd, with standard Gibbs energies of
synthesis gas formation (Figures 9A-C). At 1009 K, -288.0, -274.6, -267.9, and -263.7 kJ mol-1, re-
a steady-state CH4 conversion of 73%, with selectivi- spectively. Accordingly, deactivation of these cata-
ties of 79 and 81% for CO and H2, respectively, was lysts derived from perovskite structures appears to
observed for the catalyst Gd-Co-O. The less active be related to the reoxidation of the active metal phase
Nd-Co-O and Sm-Co-O catalysts afford a similar during the syngas reaction and the subsequent solid-
steady-state CH4 conversion within the temperature state reaction with the lanthanide oxide (M2O3 +
range studied. The catalyst La-Co-O is active for Ln2O3 f LnMO3) to regenerate the original perovs-
CH4 combustion, and only traces of H2 and CO were kite phase.
observed under the reaction conditions used. It was Internal reforming reaction of methane and oxygen
observed that at constant temperature the steady- (or air) in a solid oxide electrolyte fuel cell was
state yields of H2 and CO inversely followed the order investigated by Yamada et al.206 These authors
of the ionic radii of the rare earth, considering the reported that large electric power as well as syngas
oxidation state +3, coordination number 8, and the (CO + H2) mixtures can be obtained by using LaGaO3
sexquioxides of structural type A for La2O3, Pr2O3, perovskite as solid electrolyte. It was found that
and Nd2O3 and type B for Sm2O3 and Gd2O3.105 Thus, doping of a small amount of cobalt for electrolyte is
gadolinium, which has the shortest ionic radius, effective in increasing the power density and the yield
exhibits the highest CO and H2 yields and contrasts of CO and H2. In particular, the optimized composi-
with the La-containing catalyst (the largest ion), in tion La0.9Sr0.1Ga0.8Mg0.115Co0.085O3 for the electrolyte
which no syngas was observed. afforded power density and yield of CO and H2 of 242
The nature of the Ln affects the reducibility of Co mW cm-2 and 16%, respectively, at 1073 K. Consid-
in the LnCoO3 perovskites.105 The Goldschmidt toler- ering that the thickness of electrolyte was 0.5 mm
ance factor t obtained for these systems indicates and small Gibbs free energy change for the partial
that, considering only geometric factors, lanthanum, oxidation of methane into CO and H2, power genera-
which is the largest ion in the series, forms the most tion characteristics of the cell was even superior.
stable perovskite structure. This trend is reflected Since the decrease in power density was not signifi-
in the reduction profiles, where the LaCoO3 perov- cant when air is used as oxidant instead of oxygen,
skite, the most stable structure, is reduced at the the internal reforming fuel cell is attractive not only
higher temperature (Figure 10). Likewise, the oxida- from the standpoint of upgrading natural gas but also
tion profiles obtained on the H2-reduced perovskites from separation of air.
The reforming of methane using carbon dioxide as
Co + 1/2Ln2O3 + 3/4O2 T LnCoO3 (10) an oxidant agent (dry reforming) (CH4 + CO2 f
2CO + 2H2) has also been investigated on Ni-based
showed that reoxidation of cobalt to form the per- perovskites.207-209 La1-xSrxNiO3 (x ) 0-0.1) and
ovskite structure is more favorable for larger lan- La2-xSrxNiO4 (x ) 0-1.0) perovskite series displayed
different performances in the dry reforming of CH4.98

LaNiO3 shows high activity without coke formation
while La2NiO4 is inactive. Among the Sr-substituted
perovskites, La0.9Sr0.1NiO3 and La1.8Sr0.2NiO4 display
the highest activity, with coke formation on the
surface. Initially, the catalytic activity increases with
time and then reaches steady state. Such an increase
in catalyst performance is associated with the trans-
formation of the original perovskite into La2O2CO3
and SrCO3 with highly dispersed Ni metal particles
due to the H2 generated in the reaction. The en-
hanced catalytic activity of Sr-substituted perovskite
could come from dual sites: La2O3 for CO2 adsorption
and Ni0 for CH4 activation.
Perovskite membranes have also been studied for
the partial oxidation of methane to syngas.210-215
Tubular La0.2Sr0.8Fe0.6Co0.4O3-δ membranes coated on Figure 11. Schematic diagram of a perovskite membrane
the inside of the tube with an Rh reforming catalyst for the partial oxidation of methane to syngas.
were used in syngas production.210 At 1023 K, CH4
conversion reaches levels above 98%, with a CO transition metal oxides, with or without the use of
selectivity of about 90% and an H2 yield almost twice alkali or halides as dopants, perovskite oxides are
the CO yield. Since this perovskite is highly active effective systems for the ODE reaction. Hayakawa
in CH4 combustion, the overall reaction might pro- et al.218 studied the catalytic activity of CaTi1-xFexO3-δ
ceed in such a way that the total combustion of CH4 (0 < x < 0.4) and SrTi1-xFexO3-δ (0 < x < 1.0) for the
occurs (CH4 + 2O2 f CO2 + 2H2O), followed by a ODE reaction and found that the latter showed
reforming reaction (2CH4 + CO2 + H2O f 3CO + higher C2H4 selectivity than the former. Later, Yi et
5H2) on the Rh-coated reforming catalyst. Another al.219 reported a yield of 37% to C2H4 when working
group of materials investigated is based on a com- at 923 K and C2H6:O2 ) 1:1 (molar ratios) in the feed.
position in the Sr4(Fe6-xCox)O13+δ region. These com- A significant advance was achieved very recently by
pounds are not simple perovskites because the B/A Dai et al.,220 who embedded halide ions in the lattice
ratio is larger than 1 (in the perovskite ABO3 it is of the perovskite oxide. Following this approach, the
1). These are layered compounds, which combine high deep oxidation of C2H6 and C2H4 and the leaching of
electronic/ionic conductivity with an appreciable oxy- the halide from the lattice were minimized. The
gen permeability. Dense membranes of these materi- oxygen-deficient structures SrFeO2.81 and SrFeO2.618-
als can be used to separate high purity oxygen from Cl0.443 were highly active for the ODE reaction,
air and also to partially oxidize CH4 to synthesis gas, although the latter performed much better than the
without the need of an external electrical circuit. former, with a C2H4 yield of ca. 63% when working
at 953 K, a reactant molar ratio of C2H6:O2:N2 )
Mixed oxygen anion- and electron-conducting mem- 2:1:3.7 and at atmospheric pressure. The tempera-
branes derived from the browmillerite structures ture-programmed desorption of oxygen and temper-
have also been used for the same purpose.216 This ature-programmed reduction experiments show that
structure has the general composition A2B2O5 and is the introduction of chlorine into the SrFeO3-δ lattice
attractive as an oxygen anion conductor since it can would lead to the regulation of oxygen vacancies and
support a large population of O2- vacancies, as well the Fe4+/Fe3+ ratio and hence suppression of C2H6
as a variety of substituents in the A- and B-sites. To and C2H4 deep oxidation.
promote the partial oxidation reaction utilizing these e. Other Oxidation Reactions. Perovskites have also
mixed conducting membranes, they were successfully been studied as model compounds in the oxidation
assembled in tubes.217 One side of the reactor is of oxygenated compounds.190-193 Trikalitis and Pomo-
exposed to air, and hence the membrane serves to nis190 reported the activity profiles for the decomposi-
separate oxygen from the atmosphere. This oxygen tion of isopropyl alcohol on La1-xSrxVO3-δ perovskites
is then transported as oxide ions through the mem- at temperatures between 473 and 573 K. Among the
brane where it goes on to react with the CH4 present two reaction products, acetone and propylene, the
on the second side of the membrane, to yield syngas selectivity of the reaction for x ) 0 was ca. 15% for
(Figure 11). Using these browmillerite membranes acetone and increased linearly with the substitution
at 1173 K, H2/CO ratios between 1.9 and 2.0, a CO of La by Sr, reaching a value of 40% at x ) 1.0. The
selectivity above 96% and a CH4 conversion of about apparent activation energy calculated for the total
90% can be obtained. It should also be emphasized conversion of i-propyl alcohol according to first-order
that this performance was maintained by the mem- kinetics was close to 120 kJ mol-1, which is similar
brane for continuous operation for over one year on- to that found for acetone formation while that
stream. estimated for the propylene formation was lower by
d. Oxydehydrogenation of Ethane. Production of 10-15 kJ mol-1 on average. The influence of elec-
ethylene monomer via oxidative dehydrogenation of tronic effects on the reaction appeared negligible,
ethane (ODE: C2H6 + 1/2O2 f C2H4 + H2O) is a whereas the acid/base function of the catalyst played
reaction of great chemical and technological rel- a key role. More recently, Sumathi et al.193 have
evance. Besides the alkaline earth, rare earth, and studied the selective oxidation and dehydrogenation
of benzyl alcohol on BaBB′O3 (B ) Pb, Ce, Ti; M′ ) ducted on N2O decomposition on perovskites up to
Bi, Cu, Sb) perovskites in the absence and in the the end of 80s were sunmmarized in our previous
presence of oxygen. Partial reduction of the catalyst review.104
was observed on-stream when the reaction was The catalytic decomposition of N2O to nitrogen and
carried in the absence of O2 or at low O2 partial oxygen was investigated by Gunasekaran et al.227
pressures. Catalytic activity was found to depend on over various substituted La0.8Sr0.2MO3-δ (M ) Cr, Fe,
the reducibility of the catalyst surface, and this was Mn, Co, Y) perovskite series. Among the various solid
higher for Cu-containing perovskites and lower for solutions, La0.8Sr0.2CoO3-δ showed a maximum N2O
BaMO3 (B ) Ti, Ce) oxides. Catalytic activity and conversion of 90% at 873 K. The activity of La0.8-
reducibility were correlated with metal-oxygen bond- Sr0.2CoO3-δ was found to be comparable to a reference
ing as well as with the free energy of reduction of Pd/Al2O3 catalyst at temperatures above 773 K when
B-site cations feeding N2O (in helium). However, incorporation of
The chemical and thermal stabilities of perovskite- O2 to the feed stream (about 4% O2) led to a decrease
type oxides have also been exploited for the oxidation in the conversion of N2O by ca. 13% in the case of
of halocompounds.221,222 Kiessling et al.221 reported La0.8Sr0.2CoO3-δ, whereas it remained constant in the
the complete decomposition of CH3Cl, CH2Cl2 and Pt/Al2O3 catalyst. Complementary studies on the
1,2-C2H4Cl2 in air over LaMO3 (M ) Mn, Co) and reduction-oxidation properties as well as nonsto-
La0.84Sr0.16Mn0.67Co0.33O3 perovskite oxides at tem- ichiometry and oxygen desorption capacity over
peratures above 800 K. Besides the main reaction substituted La1-xSrxMO3-δ (M ) Mn, Fe, Co) con-
products (carbon dioxide, water, and hydrochloric firmed the operation of a redox mechanism for N2O
acid) chlorine-containing byproducts (C-C coupling decomposition reaction.228,229 In addition, the effect
and cracking) were also formed in the low tempera- of added oxygen in the reaction feed was to inhibit
ture range. Depending on the reaction temperature, both N2O conversion and the overall reaction rate,
the residence time and the type of reactant halocom- consistent with the established reaction mechanism
pound, a reversible catalyst deactivation takes place. in eqs 13-17 above.
Considering the formation of chloride species on the The decomposition of NO into N2 and O2 (2NO f
surface and in the bulk during reaction, it was N2 + O2) is thermodynamically favorable at temper-
suggested that the formation of more highly chlori- atures below 1300 K. It is generally accepted that
nated byproducts takes place by insertion of chloride the decomposition of NO involves the dissociation of
species on the catalyst surface in reactants or inter- NO to nitrogen and oxygen on a catalytic surface and
mediates. The preferential formation of these byprod- that nitrogen readily desorbs as N2 while oxygen is
ucts with increasing time on-stream and with resi- strongly retained on the surface. Catalysts active for
dence time, as well as the reaction temperature at NO decomposition should accordingly display not
lower conversion degrees, is consistent with a con- only the ability to adsorb and dissociate NO but also
secutive insertion of chloride on the surface in the ability to facilitate the desorption of oxygen. A
intermediates or adsorbed halocompounds. broad variety of catalytic systems such as metals,
simple and mixed metal oxides, and ion-exchanged
B. Pollution Abatement zeolites have been studied for this purpose.230-232
Several perovskite-type oxides exhibit good perfor-
1. NOx Decomposition mance for the decomposition of NO at temperatures
The decomposition of N2O into its elements is one above 750 K104,233-235 and are quite stable for long-
of the best model reactions to evaluate the catalytic term operation at these high temperatures.236
activity of many materials in heterogeneous cataly- Most of the results reported on the decomposition
sis.223 The elementary steps involved in the N2O of NO on perovskite oxides can be described by
decomposition reaction can be summarized as follows: a reaction scheme that includes the participation
of molecular and dissociative chemisorption of
N2O f N2Oad (11) NO:17,159,237
N2Oad + e- f N2O-ad (12) M-0-M + NO f M-O-M + 1/2N2

