FSF Runway Excursions Report

Reducing the Risk of
RUNWAY EXCURSIONS
R E P ORT OF T HE R UNWAY SAF E T Y I NI T I AT I VE
This information is not intended to supersede operators
or manufacturers policies, practices or requirements,
and is not intended to supersede government regulations.
Report
Reducing the Risk of Runway Excursions:
Report of the Runway Safety Initiative
Appendixes
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.
MAIN MENU
RUNWAY EXCURSIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Denitions ................................................................................................................................................................. 4
2. Background .......................................................................................................................................................................... 5
3. Data .................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
4. Common Risk Factors in Runway Excursion Events
4.1 Flight Operations .......................................................................................................................................................... 9
4.1.1 Takeoff Excursion Risk Factors ..................................................................................................................... 9
4.1.2 Landing Excursion Risk Factors .................................................................................................................... 9
4.2 Air Trafc Management ................................................................................................................................................ 9
4.3 Airport Operators .......................................................................................................................................................... 9
4.4 Aircraft Manufacturers .................................................................................................................................................. 9
4.5 Regulators .................................................................................................................................................................... 9
5. Multiple Risk Factors ......................................................................................................................................................... 10
5.1 Takeoff Excursion Risk Factor Interactions ................................................................................................................. 10
5.2 Landing Excursion Risk Factor Interactions ................................................................................................................ 11
6. Recommended Mitigations ................................................................................................................................................. 12
6.1 General ...................................................................................................................................................................... 12
6.2 Flight Operations ........................................................................................................................................................ 12
6.2.1 Policies ...................................................................................................................................................... 12
6.2.2 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) ....................................................................................................... 12
6.3 Airport Operators ........................................................................................................................................................ 13
6.3.1 Policies ....................................................................................................................................................... 13
6.4 Air Trafc Management .............................................................................................................................................. 13
6.4.1 Policies ....................................................................................................................................................... 14
6.5 Regulators .................................................................................................................................................................. 14
6.6 Aircraft Manufacturers ................................................................................................................................................ 14
7. Conclusions and Recommendations .................................................................................................................................... 14
RUNWAY EXCURSIONS
Contents
1. Introduction 4
1.1 Denitions 4
2. Background 5
3. Data 6
4.0 Common Risk Factors inRunway Excursion Events 9
4.1 Flight Operations 9
4.1.1 Takeoff Excursion Risk Factors 9
4.1.2 Landing Excursion Risk Factors 9
4.2 Air Trafc Management 9
4.3 Airport 9
4.4 Aircraft Manufacturers 9
4.5 Regulators 9
5. Multiple Risk Factors 10
5.2 Landing Excursion Risk Factor Interactions 11
6. Recommended Mitigations 12
6.1 General 12
6.2 Flight Operations 12
6.2.1 Policies 12
6.2.2 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) 12
6.3 Airport Operators 13
6.3.1 Policies 13
I. Runway Excursion Risk Awareness Tool
II. Brieng Notes
Updated ALAR Brieng Notes
New Runway Safety Initiative Brieng Notes
III. Report on the Design and Analysis of a Runway Excursion Database
IV. Selected Flight Safety Foundation Publications
V. Additional Resources
Australian Transport Safety Bureau Excursion Report
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration Takeoff Training Aid
Direction Gnrale de lAviation Civile, France, Unstabilized Approach Plan
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration Advisory Circular on Runway Excursions
VI. Runway Safety Initiative Participating Organizations
APPENDIXES
RUNWAY EXCURSIONS
1. Introduction
At the request of several international aviation organizations
in late 2006, the Flight Safety Foundation initiated a
project entitled Runway Safety Initiative (RSI) to address
the challenge of runway safety. This was an international
effort with participants representing the full spectrum of
stakeholders from the aviation community. The effort
initially reviewed the three areas of runway safety: runway
incursions, runway confusion, and runway excursions. After
a review of current runway safety efforts, specifc data on the
various aspects of runway safety were obtained.
After reviewing the initial data, the RSI Group determined
that it would be most effective to focus its efforts on
reducing the risk of runway excursions.
1.1 Denitions
Runway Excursion: When an aircraft on the runway
surface departs the end or the side of the runway surface.
Runway excursions can occur on takeoff or landing.
They consist of two types of events:
Veer-Off: A runway excursion in which an aircraft
departs the side of a runway
Overrun: A runway excursion in which an aircraft
departs the end of a runway
Stabilized approach: All fights must be stabilized by
1,000 feet above airport elevation when in instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC) or by 500 feet above
airport elevation in visual meteorological conditions (VMC).
An approach is stabilized when all of the following
conditions are met:
1. The aircraft is on the correct fight path;
2. Only small changes in heading/pitch are required to
maintain the correct fight path;
3. The aircraft speed is not more than VREF + 20 knots
indicated airspeed and not less than VREF;
4. The aircraft is in the correct landing confguration;
5. Sink rate is no greater than 1,000 feet per minute;
if an approach requires a sink rate greater than
1,000 feet per minute, a special briefng should be
conducted;
6. Power setting is appropriate for the aircraft
confguration and is not below the minimum power for
approach as defned by the aircraft operating manual;
7. All briefngs and checklists have been conducted;
8. Specifc types of approaches are stabilized if they
also fulfll the following: instrument landing system
(ILS) approaches must be fown within one dot
of the glideslope and localizer; a Category II or
Category III ILS approach must be fown within the
expanded localizer band; during a circling approach,
wings should be level on fnal when the aircraft
reaches 300 feet above airport elevation; and
9. Unique approach procedures or abnormal
conditions requiring a deviation from the above
elements of a stabilized approach require a
special briefng.
An approach that becomes unstabilized below 1,000
feet above airport elevation in IMC or below 500 feet
above airport elevation in VMC requires an immediate
go-around.
4 RUNWAY SAFETY INITIATIVE FlIghT SAFETY FoUNdATIoN MAY 2009
2. Background
All data in this report are from the World Aircraft Accident
Summary (WAAS), published by Ascend, and have been
augmented by appropriate investigative reports when
available. The specifc data in Section 2 represent a high-
level analysis of all major and substantial-damage accidents
involving Western- and Eastern-built commercial jet and
turboprop aircraft from 1995 through 2008. These data were
used to determine the overall number of accidents during
this period and the number of runway-related accidents.
The data in Section 3 are from a more in-depth look at
runway excursion accidents to all aircraft with a maximum
takeoff weight (MTOW) greater than 12,500 lb/5,700 kg
from 1995 through March 2008 to determine high-risk areas
and to develop possible interventions.
Aircraft Type Turbojet Turboprop
Damage Major Major Substantial Substantial
286 372 528 243
Total
658 771
1,429 Total Accidents
Western- and Eastern-built Turbojet and Turboprop Aircraft
Table 1. Total Commercial Transport Accidents,
1995 through 2008
During the 14-year period from 1995 through 2008,
commercial transport aircraft were involved in a total of
1,429 accidents involving major or substantial damage
(Table 1). Of those, 431 accidents (30%) were runway-
related. The specifc RSI focus on excursion accidents was
driven by the fact that of the 431 runway-related accidents,
417, or 97%, were runway excursions.
The number of runway excursion accidents is more than 40
times the number of runway incursion accidents, and more
than 100 times the number of runway confusion accidents
(Table 2). Over the past 14 years, there has been an average
of almost 30 runway excursion accidents per year for
commercial aircraft, while runway incursion and confusion
accidents combined have averaged one accident per year.
Figure 1 shows that the largest portion of runway-related
accidents is, by far, excursion accidents.
Figure 1. Proportions of Runway-Related Accidents for
Turbojet and Turboprop Commercial Aircraft
Forty-one of the 431 runway accidents involved fatalities.
Excursion accidents accounted for 34 of those fatal
accidents, or 83% of fatal runway-related accidents. In
general, the likelihood of fatalities in a runway-related
accident is greater in incursion and confusion accidents.
However, the much greater number of runway excursion
accidents results in a substantially greater number of fatal
excursion accidents (Figure 2).
Incursion Turbojet
Excursion
Turbojet
Confusion Turbojet
Incursion
Turboprop
Excursion
Turboprop
Confusion
Turboprop
Commercial Transport Aircraft
Runway Excursion
Runway Confusion
Runway Incursion
Fatal
Non-Fatal
Number of Accidents
Accident
Type
Incursion
Confusion
Excursion
Number of
Accidents
Average
Annual Rate
% of Total
Accidents
10
4
417
0.7
0.3
29.8
0.6%
0.3%
29.0%
Table 2. Runway-Related Accidents for Turbojet and Turboprop Figure 2. Proportions of Fatal and Non-Fatal Runway Accidents
MAY 2009 FlIghT SAFETY FoUNdATIoN RUNWAY SAFETY INITIATIVE 5
Only a small percentage of runway excursion accidents
are fatal. However, since the overall number of runway
excursion accidents is so high, that small percentage
accounts for a large number of fatalities. Over the 14-year
period, 712 people died in runway excursion accidents,
while runway incursions accounted for 129 fatalities and
runway confusion accidents accounted for 132 fatalities.
During the 14-year period, the number of takeoff excursion
accidents decreased. However, the takeoff excursion
accident trend (black line in Figure 3) has leveled off.
During the same period the number of landing excursions
show an increasing trend (Figure 4).

Figure 3. Takeoff Excursions for Commercial Turbojet
and Turboprop Aircraft
Figure 4. Landing Excursions for Commercial Turbojet
and Turboprop Aircraft
The RSI effort brought together multiple disciplines that
included aircraft manufacturers, operators, management,
pilots, regulators, researchers, airports, and air traffc
management organizations. It used the expertise and
experience of all the stakeholders to address the challenge
of runway excursions. A list of the organizations that
participated in the RSI effort can be found in Appendix VI.
The RSI team fully supports the many activities that have
been responsible for the low number of runway incursion
accidents. The specifc goal of the RSI team was to provide
data that highlight the high-risk areas of runway excursions
and to provide interventions and mitigations that can reduce
those risks.
3. Data
An in-depth data study was conducted of all runway
excursion accidents from 1995 through March 2008 to
investigate the causes of runway excursion accidents and
to identify the high-risk areas. The entire study, including
the study basis, data set, and constraints, can be found in
Appendix I. Following are some of the basic data from the
study.
Landing excursions outnumber takeoff excursions
approximately 4 to 1 (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Runway Excursions, by Type
Almost two-thirds of the takeoff excursions are overruns
(Figure 6).
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1
9
9
5

1
9
9
6

1
9
9
7

1
9
9
8

1
9
9
9

2
0
0
0

2
0
0
1

2
0
0
2

2
0
0
3

2
0
0
4

2
0
0
5

2
0
0
6

2
0
0
7

2
0
0
8

A
c
c
i
d
e
n
t
s

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1
9
9
5

1
9
9
6

1
9
9
7

1
9
9
8

1
9
9
9

2
0
0
0

2
0
0
1

2
0
0
2

2
0
0
3

2
0
0
4

2
0
0
5

2
0
0
6

2
0
0
7

2
0
0
8

A
c
c
i
d
e
n
t
s

21%
79%
Figure 6. Takeoff Excursions, by Type
Landing excursion overruns and veer-offs occur at nearly
the same rate (Figure 7).
Figure 7. Landing Excursions, by Type
Among aircraft feet types, turboprops are involved in the
largest percentage of takeoff excursions, followed closely
by jet transports (Figure 8).
Figure 8. Takeoff Excursions, by Fleet Composition
For landing excursions, the proportions between jet
transports and turboprops were approximately reversed
jets were involved in more excursions than turboprops
(Figure 9).
Figure 9. Landing Excursions, by Fleet Composition
The data were analyzed to identify the most common risk
factors, both in takeoff excursions (Figure 10) and landing
excursions (Figure 11). More than one risk factor could be
assigned to an accident.
The most common risk factor in takeoff excursions was a
rejected takeoff (RTO) initiated at a speed greater than V1.
Loss of pilot directional control was the next most common,
followed by rejecting the takeoff before V1 was reached.

For landing excursions, the top risk factors were go-around
not conducted, touchdown long, landing gear malfunction,
and ineffective braking (e.g., hydroplaning, contaminated
runway).
37%
63%
47%
53%
6%
17%
36%
41%
3%
19%
35%
43%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%
Reversethrust:Asymmetric
Touchdown:Ocenter
PilotTechnique:Flare
PilotTechnique:Crosswind
Touchdown:Bounce
PilotTechnique:SpeedControl
Landinggeardamaged
PilotTechnique:AlCtudecontrol
Approach:High
Wheels:Assymdecelmalf
NoncomplianceSOP
PilotdirecConalcontrol
FlightCrew:CRM
Touchdown:Hard
Touchdown:Fast
ApproachFast
LandinggearmalfuncCon
IneecCveJraKing:rwycontamLn
Touchdown:Long
Goaroundnotconducted
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%
RotaCon:>elowVR
ImproperChecklistUse
PICsupervision
PilotTechnique:xwind
RTO:Notconsidered
RotaCon:+boveVR
Thrustasymmetry
RTO:NoCme
Suddenenginepwrloss
EeightcalculaConerror
Unabletorotate
Tirefailure
Degradedengineperf
CRM
RotaCon:NoaRempt
NoncomplianceSOP
NorotaConSbelowVR
RTO:beforeV1
PilotdirecConalcontrol
RTO:IniCatedaUerV1
Figure 10. Takeoff Excursion Risk Factors
Figure 11. Landing Excursion Top Risk Factors
4.0 Common Risk Factors in
Runway Excursion Events
Runway excursion events can happen on takeoff or landing.
They are typically the result of one or more of the following
operational factors and circumstances.
4.1 Flight Operations
4.1.1 Takeoff Excursion Risk Factors
- Rejected takeoff (RTO) initiated at speed
greater than V
1
- Directional control during takeoff or RTO is
inadequate
- RTO before V
1
is reached
- No rotation because V
R
not reached
- Crew noncompliance with standard operating
procedures (SOPs)
- Rotation not attempted
- Failure of crew resource management (CRM)
- Degraded engine performance
- Tire failure
- Unable to rotate
- Aircraft weight calculation error
- Sudden engine power loss
- RTO no time to abort before veer-off
- Thrust asymmetry
- Rotation above V
R
- RTO not considered
- Pilot technique crosswind
- Failure of pilot-in-command (PIC) supervision
of frst offcer
- Improper checklist use
- Premature rotation before V
R
4.1.2 Landing Excursion Risk Factors
- Go-around not conducted
- Touchdown long
- Ineffective braking runway contamination
- Landing gear malfunction
- Approach fast
- Touchdown fast
- Touchdown hard
- Flight crew CRM
- Inadequate pilot directional control
- Noncompliance with SOPs
- Wheels asymmetric-deceleration
malfunction
- Approach high
- Pilot technique glideslope/altitude control
- Landing gear damaged
- Pilot technique speed control
- Touchdown bounce
- Pilot technique crosswind
- Pilot technique fare
- Touchdown off-center
4.2 Air Trafc Management
Lack of awareness of the importance of stabilized
approaches
Lack of awareness of stabilized approach criteria
Failure to descend aircraft appropriately for the
approach
Failure to allow aircraft to fy appropriate approach
speeds
Failure to select the appropriate runway based on
the wind
Late runway changes (e.g., after fnal approach fx)
Failure to provide timely or accurate wind/weather
information to the crew
Failure to provide timely or accurate runway
condition information to the crew
4.3 Airport
Runways not constructed and maintained to
maximize effective friction and drainage
Late or inaccurate runway condition reports
Inadequate snow and ice control plan
Not closing a runway when conditions dictate
Incorrect or obscured runway markings
Failure to allow use of wind-preferential runways
Inadequate runway end safety area (RESA) or
equivalent system
Inappropriate obstacle assessments
4.4 Aircraft Manufacturers
Lack of appropriate operational and performance
information for operators that accounts for
the spectrum of runway conditions they might
experience
4.5 Regulators
Lack of a regulatory requirement to provide fight
crews a consistent format of takeoff and landing
data for all runway conditions
Inadequate regulation for the provision of correct,
up-to-date and timely runway condition reports
No international standard for measuring and
reporting runway conditions
5. Multiple Risk Factors
The risk of a runway excursion increases when more than
one risk factor is present. Multiple risk factors create a
synergistic effect (i.e., two risk factors more than double
the risk). Combining the effects of the risk indicators via
a proper safety management system (SMS) methodology
could effectively identify increased-risk operations.
Applying proper mitigation strategies could reduce the risk
of a runway excursion.
5.1 Takeoff Excursion Risk Factor
Interactions
Data breakdowns for takeoff excursions clearly show that
some factors are more frequently present than others. The
next logical question is whether there are combinations
of factors that are more signifcant than others. Also
of interest is whether certain factors are more or less
conducive to veer-offs than to overruns. Table 3 shows
various risk combinations of selected factors in veer-off
accidents during takeoff. The yellow highlighted cells
indicate combinations of factors where there is a 20%
or greater overlap of the factor and the column total
(minimum value greater than or equal to 2).
The small number of events comprising the takeoff
excursions data set made even smaller when
considering only veer-offs limits our ability to

Number of
Events With the
Cited Pairs of
Factors*
Abort V
1
(18 events)
Abort > V
1

(5 events)
Engine
Power Loss
(12 events)
Runway
Contamination
(8 events)
Perf. Calc.:
Weight/CG
(2 events)
Perf. Calc.:
V
1
/Rwy. Length
(1 event)
Crosswind
(8 events)
Tailwind
(0 events)
Gusts/
Turbulence/
Wind Shear
(5 events)
Abort V
1

8 5 1 0 3 0 2
Abort > V
1

2 1 1 0 2 0 0
Engine Power
Loss
8 2 2 0 0 0 0 1
Runway
Contamination
5 1 2 0 0 3 0 1
Perf. Calc.:
Weight/CG
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Perf. Calc.:
V
1
/Rwy. Length
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Crosswind 3 2 0 3 0 0 0 4
Tailwind 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gusts/
Turbulence/
Wind Shear
2 0 1 1 0 0 4 0
* Cells highlighted in yellow are those where the co-existence of two factors is greater than or equal to 20 percent.

Number of
Events With the
Cited Pairs of
Factors*
Abort V
1
(14 events)
Abort > V
1

(46 events)
Engine
Power Loss
(17 events)
Runway
Contamination
(8 events)
Perf. Calc.:
Weight/CG
(11 events)
Perf. Calc.:
V
1
/Rwy. Length
(7 events)
Crosswind
(1 event)
Tailwind
(0 events)
Gusts/
Turbulence/
Wind Shear
(0 events)
Abort V
1

3 2 2 2 0 0 0
Abort > V
1

9 5 7 3 1 0 0
Engine Power
Loss
3 9 3 1 2 0 0 0
Runway
Contamination
2 5 3 2 2 0 0 0
Perf. Calc.:
Weight/CG
2 7 1 2 1 0 0 0
Perf. Calc.:
V
1
/Rwy. Length
2 3 2 2 1 0 0 0
Crosswind 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tailwind 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gusts/
Turbulence/
Wind Shear
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
* Cells highlighted in yellow are those where the co-existence of two factors is greater than or equal to 20 percent.
Table 3. Takeoff Excursion Veer-Offs Risk Factor Interactions
Table 4. Takeoff Excursion Overruns Risk Factor Interactions
know whether differences in the tabulated values are
signifcant. However, it is interesting to note where
there are associations of factors that may warrant
further, more detailed study. For instance, aborts at or
below V1 often still resulted in a veer-off when there
was an engine power loss, a runway contaminant, or
a crosswind. There is also some indication that the
increased risks created by crosswinds and tailwinds
are magnifed when gusts, turbulence, or wind shear is
present.
Table 4 shows similar risk interactions for takeoff
overruns. Though the number of overruns during
takeoff is considerably larger than the number of veer-
offs, it is still a relatively small value, which makes
comparisons diffcult when further subdivided. The
numbers in these data suggest that there might be
interesting associations between engine power loss
and aborts initiated above V1, as well as an association
between these high-speed aborts and the presence of
runway contaminants.
5.2 Landing Excursion Risk Factor
Interactions
Tables 5 and 6 show risk interactions for landing
excursion veer-offs and landing excursion overruns,
respectively. In contrast to the takeoff excursion data,
the landing excursion data are not nearly as affected by
the inaccuracies inherent in small numbers. In each
table, yellow highlighted cells are those values greater
than or equal to 20% of the column total.
The number of highlighted cells for both veer-offs and
overruns shows that the landing excursion data have

Number of
Events With
the Cited Pairs
of Factors*
Stabilized
Approach
(114 events)
Unstabilized
Approach
(39 events)
Go-Around
Not
Conducted
(44 events)
Touchdown
Long/Fast
(54 events)
Touchdown
Hard/
Bounce
(50 events)
Runway
Contamination
(90 events)
Crosswind
(47
events)
Tailwind
(8 events)
Gusts/
Turbulence/
Wind Shear
(32 events)
Stabilized
Approach
5 4 17 39 24 5 14
Unstabilized
Approach
36 7 20 20 8 1 11
Go-Around Not
Conducted
5 36 9 24 25 10 1 10
Touchdown
Long/Fast
4 7 9 5 4 2 1 9
Touchdown
Hard/Bounce
17 20 24 5 21 17 2 12
Runway
Contaminated
39 20 25 4 21 24 5 21
Crosswind 24 8 10 2 17 24 3 22
Tailwind 5 1 1 1 2 5 3 1
Gusts/
Turbulence/
Wind Shear
14 11 10 9 12 21 22 1
* Cells highlighted in yellow are those where the co-existence of two factors is greater than or equal to 20 percent

Table 6. Landing Excursion Overruns Risk Factor Interactions

Number of
Events With
the Cited Pairs
of Factors*
Stabilized
Approach
(47 events)
Unstabilized
Approach
(87 events)
Go-Around
Not
Conducted
(107 events)
Touchdown
Long/Fast
(118 events)
Touchdown
Hard/
Bounce
(17 events)
Runway
Contamination
(101 events)
Crosswind
(18 events)
Tailwind
(30
events)
Gusts/
Turbulence/
Wind Shear
(22 events)
Stabilized
Approach
13 13 3 25 3 8 6
Unstabilized
Approach
84 77 8 43 7 14 13
Go-Around Not
Conducted
13 84 91 14 53 10 19 18
Touchdown
Long/Fast
13 77 91 15 53 9 20 14
Touchdown
Hard/Bounce
3 8 14 15 5 2 7 5
Runway
Contamination
25 43 53 53 5 10 15 16
Crosswind 3 7 10 9 2 10 7 16
Tailwind 8 14 19 20 7 15 7 8
Gusts/
Turbulence/
Wind Shear
6 13 18 14 5 16 16 8
* Cells highlighted in yellow are those where the co-existence of two factors is greater than or equal to 20 percent
Table 5. Landing Excursion Veer-Offs Risk Factor Interactions
some strong associations between pairs of factors. For
instance, Table 5 shows that, for veer-offs, the factor(s)
touchdown long/fast have little association with
the other listed factors. However, the next column,
touchdown hard/bounce, shows strong associations
with many of the other factors.
Conversely, Table 6 shows that touchdown long/fast
is much more strongly associated with factors inherent
in overruns, whereas touchdown hard/bounce has
relatively weak associations. In veer-offs, touchdown
hard/bounce is somewhat associated with both stabilized
and unstabilized approaches to a very similar degree.
This implies that other factors may be of equal or greater
importance than a stabilized approach for landing veer-
off accidents. Looking at overruns, however, the factor
touchdown long/fast has a very strong correlation with
unstabilized approaches, and a much weaker correlation
with stabilized approaches. Similar observations can be
made with respect to various wind factors and runway
contamination. For example, tail winds are clearly a
frequent contributor to overruns, while crosswinds have a
stronger presence with veer-offs.
The risk factor interaction tables present the
possibility of many associations between various
contributing factors, but determining whether any
pair of associated factors has a causal connection
would require deeper study and analysis. The strong
associations displayed in the tables suggest areas
where more detailed investigation may be fruitful.
For instance, the go-around not conducted columns
exemplify strong associations with other factors such
as unstabilized approaches, long/fast landings,
runway contamination, and hard/bounced landings.
Logically, these factors may have a causal connection
to each other that signifcantly increases the probability
of a runway excursion accident. However, a fnal
determination requires explicit study of events where
these factors were present.
6. Recommended Mitigations
The following prevention strategies should be implemented
to address the risk factors involved in runway excursions.
6.1 General
The prevention strategies embrace fve areas: fight
operations, air traffc management, airport operators,
aircraft manufacturers, and regulators. Although
strategic areas are separately listed in this document,
organizations working together in an integrated way
will offer added value.
Therefore, as far as practicable, organizations should
work together to address runway safety.

Local level: This could be achieved by local
runway safety teams consisting of at least
representatives of the airport, air traffc control,
aircraft operators, and pilot representatives, should
address all runway safetyrelated topics, including
runway incursions, runway confusion, and runway
excursions.
National level: Runway excursions as a separate
subject should be addressed by the national safety/
aviation authority in close cooperation with
the aircraft operators, air traffc control, airport
operators and pilot representatives.
International level: It is strongly recommended
that international organizations continue to address
runway excursions as a signifcant safety issue.
6.2 Flight Operations
6.2.1 Policies
Operators should have a process for actively
monitoring their risk during takeoff and
landing operations
Operators should defne training programs for
takeoff and landing performance calculations
Operators should have an ongoing process
to identify critical runways within their
operations
Operators should defne and train the execution
of the RTO decision
Operators should stress that CRM and
adherence to SOPs are critical in RTOs
Operators should defne, publish, and train the
elements of a stabilized approach
Operators should implement, train, and support
a no-fault go-around policy
6.2.2 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
Management and fight crews should mutually
develop and regularly update SOPs
Operators should defne criteria and required
callouts for a stabilized approach
Operators should defne criteria that require a
go-around
Operators should ensure that fight crews
understand
- Factors affecting landing and takeoff
distances
- Conditions conducive to hydroplaning
- Criteria upon which landing distance
calculations are based
- Crosswind and wheel cornering issues
- Wind shear hazards
- Braking action, runway friction
coeffcient, runway-condition index,
and maximum recommended crosswind
component depending on runway
condition
- That landing with a tailwind on a
contaminated runway is not recommended
Operators should defne and train procedures for
Assessment of runway excursion risk
using the Runway Excursion Risk
Awareness Tool (RERAT), Appendix I
Critical runway operations
Rejected takeoff, rejected landing, and
bounced landing
Assessment of landing distance prior to
every landing
Crosswind operations
Appropriate fare technique
Go-around, including during fare and
after touchdown
Landing on wet, slippery, or contaminated
runways
Using brakes, spoilers, and thrust
reversers as recommended by the
manufacturer and maintaining their use
until a safe taxi speed is assured
Use of autobrake system and thrust
reversers on wet and/or contaminated
runways
Use of rudder, differential braking, and
nosewheel steering for directional control
during aircraft deceleration and runway
exit
Recognizing when there is a need for,
and appropriate use of, all available
deceleration devices to their maximum
capability
Runway condition reporting by fight
crews
6.3 Airport Operators
6.3.1 Policies
Ensure that all runway ends have a runway
end safety area (RESA) as required by
International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) Annex 14 or appropriate mitigations
such as an arrestor bed
Defne criteria to determine when to close a
runway to prevent runway excursions
Ensure that runways are constructed and
maintained to ICAO specifcations, so that
effective friction levels and drainage are
achieved (e.g., runway grooving, porous
friction overlay)
Ensure that the maneuvering area including
the runway conform to ICAO Annex 14
specifcations
Ensure that aircraft rescue and fre fghting
(ARFF) personnel are trained and available at
all times during fight operations
Ensure that ARFF personnel are familiar with
crash/fre/rescue procedures for all aircraft
types serving the airport
Provide means for fight crews to visually
determine runway distance remaining
6.3.2 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
Ensure that visual aids, specifcally touchdown
zone location and markings, are visible and in
accordance with ICAO Annex 14
Ensure that infrastructure restrictions such
as changes to the published takeoff run
available (TORA) and runway width available
are communicated in a timely and effective
manner
Ensure that runway conditions are reported in
a timely manner
Provide an active process that ensures
adequate runway braking characteristics
Mitigate the effects of environmental (e.g.,
snow, ice, sand) and other deposits (e.g.,
rubber and de-icing fuids) on the runway
6.4 Air Trafc Management
Air traffc management/air traffc control (ATM/ATC)
has two primary roles in reducing the risk of runway
excursions:
Provide air traffc services that allow fight crews
to fy a stabilized approach
Provide fight crews with timely and accurate
information that will reduce the risk of a runway
excursion
6.4.1 Policies
Ensure all ATC/ATM personnel understand the
concept and benefts of a stabilized approach
Encourage joint familiarization programs
between ATC/ATM personnel and pilots
ATC/ATM and operators should mutually
develop and regularly review and update
arrival and approach procedures
Require the use of aviation English and ICAO
phraseology
6.4.2 Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs)
Controllers should assist fight crews in
meeting stabilized approach criteria by
- Positioning aircraft to allow a stabilized
approach
- Avoiding late runway changes, especially
after the fnal approach fx
- Providing approaches with vertical
guidance
- Not using speed control inside the fnal
approach fx
Controllers should
- Select the preferred runway in use based
on wind direction
- Communicate the most accurate
meteorological and runway condition
information available to fight crews in a
timely manner
6.5 Regulators
Develop a policy to ensure the provision of correct,
up-to-date and timely runway condition reports
Develop a policy to standardize takeoff and landing
data format as a function of runway condition
provided to airlines by aircraft manufacturers
Develop a standard measurement system for
runway condition reporting
6.6 Aircraft Manufacturers
Manufacturers should provide appropriate operational
and performance information to operators that account
for the spectrum of runway conditions they might
experience.
7. Conclusions and Recommendations
1. A mishandled rejected takeoff (RTO) increases
the risk of takeoff runway excursion
- Operators should emphasize and train for
proper execution of the RTO decision
- Training should emphasize recognition of
takeoff rejection issues
Sudden loss or degradation of thrust
Tire and other mechanical failures
Flap and spoiler confguration issues
- Training should emphasize directional control
during deceleration
- CRM and adherence to SOPs are essential in
time-critical situations such as RTOs
2. Takeoff performance calculation errors increase
the risk of a takeoff runway excursion
Operators should have a process to ensure a
proper weight-and-balance, including error
detection
Operators should have a process to ensure
accurate takeoff performance data
3. Unstable approaches increase the risk of landing
runway excursions
- Operators should defne, publish, and train the
elements of a stabilized approach
- Flight crews should recognize that fast and
high on approach, high at threshold, and fast,
long, and hard touchdowns are major factors
leading to landing excursions
- ATC/ATM personnel should assist aircrews in
meeting stabilized approach criteria
4. Failure to recognize the need for and to execute
a go-around is a major contributor to runway
excursion accidents
- Operator policy should dictate a go-around
if an approach does not meet the stabilized
approach criteria
- Operators should implement and support no-
fault go-around policies
- Training should reinforce these policies
5. Contaminated runways increase the risk of
runway excursions
- Flight crews should be given accurate, useful,
and timely runway condition information
- A universal, easy-to-use method of runway
condition reporting should be developed to
reduce the risk of runway excursions
- Manufacturers should provide appropriate
operational and performance information to
operators that accounts for the spectrum of
runway conditions they might experience
6. Thrust reverser issues increase the risk of
runway excursions
- Flight crews should be prepared for
mechanical malfunctions and asymmetric
deployment
- Flight crew application of reverse thrust is
most effective at high speeds
7. Combinations of risk factors (such as abnormal
winds plus contaminated runways or unstable
approaches plus thrust reverser issues)
synergistically increase the risk of runway
excursions
- Flight crews should use a Runway Excursion
Risk Awareness Tool (Appendix I) for each
landing to increase their awareness of the risks
that may lead to a runway excursion.
8. Establishing and adhering to standard operating
procedures (SOPs) will enhance ight crew
decision making and reduce the risk of runway
excursions
- Management and fight crews should mutually
develop SOPs
- SOPs should be regularly reviewed and
updated by a management and fight crew team
9. The survivability of a runway excursion depends
on the energy of the aircraft as it leaves the
runway surface and the terrain and any obstacles
it will encounter prior to coming to a stop
- All areas surrounding the runway should
conform to ICAO Annex 14 specifcations
- All runway ends should have a certifed
runway end safety area (RESA) as required by
ICAO Annex 14 or appropriate substitute (e.g.,
an arrestor bed)
- Aircraft rescue and fre fghting (ARFF)
personnel should be trained and available at all
times during fight operations
10. Universal standards related to the runway and
conditions, and comprehensive performance data
related to aircraft stopping characteristics, help
reduce the risk of runway excursions
- Regulators should develop global, uniform
standards for runway condition measuring and
reporting, and aircraft performance data
This information is not intended to supersede operators or
manufacturers policies, prac tices or requirements, and is not
intended to supersede government regulations.
APPENDIX I
Runway Excursion Risk Awareness Tool
MAY 2009 Flight SAFetY FoundAtion RunWAY SAFetY initiAtiVe 1
Runway Excursion Risk Awareness Tool
Elements of this tool should be integrated, as appropriate, with the standard approach and departure briefngs to improve aware-
ness of factors that can increase the risk of a runway excursion. The number of warning symbols ( ) that accompany each factor
indicates a relative measure of risk. Generally, the higher the number of warning symbols that accompany a factor, the greater
the risk presented by that factor. Flight crews should consider carefully the effects of multiple risk factors, exercise appropriate
vigilance and be prepared to take appropriate action.
Failure to recognize the need for and to properly conduct a rejected takeoff on departure or a go-around at any time
during an approach, fare or touchdown is a primary factor in runway excursions.
Denitions:
ILS = instrument landing system
IMC = instrument meteorological conditions
LAHSO = land and hold short operations
PAPI = precision approach path indicator
RNP = required navigation performance
VASI = visual approach slope indicator
Type of Operation
nonscheduled/air taxi/freight
training/observation
Flight Crew
Reduced state of alertness long duty period,
fatigue
Single-pilot operation
Airport
no current/accurate weather/runway condition
information
unfamiliar airport or unfamiliar procedures
Familiar airport potential complacency
inadequate/obscured runway markings
excessive rubber/no porous friction coating or
grooves on runway surface
Minimal or no approach/runway/taxiway lights
Air Trafc Services
no airport traffc control service
late runway change/unreasonable clearances
Expected Approach
no vertical approach guidance e.g., ilS,
RnP, VASi/PAPi
nonprecision approach, especially with multiple
step-downs
Visual approach in darkness
lAhSo/partial runway closure
Planned long landing
Environment
Visibility restrictions e.g., darkness, fog,
iMC, low light
Contaminated runway e.g., standing water,
snow, slush, ice
tail wind greater than 5 kt
high crosswinds/gusty winds
heavy rain/thunderstorm on feld
Aircraft Equipment
no wind shear warning system
inoperative braking system e.g., wheel
brakes, anti-skid, spoilers, thrust reversers
Operating Procedures
Cockpit distractions/non-sterile cockpit
Absence of no-fault go-around policy
Schedule pressures/delays
Absent/inadequate descent/approach briefng(s)
Absent/inadequate briefng/planning for braking
management after touchdown
RUNWAY EXCURSIONS
Table 1
Recommended Elements of a Stabilized Approach
All ights must be stabilized by 1,000 feet above airport elevation in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) or by 500 feet above airport
elevation in visual meteorological conditions (VMC). An approach is stabilized when all of the following criteria are met:
1. The aircraft is on the correct ight path;
2. Only small changes in heading/pitch are required to maintain the correct ight path;
3. The aircraft speed is not more than VREF + 20 knots indicated airspeed and not less than VREF
;
4. The aircraft is in the correct landing conguration;
5. Sink rate is no greater than 1,000 feet per minute; if an approach requires a sink rate greater than 1,000 feet per minute, a special brief-
ing should be conducted;
6. Power setting is appropriate for the aircraft conguration and is not below the minimum power for approach as dened by the aircraft
operating manual;
7. All briengs and checklists have been conducted;
8. Specic types of approaches are stabilized if they also fulll the following: instrument landing system (ILS) approaches must be own
within one dot of the glideslope and localizer; a Category II or Category III ILS approach must be own within the expanded localizer
band; during a circling approach, wings should be level on nal when the aircraft reaches 300 feet above airport elevation; and,
9. Unique approach procedures or abnormal conditions requiring a deviation from the above elements of a stabilized approach require a
special brieng.
An approach that becomes unstabilized below 1,000 feet above airport elevation in IMC or below 500 feet above airport elevation in
VMC requires an immediate go-around.
Source: Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Accident Reduction (ALAR) Task Force (V1.1, November 2000)
2 RunWAY SAFetY initiAtiVe Flight SAFetY FoundAtion MAY 2009
Runway Excursion Risk Reduction Strategies
Flight Planning
Flight crews and aircraft operations staff can mitigate some of
the risk of a runway excursion by increased planning and vigi-
lance. For example, when adverse environmental factors are
present, such as a contaminated runway or a strong crosswind,
the selection of the longest runway with the most favorable
wind conditions should be considered. the use of maximum
thrust for takeoff, instead of reduced thrust, will reduce risk on
a contaminated runway.
in many cases, delaying a takeoff or landing by just a few
minutes allows for unfavorable weather conditions to improve
and/or allows the airport to better treat a contaminated runway
and measure braking action on the runway.
Takeoff
Crews should carefully review all aircraft loading computations
and be alert for fight management system (FMS) data entry er-
rors (e.g., weights, speeds, trim settings, runway length and take-
off thrust). the effects of all environmental conditions on aircraft
performance must be evaluated (e.g., temperature, pressure, wind,
runway contamination and slope, obstacles, etc.), and the effects
of inoperative aircraft systems (e.g., wheel brakes, anti-skid,
thrust reversers, spoilers) must be considered. Adequate takeoff
performance safety margins should be applied.
directional control issues should be discussed, especially during
strong or gusty crosswinds. Application of power should be in ac-
cordance with the aircraft manufacturers recommendations, and
a rolling takeoff should be made when appropriate.
Planning and training for a rejected takeoff are essential.
Landing
Planning for the landing should start before takeoff. Risks can
be reduced by selecting a runway that either has a precision
approach or other means of vertical guidance and provides the
most favorable overall performance. At critical airports (e.g.,
those with contaminated runways, short runways, adverse
wind conditions, etc.), consideration should be given to not
scheduling aircraft with inoperative braking systems (e.g.,
wheels brakes, anti-skid, spoilers, thrust reversers), and extra
weight (e.g., tankered fuel) should be minimized.
Accurate weather information and timely runway condition
information are essential.
Crews should carefully review all aircraft performance com-
putations and be alert for FMS data entry errors (e.g., weights,
speeds, runway length, etc.). the effects of all environmental
conditions on aircraft performance must be evaluated (e.g.,
temperature, pressure, wind, runway contamination and slope,
obstacles, etc.), and the effects of inoperative aircraft systems
(e.g., wheel brakes, anti-skid, thrust reversers, spoilers) must
be considered. Adequate landing performance safety margins
should be applied.
Crews should consider fying the full instrument approach at
unfamiliar airports and during darkness instead of electing to
conduct a visual approach to expedite arrival. use should be
made of all raw data to enhance position awareness and ensure
a stabilized approach (table 1, below).
APPENDIX II
Approach and Landing Accident
Reduction (ALAR) Brieng Notes
1.1 Operating Philosophy .......................................1
1.2 Automation ....................................................11
1.3 Golden Rules ..................................................17
1.4 Standard Calls ...............................................22
1.5 Normal Checklists..........................................26
1.6 Approach Brieng ..........................................30
Crew Coordination
2.1 Human Factors ..............................................35
2.2 Crew Resource Management ........................41
2.3 Pilot-Controller Communication ....................46
2.4 Interruptions/Distractions ..............................53
Altimeter and Altitude
3.1 Barometric Altimeter and Radio Altimeter .....58
3.2 Altitude Deviations .........................................65
Descent and Approach
4.1 Descent-and-approach Prole Management 71
4.2 Energy Management ......................................76
Approach Hazards Awareness
5.1 Approach Hazards Overview ..........................82
5.2 Terrain ............................................................94
5.3 Visual Illusions .............................................104
5.4 Wind Shear ..................................................111
The Go-Around
6.1 Being Prepared to Go Around ......................118
6.2 Manual Go-around .......................................122
6.3 Terrain-avoidance (Pull-up) Maneuver ........126
6.4 Bounce Recovery Rejected Landing .........130
Approach Techniques
7.1 Stabilized Approach .....................................133
7.2 Constant-angle Nonprecision Approach ......139
7.3 Visual References ........................................146
7.4 Visual Approaches .......................................152
Landing Techniques
8.1 Runway Excursions and Runway Overruns .157
8.2 The Final Approach Speed ...........................162
8.3 Landing Distances .......................................166
8.4 Braking Devices ...........................................172
8.5 Wet or Contaminated Runways ...................178
8.6 Wind Information .........................................185
8.7 Crosswind Landing ......................................190
Runway Safety Initiative
(RSI) Brieng Notes
Pilot Braking Action Reports ....................................1
Runway Condition Reporting ...................................6
FSF ALAR Brieng Note
1.1 Operating Philosophy
Adherence to standard operating procedures (SoPs) is an effective
method of preventing approach-and-landing accidents (AlAs),
including those involving controlled fight into terrain (CFIT).
Crew resource management (CRM) is not effective without
adherence to SoPs.
Statistical Data
The Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Accident
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that omission of action/
inappropriate action (i.e., inadvertent deviation from SoPs) was
a causal factor
1
in 72 percent of 76 approach-and-landing acci-
dents and serious incidents worldwide in 1984 through 1997.
2
The task force also found that deliberate nonadherence to
procedures was a causal factor in 40 percent of the accidents
and serious incidents.
Manufacturers SOPs
SoPs published by an airframe manufacturer are designed
to:
Refect the manufacturers fight deck design philosophy
and operating philosophy;
Promote optimum use of aircraft design features; and,
Apply to a broad range of company operations and
environments.
The initial SoPs for a new aircraft model are based on the
manufacturers objectives and on the experience acquired dur-
ing ight-testing programs and route-proving programs.
After they are introduced into service, SoPs are reviewed pe-
riodically and are improved based on feedback received from
users (in training and in line operations).
Customized SOPs
An airframe manufacturers SoPs can be adopted as is by a
company or can be used to develop customized SoPs.
Changes to the airframe manufacturers SoPs should be co-
ordinated with the manufacturer and should be approved by
the appropriate authority.
SoPs must be clear and concise; expanded information should
reect the companys operating philosophy and training phi-
losophy.
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Advisory Circular
120-71, Standard Operating Procedures for Flight Deck Crew-
members, published Aug. 10, 2000, includes a list of generic
topics that can be used for the development of company SoPs
(see Standard Operating Procedures Template).
Company SoPs usually are developed to ensure standardiza-
tion among different aircraft eets operated by the company.
Company SoPs should be reassessed periodically, based on
revisions of the airframe manufacturers SoPs and on internal
company feedback, to identify any need for change.
Flight crews and cabin crews should participate with ight
standards personnel in the development and revision of com-
pany SoPs to:
Promote constructive feedback; and,
Ensure that the SoPs, as well as the reasons for their
adoption, are understood fully by users.
Scope of SOPs
The primary purpose of SoPs is to identify and describe the
standard tasks and duties of the ight crew for each ight
phase.
SoPs generally are performed by recall, but tasks related to the
selection of systems and to the aircraft conguration should
be cross-checked with normal checklists.
SoPs are supplemented usually by information about specifc
operating techniques or by recommendations for specic types
of operations (e.g., operation on wet runways or contaminated
runways, extended operations [EToPS] and/or operation in
reduced vertical separation minimums [RVSM] airspace).
SoPs assume that all aircraft systems are operating normally
and that all automatic functions are used normally. (A system
may be partially inoperative or totally inoperative without
affecting the SoPs.)
SoPs should emphasize the following items:
operating philosophy;
Task-sharing;
optimum use of automation;
golden rules (see FSF AlAR Briefng Note 1.3
Golden Rules);
Standard calls;
Normal checklists;
Approach briefngs;
Altimeter-setting and cross-checking procedures;
descent profle management;
Energy management;
Terrain awareness;
Approach hazards awareness;
Radio altimeter;
Elements of a stabilized approach

(see Table 1) and
approach gate
3
;
Approach procedures and techniques;
landing and braking techniques; and,
Preparation and commitment to go around.