(0 ) oxygen vacancy) (16)
N2O-ad f N2 + O-ad (13)
0 + NO + 2e- f OL2- + Nads
(OL) lattice oxygen) (17)
N2O + O-ad f N2 + O2 + e- (14)
Nads + NOads f N2O (18)
2O-ad f O2 + 2e- (15)
2Nads f N2 (19)
The decomposition rate is inhibited by oxygen, and
its desorption has been found to be the rate-limiting Manganites, cobaltites, and ferrites57,234,236 as well as
step of the overall reaction224-226 (eq 15). Thus, the perovskite-related YBa2Cu3O7-x,233 La2CuO4 based-
reaction rate would be expected to depend on the oxides,235,238 and BaRuxBi1-xO3 (x ) 0.33-1.0) per-
lattice parameter of the perovskite, because the M-O ovskites239 have been reported to be active for NO
bond length and bond energy should alter the M-Oad. decomposition. Teraoka et al.240 studied the effect of
This aspect and a brief account of the works con- the partial pressure of NO and O2 and contact time
(W/F) on the NO decomposition activity of La0.8Sr0.2- Most work on the reduction of NO on perovskites
CoO3 and La0.4Sr0.6Mn0.8Ni0.2O3 perovskites. The re- has focused on the use of CO as a reducing gas
action was practically first-order with respect to NO because of the need to control NO and CO emissions
and was inhibited by O2. To explain the kinetic especially from motor vehicles. Mechanistically, the
results in a consistent fashion, a reaction mechanism CO + NO reaction on perovskites seems to proceed
was proposed in which the active site would be a pair through the formation of N2O and surface isocyanate
of adjacent oxide ion vacancy sites near the surface. species.46 If this possibility exists, then the perov-
The reaction of NO molecules on the active site is skites must be tailored in such a way that the direct
assumed to occur stepwise (first-order kinetics). NO oxidation of CO becomes an easy process as compared
is adsorbed along with the oxygen atom that fits into with the isocyanate route. This may be possible with
the vacancy, and an electron flows to the NO mol- a proper choice of the cations in the perovskite oxides,
ecule from a B-site cation neighboring the vacancy, with orbitals of suitable energy and symmetry able
giving rise to the formation of the NO- species and to activate the CO molecule directly so as to promote
the concomitant oxidation of the B-site cation the oxidation reaction over the formation of isocyan-
(Co3+ f Co4+; Mn3+ f Mn4+; Ni2+ f Ni3+). As is well- ate species.
known,241 electron transfer to the antibonding orbital Different perovskite systems were investigated as
of NO reduces the bond order from 2.5 to 2 and catalysts for the NO + CO reaction in the 90s. Among
facilitates the cleavage of the N-O bond. Once the these are La1-xFeO3,243 LaCoO3,244,245 LaMnO3 and
second NO molecule has been adsorbed, a free N2 LaMn0.99Pt0.01O3246, LaMO3 and La1-xSrxMO3 (M )
molecule is released into the gas phase by the Fe, Co, Mn, Cr, Ni),247-249 La1-xSrxAl1-2yCuyRuyO3,250
interaction of two neighboring NO- species. The La0.8Sr0.2Co1-2yCuyRuyO3,251 and La2-xSrxNiO4.252,253
release of oxygen is regulated by the adsorption- On La2-xSrxNiO4, the transformation of NO is mono-
desorption equilibrium, and the formation of two molecular as compared to CO oxidation, which is a
oxide vacancies (0) involves a 4-electron process: bimolecular reaction. The apparent activation ener-
gies run parallel for both reactions, CO oxidation
2O2- + 4B(n+1)+ f 2(0) + 4Bn+ + O2(g) (20) showing higher values, especially in the high tem-
perature region. Kinetic analysis reveals that NO is
Because of the easy redox change of B(n+1)+/Bn+ more strongly adsorbed in samples poor in oxygen
(BdMn, Co, Ni) and the good electrical conductivity (large x) and more loosely on samples rich in that
of the solids, electron transfer is expected to occur element (small x) in the low-temperature region,
smoothly. Support for the redox mechanism operating while at higher temperatures and at large x, the
in NO decomposition was provided by Bontchev et excess oxygen produced acts as a poison to the
al.,239 who observed that the reaction is enhanced on reaction.253 Details on the mechanism of the CO +
BaRuxBi1-xO3 by the particular crystal structure of NO reaction on La1-xCexCoO3 were provided by Forni
these oxides, with a high percentage of hexagonally et al.254 In this system, the first step involves the
stacked units of two and/or three RuO6 octahedra. oxidation of CO by the catalyst surface, followed by
The concentration of these units increases with the the dissociative adsorption of NO onto the catalyst
Ru content, and they can be regarded as active sites surface. Finally, the adsorbed nitrogen yields N2O,
for the NO decomposition reaction. N2, and NCOad along three parallel paths. Thus,
DV-XR cluster molecular orbital method242 was oxygen exchange between NO and CO seems to occur
applied to investigate the electronic effects of the indirectly and involves an oxygen vacancy. Addition-
LaBO3 (B from Ti to Ni) series on the reactivity of ally, the catalytic activity is decreased by the replace-
the adsorbed NO molecule and the oxygen produced ment of Ce4+ by La3+ in the perovskite structure,
by direct NO decomposition at the oxygen vacancy. which reduces the mobility of bulk oxygen. A different
Yokoi and Uchida242 calculated the bond orders of mechanism is operative in the reducible La2CuO4
N-B and O-B pairs and found that they correlate system:255 activity increases during the reaction up
with the maximum temperature of the O2 DTP peaks. to a stabilized level while the solid is reduced with
In addition, the ease O2 desorption was ascribed to the formation of Cu0 and La2O3, suggesting that the
the higher binding energy component of the O1s core- reduced copper sites are active in the CO + NO
level spectra located at 530.5-531.5 eV. Thus it can reaction. This reduction and the resulting activation
be assumed intuitively that the desorption site of are not determined by the stoichiometry of the
such an O1s species is the active site for the direct reaction mixture conditions because they can also
decomposition reaction of NO on this perovskite oxide occur under oxidative reaction conditions when NO
family. is present in large excess with respect to CO.
Effective reduction of NO was also accomplished
2. Exhaust Treatment by ethylene-256 and hydrogen-257reducing agents.
Perovskite oxides are excellent candidates as cata- Harada et al.256 reported the performance for the
lysts particularly suited for exhaust gas depollution selective reduction of NO with C2H4 over perovskites
processes. They can be regarded as valuable alterna- containing Co, Mn, Fe, Cr, Al, Sn, and Ti as host B
tive catalysts to supported noble metals, which are cations in the ABO3 structure. Only the systems with
easy to synthesize at lower cost and with great a nonredox function (Al, Sn, and Ti) displayed selec-
thermal stability up to high temperatures. This tive catalytic reduction of NO. Over perovskites
section compiles the reduction processes of NO in the containing redox cations, the undesirable consump-
presence of different reducing agents. tion of C2H4 by O2 proceeded preferentially. Ferri et
al.257 used La0.9Ce0.1MO3 (M ) Mn, Fe, Co, Ni)