General Principles
SoPs should contain safeguards to minimize the potential for
inadvertent deviations from SoPs, particularly when operating
under abnormal conditions or emergency conditions, or when
interruptions/distractions occur.
Safeguards include:
Table 1
Recommended Elements
Of a Stabilized Approach
All ights must be stabilized by 1,000 feet above
airport elevation in instrument meteorological conditions
(IMC) or by 500 feet above airport elevation in visual
meteorological conditions (VMC). An approach is stabi-
lized when all of the following criteria are met:
maintain the correct ight path;
3. The aircraft speed is not more than V
REF
+ 20 knots
indicated airspeed and not less than V
REF
;
5. Sink rate is no greater than 1,000 feet per minute; if
an approach requires a sink rate greater than 1,000
feet per minute, a special brieng should be con-
ducted;
6. Power setting is appropriate for the aircraft congura-
tion and is not below the minimum power for approach
as dened by the aircraft operating manual;
8. Specic types of approaches are stabilized if they
also fulll the following: instrument landing system
(ILS) approaches must be own within one dot of
the glideslope and localizer; a Category II or Cat-
egory III ILS approach must be own within the ex-
panded localizer band; during a circling approach,
wings should be level on nal when the aircraft
reaches 300 feet above airport elevation; and,
9. Unique approach procedures or abnormal conditions
requiring a deviation from the above elements of a
stabilized approach require a special brieng.
go-around.
Source: Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Accident
Reduction (ALAR) Task Force (V1.1 November 2000)
Action blocks groups of actions being accomplished
in sequence;
Triggers events that initiate action blocks;
Action patterns instrument panel scanning sequences
or patterns supporting the ow and sequence of action
blocks; and,
Standard calls standard phraseology and terms used
for effective crew communication.
Standardization
SoPs are the reference for crew standardization and establish
the working environment required for CRM.
Task-sharing
The following guidelines apply to any ight phase but are
particularly important to the high-workload approach-and-
landing phases.
The pilot ying (PF) is responsible for controlling the hori-
zontal ight path and the vertical ight path, and for energy
management, by:
Supervising autopilot operation and autothrottle
operation (maintaining awareness of the modes armed
or selected, and of mode changes); or,
hand-fying the aircraft, with or without fight director
(Fd) guidance, and with an appropriate navigation
display (e.g., horizontal situation indicator [hSI]).
The pilot not ying (PNF) is responsible for monitoring tasks and
for performing the actions requested by the PF; this includes:
Performing the standard PNF tasks:
SoP actions; and,
Fd and flight management system (FMS) mode
selections and target entries (e.g., altitude, airspeed,
heading, vertical speed, etc.), when the PF is hand-
ying the aircraft;
Monitoring systems and aircraft confguration; and,
Cross-checking the PF to provide backup as required
(this includes both flight operations and ground
operations).
Automation
With higher levels of automation, ight crews have more options and
strategies from which to select for the task to be accomplished.
Company SoPs should defne accurately the options and
strategies available for the various phases of ight and for the
various types of approaches.
Training
Disciplined use of SOPs and normal checklists should begin
during transition training, because habits and routines ac-
quired during transition training have a lasting effect.
Transition training and recurrent training provide a unique
opportunity to discuss the reasons for SoPs and to discuss the
consequences of failing to adhere to them.
Conversely, allowing deviations from SoPs and/or normal
checklists during initial training or recurrent training may
encourage deviations during line operations.
Deviations From SOPs
To ensure adherence to published SoPs, it is important to
understand why pilots intentionally or inadvertently deviate
from SoPs.
In some intentional deviations from SoPs, the procedure that
was followed in place of the SoP seemed to be appropriate
for the prevailing situation.
The following factors and conditions are cited often in discuss-
ing deviations from SoPs:
Inadequate knowledge or failure to understand the
procedure (e.g., wording or phrasing was not clear, or
the procedure was perceived as inappropriate);
Insuffcient emphasis during transition training and
recurrent training on adherence to SoPs;
Inadequate vigilance (e.g., fatigue);
Interruptions (e.g., communication with air traffic
control);
distractions (e.g., fight deck activity);
Task saturation;
Incorrect management of priorities (e.g., lack of a
decision-making model for time-critical situations);
Reduced attention (tunnel vision) in abnormal conditions
or high-workload conditions;
Inadequate CRM (e.g., inadequate crew coordination,
cross-check and backup);
Company policies (e.g., schedules, costs, go-arounds
and diversions);
other policies (e.g., crew duty time);
Personal desires or constraints (e.g., schedule, mission
completion);
Complacency; and,
overconfdence.
These factors may be used to assess company exposure to
deviations and/or personal exposure to deviations, and to
develop corresponding methods to help prevent deviations
from SoPs.
Summary
deviations from SoPs occur for a variety of reasons; inten-
tional deviations and inadvertent deviations from SoPs have
been identifed as causal factors in many AlAs.
CRM is not effective without adherence to SoPs, because SoPs
provide a standard reference for the crews tasks on the ight
deck. SoPs are effective only if they are clear and concise.
Transition training provides the opportunity to establish the
disciplined use of SoPs, and recurrent training offers the op-
portunity to reinforce that behavior.
The following FSF AlAR Briefng Notes provide information
to supplement this discussion:
1.2 Automation;
1.3 Golden Rules;
1.4 Standard Calls;
1.5 Normal Checklists;
1.6 Approach Briefng;
2.1 Human Factors; and,
2.2 Crew Resource Management.
References
1. The Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing
Accident Reduction (AlAR) Task Force defnes causal
factor as an event or item judged to be directly instrumental
in the causal chain of events leading to the accident [or
incident]. Each accident and incident in the study sample
involved several causal factors.
2. Flight Safety Foundation. Killers in Aviation: FSF Task
Force Presents Facts About Approach-and-landing and
Controlled-fight-into-terrain Accidents. Flight Safety Digest
Volume 17 (Novemberdecember 1998) and Volume 18
(JanuaryFebruary 1999): 1121. The facts presented by
the FSF AlAR Task Force were based on analyses of 287
fatal approach-and-landing accidents (AlAs) that occurred
in 1980 through 1996 involving turbine aircraft weighing
more than 12,500 pounds/5,700 kilograms, detailed studies
of 76 AlAs and serious incidents in 1984 through 1997 and
audits of about 3,300 fights.
3. The FSF AlAR Task Force defnes approach gate as
a point in space (1,000 feet above airport elevation in
instrument meteorological conditions or 500 feet above
airport elevation in visual meteorological conditions) at
which a go-around is required if the aircraft does not meet
dened stabilized approach criteria.
Related Reading From FSF Publications
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Editorial Staff. ATR 42 Strikes
Mountain on Approach in Poor Visibility to Pristina, Kosovo.
Accident Prevention Volume 57 (october 2000).
FSF Editorial Staff. Crew Fails to Compute Crosswind
Component, Boeing 757 Nosewheel Collapses on landing.
Accident Prevention Volume 57 (March 2000).
FSF Editorial Staff. Ice Ingestion Causes Both Engines to
Flame out during Air-taxi Turboprops Final Approach. Ac-
cident Prevention Volume 56 (February 1999).
FSF Editorial Staff. Attempted go-around with deployed
Thrust Reversers leads to learjet Accident. Accident Preven-
tion Volume 56 (January 1999).
Simmon, david A. Boeing 757 CFIT Accident at Cali, Co-
lombia, Becomes Focus of lessons learned. Flight Safety
Digest Volume 17 (MayJune 1998).
FSF Editorial Staff. Collision with Antenna guy Wire Severs
Jets Wing during Nonprecision Approach. Accident Preven-
tion Volume 54 (october 1997).
FSF Editorial Staff. Flight Crews Failure to Perform land-
ing Checklist Results in dC-9 Wheels-up landing. Accident
Prevention Volume 54 (May 1997).
FSF Editorial Staff. Commuter Captain Fails to Follow
Emergency Procedures After Suspected Engine Failure, loses
Control of the Aircraft during Instrument Approach. Accident
Prevention Volume 53 (April 1996).
FSF Editorial Staff. Captains Inadequate Use of Flight Con-
trols during Single-engine Approach and go-around Results in
loss of Control and Crash of Commuter. Accident Prevention
Volume 52 (November 1995).
Pope, John A. developing a Corporate Aviation department
operations Manual Reinforces Standard and Safe op-
erating Procedures. Flight Safety Digest Volume 14 (April
1995).
overall, Michael. New Pressures on Aviation Safety Chal-
lenge Safety Management Systems. Flight Safety Digest
Volume 14 (March 1995).
lawton, Russell. Breakdown in Coordination by Commuter
Crew during Unstabilized Approach Results in Controlled-
ight-into-terrain Accident. Accident Prevention Volume 51
(September 1994).
FSF Editorial Staff. Cockpit Coordination, Training Issues
Pivotal in Fatal Approach-to-landing Accident. Accident
Prevention Volume 51 (January 1994).
Arbon, E. R.; Mouden, l. homer; Feeler, Robert A. The
Practice of Aviation Safety: observations from Flight Safety
Foundation Safety Audits. Flight Safety Digest Volume 9
(August 1990).
Pope, John A. Manuals, Management and Coordination.
Flight Safety Digest Volume 7 (September 1988).
Regulatory Resources
International Civil Aviation organization (ICAo). International
Standards and Recommended Practices, Annex 6 to the Conven-
tion of International Civil Aviation, Operation of Aircraft. Part I,
International Commercial Air Transport Aeroplanes. Appendix
2, Contents of an operations Manual, 5.9. Seventh edition July
1998, incorporating Amendments 125.
ICAo. Procedures for Air Navigation Services Aircraft Op-
erations. Volume I, Flight Procedures. Fourth edition, 1993.
Reprinted May 2000, incorporating Amendments 110.
ICAo. Manual of All-Weather Operations. Second edition 1991.
ICAo. Preparation of an Operations Manual. Second edi-
tion 1997.
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Federal
Aviation Regulations. 91.3 Responsibility and authority
of the pilot in command, 121.133 Preparation, 121.141
Airplane Flight Manual, 121.401 Training program:
general, 125.287 Initial and recurrent pilot testing re-
quirements, 135.293 Initial and recurrent pilot testing
requirements. January 1, 2000.
FAA. Advisory Circular (AC) 120-71, Standard Operating
Procedures for Flight Deck Crewmembers. August 10, 2000.
FAA. AC 120-48, Communication and Coordination Between
Flight Crewmembers and Flight Attendants. July 13, 1988.
FAA. AC 120-51C, Crew Resource Management Training.
october 30, 1998.
FAA. AC 120-54, Advanced Qualifcation Program. August
9, 1991.
FAA. AC 121-32, Dispatch Resource Management Training.
February 7, 1995.
Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA). Joint Aviation Requirements Op-
erations (JAR-OPS 1), Commercial Air Transportation (Aeroplanes).
1.1040 general Rules for operations Manuals. March 1, 1998.
JAA. JAR-OPS 1. 1.1045 operations Manual structure and
contents. March 1, 1998.
The Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Ap-
proach-and-landing Accident Reduction
(ALAR) Task Force has produced this brieng
note to help prevent ALAs, including those
involving controlled ight into terrain. The
brieng note is based on the task forces da-
ta-driven conclusions and recommendations,
as well as data from the U.S. Commercial
Aviation Safety Team (CAST) Joint Safety
Analysis Team (JSAT) and the European
Joint Aviation Authorities Safety Strategy
Initiative (JSSI).
The brieng note has been prepared primar-
ily for operators and pilots of turbine-powered
airplanes with underwing-mounted engines
(but can be adapted for fuselage-mounted
turbine engines, turboprop-powered aircraft
and piston-powered aircraft) and with the
following:
Glass fight deck (i.e., an electronic fight
instrument system with a primary ight
display and a navigation display);
Integrated autopilot, fight director and
autothrottle systems;
Flight management system;
Automatic ground spoilers;
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Manufacturers/operators standard oper-
ating procedures; and,
Two-person fight crew.
This brieng note is one of 34 brieng notes
that comprise a fundamental part of the FSF
ALAR Tool Kit, which includes a variety of
other safety products that have been devel-
oped to help prevent ALAs.
This information is not intended to supersede
operators or manufacturers policies, prac-
tices or requirements, and is not intended to
supersede government regulations.
Copyright 2000 Flight Safety Foundation
Suite 300, 601 Madison Street
Alexandria, VA 22314 U.S.
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
In the interest of aviation safety, this publication may
be reproduced, in whole or in part, in all media, but
may not be offered for sale or used commercially
without the express written permission of Flight
Safety Foundations director of publications. All uses
must credit Flight Safety Foundation.
Notice
Captains authority;
Use of automation, including:
The companys automation philosophy;
Specic guidance in selection of appropriate levels of
automation;
Autopilot/ight director mode selections; and,
Flight management system (FMS) target entries (e.g.,
airspeed, heading, altitude);
Checklist philosophy, including:
Policies and procedures (who calls for; who reads;
who does);
Format and terminology; and,
Type of checklist (challenge-do-verify, or do-verify);
Walk-arounds;
Checklists, including:
Safety check prior to power on;
originating/receiving;
Before start;
After start;
Before taxi;
Before takeoff;
After takeoff;
Climb check;
Cruise check;
Approach;
landing;
After landing;
Parking and securing;
Emergency procedures; and,
Abnormal procedures;
Communication, including:
Who handles radios;
Primary language used with air traffc control (ATC)
and on the ight deck;
Keeping both pilots in the loop;
Company radio procedures;
Flight deck signals to cabin; and,
Cabin signals to fight deck;
Standard Operating Procedures Template
[The following template is adapted from U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Advisory Circular 120-71, Standard Op-
erating Procedures for Flight Deck Crewmembers.]
A manual or a section in a manual serving as the fight crews guide to standard operating procedures (SoPs) may serve also
as a training guide. The content should be clear and comprehensive, without necessarily being lengthy. No template could
include every topic that might apply unless it were constantly revised. Many topics involving special operating authority or new
technology are absent from this template, among them extended operations (EToPS), precision runway monitor (PRM), surface
movement guidance system (SMgS), required navigation performance (RNP) and many others.
The following are nevertheless viewed by industry and FAA alike as examples of topics that constitute a useful template for
developing comprehensive, effective SoPs:
Briefngs, including:
Controlled-fight-into-terrain (CFIT) risk considered;
Special airport qualications considered;
Temperature corrections considered;
Before takeoff; and,
descent/approach/missed approach;
Flight deck access, including:
on ground/in fight;
Jump seat; and,
Access signals, keys;
Flight deck discipline, including:
Sterile cockpit
1
;
Maintaining outside vigilance;
Transfer of control;
Additional duties;
Flight kits;
headsets/speakers;
Boom mikes/handsets;
Maps/approach charts; and,
Meals;
Altitude awareness, including:
Altimeter settings;
Transition altitude/ight level;
Standard calls (verication of);
Minimum safe altitudes (MSAs); and,
Temperature corrections;
Report times; including:
Check in/show up;
on fight deck; and,
Checklist accomplishment;
Maintenance procedures, including:
logbooks/previous write-ups;
open write-ups;
Notication to maintenance of write-ups;
Minimum equipment list (MEl)/dispatch deviation
guide (ddg);
Where MEl/ddg is accessible;
Confguration deviation list (Cdl); and,
Crew coordination in ground deicing;
Flight plans/dispatch procedures, including:
Visual ight rules/instrument ight rules (VFR/IFR);
Icing considerations;
Fuel loads;
Weather-information package;
Where weather-information package is available;
and,
departure procedure climb gradient analysis;
Boarding passengers/cargo, including:
Carry-on baggage;
Exit-row seating;
hazardous materials;
Prisoners/escorted persons;
Firearms onboard; and,
Count/load;
Pushback/powerback;
Taxiing, including:
Single-engine;
All-engines;
on ice or snow; and,
Prevention of runway incursion;
Crew resource management (CRM), including crew
briengs (cabin crew and ight crew);
Weight and balance/cargo loading, including:
Who is responsible for loading cargo and securing
cargo; and,
Who prepares the weight-and-balance data form;
who checks the form; and how a copy of the form is
provided to the crew;
Flight deck/cabin crew interchange, including:
Boarding;
Ready to taxi;
Cabin emergency; and,
Prior to takeoff/landing;
Takeoff, including:
Who conducts the takeoff;
Briefng, VFR/IFR;
Reduced-power procedures;
Tail wind, runway clutter;
Intersections/land and hold short operations (lAhSo)
procedures;
Noise-abatement procedures;
Special departure procedures;
Use/nonuse of ight directors;
Standard calls;
Cleanup;
loss of engine, including rejected takeoff after V
1

(actions/standard calls);
Flap settings, including:
Normal;
Nonstandard and reason for; and,
Crosswind; and,
Close-in turns;
Climb, including:
Speeds;
Confguration;
Confrm compliance with climb gradient required in
departure procedure; and,
Confrm appropriate cold-temperature corrections
made;
Cruise altitude selection (speeds/weights);
Position reports to ATC and to company;
Emergency descents;
holding procedures;
Procedures for diversion to alternate airport;
Normal descents, including:
Planning top-of-descent point;
Risk assessment and brieng;
Use/nonuse of speed brakes;
Use of aps/gear;
Icing considerations; and,
Convective activity;
ground-proximity warning system (gPWS) or terrain
awareness and warning system (TAWS)
2
recovery (pull-
up) maneuver;
Traffc-alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS)/
airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS);
Wind shear, including:
Avoidance of likely encounters;
Recognition; and,
Recovery/escape maneuver;
Approach philosophy, including:
Precision approaches preferred;
Stabilized approaches standard;
Use of navigation aids;
FMS/autopilot use and when to discontinue use;
Approach gate
3
and limits for stabilized approaches,
(Table 1);
Use of radio altimeter; and,
go-arounds (plan to go around; change plan to land
when visual, if stabilized);
Individual approach type (all types, including engine-
out approaches);
For each type of approach:
Prole;
Flap/gear extension;
Standard calls; and,
Procedures;
go-around/missed approach, including:
Initiation when an approach gate is missed;
Procedure;
Standard calls; and,
Cleanup profle; and,
landing, including:
Actions and standard calls;
Confguration for conditions, including:
Visual approach;
low visibility; and,
Wet or contaminated runway;
Close-in turns;
Crosswind landing;
Rejected landing; and,
Transfer of control after rst ofcers landing.
References
1. The sterile cockpit rule refers to U.S. Federal Aviation
Regulations Part 121.542, which states: No fight crew-
member may engage in, nor may any pilot-in-command
permit, any activity during a critical phase of ight
which could distract any ight crewmember from the
performance of his or her duties or which could inter-
fere in any way with the proper conduct of those duties.
Activities such as eating meals, engaging in nonessen-
tial conversations within the cockpit and nonessential
communications between the cabin and cockpit crews,
and reading publications not related to the proper con-
duct of the ight are not required for the safe operation
of the aircraft. For the purposes of this section, critical
phases of ight include all ground operations involv-
ing taxi, takeoff and landing, and all other ight opera-
tions below 10,000 feet, except cruise fight. [The FSF
AlAR Task Force says that 10,000 feet should be
height above ground level during ight operations over
high terrain.]
2. Terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS) is the term
used by the European Joint Aviation Authorities and the
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration to describe equip-
ment meeting International Civil Aviation organization
standards and recommendations for ground-proximity
warning system (gPWS) equipment that provides pre-
dictive terrain-hazard warnings. Enhanced gPWS and
ground collision avoidance system are other terms used
to describe TAWS equipment.
3. The Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Ac-
cident Reduction (AlAR) Task Force defnes approach
gate as a point in space (1,000 feet above airport elevation
in instrument meteorological conditions or 500 feet above
Table 1
;
5. Sink rate is no greater than 1,000 feet per minute; if an approach requires a sink rate greater than 1,000 feet per minute, a special
brieng should be conducted;
operating manual;
special brieng.
Suite 300, 601 Madison Street, Alexandria, VA 22314-1756 U.S. Telephone: +1 (703) 739-6700, Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
In the interest of aviation safety, this publication may be reproduced, in whole or in part, in all media, but may not be offered for sale or
used commerciallywithout the express written permission of Flight Safety Foundations director of publications. All uses must credit Flight
Safety Foundation.
1.2 Automation
Three generations of system automation for airplane ight
guidance autopilot/fight director (AP/Fd), autothrottles
(A/ThR) and fight management system (FMS) are cur-
rently in service:
The frst generation features a partial integration of the
AP/Fd and A/ThR modes, offering selected AP/FD
modes and lateral navigation only;
The second generation features complete integration
(pairing) of AP/Fd and A/ThR modes and offers
selected modes as well as lateral navigation and vertical
navigation (FMS); and,
The third generation features full-regime lateral
navigation (LNAV) and vertical navigation (VNAV).
high levels of automation provide fight crews with more op-
tions from which to select for the task to be accomplished.
Statistical Data
The Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Ac-
cident Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that inadequate
ight crew interaction with automatic ight systems was
a causal factor
1
in 20 percent of 76 approach-and-landing
accidents and serious incidents worldwide in 1984 through
1997.
2
The task force said that these accidents and incidents involved
crew unawareness of automated system modes or crew unfa-
miliarity with automated systems.
AP-A/THR Integration
Integrated AP-A/ThR automatic fight systems (AFSs) feature
pairing of the AP pitch modes (elevator control) and the A/
ThR modes (throttles/thrust control).
An integrated AP-A/ThR fies the aircraft the same way as a
human pilot:
The elevator is used to control pitch attitude, airspeed,
vertical speed, altitude, ight path angle or VNAV
prole, or to track a glideslope; and,
The throttle levers are used to maintain a given thrust
setting or a given airspeed.
depending on the task to be accomplished, maintaining a
given airspeed is assigned either to the AP or to the A/ThR,
as shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Autothrottle/Autopilot Integration
Autothrottles Autopilot
Throttles/thrust Elevators
Thrust or idle Airspeed
Airspeed Vertical speed
Vertical navigation
Altitude
Glideslope
Reduction (ALAR) Task Force.

Design Objective
The design objective of the AFS is to provide assistance to the
crew throughout the ight, by:
Relieving the pilot flying (PF) from routine tasks,
thus allowing time and resources to enhance his/her
situational awareness or for problem-solving tasks;
and,
Providing the PF with adequate attitude guidance and
fight-path guidance through the Fd for hand-fying the
aircraft.
The AFS provides guidance along the dened ight path and at
the intended airspeed, in accordance with the modes selected
by the crew and the targets (e.g., altitude, airspeed, heading,
vertical speed, waypoints, etc.) entered by the crew.
The AFS control panel is the main interface between the pilot and the
AFS for short-term guidance (i.e., for the current ight phase).
The FMS control display unit (CdU) is the main interface
between the pilot and the AFS for long-term guidance (i.e., for
the current ight phase and subsequent ight phases).
on aircraft equipped with an FMS featuring lNAV and VNAV,
two types of guidance (modes and associated targets) are avail-
able:
Selected guidance:
The aircraft is guided along a ight path dened by
the modes selected and the targets entered by the crew
on the AFS control panel; and,
FMS guidance:
The aircraft is guided along the FMS lateral fight
path and vertical ight path; the airspeed and altitude
targets are optimized by the FMS (adjusted for
restrictions of altitude and/or airspeed).
Automated Systems
Understanding any automated system, but particularly the AFS
and FMS, requires answering the following questions:
how is the system designed?
Why is the system designed this way?
how does the system interface and communicate with
the pilot?
how is the system operated in normal conditions and
abnormal conditions?
Pilot-Automation Interface
To use the full potential of automation and to maintain situ-
ational awareness, a thorough understanding of the interface
between the pilot and the automation is required to allow the
pilot to answer the following questions at any time:
What did I tell the aircraft to do?
Is the aircraft doing what I told it to do?
What did I plan for the aircraft to do next?
(The terms tell and plan in the above paragraph refer to
arming or selecting modes and/or entering targets.)
The functions of the following controls and displays must be
understood:
AFS mode-selection keys, target-entry knobs and display
windows;
FMS CdU keyboard, line-select keys, display pages and
messages;
Flight-mode annunciator (FMA) annunciations; and,
Primary fight display (PFd) and navigation display
(Nd) data.
Effective monitoring of these controls and displays promotes
and increases pilot awareness of:
The status of the system (modes armed and selected);
and,
The available guidance (for fight-path control and
airspeed control).
Effective monitoring of controls and displays also enables the
pilot to predict and to anticipate the entire sequence of ight-
mode annunciations throughout successive ight phases (i.e.,
throughout mode changes).
Operating Philosophy
FMS or selected guidance can be used in succession or in
combination (e.g., FMS lateral guidance together with selected
vertical guidance) as best suited for the ight phase and pre-
vailing conditions.
operation of the AFS must be monitored at all times by:
Cross-checking the status of AP/Fd and A/ThR modes
(armed and selected) on the FMA;
observing the result of any target entry (on the AFS
control panel) on the related data as displayed on the
PFd or Nd; and,
Supervising the resulting AP/Fd guidance and A/
ThR operation on the PFd and Nd (e.g., attitude,
airspeed and airspeed trend, altitude, vertical speed,
heading, etc.).
The PF always retains the authority and the capability to use
the most appropriate guidance and level of automation for the
task. This includes:
Reverting from FMS guidance to selected guidance
(more direct level of automation);
Selecting a more appropriate lateral mode or vertical
mode; or,
Reverting to hand-fying (with or without Fd, with
or without A/ThR) for direct control of the aircraft
trajectory and thrust.
If doubt exists about the aircrafts fight path or airspeed con-
trol, no attempt should be made to reprogram the automated
systems. Selected guidance or hand-ying with raw data
3

should be used until time and conditions permit reprogram-
ming the AP/Fd or FMS.
If the aircraft does not follow the intended ight path, check
the AP engagement status. If engaged, the AP must be discon-
nected using the AP-disconnect switch to revert to hand-ying
with Fd guidance or with reference to raw data.
When hand-fying, the Fd commands should be followed;
otherwise, the Fd command bars should be cleared from the
PFd.
If the A/ThR does not function as desired, the A/ThR must
be disconnected using the A/ThR-disconnect switch to revert
to manual thrust control.
AP systems and A/ThR systems must not be overridden manu-
ally (except under conditions set forth in the aircraft operating
manual [AoM] or quick reference handbook [QRh]).
Factors and Errors
The following factors and errors can cause an incorrect ight
path, which if not recognized can lead to an approach-
and-landing accident, including one involving controlled ight
into terrain:
Inadvertent arming of a mode or selection of an incorrect
mode;
Failure to verify the armed mode or selected mode by
reference to the FMA;
Entering an incorrect target (e.g., altitude, airspeed,
heading) on the AFS control panel and failure to conrm
the entered target on the PFd and/or Nd;
Changing the AFS control panel altitude target to any
altitude below the nal approach intercept altitude
during approach;
Inserting an incorrect waypoint;
Arming the lNAV mode with an incorrect active
waypoint (i.e., with an incorrect To waypoint);
Preoccupation with FMS programming during a
critical ight phase, with consequent loss of situational
awareness;
Inadequate understanding of mode changes (e.g., mode
confusion, automation surprises);
Inadequate task-sharing and/or inadequate crew
resource management (CRM), preventing the PF from
monitoring the ight path and airspeed (e.g., both
pilots being engaged in the management of automation
or in the troubleshooting of an unanticipated or
abnormal condition); and,
Engaging the AP or disengaging the AP when the aircraft
is in an out-of-trim condition.
Recommendations
Proper use of automated systems reduces workload and
increases the time and resources available to the ight crew
for responding to any unanticipated change or abnormal/
emergency condition.
during normal line operations, the AP and A/ThR should be
engaged throughout the ight, including the descent and the
approach, especially in marginal weather or when operating
into an unfamiliar airport.
Using the AFS also enables the ight crew to give more atten-
tion to air traffc control (ATC) communications and to other
aircraft, particularly in congested terminal areas.
The AFS/FMS also is a valuable aid during a go-around or
missed approach.
When the applicable missed approach procedure is included
in the FMS fight plan and the FMS navigation accuracy has
been confrmed, the lNAV mode reduces workload during
this critical ight phase.
Safe-and-effcient use of the AFS and FMS is based on the
following three-step method:
Anticipate:
Understand system operation and the result(s) of any
action, be aware of modes being armed or selected, and
seek concurrence of other ight crewmember(s);
Execute:
Perform the action on the AFS control panel or on
the FMS CdU; and,
Confrm:
Cross-check armed modes, selected modes and target
entries on the FMA, PFd/Nd and FMS CdU.
The following recommendations support the implementation
of the three-step method:
Before engaging the AP, ensure that:
The modes selected for Fd guidance (as shown by the
FMA) are the correct modes for the intended fight
phase; and,
The Fd command bars do not show large fight-
path-correction commands (if large corrections
are commanded, hand-y the aircraft to center the
Fd command bars [engaging the AP while large
ight-path corrections are required may result in
overshooting the intended target]);
Before taking any action on the AFS control panel, check
that the knob or push-button is the correct one for the
desired function;
After each action on the AFS control panel, verify the
result of the action by reference to the FMA (for mode
arming or mode selection) and to other PFd/Nd data
(for entered targets) or by reference to the ight path
and airspeed;
Monitor the FMA and call all mode changes in accordance
with standard operating procedures (SoPs);
When changing the altitude entered on the AFS control
panel, cross-check the selected-altitude readout on the
PFd:
during descent, check whether the entered altitude
is below the minimum en route altitude (MEA) or
minimum safe altitude (MSA) if the entered
altitude is below the MEA or MSA, obtain altitude
confrmation from ATC; and,
during fnal approach, set the go-around altitude
on the AFS control panel altitude window (the
minimum descent altitude/height [MdA(h)] or
decision altitude/height [dA(h)] should not be set
in the window);
Prepare the FMS for arrival before beginning the
descent;
An expected alternative arrival routing and/or runway
can be prepared on the second ight plan;
If a routing change occurs (e.g., dIR To [direct to a
waypoint]), cross-check the new To waypoint before
selecting the dIR To mode (making sure that the
intended dIR To waypoint is not already behind the
aircraft):
Caution is essential during descent in mountainous
areas; and,
If necessary, the selected heading mode and raw data
can be used while verifying the new route;
Before arming the lNAV mode, ensure that the correct
active waypoint (i.e., the To waypoint) is displayed
on the FMS CdU and Nd (as applicable);
If the displayed To waypoint is not correct, the desired
To waypoint can be restored by either:
deleting an intermediate waypoint; or,
Performing a dIR To the desired waypoint; and
then,
Monitoring the interception of the lateral flight
path;
If a late routing change or runway change occurs,
reversion to selected modes and raw data is
recommended;
Reprogramming the FMS during a critical fight phase
(e.g., in terminal area, on approach or go-around) is not
recommended, except to activate the second ight plan,
if needed. Primary tasks are, in order of priority:
lateral fight path control and vertical fight path
control;
Altitude awareness and trafc awareness; and,
ATC communications;
No attempt should be made to analyze or to correct an
anomaly by reprogramming the AFS or the FMS until
the desired ight path and airspeed are restored;
If cleared to leave a holding pattern on a radar vector,
the holding exit prompt should be pressed (or the
holding pattern otherwise deleted) to allow the correct
sequencing of the FMS fight plan;
on a radar vector, when intercepting the fnal approach
course in a selected mode (e.g., heading, localizer
capture, etc. [not lNAV]), the fight crew should ensure
that the FMS fight plan is sequencing normally by
checking that the To waypoint (on the FMS CdU
and the Nd, as applicable) is correct, so that the lNAV
mode can be re-selected for a go-around;
If the FMS fight plan does not sequence correctly, the
correct sequencing can be restored by either:
deleting an intermediate waypoint; or,
Performing a dIR To a waypoint ahead in the
approach;
otherwise, the lNAV mode should not be used for the
remainder of the approach or for a go-around; and,
Any time the aircraft does not follow the desired fight
path and/or airspeed, do not hesitate to revert to a lower
(more direct) level of automation. For example:
Revert from FMS to selected modes;
disengage the AP and follow Fd guidance;
disengage the Fd, select the fight path vector (FPV
[as available]) and fy raw data or fy visually (if in
visual meteorological conditions); and/or,
disengage the A/ThR and control the thrust
manually.
Summary
For optimum use of automation, the following should be
emphasized:
Understanding of AP/Fd and A/ThR modes integration
(pairing);
Understanding of all mode-change sequences;
Understanding of the pilot-system interface:
Pilot-to-system communication (mode selection and
target entries); and,
System-to-pilot feedback (modes and target cross-
check);
Awareness of available guidance (AP/Fd and A/ThR
status, modes armed or engaged, active targets); and,
Alertness and willingness to revert to a lower level of
automation or to hand-ying/manual thrust control, if
required.
1.1 Operating Philosophy;
1.3 Golden Rules; and,
1.4 Standard Calls.
References
Controlled-fight-into-terrain Accidents. Flight Safety
Digest Volume 17 (Novemberdecember 1998) and
Volume 18 (JanuaryFebruary 1999): 1121. The facts
presented by the FSF AlAR Task Force were based on
analyses of 287 fatal approach-and-landing accidents
(AlAs) that occurred in 1980 through 1996 involving
turbine aircraft weighing more than 12,500 pounds/5,700
kilograms, detailed studies of 76 AlAs and serious
incidents in 1984 through 1997 and audits of about 3,300
ights.
3. The FSF AlAR Task Force defnes raw data as data
received directly (not via the ight director or ight
management computer) from basic navigation aids (e.g.,
AdF, VoR, dME, barometric altimeter).
Related Reading from FSF Publications
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Editorial Staff. Crew Fails
to Compute Crosswind Component, Boeing 757 Nosewheel
Collapses on landing. Accident Prevention Volume 57
(March 2000).
Wiener, Earl l.; Chute, Rebecca d.; Moses, John h. Transi-
tion to glass: Pilot Training for high-technology Transport
Aircraft. Flight Safety Digest Volume 18 (JuneAugust
1999).
Australia department of Transport and Regional development,
Bureau of Air Safety Investigation. Advanced-technology
Aircraft Safety Survey Report. Flight Safety Digest Volume
18 (JuneAugust 1999).
Sumwalt, Robert l., III. Enhancing Flight-crew Monitoring
Skills Can Increase Flight Safety. Flight Safety Digest Volume
18 (March 1999).
FSF Editorial Staff. Preparing for last-minute Runway
Change, Boeing 757 Flight Crew loses Situational Aware-
ness, Resulting in Collision with Terrain. Accident Prevention
Volume 54 (JulyAugust 1997).
FSF Editorial Staff. Stall and Improper Recovery during IlS
Approach Result in Commuter Airplanes Uncontrolled Collision
with Terrain. Accident Prevention Volume 52 (January 1995).
lawton, Russell. Airframe Icing and Captains Improper
Use of Autofight System Result in Stall and loss of Control
of Commuter Airplane. Accident Prevention Volume 51
(November 1994).
Roscoe, Alan h. Workload in the glass Cockpit. Flight
Safety Digest Volume 11 (April 1992).
King, Jack l. Coping with high-tech Cockpit Complacency.
Accident Prevention Volume 49 (January 1992).
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
1.3 Golden Rules
golden rules guide human activities in many areas.
In early aviation, golden rules dened the basic principles of
airmanship.
With the development of technology in modern aircraft and
with research on human-machine interface and crew coordi-
nation, the golden rules have been broadened to include the
principles of interaction with automation and crew resource
management (CRM).
The following golden rules are designed to assist trainees (but
are useful for experienced pilots) in maintaining basic airman-
ship even as they progress to highly automated aircraft. These
rules apply with little modication to all modern aircraft.
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force, in a study of 76 approach-and-
landing accidents and serious incidents worldwide in 1984
through 1997,
1
found that:
Inadequate professional judgment/airmanship was a
causal factor
2
in 74 percent of the accidents and serious
incidents;
Failure in CRM (crew coordination, cross-check and
backup) was a causal factor in 63 percent of the events;
and,
Incorrect interaction with automation was a causal factor
in 20 percent of the events.
Golden Rules
Automated Aircraft Can Be Flown
Like Any Other Aircraft
To promote this rule, each trainee should be given the oppor-
tunity to hand-fy the aircraft that is, to fy stick, rudder
and throttles.
The fight director (Fd), autopilot (AP), autothrottles (A/ThR)
and fight management system (FMS) should be introduced
progressively in the training syllabus.
The progressive training will emphasize that the pilot ying
(PF) always retains the authority and capability to revert:
To a lower (more direct) level of automation; or,
To hand-flying directly controlling the aircraft
trajectory and energy condition.
Aviate (Fly), Navigate, Communicate and Manage
In That Order
during an abnormal condition or an emergency condition,
PF-PNF (pilot not ying) task-sharing should be adapted to
the situation (in accordance with the aircraft operating manual
[AoM] or quick reference handbook [QRh]), and tasks should
be accomplished with this four-step strategy:
Aviate. The PF must y the aircraft (pitch attitude, thrust,
sideslip, heading) to stabilize the aircrafts pitch attitude, bank
angle, vertical ight path and horizontal ight path.
The PNF must back up the PF (by monitoring and by making
call-outs) until the aircraft is stabilized.
Navigate. Upon the PFs command, the PNF should select or
should restore the desired mode for lateral navigation and/or
vertical navigation (selected mode or FMS lateral navigation
[lNAV]/vertical navigation [VNAV]), being aware of terrain
and minimum safe altitude.
Navigate can be summarized by the following:
Know where you are;
Know where you should be; and,
Know where the terrain and obstacles are.
Communicate. After the aircraft is stabilized and the abnormal
condition or emergency condition has been identied, the PF
should inform air traffc control (ATC) of the situation and of
his/her intentions.
If the ight is in a condition of distress or urgency, the PF
should use standard phraseology:
Pan Pan, Pan Pan, Pan Pan,
3
or,
Mayday, Mayday, Mayday.
4
Manage. The next priority is management of the aircraft sys-
tems and performance of the applicable abnormal procedures
or emergency procedures.
Table 1 shows that the design of highly automated aircraft
fully supports the four-step strategy.
Implement Task-sharing and Backup
After the four-step strategy has been completed, the actions
associated with the abnormal condition or emergency condition
should be called by the PF.
Procedures should be performed as set forth in the AoM/QRh
or in the following sequence:
Emergency checklists;
Normal checklists; and,
Abnormal checklists.
These should be performed in accordance with the published
task-sharing, CRM and standard phraseology.
Critical actions or irreversible actions (e.g., selecting a fuel le-
ver or a fuel-isolation valve to oFF) should be accomplished
by the PNF after conrmation by the PF.
Know Your Available Guidance at All Times
The AP/Fd-A/ThR control panel(s) and the FMS control
display unit (CdU) are the primary interfaces for the crew
to communicate with the aircraft systems (to arm modes or
select modes and to enter targets [e.g., airspeed, heading,
altitude]).
The primary fight display (PFd), the navigation display (Nd)
and particularly the fight-mode annunciator (FMA) are the
primary interfaces for the aircraft to communicate with the
crew to conrm that the aircraft system has accepted correctly
the crews mode selections and target entries.
Any action on the AP/Fd-A/ThR control panel(s) or on the
FMS CdU should be confrmed by cross-checking the cor-
responding FMA annunciation or data on the FMS display
unit and on the PFd/Nd.
At all times, the PF and the PNF should be
aware of the guidance modes that are armed
or selected and of any mode changes.
Cross-check the Accuracy of the
FMS With Raw Data
When within navaid-coverage areas, the
FMS navigation accuracy should be cross-
checked with raw data.
5
FMS navigation accuracy can be checked
usually by:
Entering a tuned very-high-
frequency omnidirectional radio/distance-
measuring equipment (VoR/dME) station in the
bearing/distance (BRg/dIST To or dIST FR) feld
of the appropriate FMS page;
Comparing the resulting FMS BRg/dIST To (or
dIST FR) reading with the bearing/distance raw data

Table 1
Display Use in Abnormal or Emergency Situations
Golden Rule Display Unit
Aviate (Fly) PFD
Navigate ND
Communicate Audio Control Unit
Manage ECAM or EICAS
PFD = Primary flight display
ND = Navigation display
ECAM = Electronic centralized aircraft monitor
EICAS = Engine indication and crew alerting system
Source: Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Accident Reduction (ALAR) Task Force