perovskites for NO reduction by H2 and observed
M ) Co as the most active. Activity was found to
depend on both anion vacancies and Co2+ ions. The
NO reduction with H2 includes reduction of the
catalyst followed by NO adsorption, which is favored
by the lower oxidation state of the B-site cation. This
involves the catalyst in a redox cycle exploiting its
defect structure. The higher activity found for cobal-
tates could thus be attributed to the presence of
O-vacancies suitable for NO adsorption. However, the
oxidation state of the B-ion is also important. Indeed,
the La0.9Ce0.1CoO3+δ catalyst performed better after
pretreatment in O2 at high temperature. Under these
conditions, oxygen is accommodated in the O-vacan-
cies, which then desorb, favoring NO oxidation to
surface NO2. In addition, the formation of Co2+ ions Figure 12. Conversions of NOx, CO, and hydrocarbons on
a multicomponent cobaltite (La0.6Sr0.4)(Co0.94Pt0.03Ru0.03)-
is needed in this catalyst to achieve a better adsorp- O3. The dashed lines indicate clearly the strong influence
tion and thus a faster N-O dissociation. of excess oxygen on the pollutants removal.
In the mid 70s, placing a catalyst in the exhaust
of car engines opened a new area for the application reduction of NO, while Mn3+ ions allow the total
of catalysts for controlling gaseous emissions from oxidation of CO and C3H6. In this work, the stoichio-
both mobile and stationary sources. This has received metric factor (s) ) (2O2 + NO)/(CO + 9C3H6) was
impetus due to the development of three-way cata- varied from very reducing (s ) 0.46) to very oxidizing
lysts (TWC) for converting HC, NOx, and CO simul- (s ) 2.18) conditions with large amplitude oscillations
taneously.258 The systems used for this purpose are of the feed stream. These oscillations have only a
small particles of Pt, Pd, and Rh deposited on a ceria- slight influence on the catalyst performance, and the
alumina-coated ceramic substrate and display a light-off temperatures for catalyst La(MnRh)O3.15
number of desirable properties such as high activity, were quite similar under stationary and cycling
stability, and resistance to sulfur poisoning. However, conditions. The lack of effect of the oscillating condi-
shortage of the worldwide resources of noble-metals tions suggests that the over-stoichiometric oxygen is
and high prices limit their use for such a purpose. easily removed and replenished from the oxide lattice
In addition, the presence of water vapor and carbon and is used under oscillating conditions to compen-
dioxide in the exhaust stream along with the high- sate for the variations in the composition of the
temperature reached sometimes due to local over- reactant mixture: at 673 K this oxygen is consumed
heating make the perovskite oxides (ABO3) excellent under a stream of CO to form CO2, whereas the La-
candidates as TWC catalysts. These systems often (MnRh)O3.15 is transformed into La(MnRh)O3. The
exhibit activity comparable to that of noble metal over-stoichiometric oxygen can be easily recovered
catalysts.104,259 under oxygen or NO under the conditions of three-
way reactions. This corresponds to the oxygen storage
Incorporating noble metals (Pt, Pd, Rh) into the capacity of the catalyst, which allows stable high
perovskite structure results in the stabilization of the performance in rich/lean oscillating compositions.
metal against sintering, volatilization, or solid-state Additional experiments in the presence of 10% steam
reaction with the substrate. Some enhancement in in the feed stream revealed some catalyst deactiva-
activity of the simple perovskite can also be achieved tion; in particular, NO reduction was strongly inhib-
when small amounts of noble metals are incorpo- ited.261 This deactivation was explained in terms of
rated. Sorenson et al.260 adopted this approach to use (i) strong adsorption of water on the La(MnRh)O3
noble metal-loaded perovskites for the simultaneous surface which poisons active sites and (ii) participa-
reduction of NO and the oxidation of CO and un- tion of water gas-shift (WGS) and reforming reac-
burned hydrocarbons. These authors found the sub- tions. The type ii possibility seems very likely because
stituted multicomponent cobaltite (La0.6Sr0.4)(Co0.94- the H2 produced by the WGS reaction does not
Pt0.03Ru0.03)O3 highly active and selective for exhaust dissociate on the mixed oxide and hence cannot favor
treatment from single cylinder engine. Selective NO reduction. This is not the case of noble metal
reduction of NOx (>90%) was attained in excess CO TWCs, which are highly active for such reactions,
while efficient oxidation of hydrocarbons and CO was while at the same time maintaining the ability to
observed at the oxidizing side of the stoichiometric dissociatively adsorb hydrogen and reduce NO.
O2:fuel ratio. As can be seen in Figure 12, the above Alkaline and alkaline earth perovskites are also
perovskite provides an operating window in which highly active for the combustion of soot particulates
the elimination of all three pollutants was about 80% in diesel engine exhaust.262,263 The ignition temper-
or higher. ature with perovskite oxides decreases by more than
It has been shown recently that the incorporation 200 K as compared to carbon particulates alone. In
of a small amount of Rh into the LaMnO3.15 perov- the ABO3 perovskites, partial substitution of alkali
skite (LaMn0.976Rh0.024O3.15) leads to high three-way and alkaline-earth metals at the A-site enhances the
catalytic activity in a synthetic CO + NO + C3H6 catalytic activity in the combustion of soot particu-
mixture.261 Rh is an essential component for the lates. The removal of soot is also favored by the
presence of NOx in the feed stream, and the reaction result, adsorption-desorption of activated oxygen is
presumably takes place at the interface point where favored, thereby affording enhanced catalyst perfor-
soot-oxide and NO gas meet. mance. The mechanism responsible for the improve-
ment of catalytic activity of the Pd-loaded (LaCe)-
3. Stability (FeCo)O3 perovskite is primarily associated with the
The stability of a few unsubstituted (LaMnO3, specific incorporation of Pd as a solid-solution into
LaCoO3) and Pb-substituted (La1-xPbxMnO3) perov- the structure that controls the growth of Pd particles
skites was studied by Yao.264 It was observed that under the redox atmosphere at high temperature.
the introduction of steam caused a drop in catalyst
activity, the resulting specific activity being compa- C. Hydrogenation and Hydrogenolysis Reactions
rable to that of the single oxide (Co3O4) at low
temperature. Conversely, adding a 0.1% SO2 into the 1. Hydrogenation of Carbon Oxides
feed stream resulted in an enhancement in activity Transition metals and metal oxide-promoted met-
of the Pt-substituted perovskites (only containing 300 als have been used for the synthesis of hydrocar-
ppm Pt). This effect is, however, opposite to the bon268-272 and oxygenated compounds57,273-278 from
general tendency to decrease activity instead of syngas (CO + H2) mixtures. Regarding these reac-
increasing activity in the presence of SO2. Quantita- tions, ∆G° values at 298 K are in most cases negative
tive studies of the chemisorption of SO2 on several and a large variety of products (paraffins, olefins,
La-containing perovskites revealed that the amount alcohols, ethers, esters) can be achieved under ap-
of chemisorbed SO2 required to suppress the reaction propriate reaction conditions. From the analysis of
rate by a 90% is approximately that of one monolayer. the existing vast body of work, it can be concluded
SO2 chemisorption is believed to occur on cation sites that there is a close relationship between the nature
via the formation sulfite-sulfate structures. Looking and chemical state of the elements responsible for
at the interaction modes of SO2 on perovskites the activity and the type of surface C-containing
surfaces, Tejuca et al.104 suggested that the poisoning intermediates and product distributions.279-281 Ac-
effect of SO2 on ABO3 perovskites is primarily as- cordingly, ABO3 perovskite-type oxides with reducible
sociated with its adsorption on the catalytically active B3+ ions under typical reaction conditions are excel-
B cations (ionic radius of B3+ is smaller than that of lent model catalysts to gain useful insight into the
A3+). The interaction of SO2 at the B-site cannot be surface process taking place during CO (and CO2)
ruled out, although such a process does not lead to activation and carbon chain growth.
catalyst deactivation. a. CO Hydrogenation. Somorjai et al.282,283 studied
Chemisorbed SO2 on the perovskite surface can be the influence of reduction pretreatments on the
readily reduced by the CO present in the feed activity of LaRhO3 at different temperatures in
stream.265,266 The reaction produces elemental sulfur syngas conversion. The reaction products were CH3-
(eq 21), although further reaction between S and OH and hydrocarbons (HC) and the relative propor-
excess CO is expected to occur (eq 22): tion CH3OH/HC was found to be highly temperature-
SO2 + 2CO f S + 2CO2 (21) dependent. These results were rationalized by assum-
ing that two different reaction mechanisms are
S + CO f COS (22) involved: CH3OH is formed through a nondissocia-
tive adsorption of CO, whereas hydrocarbon forma-
It was reported that COS formation can be strongly tion follows a dissociative mechanism. The change
inhibited using the perovskite LaTiO3, even at high of the CH3OH/HC ratio with temperature is due to
SO2 conversions. This behavior appears to be related competing H- and CO-insertion reactions and vari-
to the high resistance of LaTiO3 to form sulfides, with able proportions of molecularly and dissociatively
the elemental sulfur produced by reaction 21. This adsorbed CO and H2 on the surface. As the methanol
explanation is based on the fact that the stability of is the major reaction product at temperatures below
the oxide versus sulfide, as measured by the differ- 500 K, hydrogenation of adsorbed CO species pre-
ence between the heats of formation of simple oxides dominates. However, at temperatures above 620 K
and sulfides for different transition metals, was found the C-O bond splits and CH3OH formation is strongly
to reach a maximum for Ti.237 A few examples inhibited, while methane and other C2 + hydrocar-
showing the performance and the stability of several bons are the major reaction products. In the middle
perovskites in the reduction of SO2 with CO were temperature range, C-O is broken, yielding CHx
summarized in our previous work.4 fragments that can then recombine to form either
More recently, it was demonstrated that incorpora- CH4 or other HC through hydrogenation reactions or
tion of Pt to a substituted (LaCe)(FeCo)O3 perovskite undergo CO insertion to yield oxygenates. Surface
leads to high activity and durability.267 Surface analysis of the activated catalysts allowed these
analysis of the original sample revealed that pal- authors to conclude that the active catalyst contains
ladium is present as a mixture of Pd4+ and Pd2+; Rh+ species and a small proportion of Rh0.
however, the catalyst subjected to accelerated aging Gysling et al.284 and Monnier and Apai285 investi-
tests showed a single component characterized by a gated the hydrogenation of CO on H2-reduced La-
binding energy of Pd3d core electrons of Pd3+ species. RhO3 perovskite at reaction temperatures from 493
This unusual, high valence state of Pd in the per- to 623 K. These authors observed that the formation
ovskite structure seems to be responsible for the rates of HC decreased monotonically with the number
diffusion of oxygen ions within the crystal. As a of C atoms, suggesting the participation of a common
mechanism for carbon chain growth. However, at is consistent with the presence of both CuO and La2-
temperatures above 548 K the formation rates of CuO4 phases in the calcined sample; only CuO is
C2 + OH were found to be greater than for CH3OH, reduced in H2 at 573 K while La2CuO4 remains
indicating that the mechanism is different in both unreduced up to 673 K:
cases. The C2 + OH oxygenates are probably formed
by CO insertion into adsorbed alkyl fragments, as CuO + La2CuO4 + H2 f Cu0 + La2CuO4 + H2O
previously reported by Ichikawa and Fukushima286
(23)
and Watson and Somorjai.282 The quite similar
product distributions observed during the hydroge-
nation of CO on LaRhO3 and a conventional Rh/SiO2 The Auger parameter of copper in a representative
catalyst at the same reaction temperatures suggests LaMn0.5Cu0.5O3 catalyst prereduced and used in CO
that the same catalytic Rh species is present in both hydrogenation at 573 K appeared 1849.2 eV,278 which
catalysts. Since the Rh present on Rh/SiO2 catalysts agrees with that at 1848.8 eV observed by Sheffer
is considered to be Rh0 under such reaction condi- and King274 for a K-promoted copper catalyst exposed
tions,284,285 it may be inferred that the active rhodium to a CO:H2 mixture, and by Karwaci et al.287 for Cu2O
present in LaRhO3 should also be Rh0. (Cu+). This result indicates that Cu+ species are
present in the used catalyst and are presumably
Noble metal perovskites of the type BaBO3 (B ) involved in the CH3OH synthesis reaction. As copper
Rh, Ru, Ir, Pt) have also been used in syngas is stabilized in the La2CuO4 phase, Cu+ ions can be
conversion.273 BaRhO3 and BaPtO3 were found to developed on its surface under on-stream operation.
yield selectively oxygenates, almost exclusively metha- The fact that Cu+ ions remain dispersed and embed-
nol (maximum selectivities of 62 and 54%, respec- ded in the La2CuO4 matrix also explains the high
tively). By contrast, the BaRuO3 perovskite showed resistance to sintering of the resulting reduced phase,
the lowest oxygenate selectivity. All these perovskites thus explaining the great stability of these catalysts
were pure crystalline phases prior to catalyst testing. for long periods. The differences in catalytic behavior
The bulk oxidation state of the noble metal was the of LaTi1-xCuxO3 and the reference Cu/La2O3 sample
expected M4+, although partially reduced species were explained in terms of the structural differences.
instead of, or in addition to, the M4+ state were Because large Cu0 crystallite particles have been
observed. Both crystalline and amorphous BaBO3 found in the Cu/La2O3 catalyst it seems that the
perovskites are unstable against syngas and its formation of hydrocarbons very probably occurs on
reaction products; the B4+ ion is reduced to M0, and metallic Cu. Because CO does not dissociate on
the barium is converted to BaCO3. Cu0,288 adsorbed CO can be hydrogenated to form Hx-
Copper-substituted perovskites were also used in CO intermediates, which then dissociates into CHx
syngas conversion by Broussard and Wade273 and fragments, the starting precursor of the hydrocar-
Brown-Bourzutshky et al.275 These authors observed bons. Finally, the presence of a small proportion of
that substitution of Mn by Cu in LaMnO3 samples Cu+ on the surface of the Cu crystals, or in close
shifted the product distribution from hydrocarbons contact with them, cannot be excluded, since this
to methanol and small amounts of C2+ oxygenates. species appears to be involved in the synthesis of
Later on, van Grieken et al.278 used LaTi1-xCuxO3 methanol.
perovskites to analyze the effect of the substitution b. CO2 Hydrogenation. Hydrogenation of CO2 on
degree (x) on the activity and product distributions metal catalysts produces mainly CH4, with minor
during CO hydrogenation. The conversion of CO amounts of higher hydrocarbons. Alhough this is a
strongly depends on the Cu substitution, the highest strong H2-consuming reaction, a few works were
values being attained in the 0.5 e x e 1.0 composition focused on the use of perovskite systems for the
range and the lowest for x ) 0. LaTiO3 produced target reaction. Ulla al.289 studied the catalytic
methanol, CH4, and CO2, with selectivities about behavior for CO2 hydrogenation of La1-xMxCoO3
30%, and a substantially lower proportion of di- (M ) Sr, Th) perovskites prereduced at different
methyl-ether. Upon incorporation of Cu, the selectiv- extents. For unsubstituted LaCoO3, the initial reac-
ity of the alcohols increased whereas that of metha- tion rate of the reduced perovskite depended on the
nation decreased. It was also emphasized that a extent of reduction but did not reach a maximum.
reference Cu/La2O3 catalyst gave lower methanol The production of C2+ products decreased at higher
selectivity and substantially higher selecitvities to degrees of reduction, whereas CH4 selectivity fol-
CO2, CH4, C2H6, and dimethyl-ether. The methanol lowed the opposite trend. However, the La0.8Th0.2-
synthesis rate was found to pass through a maximum CoO3 sample was much more active and selective to
at substitution x ) 0.6. This rate of 9.7 × 10-2 g h-1 CH4 than its unsubstituted LaCoO3 counterpart, and
m-2 is similar to the one observed by Sheffer and the extent of reduction does not significantly affected
King274 for a 1.2% K-promoted unsupported Cu the initial rate. The behavior of La0.6Sr0.4CoO3 was
catalyst working under similar reaction conditions. found to depend on the reaction temperature. Below
All these findings clearly indicate the importance of 570 K, the product distribution of the unreduced and
copper for both activity and selectivity toward metha- the H2-treated catalysts was close to that of the Th-
nol. substituted sample. However, at higher reduction
Surface analysis of used catalysts revealed that degrees CH4 selectivity decreased and the amount of
copper becomes reduced, and that for x ) 1.0, and to C2+ products increased with the extent of reduction.
a lesser extent for x ) 0.6, the reduced Cu-phase In particular, the fully reduced catalyst gave the
coexists with a minor proportion of Cu2+ ions. This highest selectivity to C2+ products.
It has been observed that the surface Co/La ratio stage. The reaction of butenes with hydrogen under-
in the reduced catalysts correlates with the rate of goes rapid isomerization, followed by the formation
methanation and C2+ production. This shows that Co0 of butane and then methane. For all reactions, the
is the active species on which CO2 first chemisorbs ratios of the butene isomers produced remain almost
dissociatively and then the adsorbed CO fragment unchanged until the disappearance of the reactant
undergoes further hydrogenation, in accordance with butenes; the cis-2-butene/trans-2-butene, cis-2-butene/
the mechanisms describing hydrogenation of CO 1-butene, and trans-2-butene/1-butene ratios are 1.0,
adsorbed on Group VIII metal surfaces.270 The rate 1.8, and 1.8, respectively. Since there is no marked
of CH4 formation over the H2-reduced La1-xMxCoO3 difference in the observed rates of butene hydrogena-
samples reported by Ulla et al.289 was substantially tion, the average of these rates represents that of
higher than that reported by Weatherbee and Bar- butene hydrogenation.
tholomew290 for a silica-supported Co catalyst under The hydrogenolysis of alkanes has mainly been
similar reaction conditions, indicating that the spe- studied for transition metal catalysts.295 The kinetic
cific activity of the metallic sites is affected by the behavior is characterized by negative orders with
surrounding matrix. This led to the conclusion that respect to H2 pressure and by a wide variety of
the Co0 crystallites developed on the surface on both fragmented hydrocarbons, except for the selective
Th- and Sr-substituted perovskites have a higher formation of C2H6 in the case of nickel catalysts.296
specific methanation activity than Co on silica. The The proposed mechanism involves the dissociative
matrix effect may arise from the stabilization of adsorption of alkanes, releasing an H-atom on the
highly dispersed cobalt particles on the perovskite surface, followed by step-by-step cleavage of C-C
surface, which in turn would be affected by the basic bonds. It is emphasized that the hydrogenolysis
character of the perovskite components. reactions of alkanes on LaCoO3 are characterized not
only by the high reaction order with respect to the
2. Hydrogenation and Hydrogenolysis Reactions H2 pressure but also by the selective formation of
Since Pedersen and Libby171 first reported that CH4; neither the other fragmented nor hydrogenated
ACoO3 (A ) lanthanide elements) oxides are more hydrocarbons are detected in the gas phase. Tracer
active than some transition metals for the hydro- isotopic studies in the reaction of alkanes with
genolysis of cis-2-butene, many other hydrogenation deuterium showed that large amounts of methane
reactions have been carried out on perovskite oxides. (CHD3 and CD4) are involved, even from the initial
Among these, the use of cobaltites for hydrogenolysis stage of hydrogenolysis, whereas the fractions of the
of various alkanes291-293 and ethylene102,294,295 remain D2-exchanged alkanes are negligibly small. These
prominent. results indicate that the adsorption of alkanes is
The hydrogenation and hydrogenolysis of C2-C5 irreversible, although the surface species thus pro-
hydrocarbons proceed according to the following duced undergo a rapid hydrogen exchange.
reaction scheme (except for the butene isomers):291 Ichimura et al.293 compared the behavior of La-
CoO3, LaFeO3, and LaAlO3 in the hydrogenolysis of
alkanes and observed that only LaCoO3 perovskite
is active in these reactions. The reaction exhibits a
maximum rate at a given temperature, which de-
pends on the nature of each catalyst: ca. 420 K for
LaCoO3 and LaFeO3, and 490 K for LaAlO3. The
distributions of D-atoms in the reactants and prod-
Reactions 1, 2, and 3 represent the hydrogenation of ucts, when D2 is used instead of H2, indicate highly
alkenes, the direct hydrogenolysis of alkenes, and D-exchanged ethanes at 333 and 573 K. However, the
hydrogenolysis of alkanes, respectively. The reaction deuterium distributions among gaseous hydrogen
of C2H4 with H2 on LaCoO3 below 420 K yields only isotopes reaches equilibrium at high temperatures,
the hydrogenated product C2H6, whereas above this although much smaller amounts of HD and H2 are
reaction temperature the hydrogenolysis of C2H4 produced at lower temperatures. These isotope dis-
forms CH4 in addition to the hydrogenation. The tributions indicate that the hydrogenation proceeds
hydrogenolysis of C3-C5 alkanes such as propane, via an ethyl radical as intermediate and the rate-
butane, isobutane, pentane, isopentane, and neopen- determining step varies from the adsorption of hy-
tane on LaCoO3 produces only CH4.291,292 Neither the drogen at 333 K to the hydrogenation of the ethyl
corresponding alkenes nor the fragmented hydrocar- radical at 573 K.
bons are formed in the gas phase. The reaction order In the TPD spectra of hydrocarbons from LaCoO3
with respect to the hydrocarbon pressure is unity for exposed to ethane at 300 K, single peaks of C2H2 and
all reactions, while the hydrogen order increases with C2H4 appear at ca. 380 K and two peaks of C2H6 at
the number of carbon atoms involved in the reactant ca. 380 and 540 K, with methane only above 450 K.
hydrocarbons. Thus, reaction orders of 0.0, 1.0, and Almost the same TPD spectra are obtained from the
2.0 were found for C3H8, C4H10, and C5H12, respec- surface exposed to C2H4, although the fraction of
tively. By contrast, in the reaction of alkenes with methane formed is smaller. The TPD spectra of
H2, methane, and the corresponding alkanes were hydrogen from LaCoO3 shows two peaks, referred to
produced. For example, the reaction of propene with as the R-peak, appearing below 340 K, and the
hydrogen produces a considerable amount of meth- β-peak, above this temperature. When the surface
ane, together with propane during the initial reaction retaining β-H was exposed to C2H6 at 298 K, the TPD
spectra revealed the complete disappearance of the prepared by Petunchi et al.294 is more reducible than
C2H2 and C2H4 peaks and a considerable enhance- that prepared by Crespin and Hall,102 since the
ment of the C2H6 and CH4 peaks, with no shift in catalyst of the former authors is reduced to some
their positions. Consumption of the β-H located at extent at 353 K. Ulla et al.295 proposed that the active
the lower temperature side of β occurred as a site of LaCoO3 would be highly dispersed Co0 par-
consequence of contact with C2H6, thus suggesting ticles on the La2O3 surface.
that these H-species would be responsible for the A CNDO-MO calculation was performed for ethane
hydrogenolysis and also for the hydrogenation of adsorbed on a linear atomic cluster, O-M-O-M-O
C2H4 and C2H2. Hydrogen was desorbed from the (M ) Co, Fe, Al), which represents one part of the
LaFeO3 and LaAlO3 surfaces, and its TPD spectra (110) plane of perovskite.291 The adsorption energy
consisted of R- and β-peaks similar to those observed of ethane and the change in C-C bond energy were
for LaCoO3. However, the desorption spectra of C2H4 estimated by changing the distance between the axes
and C2H6 are relatively simple; only the original of ethane and the cluster lying in parallel. In the case
molecules are observed. The H-preadsorbed LaFeO3 of [Co-O] and [Fe-O] clusters, the energetically
and LaAlO3 surfaces convert the subsequently ad- stable adsorption takes place when the center of the
sorbed C2H4 only to C2H6. On these surfaces, β-H is molecule is located on the metal ion, whereas for the
also largely consumed. As revealed by photoelectron [Al-O] cluster the favorable position of the admol-
spectroscopy, reduction of Co3+ to Co2+ occurs during ecules shifts to the top of the central oxygen atom.
the reaction, resulting in a structural change and a The percentage decreases in the C-C bond energy
drop of catalytic activity. By contrast, no significant induced by adsorption at equilibrium distances are
change in La 3d spectra is observed for any of the estimated at 3.7, 1.7, and 6.4% for the [Al-O],
catalysts in comparison with that seen for La2O3. [Fe-O], and [Co-O] clusters, respectively; the largest
TPD and XPS data point to the participation of value for the [Co-O] cluster reflects the strong ability
Co3+ ions for the C-C bond cleavage during the of LaCoO3 to break the C-C bond as compared to
hydrogenolysis of alkanes.293 H2, CO, and C2H4 the other two perovskites.
adsorption at room temperature provide a surface
site density of 4 × 1014 cm-2 on LaCoO3, which D. Photocatalysis
corresponds to about 40% of the total surface ions. Perovskite oxides, in particular SrTiO3, have com-
These results suggest that most of the exposed monly been used as photocatalysts because some of
surface is available for the reaction and the (110) and them can decompose H2O into H2 and O2 with no
(102) lattice planes are likely to be exposed at the external bias potential.297 This is because the conduc-
surface because of their higher thermodynamic sta- tion band (CB) edges of some of the perovskite oxides
bility than the other planes. For hydrogenolysis, the are more negative than the H+/H2 energy level. Since
geometric arrangement of the (110) plane substanti- the photocatalytic activity is related to the surface
ates the co-functional role in which the C-C bond is properties of these perovskites, powdered materials
broken on the Co3+, whereas the nearby O2- provides rather than single crystals or films were used for this
H-adatoms to the resulting monocarbon species. purpose.298
These synergic effects by the lattice ions are even
more pronounced in the hydrogenolysis of longer 1. Photodecomposition of Water
alkanes. The distance between the adjacent Co3+ in Wrighton et al.297 reported the photoassisted split-
the (110) plane is 0.542 nm. The C-atom chain of ting of water molecule into H2 and O2 using a
butane or higher alkanes is long and flexible enough photoelectrochemical cell having a SrTiO3 single-
to interact with two Co3+ in a bridge form. Although crystal photoanode at zero applied potential. Hydro-
La3+ and O2- fail to adsorb alkanes dissociatively, gen evolution was also observed in experiments
both ions are likely to accommodate the methyl and conducted upon irradiation a SrTiO3 crystal coated
carbene groups formed as a result of the bond rup- with alkali and in contact with water vapor.298 In
ture. Thus, such a bridged adsorption makes the addition, there are several works addressing the
nearby La3+ and O2- effective in supplying H-atoms photocatalytic decomposition of water over irradia-
to the decomposed species, thus lowering the activa- tiated SrTiO3 powders in suspension.299-301 Lehn et
tion energy. al.301 found that SrTiO3 powders alone were unable
Crespin and Hall102 investigated the surface states to split the water molecule into its components and
of several ABO3 perovskites and found that Co3+ ions that a metal coating of the substrate was an essential
in LaCoO3 are easily reduced to Co2+, but they reduce ingredient to make H2 evolution observable.
to the metal (Co0) and La2O3 only at temperatures Concerning different doping metals, Rh/SrTiO3
as high as 773 K.102 They also observed that the final system exhibited higher activity than SrTiO3 powders
products of the reduction (Co0 + La2O3) restore its coated with other transition metals. In general, the
original perovskite structure by reoxidation at 673 aim of metal coating is to decrease the H2 over-
K. Using LaCoO3 prepared in the same way, Petunchi voltage of the semiconductor, which, since it is
et al.294 reported changes in catalytic activity for C2H4 usually very high, leads to low efficiency in the
hydrogenation, with an increase in the degree of photoreduction of water. The over-voltage can be
reduction of the oxide; maximum activity at 253 K decreased by metal deposition. A metal-deposited
is observed on the LaCoO3-x catalyst at the x ) 0.7 semiconductor acts as a “short-circuited” photoelec-
composition for the first oxidation-reduction cycle trochemical cell, where oxidation and reduction reac-
and at x ) 1.2 for the second cycle. The catalyst tions occur at two different sites, i.e., on the semi-
Therefore, it seems likely that the M4+ element acts