on the radio magnetic indicator (RMI) or Nd; and,
Checking the difference between FMS and raw data
against the criteria applicable for the ight phase (as
required by standard operating procedures [SoPs]).
If the required accuracy criteria are not met, revert from lNAV
to selected heading and raw data, with associated Nd display.
One Head Up
Signifcant changes to the FMS fight plan should be performed
by the PNF. The changes then should be cross-checked by the
other pilot after transfer of aircraft control to maintain one
head up at all times.
When Things Do Not Go as Expected, Take Control
If the aircraft does not follow the desired horizontal ight path
or vertical ight path and time does not permit analyzing and
solving the anomaly, revert without delay from FMS guidance
to selected guidance or to hand-fying.
Use the Optimum Level of Automation for the Task
on highly automated and integrated aircraft, several levels of
automation are available to perform a given task:
FMS modes and guidance;
Selected modes and guidance; or,
hand-fying.
The optimum level of automation depends on:
Task to be performed:
Short-term (tactical) task; or,
long-term (strategic) task;
Flight phase:
En route;
Terminal area; or,
Approach; and,
Time available:
Normal selection or entry; or,
last-minute change.
The optimum level of automation often is the one that the
fight crew feels the most comfortable with, depending on their
knowledge of and experience with the aircraft and systems.
Reversion to hand-fying and manual thrust control may be the
optimum level of automation for a specifc condition.
Golden Rules for Abnormal Conditions
And Emergency Conditions
The following golden rules may assist ight crews in their
decision making in any abnormal condition or emergency
condition, but particularly if encountering a condition not
covered by the published procedures.
Understand the Prevailing Condition Before Acting
Incorrect decisions often are the result of incorrect recognition
of the prevailing condition and/or incorrect identication of
the prevailing condition.
Assess Risks and Time Pressures
Take time to make time when possible (e.g., request a holding
pattern or radar vectors).
Evaluate the Available Options
Weather conditions, crew preparedness, type of operation,
airport proximity and self-condence should be considered
in selecting the preferred option.
Include all fight crewmembers, cabin crewmembers, ATC and
company maintenance technicians, as required, in this evalu-
ation.
Match the Response to the Condition
An emergency condition requires immediate action (this does
not mean rushed action), whereas an abnormal condition may
tolerate a delayed action.
Consider All Implications, Plan for Contingencies
Consider all the aspects of continuing the fight through the
landing.
Manage Workload
Adhere to the dened task-sharing for abnormal/emergency
conditions to reduce workload and to optimize crew re-
sources.
Use the AP and A/ThR to alleviate PF workload.
Use the proper level of automation for the prevailing condition.
Communicate
Communicate to all aircraft crewmembers the prevailing condi-
tion and planned actions so they all have a common reference as
they work toward a common and well-understood objective.
Apply Procedures and Other Agreed Actions
Understand the reasons for any action and the implications of
any action before acting and check the result(s) of each action
before proceeding with the next action.
Beware of irreversible actions (cross-check before acting).
Summary
If only one golden rule were to be adopted, the following is
suggested:
Ensure always that at least one pilot is controlling and is
monitoring the ight path of the aircraft.
1.2 Automation;
1.5 Normal Checklists; and,
2.2 Crew Resource Management.
References
Digest Volume 17 (Novemberdecember 1998) and Volume
18 (JanuaryFebruary 1999): 1121. The facts presented by
2. The Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Accident
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force defnes causal factor as an
event or item judged to be directly instrumental in the causal
chain of events leading to the accident [or incident].
3. The International Civil Aviation organization (ICAo) says
that the words Pan Pan (pronounced Pahn, Pahn) at the
beginning of a communication identies urgency i.e., a
condition concerning the safety of an aircraft or of some
person on board or within sight, but which does not require
immediate assistance. ICAo says that Pan Pan should
be spoken three times at the beginning of an urgency call.
4. ICAo says that the word Mayday at the beginning of
a communication identies distress i.e., a condition
of being threatened by serious and/or imminent danger
and of requiring immediate assistance. ICAo says that
Mayday should be spoken three times at the beginning
of a distress call.
Wiener, Earl l.; Chute, Rebecca d.; Moses, John h. Transi-
tion to glass: Pilot Training for high-technology Transport Air-
craft. Flight Safety Digest Volume 18 (JuneAugust 1999).
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Editorial Staff. Poorly Flown
Approach in Fog Results in Collision With Terrain Short of
Runway. Accident Prevention Volume 52 (August 1995).
lawton, Russell. Steep Turn by Captain during Approach
Results in Stall and Crash of dC-8 Freighter. Accident Pre-
vention Volume 51 (october 1994).
Rosenthal, loren J.; Chamberlin, Roy W.; Matchette, Robert
d. Flight deck Confusion Cited in Many Aviation Incident
Reports. Human Factors & Aviation Medicine Volume 41
(JulyAugust 1994).
King, Jack l. Coping with high-tech Cockpit Complacency.
Accident Prevention Volume 49 (January 1992).
International Civil Aviation organization. Human Factors
Training Manual. First edition 1998, incorporating Circular
216.
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. Advisory Circular 60-
22, Aeronautical Decision Making. december 13, 1991.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
1.4 Standard Calls
Standard phraseology is essential to ensure effective crew
communication, particularly in todays operating environment,
which increasingly features:
Two-person crew operation; and,
Crewmembers from different cultures and with different
native languages.
Standard calls commands and responses are designed to
enhance overall situational awareness (including awareness of
the status and the operation of aircraft systems).
Standard calls may vary among aircraft models, based upon
ight deck design and system designs, and among company
standard operating procedures (SoPs).
Statistical Data
The Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Acci-
dent Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that an absence of
standard calls was a factor in approach-and-landing accidents
and serious incidents worldwide in 1984 through 1997 that
were attributed, in part, to failure in crew resource manage-
ment (CRM).
1
Sixty-three percent of the 76 accidents and
serious incidents during the period involved failure in CRM
as a causal factor.
2
Use of Standard Calls General Rules
Standard calls should be alerting, so that they are clearly
identied by the pilot ying (PF) or pilot not ying (PNF),
and should be distinguished from communication within the
ight deck or between pilots and controllers.
Standard calls reduce the risk of tactical (short-term) decision-
making errors (in selecting modes or entering targets [e.g.,
airspeed, heading, altitude] or in setting confgurations).
The importance of using standard calls increases with increased
workload.
Standard calls should be practical, concise, clear and consistent
with the aircraft design and operating philosophy.
Standard calls should be included in the ow sequence of the
manufacturers SoPs or the companys SoPs and with the
ight-pattern illustrations in the aircraft operating manual
(AoM).
Standard calls should be performed in accordance with the
dened PF/PNF task-sharing (i.e., task-sharing for hand-ying
vs. autopilot operation, or task-sharing for normal condition
vs. abnormal/emergency condition).
Nevertheless, if a standard call is omitted by one pilot, the
other pilot should suggest the call, per CRM.
The absence of a standard call at the appropriate time or the
absence of an acknowledgment may be the result of a system
malfunction or equipment malfunction, or possible incapacita-
tion of the other crewmember.
Standard calls should be used to:
give a command (delegate a task) or transfer
information;
Acknowledge a command or confirm receipt of
information;
give a response or ask a question (feedback);
Call a change of indication (e.g., a flight-mode
annunciator [FMA] mode change); or,
Identify a specifc event (e.g., crossing an altitude or
ight level).
General Standard Calls
The following are standard calls:
Check (or verify): A command for the other pilot
to check an item or to verify an item;
Checked: A confirmation that an item has been
checked;
Cross-check(ed): A confrmation that information has
been checked at both pilot stations;
Set: A command for the other pilot to enter a target
value or a conguration;
Arm: A command for the other pilot to arm a system
(or a mode);
Engage: A command for the other pilot to engage a
system or select a mode; and,
on (or off) following the name of a system: A
command for the other pilot to select (or deselect)
the system; or a response conrming the status of the
system.
Specic Standard Calls
Specic standard calls should be dened for the following
events:
Flight crew/ground personnel communication;
Engine-start sequence;
landing gear and slats/faps selection (retraction or
extension);
Initiation, interruption, resumption and completion of
normal checklists;
Initiation, sequencing, interruption, resumption and
completion of abnormal checklists and emergency
checklists;
FMA mode changes;
Changing the altimeter setting;
Approaching the cleared altitude or fight level;
Traffc-alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS)
trafc advisory (TA) or resolution advisory (RA);
PF/PNF transfer of controls;
Excessive deviation from a fight parameter;
Specific points along the instrument approach
procedure;
Approaching minimums and reaching minimums;
Acquisition of visual references; and,
decision to land or to go around.
The use of standard calls is of paramount importance for
the optimum use of automation (autopilot, ight director and
autothrottle mode arming or mode selection, target entries,
FMA annunciations, fight management system [FMS] mode
selections):
Standard calls should trigger immediately the question
What do I want to fy now? and thus clearly indicate
which:
Mode the pilot intends to arm or select; or,
Target the pilot intends to enter; and,
When the intention of the PF is clearly transmitted to
the PNF, the standard calls also will:
Facilitate cross-check of the FMA (and primary fight
display or navigation display, as applicable); and,
Facilitate crew coordination, cross-check and
backup.
Standard calls also should be dened for ight crew/cabin crew
communication in both:
Normal conditions; and,
Abnormal conditions or emergency conditions
(e.g., cabin depressurization, on-ground emergency/
evacuation, forced landing or ditching, crewmember
incapacitation).
Harmonization of Standard Calls
The harmonization of standard calls across various aircraft
eets (from the same aircraft manufacturer or from different
aircraft manufacturers) is desirable but should not be an over-
riding demand.
Standard calls across eets are essential only for crewmembers
operating different eets (i.e., communication between ight
deck and cabin or ight deck and ground).
Within the ight deck, pilots must use standard calls appropri-
ate for the ight deck and systems.
With the exception of aircraft models with ight deck common-
ality, ight deck layouts and systems are not the same; thus,
similarities as well as differences should be recognized.
When dening standard calls, standardization and operational
efciency should be balanced carefully.
Summary
Standard calls are a powerful tool for effective crew interaction
and communication.
The command and the response are of equal importance to
ensure timely action or correction.
1.2 Automation;
2.3 Pilot-Controller Communication; and,
2.4 Interruptions/Distractions.
References
(JulyAugust 1994).
Flight Safety Foundation Editorial Staff. Cockpit Coordina-
tion, Training Issues Pivotal in Fatal Approach-to-landing
Accident. Accident Prevention Volume 54 (January 1994).
International Civil Aviation organization (ICAo). Interna-
tional Standards and Recommended Practices, Annex 6 to
the Convention of International Civil Aviation, Operation of
Aircraft. Part I, International Commercial Air Transport
Aeroplanes. Appendix 2, Contents of an operations Manual,
5.13. Seventh edition July 1998, incorporating Amendments
125.
tion 1997.
Joint Aviation Authorities. Joint Aviation Requirements Op-
erations. Commercial Air Transportation (Aeroplanes). 1.1045
operations Manual structure and contents. March 1, 1998.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
1.5 Normal Checklists
Adherence to standard operating procedures (SoPs) and use
of normal checklists are essential in preventing approach-and-
landing accidents (AlAs), including those involving controlled
fight into terrain (CFIT).
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that omission of action or
a causal factor
1
2
Scope and Use of Normal Checklists
SoPs are performed by recall using a defned fow pattern for
each ight deck panel; safety-critical points (primarily related
to the aircraft conguration) should be cross-checked with
normal checklists.
Normal checklists enhance ight safety by providing an op-
portunity to conrm the aircraft conguration or to correct the
aircraft conguration.
Normal checklists usually are not read-and-do lists and should
be conducted after performing the fow of SoPs.
Completion of normal checklists is essential for safe operation,
particularly during approach and landing.
Initiating Normal Checklists
Normal checklists should be initiated (called) by the pilot y-
ing (PF) and read by the pilot not ying (PNF).
This should not prevent the PNF from applying an important
crew resource management (CRM) principle by suggesting the
initiation of a normal checklist if the PF fails to do so.
Normal checklists should be conducted during low-workload
periods conditions permitting to help prevent any rush
that could defeat the safety purpose of the normal checklists.
Time management and availability of other crewmember(s)
are key factors in the initiation of normal checklists and the
effective use of normal checklists.
Conducting Normal Checklists
Normal checklists are conducted usually by challenge and
response (exceptions, such as the After landing checklist,
are conducted as defned by SoPs).
Most checklist items require responses by the PF; some items
may be challenged and responded to by the PNF.
To enhance crew communication, the following procedures
and phraseology should be used:
The responding pilot should respond to the challenge
only after having checked or achieved the required
conguration;
If achieving the required confguration is not possible, the
responding pilot should call the actual conguration;
The challenging pilot should wait for a positive response
(and should cross-check the validity of the response)
before proceeding to the next item; and,
The PNF should call the completion of the checklist
(e.g., checklist complete).
Some aircraft have electronic normal checklists or mechanical
normal checklists that allow positive identication of:
Items completed;
Items being completed; and,
Items to be completed.
Interrupting and Resuming Normal Checklists
If the ow of the normal checklist is interrupted for any reason,
the PF should call hold (stop) checklist at [item].
Resume (continue) checklist at [item] should be called
before resuming the normal checklist after an interruption.
When the checklist resumes, the last completed item should
be repeated.
Information introducing the SoPs in the aircraft operating
manual (AoM), the normal checklists or the quick reference
handbook (QRh) should be referred to for aircraft-model-
specic information.
Training
Adherence to SoPs and disciplined use of normal checklists
should begin during transition training, because habits and rou-
tines acquired during transition training have a lasting effect.
Transition training and recurrent training provide a unique
opportunity to discuss the reasons for SoPs, and to discuss
the consequences of failing to adhere to them.
Conversely, allowing deviations from SoPs and/or normal
checklists during initial training or recurrent training may
encourage deviations during line operations.
line checks and line audits should reinforce adherence to SoPs
and use of normal checklists.
Factors That May Affect Normal Checklists
To ensure effective use of normal checklists, it is important to
understand why pilots inadvertently may omit some checklist
items or omit completely a normal checklist.
Such omissions often are the result of operational circum-
stances that disrupt the normal ow of ight-deck duties.
The following factors often are cited in discussing the partial
omission or complete omission of a normal checklist:
out-of-phase timing, whenever a factor (such as a tail
wind or a system malfunction) modies the time scale
of the approach or the occurrence of the trigger event
for the initiation of the normal checklist;
Interruptions (e.g., because of pilot-controller
communication);
distractions (e.g., because of fight deck activities);
Task saturation;
Incorrect management of priorities (e.g., lack of a
decision-making model for time-critical situations);
Inadequate CRM (e.g., inadequate coordination, cross-
check and backup);
overreliance on memory (overconfdence);
less-than-optimum checklist content, task-sharing and/
or format; and,
Possible inadequate emphasis on use of normal checklists
during transition training and recurrent training.
Summary
Timely initiation and completion of normal checklists is the
most effective method of preventing omission of actions or
preventing inappropriate actions.
Calls should be defned in the SoPs for the interruption (hold)
and resumption (continuation) of a normal checklist (in case
of interruption or distraction).
disciplined use of normal checklists should be:
Emphasized at all stages of initial training, transition
training and line training; and,
Enforced during all checks and audits performed during
line operations.
1.3 Golden Rules;
1.4 Standard Calls; and,
References
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Editorial Staff. Ice Inges-
tion Causes Both Engines to Flame out during Air-taxi
Turboprops Final Approach. Accident Prevention Volume
56 (February 1999).
Adamski, Anthony J.; Stahl, Albert F. Principles of design
and display for Aviation Technical Messages. Flight Safety
Digest Volume 16 (January 1997).
gross, Richard l.; FSF Editorial Staff. Studies Suggest Meth-
ods for optimizing Checklist design and Crew Performance.
Flight Safety Digest Volume 14 (May 1995).
Pope, John A. Checklists guideposts often Ignored. Ac-
cident Prevention Volume 48 (May 1991).
Wilson, donald. A Tool for Communication. Accident Pre-
vention Volume 46 (July 1989).
International Civil Aviation organization (ICAo). Internation-
al Standards and Recommended Practices, Annex 6 to the Con-
vention of International Civil Aviation, Operation of Aircraft.
Part I, International Commercial Air Transport Aeroplanes.
Chapter 4, Flight operations, 4.2.5. Chapter 6, Aeroplane
Instruments, Equipment and Flight documents, 6.1.3. Ap-
pendix 2, Contents of an operations Manual, 5.10. Seventh
edition July 1998, incorporating Amendments 125.
ICAo. Procedures for Air Navigation Services. Aircraft Op-
tion 1997.
ICAo. Human Factors Training Manual. First edition 1998,
incorporating Circular 216.
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. Federal Aviation Regu-
lations. 121.315 Instrument and Equipment Requirements.
January 1, 2000.
erations 1. Commercial Air Transportation (Aeroplanes). 1.1045
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
1.6 Approach Brieng
To ensure mutual understanding and effective cooperation
among fight crewmembers and air traffc control (ATC), a thor-
ough approach brieng should be conducted on each ight.
Care should be taken to conduct a thorough briefng regard-
less of:
how familiar the destination airport and the approach
may be; or,
how often the crewmembers have fown together.
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that omission of an
approach brieng or the conduct of an inadequate approach
brieng were factors in the particular approach-and-landing
1997 that were attributed, in part, to omission of action/inap-
propriate action. Seventy-two percent of the 76 accidents and
serious incidents during the period involved omission of action/
inappropriate action.
1
Brieng Techniques
The importance of brieng techniques often is underestimated,
although effective briengs enhance crew standardization and
crew communication.
An interactive brieng style e.g., conrming the agreement
and understanding of the pilot not ying (PNF) after each
phase of the brieng will provide a more effective brieng
than an uninterrupted recitation terminated by the nal query,
Any questions?
An interactive brieng fullls two important purposes:
To provide the pilot fying (PF) and the PNF with an
opportunity to correct each other (e.g., conrm the
correct approach chart and conrm the correct setup of
navaids for the assigned landing runway); and,
To share a common mental image of the approach.
The brieng should be structured (i.e., follow the logical se-
quence of the approach and landing) and concise.
Routine and formal repetition of the same information on each
ight may become counterproductive; adapting and expanding the
brieng by highlighting the special aspects of the approach or the
actual weather conditions will result in more effective briengs.
In short, the brieng should attract the PNFs attention.
Thus, the brieng should be conducted when the workload and
availability of the PNF permit an effective brieng.
Anything that may affect normal operation (e.g., system fail-
ures, weather conditions or other particular conditions) should
be carefully evaluated and discussed.
The brieng should help the PF (giving the brieng) and the
PNF (acknowledging the brieng) to know the sequence of
events and actions, as well as the special hazards and circum-
stances of the approach.
Table 1
REF
+ 20 knots
REF
;
ducted;
go-around.
Whether anticipated or not, changes in ATC clearance, weather
conditions or landing runway require a partial review of the
initial brieng.
Timeliness of Briengs
To prevent any rush (and increased workload) in initiating and
conducting the descent and the approach, descent preparation
and the approach briefng typically should be conducted 10
minutes before reaching the top-of-descent point.
Scope of Brieng
The approach brieng should include the following aspects of
the approach and landing, including a possible missed approach
and a second approach or diversion:
Minimum safe altitude (MSA);
Terrain, man-made obstructions and other hazards;
Approach conditions (weather conditions, runway
conditions);
Instrument approach procedure details, including the
initial steps of the missed approach procedure;
Stabilization height (Table 1);
Final approach descent gradient (and vertical speed);
Use of automation (e.g., lateral navigation [lNAV] and
vertical navigation [VNAV]);
Communications;
Abnormal procedures, as applicable; and,
Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Risk
Awareness Tool (review and discuss [see FSF AlAR
Briefng Note 5.1 Approach Hazards Overview]).
Approach Brieng
The fight management system (FMS) pages and the naviga-
tion display (Nd) should be used to guide and illustrate the
brieng, and to conrm the various data entries.
An expanded review of the items to be covered in the approach
brieng as practical and appropriate for the conditions of
the fight is provided below.
Aircraft Status
Review the status of the aircraft (i.e., any failure or malfunc-
tion experienced during the ight) and discuss the possible
consequences in terms of operation and performance (i.e.,
nal approach speed and landing distance).
Fuel Status
Review the following items:
Fuel on board;
Minimum diversion fuel; and,
Available holding fuel and time.
Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
Review and discuss the following items:
Runway in use (type of approach);
Expected arrival route (standard terminal arrival [STAR]
or radar vectors);
Altimeter setting (QNh [altimeter setting that causes
the altimeter to indicate height above sea level (i.e., eld
elevation after landing)] or QFE [altimeter setting that
causes the altimeter to indicate height above the QFE
datum (i.e., zero feet after landing)], as required);
For international operations, be aware of the applicable
altimeter-setting unit (hectopascals or inches of
mercury);
Transition altitude/fight level (unless standard for the
country or for the airport);
Terminal weather (e.g., runway condition, likely
turbulence, icing or wind shear conditions); and,
Advisory messages (as applicable).
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)
Review and discuss en route and terminal NoTAMs (as ap-
plicable).
Top-of-descent Point
Confrm or adjust the top-of-descent point, computed by the
FMS, as a function of the expected arrival (i.e., following the
published STAR or radar vectors).
Approach Charts
Review and discuss the following items using the approach
chart and the FMS/Nd (as applicable):
designated runway and approach type;
Chart index number and date;
Minimum safe altitude (MSA) reference point,
sectors and altitudes;
let-down navaids frequencies and identifcations
(conrm the correct navaids setup);
Airport elevation;
Approach transitions (fxes, holding pattern, altitude and
airspeed restrictions, required navaids setup);
Final approach course (and lead-in radial);
Terrain features (location and elevation of hazardous
terrain or man-made obstacles);
Approach profle view:
Final approach x (FAF);
Final descent point (if different from FAF);
Visual descent point (VdP);
Missed approach point (MAP);
Typical vertical speed at expected nal approach
groundspeed; and,
Touchdown zone elevation (TdZE);
Missed approach:
lateral navigation and vertical navigation;
Airspeed restrictions;
Minimum diversion fuel; and,
Second approach (discuss the type of approach if a
different runway and/or type of approach is expected)
or diversion to the alternate airport;
Ceiling and visibility minimums:
decision altitude/height (dA[h]) setting (Category
[CAT] I with or without radio altitude, CAT II and
CAT III with radio altitude); or,
Minimum descent altitude/height (MdA[h])
setting and radio altimeter setting in dh window
(nonprecision approaches); and,
local airport requirements (e.g., noise restrictions on
the use of thrust reversers, etc.).
CAT II/CAT III Instrument Landing System (ILS)
Review and discuss as applicable, depending on the type of
approach.
Airport Charts
Review and discuss the following items using the airport
charts:
Runway length, width and slope;
Approach lighting and runway lighting, and other
expected visual references;
Specifc hazards (as applicable); and,
Intended exit taxiway.
If another airport is located in the close vicinity of the destina-
tion airport, relevant details or procedures should be discussed
for awareness purposes.
Use of Automation
discuss the use of automation for vertical navigation and
lateral navigation:
Use of FMS or selected modes; and,
Step-down approach (if a constant-angle nonprecision
approach [CANPA] is not available).
Landing and Stopping
discuss the intended landing faps confguration (if different
from full aps).
Review and discuss the following features of the intended
landing runway:
Surface condition;
Intended use of autobrakes and thrust reversers; and,
Expected runway turn-off.
Taxi to Gate
Review and discuss the taxiways expected to be used to reach
the assigned gate (with special emphasis on the possible cross-
ing of active runways). As required, this review and discussion
can be delayed until after landing.
Deviations from Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs)
Any intended deviation from SoPs or from standard calls
should be discussed during the brieng.
Go-around
To enhance preparation for a go-around, primary elements of
the missed approach procedure and task-sharing under normal
conditions or abnormal conditions should be discussed during
the approach brieng.
The brieng should include the following:
go-around call (a loud and clear go-around/faps);
PF/PNF task-sharing (flow of respective actions,
including desired guidance mode selection
airspeed target, go-around altitude, excessive-parameter-
deviation calls);
Intended use of automation (automatic or manual go-
around, use of FMS lNAV or use of selected modes for
the missed approach);
Missed-approach lateral navigation and vertical
navigation (highlight obstacles and terrain features, as
applicable); and,
Intentions (second approach or diversion).
Crews should briefy recall the main points of the go-around
and missed approach when established on the nal approach
course or after completing the landing checklist.
Summary
The approach brieng should be adapted to the conditions of
the ight and focus on the items that are relevant for the ap-
proach and landing (such as specic approach hazards).
The approach brieng should include the following items:
MSA;
Terrain and man-made obstacles;
Weather conditions and runway conditions;
other approach hazards, as applicable;
Minimums (ceiling and visibility or runway visual
range);
Stabilization height;
and,
go-around altitude and missed-approach initial steps.
2.1 Human Factors;
2.3 Pilot-Controller Communication;
5.1 Approach Hazards Overview;
6.1 Being Prepared to Go Around; and,
7.1 Stabilized Approach.
Reference
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF). Controlled Flight Into Ter-
rain: Korean Air Flight 801, Boeing 747-300, hl 7468 Nimitz
hill, guam, August 6, 1997. Flight Safety Digest Volume 19
(MayJuly 2000).
Sumwalt, Robert l. III. Accident and Incident Reports Show
Importance of Sterile Cockpit Compliance. Flight Safety
Digest Volume 13 (July 1994).
Edwards, Mary. Crew Coordination Problems Persist, de-
mand New Training Challenges. Cabin Crew Safety Volume
27 (Novemberdecember 1992).
125.
tion 1997.
lations. 121.315 Instrument and Equipment Requirements.
January 1, 2000.
erations 1. Commercial Air Transportation (Aeroplanes). 1.1045
2.1 Human Factors
human factors identifed in approach-and-landing accidents
(AlAs) should be used to assess a companys risk exposure
and develop corresponding company accident-prevention strat-
egies, or to assess an individuals risk exposure and develop
corresponding personal lines of defense.
Whether involving crew, air traffc control (ATC), maintenance,
organizational factors or aircraft design, each link of the error
chain involves human beings and, therefore, human decisions
and behaviors.
Statistical Data
There is general agreement that human error is involved in
more than 70 percent of aviation accidents.
Human Factors Issues
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
To ensure adherence to published standard operating proce-
dures (SoPs) and associated normal checklists and standard
calls, it is important to understand why pilots may deviate
from SoPs.
Pilots sometimes deviate intentionally from SoPs; some devia-
tions occur because the procedure that was followed in place of
the SoP seemed to be appropriate for the prevailing situation.
other deviations are usually unintentional.
The following factors often are cited in discussing deviations
from SoPs:
Task saturation;
Inadequate knowledge or failure to understand the rule,
procedure or action because of:
Inadequate training;
Printed information not easily understood; and/or,
Perception that a procedure is inappropriate;
Insuffcient emphasis on adherence to SoPs during
transition training and recurrent training;
Inadequate vigilance (fatigue);
Interruptions (e.g., because of pilot-controller
communication);
distractions (e.g., because of fight deck activities);
Incorrect management of priorities (lack of decision-
making model for time-critical situations);
Incorrect crew resource management (CRM) techniques
(for crew coordination, cross-check and backup);
Company policies (e.g., schedules, costs, go-arounds
and diversions);
other policies (e.g., crew duty time);
Personal desires or constraints (schedule, mission
completion);
Complacency; and/or,
overconfdence.
Automation
Errors in using automatic ight systems (AFSs) and insuf-
cient knowledge of AFS operation have been contributing
factors in approach-and-landing accidents and incidents,
including those involving controlled ight into terrain.
The following are some of the more common errors in using
AFSs:
Inadvertent selection of an incorrect mode;
Failure to verify the selected mode by reference to the
fight-mode annunciator (FMA);
Failure to arm a mode (e.g., failure to arm the approach
mode) at the correct time;
Inadvertent change of a target entry (e.g., changing the
target airspeed instead of entering a new heading);
Failure to enter a required target (e.g., failure to enter
the correct nal approach course);
Incorrect altitude entry and failure to confrm the entry
on the primary fight display (PFd);
Entering a target altitude that is lower than the fnal
approach intercept altitude during approach;
Preoccupation with FMS programming during a
critical ight phase, with consequent loss of situational
awareness; and/or,
Failure to monitor automation and cross-check parameters
with raw data.
1
other frequent causal factors
2
in AlAs include:
Inadequate situational awareness;
Incorrect interaction with automation;
overreliance on automation; and/or,
Inadequate effective crew coordination, cross-check and
backup.
3
Brieng Techniques
The importance of brieng techniques often is underestimated,
although effective briengs enhance crew standardization and
communication.
Routine and formal repetition of the same information on each
ight may become counterproductive; adapting and expanding
the brieng by highlighting the special aspects of the approach
or the actual weather conditions will result in more effective
briengs.
In short, the brieng should attract the attention of the pilot
not ying (PNF).
The brieng should help the pilot ying (PF) and the PNF to
know the sequence of events and actions, as well as the special
hazards and circumstances of the approach.
An interactive brieng style provides the PF and the PNF with
an opportunity to fulll two important goals of the brieng:
Correct each other; and,
Share a common mental image of the approach.
Crew-ATC Communication
Effective communication is achieved when our intellectual
process for interpreting the information contained in a message
accommodates the message being received.
This process can be summarized as follows:
how do we perceive the message?
how do we reconstruct the information contained in the
message?
how do we link the information to an objective or to an
expectation?
What amount of bias or error is introduced in this
process?
CRM highlights the relevance of the context and the expecta-
tions in communication.
The following factors may affect adversely the understanding
of communications:
high workload;
Fatigue;
Nonadherence to the sterile cockpit rule
4
;
Interruptions;
distractions; and/or,
Conficts and pressures.
The results may include:
Incomplete communication;
omission of the aircraft call sign or use of an incorrect
call sign;
Use of nonstandard phraseology; and,
Failure to listen or to respond.
Crew Communication
Interruptions and distractions on the ight deck break the ow
pattern of ongoing activities, such as:
SoPs;
Normal checklists;
Communication (listening, processing, responding);
Monitoring tasks; and,
Problem-solving activities.
The diverted attention resulting from the interruption or dis-
traction usually causes the ight crew to feel rushed and to be
confronted by competing tasks.
Moreover, when confronted with concurrent task demands, the
natural human tendency is to perform one task to the detri-
ment of another.
Unless mitigated by adequate techniques to set priorities, inter-
ruptions and distractions may result in the ight crew:
Not monitoring the fight path (possibly resulting in an