as a charge carrier annihilator, and it is expected that
the life of photoexcited electron and hole will be
improved by decreasing charge density. Thus, the
formation rate of H2 was enhanced by partially
substituting Ta5+ with M4+ ions. On the other hand,
carrier density would become insufficient owing to
the incorporation of M4+ ion annihilator, with the
subsequent drop in photocatalytic activity.
Very recently, Kudo and Kato308 reported enhanced
activities of water splitting over NiO/NaTaO3 photo-
catalysts doped with low amounts of lanthanide
oxides. Lanthanum oxide was the most effective
dopant with apparent quantum yields approaching
50%. Scanning electron microscopy observations sug-
Figure 13. Formation rate of H2 and O2 as a function of gested that the effects on the catalytic properties are
Ti content in KTaO3 (loaded with 1 wt % NiO). Reprinted mainly due to the decrease in the particle size and
from ref 307 by permission of the publisher. Copyright 1999
by The Chemical Society of Japan. the characteristic step structure created by the
doping. As the particle size is decreased, the prob-
conductor and on the metal islands, respectively, of ability of the surface reaction of electrons and holes
the same particle. Metal deposition also decreases the with water molecules is increased in comparison with
recombination of photoproduced electrons and holes recombination in the bulk, resulting in an increase
by enhancing the rate of electron transfer to the in the photocatalytic activity for water splitting. The
metal. Surface modifications of the SrTiO3 substrate photocatalytic activity was decreased when Eu and
with an oxide such as NiO have also been at- Yb were doped into NiO/NaTaO3. This effect may be
tempted.302 Thus, working with the NiO/SrTiO3 pho- explained considering that the tantalate photocata-
tocatalyst H2 evolution was ascribed to formation of lysts has high conduction band levels.309 The Eu3+
some NiO/Ni domains, whereas O2 evolution came and Yb3+ can trap the photogenerated electron in the
from sites located at the SrTiO3 phase. It has been high conduction band levels of NaTaO3 because they
suggested that the role of the nickel phase at the can take a divalent oxidation number. Such electron
interface is to enhance the transfer of electrons capture suppresses the supply of electrons to NiO
between NiO and SrTiO3 oxides.303 cocatalyst, resulting in a decrease in the photocata-
lytic activity.
In all these investigations, commercially available
SrTiO3 powders were used, which have a particle size Ion-exchangeable layered perovskites of the type
of g 2 µm. Since there is a clear particle size- K2La2Ti3O10 are also attractive water-splitting pho-
dependence of the band structure, and consequently tocatalysts.310 The structure basically consists of two-
the electronic properties of the semiconductor crys- dimensional oxide sheets stacked along the c axis,
tallites,304 it became imperative to prepare ultrafine in which K+ ions are located between the individual
particles of SrTiO3. Ultrafine powders of binary sheets as interlayer cations to compensate for the
oxides are not easy to obtain because of the high negative charge of the layer. The performance for
temperature required for the reaction between the water splitting under UV irradiation of K2La2Ti3O10
refractory components. Thampi et al.305 studied the photocatalysts and their 3% Ni-loaded counterparts
photocatalytic activity of SrTiO3 powders prepared was reported by Takata et al.310 The generation of
by the sol-gel technique. Kudo et al.306 found that H2 and O2 is observed in both cases, and this
photocatalytic activity was strongly dependent upon increases almost linearly with the reaction time. For
the calcination temperature of SrTiO3 and the opti- Ni-modified photocatalysts, activity becomes remark-
mum calcination temperature is different for different ably enhanced, and the H2:O2 ratios approach the
reactions. stoichiometric value. A key feature of these layered
Mitsui et al.307 found that the activity of KTaO3 for perovskites is their inability to absorb light in the
the photocatalytic splitting of water was greatly visible region because the oxides containing metal
improved by partially substituting Ta with a tetra- cations with a d0 electron configuration are wide gap
valent cation M4+ (Ti4+, Zr4+, Hf4+). The formation semiconductors. The incorporation of Pb into these
rate of both H2 and O2 as a function of the amount of layered perovskites seems to be effective in extending
Ti4+ substituting the Ta site of KTaO3 reached the the absorption edge into the visible region.310 The
maximum value for a substitution degree of x ) 0.08. edge of the valence band shifts to the negative side
The formation rate of H2 at that optimized composi- sue to Pb incorporation probably because of the
tion (KTa0.92Ti0.08O2.96) attained a value of 100 µmol donation of Pb6s electrons to the valence band, to
h-1 g-1, which in turn proved to be higher than that which O2p electrons contribute.311 This is illustrated
of Zr4+- or Hf4+-substituted counterparts, while the by the Pb-exchanged RbPb2Nb3O10 photocatalyst,
formation rate of O2 was slightly lower than half the which generates H2 from H2O/CH3OH mixtures even
H2 formation rate (Figure 13). The electronic spectra under irradiation of light with a wavelength longer
of all M4+-substituted samples revealed no change in than 400 nm.
the band gap (ca. 3.8 eV); however, their electric Other highly donor-doped (110) layered perovskites
conductivity decreased by substituting Ta5+ with M4+. loaded with NiO have proved to be efficient photo-
catalysts for the water splitting under UV irradia- applications, among which environmental monitoring
tion.312,313 These layered structures, with a generic remains prominent.318 A number of perovskite oxides
composition AmBmO3m+2 (m ) 4, 5; A ) Ca, Sr; B ) (ABO3) have been used as gas sensor materials
Nb, Ti), exhibited high quantum yields and stoichio- because of their stability in thermal and chemical
metric evolution of H2 and O2. The high photocata- atmospheres. Since the gas-sensing function of semi-
lytic activity resulted from the specific layered struc- conducting oxides mainly utilizes the change in the
ture and the high concentration of donor levels as resistivity of semiconducting oxides under adsorption
compared with the bulk perovskite. When NiO was of gases, it is essential to understand several physical
incorporated into these perovskites, a significant parameters, including the electrical conductivity, to
enhancement in photocatalytic activity was observed. develop gas sensors using perovskite oxides. Most
This improvement, which might be ascribed to the perovskite-type LnBO3 compounds are semiconduc-
role of Ni in p-n junction between nickel and the tors, although LaNiO3 and LaTiO3 display metallic
layered perovskite, was made possible by reduction conductivity.319 LaCoO3 behaves as a semiconductor
of the Ni-loaded layered perovskite at 973 K and below 398 K because it mainly contains low spin CoIII,
further oxidation at 473 K. The rates of H2 and O2 with a random distribution of high spin Co3+.320 In
production increased with the amount of Ni incor- the 398 < T < 1210 K temperature range, conductiv-
porated up to 1 wt %. The nickel oxide, a p-type ity increases much more rapidly with an increase in
semiconductor, and the perovskite oxide, an n-type the temperature and is metallic above 1210 K, since
semiconductor, should absorb the sufficient photons the transition from localized to itinerant eg electrons
for its band gap excitation so that the p-n junction occurs in the form of a first-order phase transition.321
can operate properly. The high electron density of Substantial changes occur in the conductivity of
these donor-rich materials would create a narrower perovskite systems upon adsorption of gases on their
charge depletion region of the semiconductor and an surfaces. When reducing gases (CO, CH3OH) are
increased band bending, which would allow more adsorbed on p-type LnMO3 (M ) Mn, Cr, Co) oxides,
efficient electron-hole separation and higher quan- conductivity decreases.322 This phenomenon can be
tum yields than the undoped counterparts. represented by the following equations:
2. Other Photocatalytic Reactions
CO (g) + O2-(ad) f CO2 (ad) + 2e- (24)
Several titanates and cobaltites have been used for
the photocatalytic oxidation of CO.314,315 A strong
photocatalytic effect was observed over BaTiO3 and CH3OH(g) + 3O2-(ad) f CO2 + 2H2O(ad) + 6e- (25)
SrTiO3 samples, whereas no effect was detected over
the easily reducible oxide LaCoO3. Activity was found where (ad) denotes adsorbed species and (g) denotes
to depend on the preparative source of the photo- a gaseous species. Since an electron is released upon
catalyst. adsorption, chemisorption of the reducing gases
Photocatalytic synthesis of NH3 from N2 and H2O results in the loss of a conductivity hole through
was performed over SrTiO3 and binary-wafered cata- interaction with this free electron. These equations
lysts of SrTiO3 and platinum black,316 where the mean that the catalytic reaction occurs on the surface
copolymer of ethylene and vinyl alcohol was studied of perovskite oxides.
as a binder. The yield of NH3 was larger in the case The application of gas sensors is limited by the
of the binary-wafered catalyst than the semiconduc- stability of the perovskite phase in a reducing atmo-
tor powdered catalyst alone. The photosynthesis of sphere at high temperatures. The stability of a series
NH3 and its subsequent photodecomposition were of perovskite-type oxides LaBO3 (B ) V, Cr, Mn, Fe,
investigated over Ba and Sr-titanates.317 The rate of Co, Ni) was investigated by Nakamura et al.18 at
NH3 production from H2O and N2 mixtures was found 1273 K in gas mixtures of CO2/H2. The stability
to be very small on the undoped BaTiO3 and SrTiO3 sequence of these oxides was found to be LaCrO3 >
perovskites. The decomposition of water was strongly LaVO3 > LaFeO3 > LaMnO3 > LaCoO3 > LaNiO3.
enhanced upon NiO doping of the SrTiO3 substrate Obayashi et al.323 employed (Ln, M)BO3 (Ln ) rare
although the yield of NH3 remained very small. On earth, M ) alkaline earth metal, and B ) transition
the other hand, the amount of NH3 formation in- metal) to detect ethanol in exhaled air. In the
creased significantly for the doubly doped RuO2- presence of ethanol vapor, the electrical conductivity
NiO-BaTiO3 and RuO2-NiO-SrTiO3 samples. This of these oxides changes drastically. This was the first
enhancement can be attributed to the increased example of perovskite oxides applied as gas sensors.
activites of NiO for H2 generation and RuO2 for N2 The activity for methanol sensing was found to be
activation. These findings also demonstrated that the high for the LnCrO3 and LnFeO3 series. It is clear
thermodynamically unfavorable reaction of NH3 for- that the activities of these compounds are influenced
mation from N2 and H2O can be produced under by the transition metal ions and the rare earth ions.
band-gap irradiation of these catalysts. Finally, it Rao and Bhide324 have suggested that the catalytic
should be stressed that photodecomposition of am- properties of these cobaltites would be connected to
monia becomes correspondingly important when the the spin states and, particularly, to the proportion
partial pressure of NH3 in the cell is high. of high-spin state Co3+. It is noteworthy that the
activity of rare earth cobaltites is the greatest for
E. Chemical Sensors SmCoO3, which has the highest room temperature
The development of reliable and selective solid- ratio of high-spin to low-spin cobalt ions. In Ln1-x-
state gas sensors is crucial for many industrial AxBO3 systems, the introduction of alkaline earth
ions results in the creation of a mobile hole. However, because of their simple structure and lower cost. TiO2
gas sensing activity may not be appreciably influ- was the first oxygen sensor of the semiconductor type
enced by the number of holes, but rather by the depth used for control of the stoichiometric fuel-air mixture
of the trap centers of holes in these perovskite in car engine systems.333 However, TiO2 cannot be
oxides.325 If Ln and A ions are fixed, B ions play a used for sensing elements in the lean-burn region
role in determining the gas-sensing activity. In the because the temperature coefficient of resistivity is
Sm0.5Sr0.5MO3 system,324 the activity of the Sm0.5- too high, although titania has as advantage as
Sr0.5FeO3 compound is higher than that of the Sm0.5- regards chemical stability. On the other hand, lean-
Sr0.5CoO3 homologue if the activity is compared by burn oxygen sensors using p-type semiconducting
the response ratio alone. However, the Sm0.5Sr0.5CoO3 oxides, i.e., CoO334 or Co1-xMgxO- have the advantage
compound shows the best tradeoff characteristics in the lean-burn regions since the resistance of these
concerning both the response ratio and response time. oxides in such regions is low. Arai et al.335,336 observed
Orthoferrites can be either p- or n-type semicon- that SrMg0.4Ti0.6O3, among SrAxTi1-xO3 (A ) Al, Mg),
ductors, as indicated by Seebeck coefficient measure- exhibits the largest change in resistance at the
ments.326,327 The n-type LnFeO3 compounds exhibit stoichiometric point of combustion. To obtain excel-
a remarkable activity for methanol-sensing above the lent lean-burn oxygen sensor it is necessary to
Néel temperature (TN) of these oxides.328 The sensing continue the search for new materials with higher
activity appeared in the temperature ranges in which oxygen sensitivity and stability even at an extremely
these oxides show paramagnetic behaviors. For the low oxygen partial pressure.
n-type LnFeO3 oxides, activity increases as the radius
of the rare earth ion (Ln) decreases, while TN F. Electrocatalysis
decreases with a decrease in the radius of the Ln ion.
Orthochromites exhibit p-type conduction and are 1. Oxygen Reduction
antiferromagnetic at the Néel temperature.329 The TN Many semiconducting Pt-doped W bronzes,337,338
of orthochromites is lower than the TN of orthofer- LaNiO3 perovskites,339-341 and Sr-substituted Ln1-x-
rites. The activity of orthochromites is expected to SrxNiO3 perovskites341-344 are known to be effective
increase with the decrease in the radius of the rare electrocatalysts for the oxygen generation reaction
earth ion, as in the case of orthoferrites, since TN in strong alkaline solutions. The Tafel slopes of
decreases going from La to Sm, i.e., 282, 214, and oxygen generation appear to be dependent on the
190 K for LaCrO3, NdCrO3, and SmCrO3, respec- electrode material. However, a common mechanism
tively. However, there is no correlation between consisting of the electrochemical adsorption of OH-
activity and the Néel temperature. followed by the electrochemical desorption of OH (the
Ultrafine SmFeO3 powders have been used for the rate-determining step), yielding H2O2, as an inter-
preparation of thick films, screen-printed on alumina mediate, which then undergoes catalytic decomposi-
substrates.330 The electrical response of the films tion to O2, seems to be operative.
prepared from pastes of different compositions of an The reduction of oxygen in alkaline solutions has
organic vehicle is very sensitive to CO and NO2 in been chosen by several authors for kinetic investiga-
dry and wet air. However, the electrical conductivity tions involving the evaluation of the rate-determining
and its activation energy, as well as the gas response step. This reaction has been studied on both metals
of the films, which had similar microstructure, were and metal oxides as electrode materials. Among the
strongly dependent on the composition of the organic latter, RuO2 remains prominent. On this oxide, the
vehicle. Since SmFeO3 is a p-type semiconductor, reaction was found to occur with the participation of
unlike the commonly used n-type in gas sensors, lattice oxygen.345 Bockris and Ottagawa343,344 exam-
there is an advantage for the detection of oxidizing ined several substituted perovskites with a view to
gases, such as NO2, and for the preparation of sensor correlating their electrocatalytic properties with the
arrays for environmental monitoring or automotive electronic structure of the transition ions on the
applications. perovskite surface. These authors suggested that the
Another application of perovskite oxides to gas most likely mechanism in the alkaline generation of
sensors has been the measurement of oxygen pres- O2 involves a rate-determining Mz-OH desorption
sure in combustion control systems. The require- step, where Mz is an orbital perpendicular to the
ments for controlling the fuel-air mixture to main- surface of the transition element (M) in LnMO3
tain a fixed concentration of excess oxygen, which is perovskites.
called “lean-burn control,” have received increasing Falcon et al.346,347 and Carbonio et al.348 have
attention with a view to increasing fuel efficiency as reported good catalytic activity for H2O2 decomposi-
well as reducing pollutant components in the exhaust tion and oxygen reduction over the perovskite system
gases of vehicle engines. These oxygen sensors are LaFexNi1-xO3. The rate constant of H2O2 decomposi-
divided into two groups, i.e., the solid electrolyte type, tion at 295 K in a 4 M KOH solution displayed a
such as yttria-stabilized zirconia, and the semicon- maximum for an x ) 0.25 substitution. This result
ductor type such as titania331 or Co1-xMgxO.332 Sen- correlates with the isomer shift (δ) variations for Fe3+
sors using yttria-stabilized zirconia have been devel- and Fe4+ as measured by Mossbauer spectroscopy.
oped for use in lean-burn oxygen sensors. The The difference in the isomer shift between the two
semiconductor type sensors utilizing electrical con- types of iron sites (Fe3+ and Fe4+) also reaches a
ductivity changes due to oxygen adsorption or de- maximum for x ) 0.25. Since the isomer shift is a
sorption have been the object of considerable interest direct measurement of the electron density surround-
ing the nucleus, it can be concluded that there is a doped PrMnO3 perovskite exhibited a low overpoten-
maximum in the difference between the electron tial in a low-temperature range around 973 K and a
densities for the Fe3+ and Fe4+ sites in that composi- thermal expansion coefficient consistent with YSZ.
tion. It is likely that both the mixed oxidation states Although the mechanism for low overpotential on the
for Fe and/or Ni and the unusual presence of Fe4+ Sr-doped PrMnO3 is not clear, it seems likely that
sites may be factors involved in promoting the PrMnO3 exhibits a high activity for the dissociation
catalytic activity. In light of the classical explanation of oxygen molecule into oxide ions. Rare earth cations
of H2O2 decomposition catalysis as proposed by at the A-site in Co-based perovskite cathodes also had
Latimer,349 this correlation could be considered rea- a significant effect on the power generation charac-
sonable. Any redox couple that falls in the potential teristics. In particular, a high power density could
range between the O2/HO2- and HO2-/OH- couples be attained in the temperature range from 973 to
can, in principle, catalyze the decomposition reaction. 1273 K by using a doped SmCoO3 for the cathode.362
The presence of both strongly oxidizing and strongly Sr-doped SmCoO3 exhibited the smallest cathodic
reducing species in LaFexNi1-xO3 might accelerate overpotential resulting in the highest power density.
the coupled HO2- oxidation and reduction reactions. Power density of the cell was maximum when Sm0.5-
Sr0.5CoO3 was used as the cathode.
2. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells It is of great importance for the intermediate
Some perovskites display good performance as temperature SOFCs to develop new electrolyte ma-
cathode materials in high temperature fuel cells. terials, which show a high oxide ion conduction over
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) have recently attracted a wide range of oxygen partial pressures. It was
considerable interest as highly effective systems, reported that the LaGaO3-based perovskite oxides
efficiency ranging from 50 to 65%, and environmen- exhibit high ion conductivity,363 which is comparable
tally acceptable sources of electrical energy produc- to that of CeO-based oxide. In particular, LaGaO3
tion.319,350-355 The most common SOFCs feed fuels are doped with Sr for La and Mg for Ga (denoted as
H2, CO, CH4, and other hydrocarbons.355 Moreover, LSGM) exhibits a high oxide ion conductivity stable
an important advantage of SOFCs is that they can over a wide range of oxygen pressures.364,365 Ishihara
operate at temperatures at which the reaction rates et al.366 prepared Fe-doped LSGM electrolyte and
reach values of practical interest.356 There are sig- found an increase in the power density of the fuel
nificant barriers to the reduction in the operating cell with respect to the undoped LSMG counterpart.
temperature of the SOFCs, i.e., electrolyte ohmic This can be explained by the decrease in electrical
resistance and electrode overpotentials. resistance loss by improving the oxide ion conductiv-
A representative electronic conductor is the La1-xSrx- ity. A maximum power density close to 700 mW cm-2
MnO3 type perovskites that have been extensively was obtained at 1073 K on the cell using an Fe-doped
used as cathodes in ZrO2-based SOFCs.357,358 These LSGM and oxygen as electrolyte and oxidant, respec-
are good electronic conductors, but the lack of oxide- tively, which is close to the theoretical open-circuit
ion vacancies, and therefore of oxide-ion conduction potential. On the other hand, the power density was
at the working temperatures, makes it necessary to slightly smaller than that of the cell using Co-doped
use thick, porous electrodes containing an array of LSGM as electrolyte, especially at temperatures
triple-phase boundaries where gas, electrolyte, and below 973 K.367 This may result from the large
electrode meet. The cathode overpotentials, i.e., 20- activation energy for ion conduction.
300 mV, of such cathodes depend on their micro- Tu et al.354 prepared Ln0.4Sr0.6Co0.8Fe0.2O3-δ (Ln )
structure, which may change under the high tem- La, Pr, Nd Sm, Gd) perovskites and found semicon-
peratures required by the electrocatalytic reaction. ductor-like behavior at lower temperatures and me-
By contrast, Sr-substituted cobaltites, La1-xSrxCoO3, tallic conduction at higher temperatures. Nd0.4Sr0.6-
contain oxide-ion vacancies in the bulk even in an Co0.8Fe0.2O3-δ exhibited the highest conductivity in
oxidizing environment. These mixed oxide-ion and the 300-1300 K temperature range and simulta-
electronic conductors afford excellent cathode per- neously showed the best catalytic activity for oxygen
formance with very low overpotentials, even at high reduction at intermediate temperatures (870-1070
current density, when present as a film on the K). A large thermal expansion mismatch between
electrolyte.359,360 Apart from these advantages, the these perovskite oxides and the 8% mol Y2O3-doped
thermal expansion of La1-xSrxCoO3 perovskites is ZrO2 (YSZ) electrolyte was reported. The transforma-
very high and the mismatch between the electrode tion of the Co4+ and Fe4+ states to the trivalent states
and the electrolyte and interconnection makes this causes the precipitation of Sr at higher temperatures,
system unsuitable as cathode material for a SOFCs resulting in the reaction of Sr with ZrO2 to form
subject to repeated thermal cycling. SrZrO3. The formation of an interfacial reaction
For decreasing the operating temperature, devel- between the YSZ and calcium-substituted chromite
opment of the active catalysts for electrode is es- anodes was also observed during electrochemical
sentially required in addition to the development of tests under fuel cell conditions. Using energy-
electrolyte with low resistivity. Although La3+ cations dispersive X-rays and photoelectron spectroscopy
are generally used as the A-site cations of perovskite techniques, Sfeir et al.353 showed that under such
cathodes of SOFCs, rare earth cations used for the reducing conditions, the Ca-substituted chromite
A-site of Mn-based perovskites have a great influence anodes are enriched with Ca and Cr at the surface.
on the electrical conductivity as well as the cathodic The CaCrO4 phase is believed to exsolve from these
overpotentials. Ishihara et al.361 found that the Sr- materials and to decompose to CaCr2O4 and CaO,
which eventually reacts with the YSZ electrolyte to mate the binding energy of surface oxygen in a series
form CaZrO3. This phase segregation is also believed of manganites, Voorhoeve et al.368 observed that
to affect the activity of these anodes toward fuel increasing activity for NO decomposition coincides
oxidation. with the decreasing order of the binding energy of
Other mixed-valent perovskites designed to display surface oxygen. This finding was taken as conclusive
a thermal expansion better matched to that of the that the binding energy of oxygen determines the
electrolyte and interconnection and also to be good number of oxygen vacancies (active sites) and hence
mixed electronic and oxide-ion conductors in an activity.368 Another example of the influence of the
oxidizing environment at 970 < T < 1300 K have binding energy between the oxygen and the lan-
been explored.319 For this purpose, Huang et al.319 thanide cation has been reported by Futai et al.95 in
used the Ni3+/Ni2+ redox couple in association with LnCoO3 (Ln ) La-Dy) oxides. These authors found
the Fe4+/Fe3+ and the low-spin/intermediate-spin a correlation between the sum of the Ln-O and Co-O
Co4+/Co3+ couples in the perovskite structure. The binding energies, reducibility, and the catalytic activ-
electric conductivity of both La1-xSrxNi1-yCoyO3 and ity in CO oxidation. Maximum activity corresponded
La1-xSrxNi1-yFeyO3 perovskites appears to be po- to EuCoO3, which exhibited the lowest oxygen bind-
laronic with an overlap of the Co4+/Co3+ and Ni3+/ ing energy and was also the oxide that proved to be
Ni2+ in the former and of Fe4+/Fe3+ and Ni3+/Ni2+ the easiest to reduce.
couples in the latter. This overlap provides two types A correlation with the electronic parameters of the
of polaronic conduction, p-type and n-type, with the perovskite oxide is, however, more appropriate in
p-type carriers moving on the Co- or Fe-atom array, suprafacial catalytic processes.368 In these reactions,
and the n-type carriers moving on the Ni-atom array. the solid surface serves as a template providing
The compositions La0.8Sr0.2Ni0.2Co0.8O3 and La0.7Sr0.3- electronic orbitals of the proper energy and symmetry
Ni0.2Fe0.8O3 have a thermal expansion coefficient for the bonding of reagents and intermediates.
better matched to that of the electrolyte than the Sazonov et al.369 studied the oxygen equilibration:
expansion coefficient of La0.8Sr0.2CoO3, and they show
a comparable electrode resistance at temperatures 16
O2 + 18O2 f 2 16O18O (27)
above 970 K. In contrast to the La1-xSrxMnO3 cath-
ode, these oxides lose oxygen reversibly at temper-
atures above 870 K, which makes them mixed on LaMO3 (M, first-row transition metal from Cr
electronic/oxide-ion conductors with good catalytic through to Ni) oxides and found the rate and activa-
activity for oxygen reduction in SOFCs. tion energy of the oxygen equilibration above 500 K
to be maximum for LaMnO3 and LaCoO3, very
G. Structure−Activity Relationships similar in fact to those of simple oxides of transition
metals (M2O3). However, the temperature depen-
Precise knowledge of the relationships between dence of the rate of equilibration on LnMO3 (Ln )
solid-state properties and catalytic performance is La, Nd, Sm) oxides below 500 K was found to be of
crucial for the design and tailoring of efficient cata- an identical nature to that recorded on the corre-
lysts. In the search for these relationships, the sponding rare earth oxides. Thus, a distinct separa-
availability of families of isostructural perovskite- tion of the functions of the cations of the transition
type oxides characterized by a great flexibility of the and rare earth elements can be seen for these
crystal to accommodate cation substitutions is ex- perovskites, i.e., activity is determined by the cations
tremely useful. There is no doubt that the structure of the transition metals at high temperature and by
and composition of ABO3 model perovskites facilitate the rare earth ions at low temperature. These results
this arduous but extremely important task. By are in agreement with those reported by Kremenic
changing the A cation while keeping the B cation et al.49 for propene and isobutene oxidation at 573 K
constant, or vice versa, a series of compounds may (Figure 8). The twin-peak patterns in catalytic activ-
be synthesized with no substantial modification of the ity profiles resemble the twin-pattern which is found
crystal structure, provided that the conditions for the on going from d0 to d10 cations in the change in the
lower limits of the ionic radii are met and that the crystal field stabilization energy caused by the change
relationship between the ionic radii and the tolerance in the coordination of surface M3+ cations upon
factor (t) as defined by Goldschmidt7 is obeyed. oxygen adsorption.370 These results suggest a close
The reduction of NO is an example of an intrafacial relationship between the electronic configuration of
process. This reaction occurs through dissociative the transition metal ion (M) and catalytic activity.
chemisorption of the NO molecule on an oxygen The oxidation of CO with molecular oxygen has
vacancy (0) present on the surface of cobaltite and also been suggested as an example of suprafacial
manganite perovskites:47,154 processes. Voorhoeve et al.,159,368,371 Shimizu,372 and
Tascon and Tejuca165 have shown a volcano-type
NO + M-0-M f M-O-M + 1/2N2 (26) dependence between the activity for CO oxidation
and the electronic configuration of the transition
In this reaction, the reduced and oxidized surfaces metal ion. This is illustrated in the plot of catalytic
are represented by [M-0-M] and [M-O-M], respec- activity, either as the reciprocal of the reaction
tively. Lanthanum manganites provide a suitable temperature at which the activity is 1 µmol of CO
example of the effect of oxygen binding energy on converted per square meter of catalyst per second or
their catalytic performance for the target reaction. as the rate of mole CO transformed per unit area and
On the basis of a thermodynamic approach to esti- unit time (Figure 14) as a function of the occupancy
catalysts for removal of exhaust gases. However, this