altitude deviation, course deviation or controlled ight
into terrain);
Missing or misinterpreting an ATC instruction (possibly
resulting in a trafc conict or runway incursion);
omitting an action and failing to detect and correct
the resulting abnormal condition or conguration, if
interrupted during a normal checklist; and,
leaving uncertainties unresolved (e.g., an ATC
instruction or an abnormal condition).
Altimeter-setting Error
An incorrect altimeter setting often is the result of one or more
of the following factors:
high workload;
Incorrect pilot-system interface;
Incorrect pilot-controller communication;
deviation from normal task-sharing;
Interruptions and distractions; and/or,
Insuffcient backup between crewmembers.
Adherence to the dened task-sharing (for normal conditions or
abnormal conditions) and use of normal checklists are the most
effective lines of defense against altimeter-setting errors.
Unstabilized Approaches
The following often are cited when discussing unstabilized
approaches:
Fatigue in short-haul, medium-haul or long-haul
operations (which highlights the need for developing
countermeasures to restore vigilance and alertness for
the descent, approach and landing);
Pressure of fight schedule (making up for delays);
Any crew-induced circumstance or ATC-induced
circumstance resulting in insufcient time to plan,
prepare and conduct a safe approach (including accepting
requests from ATC to fy higher, to fy faster or to fy
shorter routings than desired);
Inadequate ATC awareness of crew capability or aircraft
capability to accommodate a last-minute change;
late takeover from automation (e.g., after the autopilot
fails to capture the localizer or glideslope, usually
because the crew failed to arm the approach mode);
Inadequate awareness of adverse wind conditions;
Incorrect anticipation of aircraft deceleration
characteristics in level ight or on a three-degree glide
path;
Failure to recognize deviations or to remember the
excessive-parameter-deviation limits;
Belief that the aircraft will be stabilized at the minimum
stabilization height (i.e., 1,000 feet above airport
elevation in instrument meteorological conditions or
500 feet above airport elevation in visual meteorological
conditions) or shortly thereafter;
PNF overconfidence in the PF to achieve timely
stabilization;
PF/PNF overreliance on each other to call excessive
deviations or to call for a go-around; and/or,
Visual illusions during the acquisition of visual references
or during the visual segment.
Runway Excursions and Runway Overruns
The following are human factors (involving ATC, fight crew
and/or maintenance personnel) in runway excursions and
runway overruns:
No go-around decision when warranted;
Inaccurate information on surface wind, runway
condition or wind shear;
Incorrect assessment of crosswind limit for prevailing
runway conditions;
Incorrect assessment of landing distance for prevailing
wind conditions and runway conditions, or for a
malfunction affecting aircraft conguration or braking
capability;
Captain taking over the controls and landing the aircraft
despite the announcement or initiation of a go-around
by the rst ofcer (the PF);
late takeover from automation, when required (e.g.,
late takeover from autobrakes because of system
malfunction);
Inoperative equipment not noted per the minimum
equipment list (e.g., one or more brakes being
inoperative); and/or,
Undetected thrust asymmetry (forward/reverse
asymmetric thrust condition).
Adverse Wind Conditions
The following human factors often are cited in discussing events
involving adverse winds (e.g., crosswinds, tail winds):
Reluctance to recognize changes in landing data over
time (e.g., change in wind direction/velocity, increase
in gusts);
Failure to seek evidence to confrm landing data and
established options (i.e., reluctance to change plans);
Reluctance to divert to an airport with more favorable
wind conditions; and/or,
Insuffcient time to observe, evaluate and control the
aircraft attitude and ight path in a dynamic situation.
Summary
Addressing human factors in AlAs must include:
defned company safety culture;
defned company safety policies;
Company accident-prevention strategies;
SoPs;
CRM practices; and,
Personal lines of defense.
to supplement this discussion
1.3 Golden Rules;
1.4 Standard Calls;
2.2 Crew Resource Management;
2.4 Interruptions/Distractions;
3.1 Barometric Altimeter and Radio Altimeter;
3.2 Altitude Deviations;
7.1 Stabilized Approach; and,
8.1 Runway Excursions and Runway Overruns.
References
2. The FSF AlAR Task Force defnes causal factor as
an event or item judged to be directly instrumental in
the causal chain of events leading to the accident [or
incident].
ights.
Regulations Part 121.542, which states: No flight
crewmember may engage in, nor may any pilot-in-command
permit, any activity during a critical phase of ight which
could distract any ight crewmember from the performance
of his or her duties or which could interfere in any way
with the proper conduct of those duties. Activities such as
eating meals, engaging in nonessential conversations within
the cockpit and nonessential communications between
the cabin and cockpit crews, and reading publications not
related to the proper conduct of the ight are not required
for the safe operation of the aircraft. For the purposes of
this section, critical phases of ight include all ground
operations involving taxi, takeoff and landing, and all other
fight operations below 10,000 feet, except cruise fight.
[The FSF AlAR Task Force says that 10,000 feet should
be height above ground level during ight operations over
high terrain.]
FSF. Aviation grapples with human-factors Accidents.
Flight Safety Digest Volume 18 (May 1999).
FSF Editorial Staff. B-757 damaged by ground Strike during
late go-around from Visual Approach. Accident Prevention
Volume 56 (May 1999).
FSF Editorial Staff. Boeing 737 Pilot Flying Selects Incor-
rect Altitude in holding Pattern, Causes dangerous loss of
Separation with Md-81. Accident Prevention Volume 55
(April 1998).
FSF Editorial Staff. Inadequate Visual References in Flight
Pose Threat of Spatial disorientation. Human Factors & Avia-
tion Medicine Volume 44 (Novemberdecember 1997).
FSF Editorial Staff. different Altimeter displays and Crew
Fatigue likely Contributed to Canadian Controlled-fight-into-
terrain Accident. Accident Prevention Volume 52 (december
1995).
FSF Editorial Staff. Poorly Flown Approach in Fog Results in
Collision With Terrain Short of Runway. Accident Prevention
Volume 52 (August 1995).
Mohler, Stanley R. The human Balance System: A Refresher
for Pilots. Human Factors & Aviation Medicine Volume 42
(JulyAugust 1995).
FSF Editorial Staff. Fatal Commuter Crash Blamed on Visual
Illusion, lack of Cockpit Coordination. Accident Prevention
Pope, John A. Comparing Accident Reports: looking Beyond
Causes to Identify Recurrent Factors. Flight Safety Digest
Volume 12 (June 1993).
FSF Editorial Staff. Spatial disorientation linked to Fatal
dC-8 Freighter Crash. Accident Prevention Volume 50
(March 1993).
Antuano, Melchor J.; Mohler, Stanley R. Infight Spatial
disorientation. Human Factors & Aviation Medicine Volume
39 (JanuaryFebruary 1992).
Wilson, donald R. The overall Approach to Cockpit Safety.
Accident Prevention Volume 46 (June 1989).
Standards and Recommended Practices, Annex 6 to the Con-
Appendix 2, Contents of an operations Manual, 15. Seventh
ICAo. Accident Prevention Manual. 1984.
ICAo. Circular 241, Human Factors Digest No. 8, human
Factors in Air Traffc Control. 1993.
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. U.S. Federal Aviation
Regulations. 121.406 Reduction of CRM/dRM programmed
hours based on credit for previous CRM/dRM training,
121.419 Pilots and fight engineers: Initial, transition, and
upgrade ground training, 121.421 Flight attendants: Initial
and transition ground training, 121.422 Aircraft dispatchers:
Initial and transition ground training. January 1, 2000.
Joint Aviation Authorities. Joint Aviation Requirements -
Operations 1. Commercial Air Transportation (Aeroplanes).
1.945 Conversion training and checking, 1.955 Nomination
as commander, 1.965 Recurrent training and checking.
March 1, 1998.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
2.2 Crew Resource Management
Minimum required crew resource management (CRM) train-
ing is dened by regulations, and companies should consider
customized CRM training for company-specifc operations,
such as multi-cultural ight crews.
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that failure in CRM (i.e.,
ight crew coordination, cross-check and backup) was a causal
factor
1
in 63 percent of 76 approach-and-landing accidents and
serious incidents worldwide in 1984 through 1997.
2
Because CRM is a key factor in fight crew performance and
in their interaction with automated systems, CRM has a role
to some degree in most aircraft incidents and accidents.
Company Safety Culture and Policies
Although the ight crew is the last line of defense and usually
the last link in an error chain many factors associated with ac-
cidents are early links in the accident chain and can be forged far
from the ight deck. The early links could be inadequate training,
a design aw in equipment or incorrect maintenance.
Thus, company safety culture should support CRM throughout
the organization, as well as among aircraft crewmembers.
International Cultural Factors
As more companies have international operations and multi-
cultural ight crews, cultural factors become an important part
of customized CRM training.
Understanding differences among cultures and recognizing
the importance of national sensitivities should be emphasized
in CRM training.
The importance of using standard phraseology as a common
working language also should be emphasized.
Leadership
The role of the pilot-in-command (PIC) in complex and de-
manding situations (e.g., an approach with marginal weather
conditions, abnormal conditions or emergency conditions) is
an integral part of CRM training.
Teamwork
The captains attitude in establishing communication with the
rst ofcer and ight attendants is essential to maintain open
communication, thus ensuring effective:
human relations (e.g., effective crew communication);
Teamwork (e.g., encouraging the frst offcer to voice any
concern about the safety and the progress of the ight);
and,
Crew coordination, cross-check and backup.
Conducting a prefight briefng that includes the fight crew
and the cabin crew is one method of establishing the basis for
effective teamwork.
Assertiveness
Incidents and accidents have revealed that when an option
(such as conducting a go-around) has not been briefed, the
ight crew may lack the information to make the go-around
decision or to conduct the missed approach correctly.
Fatigue, overcondence or reluctance to change a plan often
result in inadequate assertiveness and decision making.
Inquiry and Advocacy
Flight crews often receive air traffc control (ATC) requests
that are either:
Not understood (e.g., instructions to fly below the
minimum safe altitude when the minimum vectoring
altitude is not known); or,
Challenging (e.g., a request to fy higher and/or faster
than desired, or to y a shorter route than desired).
Flight crews should not accept instructions without asking for
clarication or being sure that they can comply safely with
the instructions.
Procedures
deviations from standard operating procedures (SoPs) and
from other procedures usually are not deliberate; understanding
the human factors involved in such deviations is essential for
the development of company accident-prevention strategies.
Briengs
Conducting effective and interactive briefngs requires adher-
ence to SoPs to ensure crew coordination and preparation for
planned or unexpected occurrences.
Time Management
Taking time to make time, task-sharing and ensuring task priori-
tization are essential factors in staying ahead of the aircraft.
Interruptions/Distractions
Coping with interruptions/distractions on the fight deck re-
quires the fight crew to expect the unexpected, which lessens
the effects of any disruption in the ow pattern of ongoing
ight deck activities.
Error Management
Error management should be practiced at the company level
and at the personal level.
To foster this practice, identifying and understanding the
relevant factors that cause errors are necessary for the devel-
opment of associated:
Company accident-prevention strategies; and,
Personal lines of defense.
The most critical aspect in discussing error management is
not the error (deviation), but the failure to detect the error by
cross-checking.
Risk Management
Risk management is the process of assessing potential safety
hazards and nding ways to avoid the hazards or to minimize
their effects on safety.
Risk management should be seen as a balanced management
of priorities.
Decision Making
SoPs sometimes are perceived as limiting the fight crews
judgment and decisions.
Without denying the captains emergency authority, SoPs are
safeguards against biased decision making.
Effective ight crew decision making often requires a joint
evaluation of options prior to proceeding with an agreed-upon
decision and action.
The effect of pressures (such as delays or company poli-
cies) that may affect how the ight crew conducts the ight
and makes decisions should be recognized by the aviation
industry.
Nevertheless, eliminating all pressures is not a realistic ob-
jective. Thus, CRM incorporated with company accident-
prevention strategies and personal lines of defense should
be used to cope effectively with such pressures.
For example, using a tactical-decision-making model for time-
critical situations is an effective technique.
Several tactical-decision-making models (usually based on
memory aids or on sequential models) are available for discus-
sion during CRM training.
All tactical-decision-making models include the following
steps:
Recognizing the prevailing condition;
Assessing short-term consequences and long-term
consequences for the ight;
Evaluating available options and procedures;
deciding on a course of action;
Taking action in accordance with the defned procedures,
as available, and task-sharing;
Evaluating and monitoring results; and,
Resuming standard fying duties.
Postponing a decision until a safe option is no longer available
is a recurring pattern in AlAs.
CRM Factors
The following CRM factors have been identifed as contribut-
ing to approach-and-landing incidents and accidents, including
controlled ight into terrain:
Risks associated with complacency (e.g., when operating
at a familiar airport) or with overconfidence (e.g.,
resulting from a high level of experience with the
aircraft);
Inadequate proactive flight management (i.e., not
staying ahead of the aircraft);
Inadequate preparedness to respond to changing
situations or to an emergency (i.e., expecting the
unexpected) by precise planning and by using all the
available ight deck technical and human resources;
Crewmembers personal factors (e.g., fatigue, spatial
disorientation); and/or,
Absence of specifc training of instructors and check
airmen to evaluate the CRM performance of trainees
and line pilots.
Factors Affecting CRM
The following factors may adversely affect implementation
of effective CRM:
Company culture and policies;
Belief that actions or decisions are the correct ones at
the time, although they deviate from SoPs;
Effects of fatigue and inadequate countermeasures for
restoring vigilance and alertness; and/or,
Reluctance to accept the infuence of human factors and
CRM in AlAs.
Summary
CRM alone is not the answer or universal remedy for prevent-
ing AlAs. Nevertheless, CRM is a powerful tool to optimize
ight crew performance.
good CRM skills:
Relieve the effects of pressures, interruptions and
distractions;
Provide benchmarks for timely decision making; and,
Provide safeguards for effective error management.
1.3 Golden Rules;
1.4 Standard Calls;
2.1 Human Factors;
2.3 Pilot-Controller Communication; and,
References
ights.
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Editorial Staff. learjet Strikes
Terrain When Crew Tracks False glideslope Indication and
Continues descent Below Published decision height. Ac-
cident Prevention Volume 56 (June 1999).
Koenig, Robert l. FAA Identifes CRM-related Issues and
Training Needs in Flight-inspection Missions. Human Factors
& Aviation Medicine Volume 44 (JanuaryFebruary 1997).
FSF Editorial Staff. learjet MEdEVAC Flight Ends in
Controlled-flight-into-terrain (CFIT) Accident. Accident
Sumwalt, Robert l. III.; Watson, Alan W. ASRS Incident data
Reveal details of Flight-crew Performance during Aircraft Mal-
functions. Flight Safety Digest Volume 14 (october 1995).
FSF Editorial Staff. Captains Failure to Establish Stabilized
Approach Results in Controlled-fight-into-terrain Commuter
Accident. Accident Prevention Volume 52 (July 1995).
duke, Thomas A.; FSF Editorial Staff. Aircraft descended
Below Minimum Sector Altitude and Crew Failed to Respond
to gPWS as Chartered Boeing 707 Flew into Mountain in
Azores. Accident Prevention Volume 52 (February 1995).
(September 1994).
U.S. National Transportation Safety Board. A Review of
Flightcrew-involved, Major Accidents of U.S. Air Carriers,
1978 Through 1990. Safety Study NTSB/SS-94/01. Flight
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lawton, Russell. Captain Stops First offcers go-around,
dC-9 Becomes Controlled-fight-into-terrain (CFIT) Acci-
dent. Accident Prevention Volume 51 (February 1994).
Pope, John A. Faulty Angle-of-attack Sensor Provokes go/
No-go decision with an Inadequately Coordinated Crew.
Accident Prevention Volume 50 (August 1993).
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haynes, Alfred C. United 232: Coping With the one-in-
a-Billion loss of All Flight Controls. Accident Prevention
Volume 48 (June 1991).
orlady, harry W. Todays Professional Airline Pilot: All
the old Skills and More. Flight Safety Digest Volume 9
(June 1990).
helmreich, Robert l.; Chidester, Thomas R.; Foushee, h.
Clayton; gregorich, Steve; Wilhelm, John A. how Effective
Is Cockpit Resource Management Training? Flight Safety
Digest Volume 9 (May 1990).
5.15, 5.21, 5.22. Seventh edition July 1998, incorporating
Amendments 125.
ICAo. Procedures for Air Navigation Services. Rules of the
Air and Air Traffc Services. Thirteenth edition 1996, incor-
porating Amendments 13.
ICAo. Procedures for Air Navigation Services. Aircraft
Operations. Volume I, Flight Procedures. Fourth edition,
1993. Reprinted May 2000, incorporating Amendments
110.
ICAo. Accident Prevention Manual. 1984.
ICAo. Human Factors Training Manual. First edition - 1998,
ICAo. Circular 241, Human Factors Digest No. 8, hu-
man Factors in Air Traffc Control. 1993.
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). U.S. Fed-
eral Aviation Regulations. 121.406 Reduction of CRM/
dRM programmed hours based on credit for previous
CRM/dRM training, 121.419 Pilots and fight engi-
neers: Initial, transition, and upgrade ground training,
121.421 Flight attendants: Initial and transition ground
training, 121.422 Aircraft dispatchers: Initial and tran-
sition ground training. January 1, 2000.
FAA. Advisory Circular 60-22, Aeronautical Decision
Making. december 13, 1991.
Joint Aviation Authorities. Joint Aviation Requirements
Operations 1. Commercial Air Transportation (Aero-
planes). 1.945 Conversion training and checking, 1.955
Nomination as commander, 1.965 Recurrent training
and checking. March 1, 1998.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
2.3 Pilot-Controller Communication
Until data-link communication comes into widespread use, air
traffc control (ATC) will depend primarily upon voice com-
munication that is affected by various factors.
Communication between pilot and controller can be improved
by the mutual understanding of each others operating environ-
ment.
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that incorrect or inad-
equate ATC instruction/advice/service was a causal factor
1
in
33 percent of 76 approach-and-landing accidents and serious
incidents worldwide in 1984 through 1997.
2
These accidents and incidents involved incorrect or inadequate:
ATC instructions (e.g., radar vectors);
Weather or traffc information; and/or,
Advice/service in an emergency.
Pilot-Controller Communication Loop
The responsibilities of the pilot and controller overlap in many
areas and provide backup.
The pilot-controller confrmation/correction process is a loop
that ensures effective communication (Figure 1).
Whenever adverse factors are likely to affect communication,
adherence to the conrmation/correction process is a line of
defense against communication errors.
Effective Communication
Pilots and controllers are involved equally in the ATC system.
Achieving effective radio communication involves many fac-
tors that should not be considered in isolation; more than one
Tool Kit
Flight Safety Foundation
Approach-and-landing Accident Reduction
FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION FLIGHT SAFETY DIGEST AUGUSTNOVEMBER 2000 47
FSF ALAR Briefing Note
2.3 Pilot-Controller Communication
Until data-link communication comes into widespread use,
air traffic control (ATC) will depend primarily upon voice
communication that is affected by various factors.
Communication between pilot and controller can be improved
by the mutual understanding of each others operating
environment.
Statistical Data
Reduction (ALAR) Task Force found that incorrect or
inadequate ATC instruction/advice/service was a causal factor
1
in 33 percent of 76 approach-and-landing accidents and serious
2
These accidents and incidents involved incorrect or inadequate:
ATC instructions (e.g., radar vectors);
Weather or traffic information; and/or,
Advice/service in an emergency.
Pilot-Controller Communication Loop
The responsibilities of the pilot and controller overlap in many
areas and provide backup.
The pilot-controller confirmation/correction process is a loop
that ensures effective communication (Figure 1).
Whenever adverse factors are likely to affect communication,
adherence to the confirmation/correction process is a line of
defense against communication errors.
Effective Communication
Pilots and controllers are involved equally in the ATC system.
ATC Clearance
Acknowledge
or Correct
Transmit
Listen
Transmit
Listen
Controllers
Hearback Pilots
Readback
Pilot-Controller Communication Loop:
The Confirmation/Correction Process
ATC = Air traffic control
Reduction (ALAR) Task Force
Figure 1
factor usually is involved in a breakdown of the communica-
tion loop.
Human Factors
Effective communication is achieved when the intellectual
process for interpreting the information contained in a message
accommodates the message received.
This process can be summarized as follows:
how do we perceive the message?
how do we reconstruct the information contained in the
message?
how do we link the information to an objective or to an
expectation (e.g., route, altitude or time)?
What bias or error is introduced in this process?
Crew resource management (CRM) highlights the relevance
of the context and the expectation in communication. Never-
theless, expectation may introduce either a positive bias or a
negative bias in the effectiveness of the communication.
high workload, fatigue, noncompliance with the sterile cock-
pit rule,
3
distractions, interruptions and conicts are among
the factors that may affect pilot-controller communication
and result in:
Incomplete communication;
omission of the aircraft call sign or use of an incorrect
call sign;
Use of nonstandard phraseology;
Failure to hear or to respond; and,
Failure to effectively implement a confirmation or
correction.
Language and Communication
Native speakers may not speak their own language correctly
and consistently.
The language of pilot-controller communication is intended
to overcome this basic shortcoming.
The rst priority of any communication is to establish an op-
erational context that denes the following elements:
Purpose clearance, instruction, conditional statement
or proposal, question or request, conrmation;
When immediately, anticipate, expect;
What and how altitude (climb, descend, maintain),
heading (left, right), airspeed; and,
Where (at [] waypoint).
The construction of the initial message and subsequent
message(s) should support this operational context by:
Following the chronological order of the actions;
grouping instructions and numbers related to each
action; and,
limiting the number of instructions in the transmission.
The intonation, the speed of speaking and the placement and
duration of pauses may affect the understanding of a com-
munication.
Mastering the Language
CRM studies show that language differences on the fight
deck are a greater obstacle to safety than cultural differences
on the ight deck.
Because English has become a shared language in aviation,
an effort has been initiated to improve the English-language
skills of pilots and controllers worldwide.
Nevertheless, even pilots and controllers for whom English is
the native language may not understand all words spoken in
English because of regional accents or dialects.
In many regions of the world, language differences generate
other communication difculties.
For example, controllers using both English (for communi-
cation with international ights) and the countrys ofcial
language (for communication with domestic ights) hinder
some ight crews from achieving the desired level of situ-
ational awareness (loss of party-line communication).
Nonstandard Phraseology
Nonstandard phraseology is a major obstacle to effective
communication.
Standard phraseology in pilot-controller communication is
intended to be understood universally.
Standard phraseology helps lessen the ambiguities of spoken
language and, thus, facilitates a common understanding among
speakers:
of different native languages; or,
of the same native language but who use, pronounce or
understand words differently.
Nonstandard phraseology or the omission of key words may
change completely the meaning of the intended message,
resulting in potential trafc conicts.
For example, any message containing a number should indicate
what the number refers to (e.g., an altitude, a heading or an
airspeed). Including key words prevents erroneous interpreta-
tion and allows an effective readback/hearback.
Pilots and controllers might use nonstandard phraseology, with
good intentions, for simplicity; however, standard phraseology
minimizes the potential for misunderstanding.
Building Situational Awareness
Radio communication should contribute to the pilots and the
controllers situational awareness, which may be enhanced if
they provide each other with advance information.
Frequency Congestion
Frequency congestion affects signicantly the ow of commu-
nication during approach-and-landing phases at high-density
airports, and demands enhanced vigilance by pilots and by
controllers.
Omission of Call Sign
omitting the call sign or using an incorrect call sign jeopardizes
an effective readback/hearback.
Omission of Readback or Inadequate Readback
The term roger often is misused, as in the following situ-
ations:
A pilot says roger (instead of providing a readback)
to acknowledge a message containing numbers, thus
preventing any effective hearback and correction of
errors by the controller; or,
A controller says roger to acknowledge a message
requiring a denite answer (e.g., a positive conrmation
or correction, such as acknowledging a pilots statement
that an altitude or airspeed restriction cannot be met),
thus decreasing both the pilots and the controllers
situational awareness.
Failure to Correct Readback
The absence of an acknowledgment or a correction following
a clearance readback is perceived by most ight crews as an
implicit conrmation of the readback.
The absence of acknowledgment by the controller usually is
the result of frequency congestion and the need for the con-
troller to issue clearances and instructions to several aircraft
in succession.
An uncorrected erroneous readback (known as a hearback
error) may lead to a deviation from the assigned altitude or
noncompliance with an altitude restriction or with a radar
vector.
A deviation from an intended clearance may not be detected
until the controller observes the deviation on his/her radar
display.
less-than-required vertical separation or horizontal separation
(and near midair collisions) and runway incursions usually are
the result of hearback errors.
Expectations
Bias in understanding a communication can affect pilots and
controllers.
The bias of expectation can lead to:
Transposing the numbers contained in a clearance (e.g.,
a fight level [Fl]) to what was expected, based on
experience or routine; and,
Shifting a clearance or instruction from one parameter
to another (e.g., perceiving a clearance to maintain a
280-degree heading as a clearance to climb/descend and
maintain Fl 280).
Failure to Seek Conrmation
Misunderstandings may involve half-heard words or guessed-
at numbers.
The potential for misunderstanding numbers increases when
an ATC clearance contains more than two instructions.
Failure to Request Clarication
Reluctance to seek conrmation may cause ight crews to
either:
Accept an inadequate instruction (over-reliance on ATC);
or,
determine for themselves the most probable
interpretation.
Failing to request clarication may cause a ight crew to be-
lieve erroneously that they have received an expected clearance
(e.g., clearance to cross an active runway).
Failure to Question Instructions
Failing to question an instruction can cause a crew to accept
an altitude clearance below the minimum safe altitude (MSA)
or a heading that places the aircraft near obstructions.
Taking Another Aircrafts Clearance or Instruction
This usually occurs when two aircraft with similar-sounding
call signs are on the same frequency and are likely to receive
similar instructions, or when the call sign is blocked by another
transmission.
When pilots of different aircraft with similar-sounding call
signs omit the call sign on readback, or when simultaneous
readbacks are made by both pilots, the error may go unnoticed
by the pilots and the controller.
Filtering Communications
Because of other fight deck duties, pilots tend to flter com-
munications, hearing primarily communications that begin
with their aircraft call sign and not hearing most other com-
munications.
For workload reasons, controllers also may lter communica-
tions (e.g., not hearing and responding to a pilot readback while
engaged in issuing clearances/instructions to other aircraft or
ensuring internal coordination).
To maintain situational awareness, this ltering process should
be adapted, according to the ight phase, for more effective
listening.
For example, when occupying an active runway (e.g., back-
taxiing or holding in position) or when conducting a nal
approach to an assigned runway, the ight crew should listen
and give attention to communications related to the landing
runway.
Timeliness of Communication
deviating from an ATC clearance may be required for opera-
tional reasons (e.g., a heading deviation or altitude deviation
for weather avoidance, or an inability to meet a restriction).
Both the pilot and the controller need time to accommodate
this deviation; therefore, ATC should be notifed as early as
possible to obtain a timely acknowledgment.
Similarly, when about to enter a known non-radar-controlled
ight information region (FIR), the pilot should contact the
appropriate ATC facility approximately 10 minutes before
reaching the FIR boundary to help prevent misunderstandings
or less-than-required separation.
Blocked Transmissions (Simultaneous
Communication)
Blocked transmissions often are the result of not immediately
releasing the push-to-talk switch after a communication.
An excessive pause in a message (i.e., holding the push-to-talk
switch while considering the next item of the transmission)
also may result in blocking part of the response or part of
another message.
Simultaneous transmission by two stations (two aircraft or one
aircraft and ATC) results in one of the two (or both) transmis-
sions being blocked and unheard by the other stations (or being
heard as a buzzing sound or as a squeal).
The absence of a readback (from the pilot) or a hearback
acknowledgment (from the controller) should be treated as a
blocked transmission and prompt a request to repeat or conrm
the message.
Blocked transmissions can result in altitude deviations, missed
turnoffs and takeoffs, landings without clearances and other
hazards.
Communicating Specic Events
The following events should be reported as soon as practical
to ATC, stating the nature of the event, the action(s) taken and
the ight crews intention(s):
Traffc-alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS)
resolution advisory (RA);
Severe turbulence;
Volcanic ash;
Wind shear or microburst; and,
A terrain-avoidance maneuver prompted by a ground-
proximity warning system (gPWS) warning or terrain
4
warning.
Emergency Communication
In an emergency, the pilot and the controller must communicate
clearly and concisely, as suggested below.
Pilot
The standard International Civil Aviation organization (ICAo)
phraseology Pan Pan
5
or Mayday
6
must be used to alert a
controller and trigger an appropriate response.
Controllers
Controllers should recognize that, when faced with an emer-
gency situation, the ight crews most important needs are:
Time;
Airspace; and,
Silence.
The controllers response to the emergency situation could be
patterned after a memory aid such as ASSIST:
Acknowledge:
Ensure that the reported emergency is understood and
acknowledged;
Separate:
Establish and maintain separation with other trafc
and/or terrain;
Silence:
Impose silence on your control frequency, if necessary;
and,
do not delay or disturb urgent fight crew action by
unnecessary transmissions;
Inform:
Inform your supervisor and other sectors, units and
airports as appropriate;
Support:
Provide maximum support to the ight crew; and,
Time:
Allow the ight crew sufcient time to handle the
emergency.
Training Program
A company training program on pilot-controller communica-
tion should involve fight crews and ATC personnel in joint
meetings, to discuss operational issues and, in joint ight/
ATC simulator sessions, to promote a mutual understanding
of each others working environment, including:
Modern fight decks (e.g., fight management system
reprogramming) and ATC equipment (e.g., absence
of primary returns, such as weather, on modern radar
displays);
operational requirements (e.g., aircraft deceleration
characteristics, performance, limitations); and,
Procedures (e.g., standard operating procedures [SoPs])
and instructions (e.g., CRM).
Special emphasis should be placed on pilot-controller commu-
nication and task management during emergency situations.
Summary
The following should be emphasized in pilot-controller com-
munication:
Recognize and understand respective pilot and controller
working environments and constraints;
Use standard phraseology;
Adhere to the pilot-controller confrmation/correction
process in the communication loop;
Request clarifcation or confrmation when in doubt;
Question an incorrect clearance or inadequate
instruction;
Prevent simultaneous transmissions;
listen to party-line communications as a function of the
ight phase; and,
Use clear and concise communication in an
emergency.
2.1 Human Factors;
2.2 Crew Resource Management;
2.4 Interruptions/Distractions; and,
References
ights.
crewmember may engage in, nor may any pilot-in-
command permit, any activity during a critical phase
of ight which could distract any ight crewmember
from the performance of his or her duties or which
could interfere in any way with the proper conduct of
those duties. Activities such as eating meals, engaging
in nonessential conversations within the cockpit and
nonessential communications between the cabin and
cockpit crews, and reading publications not related to the
proper conduct of the ight are not required for the safe
operation of the aircraft. For the purposes of this section,
critical phases of ight include all ground operations
involving taxi, takeoff and landing, and all other ight
operations below 10,000 feet, except cruise fight. [The
FSF AlAR Task Force says that 10,000 feet should be
high terrain.]
4. Terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS) is the