impetus has declined, mainly because of their lower
resistance of perovskites to poisoning by sulfur
dioxide as compared with noble metals. The knowl-
edge of interactions of sulfur dioxide with the surface
of perovskite oxides still remains limited, and most
of the conclusions regarding their behavior in a sulfur
dioxide environment have been extrapolated from the
available data from single oxides. This weakness
certainly warrants further research on the subject.
The relationship between solid-state properties and
catalytic performance is crucial for the design and
tailoring of efficient catalysts. The availability of
families of isostructural perovskite-type oxides char-
acterized by a great flexibility of the crystal to
accommodate cation substitutions, or anion vacan-
cies, is extremely useful. This is illustrated by the
formation heat of an oxygen vacancy in several
Figure 14. Activity of first-row transition metal oxide unsubstituted and substituted manganites which
perovskites for CO oxidation in a CO:O2 ) 2:1 mixture (a)
or in a CO:O2 ) 2:1 mixture at 500 K. The activities of
appears to be related to the binding energies of the
vanadates (9), chromates (0), manganates (4), ferrates (O), surface oxygen to the A-sites. The increasing order
cobaltates (b), and nikelates (2) are plotted at the ap- of values of this sum was found to coincide with the
propriate d orbital occupation. Reprinted from ref 104 by decreasing order in catalytic activity for NO decom-
permission of the publisher. Copyright 1989 by Academic position. This indicates that the binding energy of
Press. oxygen determines the number of oxygen vacancies,
of the d levels for the transition M3+ ion. Catalytic and therefore the number of active sites, and hence
activity is also influenced by its stoichiometry. In the activity of manganites in NO decomposition.
ABO3 perovskites, a simple way of varying the Similar correlations between performance and solid-
oxidation state of the B3+ ion is by substitution of the state properties are expected for catalytic reactions
A3+ ion by a different one with an oxidation state in which O vacancies are involved.
other than 3. For (La,A′)CoO3 systems, the appear- Some perovskites display good performance as
ance of Co4+ ions by substitution with A′ ) Sr cathode materials in high temperature fuel cells
decreases the rate, whereas the presence of Co2+ ions (SOFC), although inherent barriers to the reduction
by introduction of A′ ) Ce4+ enhances the rate of CO in operating temperature of the SOFCs must be
oxidation. Variations in the valence states can be also overcome, i.e., electrolyte ohmic resistance and elec-
achieved by partial reduction, within the homogene- trode overpotentials. Some Sr-substituted cobaltites
ity ranges of the perovskite systems. can act as mixed oxide-ion and electronic conductors
According to crystal field theory, the octahedral and afford excellent cathode performance with very
(truncated octahedron at the surface) environment low overpotentials, even at high current density,
of the M3+ ions splits into two levels: the lower one when present as a film on the electrolyte. Apart from
(t2g) contains orbitals that are repulsed less by these advantages, the thermal expansion of those
negative point charges than are the orbitals in the perovskites is very high, and the mismatch between
higher energy (eg) level. In both cases, the maximum the electrode and the electrolyte and interconnection
activity in the volcano curves is attained for an makes this system unsuitable as cathode material for
occupation of the eg levels of less than one electron a SOFCs subject to repeated thermal cycling. There
whereas the t2g levels remain half-filled or completely is obviously a need to develop new mixed oxygen
filled. This correlation can be understood in terms of anion- and electron-conducting membranes derived
the kinetic data, which show that the binding of CO from perovskite structures for the production of new,
to the surface is a critical part of the process since clean energy vectors, e.g., hydrogen, and SOFCs
the reaction rate varies with the partial pressure of applications.
CO. Regarding the binding of CO as a carbonyl to
An important characteristic of perovskite oxides,
transition metals, binding is optimal when donation
mentioned in the preceding sections, is their suscep-
of the carbon lone pair into the dz2 metal orbital and
simultaneous back-donation of t2g electrons to the tibility of partial substitution in both A and B
antibonding π* orbital of CO are possible.373 The positions. Because of the wide range of ions and
correlation of the rate with the occupation of 3d valences which this simple crystal structure can
orbitals is therefore consistent with the kinetic data accommodate, the perovskites lend themselves to
and a mechanistic view based on molecular orbital chemical tailoring. They are relatively simple to
arguments. synthesize because the flexibility of the structure to
diverse chemistry. In light of the many possibilities
of perovskites as catalysts, it is anticipated that
V. Future Perspectives further investigations will expand the scope of cata-
Historically, the initial interest of perovskites in lytic perspectives examined in this review and con-
the middle 70s was focused on their application as tribute to the development of practical processes.
VI. Acknowledgment (40) Petunchi, J. O.; Nicastro, J. L.; Lombardo, E. A. J. Chem. Soc.,
Chem. Commun. 1980, 467.
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This work was partially supported by the Inter- 121, 63.
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Chemical Structures and Performance of Perovskite Oxides

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Chemical Structures and Performance of Perovskite Oxides

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Chemical Reviews is published by the American Chemical Society. 1155 Sixteenth

Chemical Structures and Performance of Perovskite Oxides

M. A. Peña and J. L. G. Fierro*

Instituto de Catalisis y Petroleoquimica, CSIC, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain

Received September 28, 2000

Contents VI. Acknowledgment 2014

10.1021/cr980129f CCC: $36.00 © 2001 American Chemical Society

are related to the stability of mixed oxidation states

II. Structure of Perovskites

Optical Properties. Compounds with the perovskite 1. CO and NO Adsorption

was attributed to lattice oxygen. The changes in

E. Specific Surface and Porosity

as above did not restore the original perovskite phase.

Figure 6. Temperature dependence of the intrinsic activ-

Rietveld method and photoelectron spectroscopy and

ferrites exhibited very high oxidation activities com-

Figure 10. Temperature-programmed (10 K/min) reduc-

thanides. This finding agrees with the thermody-

different performances in the dry reforming of CH4.98

N2Oad + e- f N2O-ad (12) M-0-M + NO f M-O-M + 1/2N2

al.257 used La0.9Ce0.1MO3 (M ) Mn, Fe, Co, Ni)

Therefore, it seems likely that the M4+ element acts

catalysts for removal of exhaust gases. However, this

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