term used by the European Joint Aviation Authorities
and the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration to
describe equipment meeting International Civil Aviation
organization (ICAo) standards and recommendations for
ground-proximity warning system (gPWS) equipment that
provides predictive terrain-hazard warnings. Enhanced
gPWS and ground collision avoidance system are
other terms used to describe TAWS equipment.
5. ICAo says that the words Pan Pan at the beginning of
a communication identies urgency i.e., a condition
concerning the safety of an aircraft or of some
person on board or within sight, but which does not
require immediate assistance. ICAo says that Pan Pan
(pronounced Pahn, Pahn) should be spoken three times
at the beginning of an urgency call.
6. ICAo says that the word Mayday at the beginning of
a communication identies distress i.e., a condition
of being threatened by serious and/or imminent danger
and of requiring immediate assistance. ICAo says that
Mayday should be spoken three times at the beginning
of a distress call.
FSF Editorial Staff. Use of Standard Phraseology by Flight
Crews and Air Traffc Controllers Clarifes Aircraft Emergen-
cies. Airport Operations Volume 26 (MarchApril 2000).
FSF Editorial Staff. Studies Investigate the Role of Memory
in the Interaction Between Pilots and Air Traffc Controllers.
Airport Operations Volume 24 (JanuaryFebruary 1998).
Uplinger, Shannon. English-language Training for Air Traffc
Controllers Must go Beyond Basic ATC Vocabulary. Airport
Operations Volume 23 (Septemberoctober 1997).
FSF Editorial Staff. during Nonprecision Approach at Night,
Md-83 descends Below Minimum descent Altitude and Con-
tacts Trees, Resulting in Engine Flame-out and Touchdown
Short of Runway. Accident Prevention Volume 54 (April
1997).
Koenig, Robert l. Excess Words, Partial Readbacks Score
high in Analysis of Pilot-ATC Communication Errors. Airport
Operations Volume 23 (JanuaryFebruary 1997).
FSF Editorial Staff. Flight Crew of dC-10 Encounters Mi-
croburst during Unstabilized Approach, Ending in Runway
Accident. Accident Prevention Volume 53 (August 1996).
FSF Editorial Staff. Pilot of Cessna 441 Incorrectly Taxis
onto Active Runway and Aircraft Is Struck by Mcdonnell
douglas Md-82 on Takeoff Roll. Accident Prevention Volume
53 (March 1996).
FSF Editorial Staff. Unaware That They have Encountered a
Microburst, dC-9 Flight Crew Executes Standard go-around;
Aircraft Flies Into Terrain. Accident Prevention Volume 53
(February 1996).
Cushing, Steven. PilotAir Traffc Control Communications:
Its Not (only) What You Say, Its how You Say It. Flight
Safety Digest Volume 14 (July 1995).
gless, Richard d. Communication Creates Essential Bond to
Allow Air Traffc Control System to Function Safely. Accident
Wilson, donald R. My own Mouth Shall Condemn Me.
Accident Prevention Volume 47 (June 1990).
125.
erations. Volume I, Flight Procedures. Fourth edition 1993.
ICAo. International Standards, Recommended Practices
and Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Annex 10 to
the Convention of International Civil Aviation, Aeronautical
Telecommunications. Volume II, Communication Procedures
Including Those With PANS Status. Chapter 5, Aeronautical
Mobile Service. Fifth edition July 1995, incorporating
Amendments 174.
ICAo. Manual of Radiotelephony. Second edition 1990.
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Federal Aviation
Regulations. 121.406 Reduction of CRM/dRM programmed
hours based on credit for previous CRM/dRM training,
121.419 Pilots and fight engineers: Initial, transition, and
upgrade ground training, 121.421 Flight attendants: Initial
and transition ground training, 121.422 Aircraft dispatchers:
Initial and transition ground training. January 1, 2000.
FAA. Advisory Circular 60-22, Aeronautical Decision Making.
december 13, 1991.
FAA. Aeronautical Information Manual: Offcial Guide to
Basic Flight Information and ATC Procedures.
1.945 Conversion training and checking, 1.955 Nomination
as commander, 1.965 Recurrent training and checking.
March 1, 1998.
U.K. Civil Aviation Authority. Radiotelephony Manual.
January 2000.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
2.4 Interruptions/Distractions
Interruptions and distractions often result in omitting an ac-
tion and/or deviating from standard operating procedures
(SoPs).
Interruptions (e.g., because of an air traffc control [ATC]
communication) and distractions (e.g., because of a cabin
crewmember entering the ight deck) occur frequently; some
cannot be avoided, some can be minimized or eliminated.
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that omission of action or
a causal factor
1
2
Types of Interruptions/Distractions
Interruptions/distractions on the ight deck may be subtle or
brief, but they can be disruptive to the ight crew.
Interruptions/distractions can be classied in three categories:
Communication (e.g., receiving the fnal weights while
taxiing or a ight attendant entering the ight deck);
head-down work (e.g., reading the approach chart or
programming the fight management system [FMS]);
and,
Responding to an abnormal condition or to an unexpected
situation (e.g., system malfunction or trafc-alert and
collision avoidance system [TCAS] traffc advisory [TA]
or resolution advisory [RA]).
distractions even a minor equipment malfunction can
turn a routine ight into a challenging event.
Effect of Interruptions/Distractions
The primary effect of interruptions/distractions is to break
the fow pattern of ongoing fight deck activities (actions or
communications), such as:
SoPs;
Normal checklists;
Communications (listening, processing, responding);
Monitoring tasks (systems monitoring, pilot fying/pilot
not fying [PF/PNF] cross-checking); and,
Problem-solving activities.
An interruption/distraction can cause the ight crew to feel
rushed and to be confronted with competing tasks.
When confronted with competing tasks, the crew must select
one task to perform before another task, which can result in
poor results in one or more of the completed tasks. Thus, the
interruption/distraction can result in the crew:
Not monitoring the fight path (possibly resulting in an
altitude deviation, a course deviation or controlled ight
into terrain [CFIT]);
Not hearing or misinterpreting an ATC instruction
(possibly resulting in a traffic conflict or runway
incursion);
omitting an action and failing to detect and correct
the resulting abnormal condition or conguration (if
interrupted during a normal checklist); and,
leaving uncertainties unresolved (e.g., an ATC
instruction or an abnormal condition).
Reducing Interruptions/Distractions
Acknowledging that a ight crew may have control over some
interruptions/distractions and not over others is the rst step in
developing personal lines of defense for the crew.
Actions that are under control (e.g., SoPs, initiation of normal
checklists) should be scheduled for usual periods of minimum
disruption, to help prevent interference with actions that are
not under control (e.g., ATC or cabin crew).
Complying with the U.S. Federal Aviation Administrations
sterile cockpit rule
3
also can reduce interruptions/distrac-
tions.
Complying with the sterile cockpit rule during taxi-out and
taxi-in requires discipline because the taxi phases often provide
relief between phases of high workload and concentration.
The sterile cockpit rule has been adopted by many non-U.S.
operators and is included (although in less explicit terms) in
Joint Aviation Requirementsoperations 1.085(d)(8).
The sterile cockpit rule should be implemented with good
common sense so that communication remains open among
all aircraft crewmembers.
Nevertheless, the application of efcient crew resource man-
agement (CRM) by the fight crew or the communication of
emergency or safety-related information by cabin crew should
not be prevented by a rigid interpretation of this rule.
The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration agrees that it is better
to break the sterile cockpit rule than to fail to communicate.
Adherence to the sterile cockpit rule by cabin crew creates
two challenges:
how to identify when the rule applies; and,
how to identify occurrences that warrant breaking the
sterile cockpit rule.
Several methods of signaling to the cabin crew that a sterile
cockpit is being maintained have been evaluated (e.g., using
the all-cabin-crew call or a public-address announcement).
Whatever method is used, it should not create its own distrac-
tion to the ight crew.
The following are suggested examples of occurrences that
warrant breaking the sterile cockpit rule:
Fire, burning odor or smoke in the cabin;
Medical emergency;
Unusual noise or vibration (e.g., evidence of tail strike);
Engine fre (torching fame);
Fuel or fuid leakage;
Emergency-exit or door-unsafe condition (although this
condition is annunciated to the ight crew);
localized extreme cabin temperature changes;
Evidence of a deicing problem;
Cart-stowage problem;
Suspicious, unclaimed bag or package; and,
Any other condition deemed relevant by the senior cabin
crewmember (purser).
These examples should be adjusted for local regulations or to
suit company policy.
Cabin crewmembers may hesitate (depending on national
culture and company policy) to report technical occurrences
to the ight crew. To overcome this reluctance, implementa-
tion and interpretation of the sterile cockpit rule should be
explained during cabin crew CRM training and cited by the
captain during the crew preight brieng.
Analysis of aviation safety reports indicates that the most
frequent violations of the sterile cockpit rule are caused by
the following:
Non-fight-related conversations;
distractions by cabin crew;
Non-fight-related radio calls; and/or,
Nonessential public-address announcements.
Building Lines of Defense
A high level of interaction and communication between ight
crewmembers, and between cabin crewmembers and ight crew-
members, constitutes the rst line of defense to reduce errors.
Company policies, SoPs, CRM and leadership by the pilot-
in-command contribute to effective communication among all
aircraft crewmembers, thus enhancing their performance.
The following personal lines of defense can be developed to
minimize ight deck interruptions/distractions:
Communication:
Keep fight deck communication clear and concise;
and,
Interrupt conversations when necessary to correct
a ight parameter or to comply with an altitude
restriction;
head-down work (FMS programming or chart
review):
define task-sharing for FMS programming or
reprogramming depending on the level of automation
being used and on the fight phase (SoPs);
Plan long periods of head-down tasks for periods of
lower workload; and,
Announce that you are going head-down.
Responding to an abnormal condition or to an
unanticipated situation:
Keep the autopilot engaged to decrease workload,
unless otherwise required;
Ensure that one pilot is primarily responsible for
ying/monitoring the aircraft;
Adhere to PF/PNF task-sharing under abnormal
conditions (with particular emphasis for the PNF to
maintain situational awareness and back up the PF);
and,
give particular attention to normal checklists,
because handling an abnormal condition may disrupt
the normal fow of SoP actions (SoP actions or
normal checklists are initiated based on events
usually referred to as triggers; such events may go
unnoticed, and the absence of the trigger may be
interpreted incorrectly as action complete or checklist
complete).
Managing Interruptions/Distractions
Because some interruptions/distractions may be subtle and in-
sidious, the rst priority is to recognize and to identify them.
The second priority is to re-establish situational awareness,
as follows:
Identify:
What was I doing?
Ask:
Where was I interrupted or distracted?
decide/act:
What decision or action shall I take to get back on
track?
In the ensuing decision-making process, the following strategy
should be applied:
Prioritize:
Aviate (y);
Navigate;
Communicate; and,
Manage.
Plan:
Some actions may have to be postponed until time and
conditions permit. Requesting a delay (e.g., from ATC or
from the other crewmember) will prevent being rushed
in the accomplishment of competing actions (take time
to make time); and,
Verify:
Various SoP techniques (e.g., event triggers and normal
checklists) ensure that the action(s) that had been
postponed have been accomplished.
Finally, if the interruption or distraction disrupts a normal
checklist or abnormal checklist, an explicit hold should be an-
nounced to mark the disruption of the checklist and an explicit
command should be used to resume the checklist at the last
item checked before the disruption of the checklist.
Summary
Interruptions/distractions usually result from the following
factors:
Flight crew-ATC, fight deck or fight crew-cabin crew
communication;
head-down work; and,
Response to an abnormal condition or unexpected
situation.
Company accident-prevention strategies and personal lines
of defense should be developed to minimize interruptions/
distractions.
The most effective company accident-prevention strategies and
personal lines of defense are adherence to the following:
SoPs;
golden rules;
Sterile cockpit rule (as applicable); and,
Recovery tips, such as:
Identify ask decide act; and,
Prioritize plan verify.
1.3 Golden Rules;
1.4 Standard Calls;
2.1 Human Factors;
2.2 Crew Resource Management; and,
2.3 Pilot-Controller Communication.
References
crewmember may engage in, nor may any pilot-in-command
permit, any activity during a critical phase of ight which
could distract any ight crewmember from the performance
of his or her duties or which could interfere in any way
with the proper conduct of those duties. Activities such as
eating meals, engaging in nonessential conversations within
the cockpit and nonessential communications between
the cabin and cockpit crews, and reading publications not
related to the proper conduct of the ight are not required
for the safe operation of the aircraft. For the purposes of
this section, critical phases of ight include all ground
operations involving taxi, takeoff and landing, and all other
fight operations below 10,000 feet, except cruise fight.
[The FSF AlAR Task Force says that 10,000 feet should
be height above ground level during ight operations over
high terrain.]
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Editorial Staff. B-757 dam-
aged by ground Strike during late go-around from Visual
Approach. Accident Prevention Volume 56 (May 1999).
(JulyAugust 1994).
Sumwalt, Robert l. III. Accident and Incident Reports Show
Importance of Sterile Cockpit Compliance. Flight Safety
Digest Volume 13 (July 1994).
International Civil Aviation organization (ICAo). Preparation
of an Operations Manual. Second edition 1997.
lations. 121.406 Reduction of CRM/dRM programmed hours
based on credit for previous CRM/dRM training, 121.419
Pilots and fight engineers: Initial, transition, and upgrade
ground training, 121.421 Flight attendants: Initial and tran-
sition ground training, 121.422 Aircraft dispatchers: Initial
and transition ground training, 121.542 Flight crewmember
duties. January 1, 2000.
1.085 Crew responsibilities, 1.945 Conversion training and
checking, 1.955 Nomination as commander, 1.965 Recur-
rent training and checking. March 1, 1998.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
3.1 Barometric Altimeter and Radio Altimeter
Flight crews on international routes encounter different units of
measurement for setting barometric altimeters, thus requiring
altimeter cross-check procedures.
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that lack of positional
awareness was a causal factor
1
in 51 percent of 76 approach-
and-landing accidents and serious incidents worldwide in 1984
through 1997.
2
The task force said that these accidents and
incidents generally involved lack of vertical-position awareness
and resulted in controlled fight into terrain (CFIT).
QNH or QFE?
QNh (altimeter setting that causes the altimeter to indicate
height above mean sea level [i.e., eld elevation at touchdown
on the runway]) has the advantage of eliminating the need
to change the altimeter setting during operations below the
transition altitude/fight level (Fl).
QNh also eliminates the need to change the altimeter setting
during a missed approach, whereas such a change usually
would be required when QFE (altimeter setting that causes the
altimeter to indicate height above the QFE reference datum
[i.e., zero at touchdown on the runway]) is used.
Some operators set the altimeter to QFE in areas where air
traffc control (ATC) uses QNh and the majority of operators
use QNh. Standard operating procedures (SoPs) can prevent
altimeter-setting errors.
Units of Measurement
The most common units of measurement for setting altimeters
are:
hectopascals (hPa) [previously referred to as millibars
(mb)]; and,
Inches of mercury (in. hg).
When in. hg is used for the altimeter setting, unusual baromet-
ric pressures, such as a 28.XX in. hg (low pressure) or a 30.XX
in. hg (high pressure), may go undetected when listening to
the automatic terminal information service (ATIS) or ATC,
resulting in a more usual 29.XX altimeter setting being set.
Figure 1 and Figure 2 show that a 1.00 in. hg discrepancy
in the altimeter setting results in a 1,000-foot error in the
indicated altitude.
In Figure 1, QNh is an unusually low 28.XX in. hg, but the
altimeter was set mistakenly to a more usual 29.XX in. hg,
resulting in the true altitude (i.e., the aircrafts actual height
above mean sea level) being 1,000 feet lower than indicated.
In Figure 2, QNh is an unusually high 30.XX in. hg, but the al-
timeter was set mistakenly to a more usual 29.XX in. hg, resulting
in the true altitude being 1,000 feet higher than indicated.
Confusion about units of measurement (i.e., hPa vs. in. hg)
leads to similar errors.
In Figure 3, a QNh of 991 hPa was set mistakenly on the al-
timeter as 29.91 in. hg (equivalent to 1012 hPa), resulting in
the true altitude being 640 feet lower than indicated.
Setting the Altimeter
To help prevent errors associated with different units of mea-
surement or with unusual values (low or high), the following
SoPs should be used when broadcasting (ATIS or controllers)
or reading back (pilots) an altimeter setting:
All digits, as well as the unit of measurement (e.g., inches
or hectopascals), should be announced.
A transmission such as altimeter setting six seven can
be interpreted as 28.67 in. hg, 29.67 in. hg, 30.67 in.
hg or 967 hPa.
Stating the complete altimeter setting prevents confusion
and allows detection and correction of a previous
error.
When using in. hg, low should precede an altimeter
6 0 FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION FLIGHT SAFETY DIGEST AUGUSTNOVEMBER 2000
In Figure 2, QNH is an unusually high 30.XX in. Hg, but the
altimeter was set mistakenly to a more usual 29.XX in. Hg,
resulting in the true altitude being 1,000 feet higher than
indicated.
Confusion about units of measurement (i.e., hPa vs. in. Hg)
leads to similar errors.
In Figure 3 (page 61), a QNH of 991 hPa was set mistakenly
on the altimeter as 29.91 in. Hg (equivalent to 1012 hPa),
resulting in the true altitude being 640 feet lower than
indicated.
Setting the Altimeter
To help prevent errors associated with different units of
measurement or with unusual values (low or high), the
following SOPs should be used when broadcasting (ATIS or
controllers) or reading back (pilots) an altimeter setting:
All digits, as well as the unit of measurement (e.g., inches
or hectopascals), should be announced.
A transmission such as altimeter setting six seven can
be interpreted as 28.67 in. Hg, 29.67 in. Hg, 30.67 in.
Hg or 967 hPa.
Effect of a One-inch-high Altimeter Setting
Sea Level
Indicated Altitude
4,000 Feet
Field Elevation
2,000 Feet
Actual
Height
1,000 AFL
Altimeter Setting: 29.XX Inches Hg
QNH: 28.XX Inches Hg
Actual Altitude
3,000 Feet MSL
Altimeter Error
1,000 Feet
AFL = Above field level MSL = Mean sea level Hg = Mercury
QNH = Altimeter setting that causes altimeter to indicate height above mean sea level (thus, field elevation at touchdown)
Figure 1
Effect of a One-inch-low Altimeter Setting
AFL = Above field level MSL = Mean sea level Hg = Mercury
Figure 2
Sea Level
Indicated Altitude
4,000 Feet
Field Elevation
2,000 Feet
Actual Height
3,000 AFL
Altimeter Setting: 29.XX Inches Hg
QNH: 30.XX Inches Hg
Actual Altitude
5,000 Feet MSL
Altimeter Error
1,000 Feet
setting of 28.XX in. hg and high should precede an
altimeter setting of 30.XX in. hg.
high workload;
A deviation from defned task-sharing;
An interruption/distraction;
Inadequate cross-checking by fight crewmembers; or,
Confusion about units of measurement.
Adherence to the dened task-sharing (for normal conditions
or abnormal conditions) and normal checklists are effective
defenses to help prevent altimeter-setting errors.
Metric Altimeter
Metric altitudes in certain countries (e.g., Russia and China)
also require SoPs for the use of metric altimeters (or conver-
sion tables).
Crossing the Transition Altitude/Flight
Level
The transition altitude/ight level can be either:
Fixed for the whole country (e.g., Fl 180 in the United
States);
Fixed for a given airport (as indicated on the approach
chart); or,
Variable, depending on QNh (as indicated in the ATIS
broadcast).
depending on the airlines/fight crews usual area of operation,
changing from a xed transition altitude/ight level to vari-
able transition altitudes/ight levels may result in a premature
resetting or a late resetting of the altimeter.
An altitude constraint (expressed in altitude or ight level)
also may delay or advance the setting of the standard altim-
eter setting (1013.2 hPa or 29.92 in. hg), possibly resulting
in crew confusion.
Altimeter References
The barometric-altimeter reference (bug) and the radio-
altimeter decision height (RA dh) bug must be set according
to the aircraft manufacturers SoPs or the companys SoPs.
Table 1 shows some examples.
For all approaches, except Category (CAT) I instrument landing
system (IlS) approaches with RA dh, CAT II IlS approaches
and CAT III IlS approaches, the standard call minimum will
be based on the barometric-altimeter bug set at the minimum
descent altitude/height [MdA(h)] or decision altitude/height
[dA(h)].
Radio-altimeter standard calls can be either:
Stating the complete altimeter setting prevents confusion
and allows detection and correction of a previous error.
When using in. Hg, low should precede an altimeter
setting of 28.XX in. Hg and high should precede an
altimeter setting of 30.XX in. Hg.
High workload;
A deviation from defined task-sharing;
An interruption/distraction;
Inadequate cross-checking by flight crewmembers; or,
Confusion about units of measurement.
Adherence to the defined task-sharing (for normal conditions
or abnormal conditions) and normal checklists are effective
defenses to help prevent altimeter-setting errors.
Metric Altimeter
Metric altitudes in certain countries (e.g., the Commonwealth of
Independent States and the Peoples Republic of China) also
require SOPs for the use of metric altimeters (or conversion tables).
Crossing the Transition Altitude/Flight Level
The transition altitude/flight level can be either:
Fixed for the whole country (e.g., FL 180 in the United
States);
chart); or,
Variable, depending on QNH (as indicated in the ATIS
broadcast).
Depending on the airlines/flight crews usual area of operation,
changing from a fixed transition altitude/flight level to variable
transition altitudes/flight levels may result in a premature
An altitude constraint (expressed in altitude or flight level) also
may delay or advance the setting of the standard altimeter setting
(1013.2 hPa or 29.92 in. Hg), possibly resulting in crew confusion.
Altimeter References
The barometric-altimeter reference (bug) and the radio-
altimeter decision height (RA DH) bug must be set according
to the aircraft manufacturers SOPs or the companys SOPs.
Table 1 (page 62) shows some examples.
For all approaches, except Category (CAT) I instrument landing
system (ILS) approaches with RA DH, CAT II ILS approaches
and CAT III ILS approaches, the standard call minimum
will be based on the barometric-altimeter bug set at the
minimum descent altitude/height [MDA(H)] or decision
altitude/height [DA(H)].
Radio-altimeter standard calls can be either:
Announced by the PNF (or the flight engineer); or,
Generated automatically by a synthesized voice.
Effect of an Altimeter Mis-set to Inches, Rather than Hectopascals
Sea Level
Indicated Altitude
4,000 Feet
Field Elevation
2,000 Feet
Actual
Height
1,360 AFL
Altimeter Setting: 29.91 Inches Hg (1012 hPa)
QNH: 991 hPa
Actual Altitude
3,360 Feet MSL
Altimeter Error
640 Feet
AFL = Above field level MSL = Mean sea level Hg = Mercury hPa = Hectopascals
Figure 3
Announced by the PNF (or the fight engineer); or,
generated automatically by a synthesized voice.
Standard calls are tailored to the company SoPs and to the
type of approach.
To enhance the ight crews awareness of terrain, the standard
call radio altimeter alive should be announced by the frst
crewmember observing radio-altimeter activation at 2,500 feet
above ground level (Agl).
The radio altimeter then should be included in the instrument
scan for the remainder of the approach.
The radio altimeter indicates the aircrafts height above the
ground, not the aircrafts height above airport elevation. The ra-
dar altimeter does not indicate height above trees or towers.
Nevertheless, unless the airport has high close-in terrain, the
radio-altimeter indication should reasonably agree with the
height above airport elevation (obtained by direct reading of
the altimeter if using QFE or by computation if using QNh).
Radio-altimeter indications below the following obstacle-
clearance values, should be cause for alarm:
Initial approach, 1,000 feet;
Intermediate approach (or minimum radar vectoring
altitude), 500 feet; and,
Final approach (nonprecision approach), 250 feet.
Low Outside Air Temperature (OAT)
In a standard atmosphere, the indicated QNh altitude is
the true altitude.
Whenever the temperature deviates signicantly from the
standard temperature, the indicated altitude deviates from the
true altitude, as follows:
At extremely high temperatures, the true altitude is
higher than the indicated altitude; and,
At extremely low temperatures, the true altitude is lower
than the indicated altitude, resulting in reduced terrain
clearance.
Flying into an area of low temperatures has the same effect
as ying into a low-pressure area; the aircraft is lower than
the altimeter indicates.
The International Civil Aviation organization (ICAo) pub-
lishes altitude corrections (based on the airport surface
temperature and the height above the elevation of the altimeter-
setting source) to be made to the published minimum safe
altitudes.
3
For example, Figure 4 shows that when conducting an IlS ap-
proach with a published minimum glideslope intercept altitude
of 2,000 feet and an oAT of -40 degrees Celsius (-40 degrees
Fahrenheit), the minimum glideslope intercept altitude should
be increased by 440 feet.
The pilot is responsible for conducting this correction, except
when under radar control in a radar-vectoring area (because
the controller is responsible normally for terrain clearance,
including accounting for the cold temperature correction).
Nevertheless, the pilot should conrm this responsibility with
the air trafc services of the country of operation.
Flight crews must apply the ICAo corrections for low tem-
peratures to the following published altitudes:
94 FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION FLIGHT SAFETY DIGEST AUGUSTNOVEMBER 2000
Conduct task-sharing for effective cross-check and
backup, particularly mode selections and target entries
(e.g., airspeed, heading, altitude); and,
Adhere to the basic golden rule: aviate (fly), navigate,
communicate and manage, in that order.
Navigate can be defined by the following know where
statements:
Know where you are;
Terrain-awareness elements of effective cross-check and
backup include:
Assertive challenging;
Altitude calls;
Excessive parameter-deviation calls; and,
Task-sharing and standard calls for the acquisition of
visual references.
Terrain awareness can be improved by correct use of the radio
altimeter. The barometric-altimeter bug and the radio-
Altimeter-setting Errors
The following will minimize the potential for altimeter-setting
errors and provide for optimum use of the barometric-altimeter
bug and RA DH bug:
Awareness of altimeter-setting changes because of
prevailing weather conditions (temperature-extreme
cold front or warm front, steep frontal surfaces, semi-
permanent or seasonal low-pressure areas);
Awareness of the altimeter-setting unit of measurement
in use at the destination airport;
Awareness of the expected altimeter setting (using both
routine aviation weather reports [METARs] and
automatic terminal information system [ATIS] for cross-
checking);
Effective pilot flying-pilot not flying (PF-PNF) cross-
check and backup;
Adherence to SOPs for:
Resetting altimeters at the transition altitude/flight
level;
Use of the standby altimeter to cross-check the
primary altimeters;
Altitude calls;
Radio-altimeter calls; and,
Setting the barometric-altimeter bug and RA DH bug;
and,
Cross-check that the assigned altitude is above the MSA
(unless the crew is aware of the applicable minimum
vectoring altitude for the sector).
Table 1 shows examples of SOPs for setting the barometric-
altimeter bug and the RA DH bug.
Table 1
Barometric-altimeter and
Radio-altimeter Reference Settings
Barometric Radio
Approach Altimeter Altimeter
Visual MDA(H)/DA(H) of 200 feet*
instrument approach
or
200 feet above
airport elevation
Nonprecision MDA/(H) 200 feet*
ILS CAT I DA(H) 200 feet*
no RA
ILS CAT I DA(H) RA DH
with RA
ILS CAT II DA(H) RA DH
ILS CAT III DA(H) RA DH
with DH
ILS CAT III TDZE Alert height
with no DH
MDA(H) = Minimum descent altitude/height
DA(H) = Decision altitude/height
ILS = Instrument landing system
CAT = Category
RA DH = Radio altimeter decision height
TDZE = Touchdown zone elevation
* The RA DH should be set (e.g., at 200 feet) for terrain-awareness
purposes. The use of the radio altimeter should be discussed
during the approach briefing.
Note: For all approaches, except CAT II and CAT III ILS
approaches, the approach minimum call will be based on the
barometric-altimeter bug set at MDA(H) or DA(H).
Use of Radio Altimeter
Radio-altimeter calls can be either:
The calls should be tailored to the company operating policy
and to the type of approach.
Minimum en route altitude (MEA) and minimum safe
altitude (MSA);
Transition route altitude;
Procedure turn altitude (as applicable);
Final approach fx (FAF) altitude;
Step-down altitude(s) and MdA(h) during a nonprecision
approach;
outer marker (oM) crossing altitude during an IlS
approach; and,
Waypoint crossing altitudes during a global positioning
system (gPS) approach fown with barometric vertical
navigation.
ICAo does not provide altitude corrections for extremely high
temperatures; however, the temperature effect on true altitude
must not be ignored when planning for a constant-angle non-
precision approach (CANPA) (i.e., to maintain the required
ight path/vertical speed).
Summary
Altimeter-setting errors result in insufcient vertical-position
awareness. The following minimize the potential for altimeter-
setting errors and foster optimum use of the barometric-
altimeter bug and RA dh bug:
Awareness of altimeter-setting changes demanded by
prevailing weather conditions (extreme cold fronts,
extreme warm fronts, steep frontal surfaces, semi-
permanent low pressure areas or seasonal low pressure
areas);
Awareness of the unit of measurement for setting the
altimeter at the destination airport;
Awareness of the anticipated altimeter setting (based on
aviation routine weather reports [METARs] and ATIS
broadcasts);
PF-PNF cross-checking; and,
Adherence to SoPs for:
Resetting altimeters at the transition altitude/ight
level;
Using the standby altimeter to cross-check the
primary altimeters;
Altitude calls;
Setting the barometric-altimeter bug and RA dh
bug.
Waypoint crossing altitudes during a global positioning
system (GPS) approach flown with barometric vertical
navigation.
ICAO does not provide altitude corrections for extremely high
temperatures; however, the temperature effect on true altitude
must not be ignored when planning for a constant-angle
nonprecision approach (CANPA) (i.e., to maintain the required
flight path/vertical speed).
Summary
Altimeter-setting errors result in insufficient vertical-position
awareness. The following minimize the potential for altimeter-
setting errors and foster optimum use of the barometric-
altimeter bug and RA DH bug:
Awareness of altimeter-setting changes demanded by
prevailing weather conditions (extreme cold fronts, extreme
warm fronts, steep frontal surfaces, semi-permanent
low pressure areas or seasonal low pressure areas);
Awareness of the unit of measurement for setting the
altimeter at the destination airport;
Awareness of the anticipated altimeter setting (based on
aviation routine weather reports [METARs] and ATIS
broadcasts);
PF-PNF cross-checking; and,
Resetting altimeters at the transition altitude/flight level;
Using the standby altimeter to cross-check the
primary altimeters;
Altitude calls;
Setting the barometric-altimeter bug and RA DH bug.
The following FSF ALAR Briefing Notes provide information
3.2 Altitude Deviations.
References
Accident Reduction (ALAR) Task Force defines causal
factor as an event or item judged to be directly
instrumental in the causal chain of events leading to the
accident [or incident]. Each accident and incident in the
study sample involved several causal factors.
Controlled-flight-into-terrain Accidents. Flight Safety
Digest Volume 17 (NovemberDecember 1998) and
presented by the FSF ALAR Task Force were based on
Effects of Temperature on True Altitude
OAT = Outside air temperature
Figure 4
Given Atmospheric Pressure
(Pressure Altitude)
True Altitude
Low OAT High OAT
Indicated
Altitude
2,000 Feet
3,000 Feet
2,000 Feet
1,000 Feet
Standard OAT
1,560 Feet
440 Feet
3.2 Altitude Deviations.
References
ights.
3. International Civil Aviation organization. Procedures
for Air Navigation Services. Aircraft Operations. Volume
I, Flight Procedures. Part III, Approach Procedures.
Fourth edition - 1993. Reprinted May 2000, incorporating
Amendments 110.
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Editorial Staff. Boeing 737
Pilot Flying Selects Incorrect Altitude in holding Pattern,
Causes dangerous loss of Separation with Md-81. Accident
Md-83 descends Below Minimum descent Altitude and Contacts
Trees, Resulting in Engine Flame-out and Touchdown Short of
Runway. Accident Prevention Volume 54 (April 1997).
1995).
lawton, Russell. dC-10 destroyed, No Fatalities, After Air-
craft Veers off Runway during landing. Accident Prevention
tional Standards and Recommended Practices, Annex 3 to the
Convention of International Civil Aviation, Meteorological
Service for International Air Navigation. Chapter 4, Meteo-
rological observations and Reports. Thirteenth edition July
1998.
ICAo. International Standards, Annex 5 to the Convention
of International Civil Aviation, Units of Measurement to be
Used in Air and Ground Operations. Chapter 3, Standard
Application of Units of Measurement, Table 3-4, Standard
application of specic units of measurement. Fourth edition
July 1979.
ICAo. International Standards and Recommended Practices,
Annex 6 to the Convention of International Civil Aviation,
Operation of Aircraft. Part I, International Commercial Air
Transport - Aeroplanes. Chapter 6, Aeroplane Instruments,
Equipment and Flight documents, 6.9.1. Appendix 2, Con-
tents of an operations Manual, 5.13. Seventh edition July
1998, incorporating Amendments 125.
tion 1997.
ICAo. Manual of Radiotelephony. Second edition 1990.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
3.2 Altitude Deviations
Altitude deviations may result in substantial loss of aircraft
vertical separation or horizontal separation, which could cause
a midair collision.
Maneuvers to avoid other aircraft often result in injuries to
passengers, ight crewmembers and, particularly, to cabin
crewmembers.
Statistical Data
An analysis by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
and by USAir (now US Airways) of altitude-deviation events
1

showed that:
Approximately 70 percent of altitude deviations were the
result of a breakdown in pilot-controller communication;
and,
Nearly 40 percent of altitude deviations resulted when air
traffc control (ATC) assigned 10,000 feet and the fight
crew set 11,000 feet in the selected-altitude window, or
when ATC assigned 11,000 feet and the fight crew set
10,000 feet in the selected-altitude window.
Dening Altitude Deviations
An altitude deviation is a deviation from the assigned altitude
(or fight level) equal to or greater than 300 feet.
Causes of Altitude Deviations
Altitude deviations are usually the result of a breakdown in
either:
The pilot-system interface:
Altimeter setting, use of autopilot, monitoring of
instruments and displays; or,
The pilot-controller interface:
Communication loop (i.e., the confrmation/correction
process).
Altitude deviations occur usually as the result of one or more
of the following conditions:
The controller assigns an incorrect altitude or reassigns
a fight level after the pilot was cleared to an altitude;
Pilot-controller communication breakdown mainly
readback/hearback errors such as the following:
Controller transmits an incorrect altitude, the pilot
does not read back the altitude and the controller does
not challenge the absence of a readback;
Pilot reads back an incorrect altitude, but the controller
does not hear the erroneous readback and does not
correct the pilots readback; or,
Pilot accepts an altitude clearance intended for
another aircraft (confusion of call signs);
Pilot receives, understands and reads back the correct
altitude or ight level but selects an incorrect altitude
or ight level because of:
Confusion of numbers with another element of the
message (e.g., airspeed, heading or ight number);
Expectation of another altitude/ight level;
Interruption/distraction; or,
Breakdown in crew cross-checking;
Autopilot fails to capture the selected altitude;
The crew does not respond to altitude-alert aural
warnings and visual warnings when hand-ying; or,
The crew conducts an incorrect go-around procedure.
Altitude-awareness Program
The development and implementation of altitude-awareness
programs by several airlines have reduced signicantly the
number of altitude deviations.
To help prevent the primary causes of altitude deviations, an
altitude-awareness program should include the following:
General
An altitude-awareness program should enhance the monitoring
roles of the pilot ying (PF) and the pilot not ying (PNF) by
emphasizing the importance of:
Announcing intentions and actions, particularly when
they are different from expectations (e.g., delayed
climb or descent, management of altitude or airspeed
restrictions); and,
Cross-checking.
Communication
The FAA-USAir study showed that approximately 70 percent
of altitude deviations are the result of a breakdown in the pilot-
controller communication loop caused by:
Readback/hearback errors (this risk is greater when one
pilot does not monitor radio communications because of
other duties such as listening to the automatic terminal
information service [ATIS], complying with company-
communication requirements or making public-address
announcements);
Blocked transmissions; or,
Confusion of call signs.
The following recommendations improve communication and
situational awareness:
Be aware that readback/hearback errors involve both the
pilot and the controller:
The pilot may be interrupted or distracted when
listening to a clearance, be subject to forgetfulness or
be subject to the bias of expectation when listening to
or when reading back the instruction (this bias is also
termed wish-hearing) or may be confused by similar
call signs; and,
The controller may confuse similar call signs, be
distracted by other radio communications or by
telephone communications, or be affected by blocked
transmissions or by workload;
Use standard phraseology for clear and unambiguous pilot-
controller communication and crew communication.
Standard phraseology is a common language for pilots
and controllers, and this common language increases
the likelihood of detecting and correcting errors;
Use expanded phraseology, such as:
Announcing when leaving an altitude (e.g., leaving
[] for [], or, leaving [] and climbing to
[]), thus increasing the controllers situational
awareness;
The announcement leaving [altitude or fight level]
should be made only when a vertical speed of 500
feet per minute (fpm) has been established and
the altimeter conrms departure from the previous
altitude;
Combining different expressions of specifc altitudes
(one one thousand feet that is, eleven thousand
feet); and,
Preceding each number by the corresponding ight
parameter (flight level, heading, airspeed [e.g.,
descend to fight level two four zero instead of
descend to two four zero]); and,
When in doubt about a clearance, request confrmation
from the controller; do not guess about the clearance
based on crew discussion.
Task-prioritization and Task-sharing
The following recommendations enable optimum prioritization
of tasks and task-sharing:
Reduce nonessential tasks during climb and descent
(in addition to the critical phases of fight defned in
the sterile cockpit rule,
2
some operators consider the
fnal 1,000 feet before reaching the assigned altitude as
a sterile-cockpit period);
Monitor/supervise the operation of the autopilot
to confirm correct level-off at the cleared altitude
and for compliance with altitude restrictions or time
restrictions;
Pl an t asks t hat precl ude l i st eni ng t o ATC
communications (e.g., ATIS, company calls, public-
address announcements) for periods of infrequent ATC
communication; and,
When one pilot does not monitor the ATC frequency
while doing other duties (e.g., company calls) or when
leaving the ight deck, the other pilot should:
Acknowledge receiving responsibility for ATC radio
communication and aircraft control, as applicable;
Check that the radio volume is adequate to hear an
ATC call;
give increased attention to listening/confrming/
reading back (because of the absence of cross-
checking); and,
Brief the other pilot when he/she completes other
duties or returns to the ight deck, and communicate
relevant new information and any change in ATC
clearances or instructions.
Altitude-setting Procedures
The following techniques enhance standard operating proce-
dures (SoPs):
When receiving an altitude clearance, set immediately
the assigned/cleared altitude in the altitude window;
Ensure that the selected altitude is cross-checked by
both pilots (e.g., each pilot should announce what he/she
heard and then point to the altitude window to conrm
that the correct altitude has been set);
Ensure that the assigned altitude is above the minimum
safe altitude (MSA); and,
Positively confrm the altitude clearance, when receiving
radar vectors.
Standard Calls
Use the following calls to increase PF/PNF situational aware-
ness and to ensure effective backup and challenge (and to detect
a previous error in the assigned altitude/ight level):
Mode changes on the fight mode annunciator (FMA)
and changes of targets (e.g., airspeed, heading, altitude)
on the primary fight display (PFd) and navigation
display (Nd);
leaving [...] for [] when a 500 fpm (minimum)
vertical speed has been established; and,
one to go, one thousand to go or [] for []
when within 1,000 feet of the assigned/cleared altitude/
ight level.
When within 1,000 feet of the assigned altitude/fight level
or an altitude restriction in visual meteorological conditions
(VMC), one pilot should concentrate on scanning instruments
(one head down) and one pilot should concentrate on trafc
watch (one head up).
Flight Level Confusion
Confusion between 10,000 feet and 11,000 feet (Fl 100 and
Fl 110) is usually the result of the combination of two or more
Readback/hearback error because of similar-sounding
phrases;
lack of standard phraseology:
International Civil Aviation organization (ICAo):
flight level one zero zero/flight level one one
zero;
U.K. National Air Traffc Services (NATS): fight
level one hundred/ight level one one zero;
Mindset tending to focus only on one zero and thus
to more easily understand 10,000 feet;
Failing to question the unusual (e.g., bias of expectation
on a familiar standard terminal arrival [STAR]); and/
or,
Interpreting subconsciously a request to slow to 250
knots as a clearance to descend to Fl 100 (or 10,000
feet).
Transition Altitude/Flight Level
The transition altitude/ight level can be either:
Fixed for the whole country (e.g., Fl 180 in the United
States);
chart); or,
Variable as a function of QNh (an altimeter setting that
causes the altimeter to indicate height above mean sea
level [i.e., feld elevation at touchdown on the runway])
as indicated in the ATIS broadcast.
depending on the airlines/fight crews usual area of operation,
changing from a xed transition altitude/ight level to vari-
able transition altitudes/ight levels may result in a premature
An altitude restriction (expressed in altitude or ight level)
also may delay or advance the setting of the standard altim-
eter setting (1013.2 hPa or 29.92 in. hg), possibly resulting
in crew confusion.
In countries operating with QFE (altimeter setting that causes
the altimeter to indicate height above the QFE reference datum
[i.e., zero at touchdown on the runway]), the readback should
indicate the altimeter reference (i.e., QFE).
Altitude Deviations in Holding Patterns
Controllers assume that the pilot will adhere to a clearance
that the pilot has read back correctly.
Two separate holding patterns may be under the control of the
same controller, on the same frequency.
With aircraft in holding patterns, controllers particularly rely
on pilots because the overlay of aircraft data tags on the con-
trollers radar display may not allow the immediate detection
of an impending trafc conict.
Secondary surveillance radars provide conict alert but not
resolution advisory; thus, accurate pilot-controller communica-
tion is essential when descending in a holding pattern.
The following pilot actions are important when in a holding
pattern:
do not take a communication intended for another
aircraft (by confusion of similar call signs);
Prevent/minimize the risk of blocked transmission (e.g.,
simultaneous readback by two aircraft with similar call
signs or simultaneous transmissions by the pilot and the
controller); and,
Announce leaving [altitude or fight level] only when
a vertical speed of 500 fpm has been established and
the altimeter conrms departure from the previous
altitude.
TCAS (ACAS)
The trafc-alert and collision avoidance system (airborne col-
lision avoidance system) is an effective tool to help prevent
midair collisions, which can result from altitude deviations.
Summary
Altitude deviations can be prevented by adhering to SoPs
to:
Set the altimeter reference; and,
Select the assigned altitude/fight level.
To be effective, a company altitude-awareness program should
be emphasized during transition training, recurrent training
and line checks.
Blame-free reporting of altitude-deviation events should be
encouraged to broaden the companys knowledge and the
industrys knowledge of the causal factors of altitude devia-
tions.
The following should be promoted:
Adhere to the pilot-controller confrmation/correction
process (communication loop);
Practice fight crew cross-checking to ensure that the
selected altitude is the assigned altitude;
(unless the ight crew is aware that the assigned altitude
is above the minimum vectoring altitude);
Monitor instruments and automation when reaching the
assigned altitude/ight level; and,
In VMC, apply the practice of one head down and one
head up when reaching the assigned altitude/flight
level.
1.3 Golden Rules;
1.4 Standard Calls;
3.1 Barometric Altimeter and Radio Altimeter.
References
1. Pope, John A. Research Identifies Common Errors
Behind Altitude deviations. Flight Safety Digest Volume
12 (June 1993): 113.
high terrain.]
Sumwalt, Robert l. III. Enhancing Flight-crew Monitoring
Skills Can Increase Flight Safety. Flight Safety Digest Volume
18 (March 1999).
Flight Safety Foundation. Killers in Aviation: FSF Task
Controlled-fight-into-terrain Accidents. Flight Safety Di-
gest Volume 17 (Novemberdecember 1998) and Volume 18
(JanuaryFebruary 1999): 1121. The facts presented by the
FSF AlAR Task Force were based on analyses of 287 fatal
approach-and-landing accidents (AlAs) that occurred in 1980
through 1996 involving turbine aircraft weighing more than
12,500 pounds/5,700 kilograms, detailed studies of 76 AlAs
and serious incidents in 1984 through 1997 and audits of about
3,300 fights.
FSF Editorial Staff. Boeing 737 Pilot Flying Selects Incor-
rect Altitude in holding Pattern, Causes dangerous loss of
Separation with Md-81. Accident Prevention Volume 55
(April 1998).
1997).
1995).
Sumwalt, Robert l. III. Altitude Awareness Programs Can
Reduce Altitude deviations. Flight Safety Digest Volume 14
(december 1995).
Enders, John h. Study Urges Application of Flight opera-
tional Quality Assurance Methods in U.S. Air Carrier opera-
tions. Flight Safety Digest Volume 12 (April 1993).
International Civil Aviation organization (ICAo). Internation-
al Standards and Recommended Practices, Annex 6 to the Con-
Chapter 4, Flight operations, Chapter 6, Aeroplane, Instru-
ments, Equipment and Flight documents, 6.9.1. Appendix
2, Contents of an operations Manual, 5.13, 5.15. Seventh
Operation of Aircraft. Part II, International General Avia-
tion Aeroplanes. Chapter 6, Aeroplane Instruments and
Equipment, 6.6. Sixth edition July 1998, incorporating
Amendments 120.
Operation of Aircraft. Part III, International Operations
Helicopters. Section III, International general Aviation,
Chapter 4, helicopter instruments, equipment and fight
documents, 4.6. Fourth edition July 1998, incorporating
Amendments 17.
lations. 91.119, Minimum safe altitudes: general, 91.121
Altimeter settings, 91.129 operations in Class d airspace,
91.221 Traffc alert and collision avoidance system equip-
ment and use, 121.356 Traffc Alert and Collision Avoidance
System. January 1, 2000.
U.K. Civil Aviation Authority. Radiotelephony Manual. Chap-
ter 3, general Phraseology. January 2000.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
4.1 Descent-and-approach
Prole Management
Incorrect management of the descent-and-approach prole
and/or aircraft energy condition may result in:
A loss of situational awareness; and/or,
An unstabilized approach.
Either situation increases the risk of approach-and-landing
accidents, including those involving controlled ight into
terrain (CFIT).
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that unstabilized ap-
proaches (i.e., approaches conducted either low/slow or high/
fast) were a causal factor
1
in 66 percent of 76 approach-and-
through 1997.
2
The task force said that factors associated with being low/slow
on approach include:
Inadequate awareness of automation/systems status;
lack of vigilance and crew coordination, including
omission of standard airspeed-and-altitude calls; and,
high workload and confusion during execution of
nonprecision approaches.
The task force said that factors associated with being high/fast
on approach include:
overconfidence, lack of vigilance and press-on-
itis
3
;
lack of crew coordination; and,
Accepting demanding air traffic control (ATC)
clearances, leading to high-workload conditions.
Descent Preparation and Approach
Brieng
To help prevent delaying initiation of the descent and to ensure
optimum management of the descent-and-approach prole, the
following procedures are recommended:
descent preparation and the approach briefng should
be completed typically 10 minutes before the top-of-
descent point (or when within very-high-frequency
[VhF] communication range if automatic terminal
information system [ATIS] information cannot be
obtained 10 minutes before the top-of-descent point);
If a standard terminal arrival (STAR) is included in the
fight management system (FMS) fight plan but is not
expected to be own because of radar vectors, the STAR
should be checked (track, distance, altitude and airspeed
restrictions) against the expected routing to adjust the
top-of-descent point;
If descent initiation is delayed by ATC, airspeed should
be reduced (as appropriate to the aircraft model) to
minimize the effect of the delay on the descent prole;
Wind-forecast data should be programmed on the
appropriate FMS page at waypoints near the top-of-
descent point and along the descent-prole path;
If a missed approach procedure is included in the FMS
fight plan, the FMS missed approach procedure should
be checked against the approach chart; and,
If FMS navigation accuracy does not meet the applicable
criteria for descent, terminal area navigation or approach,
no descent should be made below the minimum en route
altitude (MEA) or minimum safe altitude (MSA) without
prior conrmation of the aircraft position using raw
data.
4
Achieving Flight Parameters
The fight crew must stay ahead of the aircraft throughout
the ight. This includes achieving desired ight parameters
(e.g., aircraft conguration, aircraft position, energy condition,
track, vertical speed, altitude, airspeed and attitude) during the
descent, approach and landing. Any indication that a desired
ight parameter will not be achieved should prompt immediate
corrective action or the decision to go around.
At the fnal approach fx (FAF) or the outer marker (oM), the
crew should decide whether to proceed with the approach,
based on the following factors:
Ceiling and visibility are better than or equal to applicable
minimums;
Aircraft is ready (position, altitude, confguration, energy
condition); and,
Crew is ready (briefng completed, agreement on the
approach).
If the required aircraft conguration and airspeed are not
attained, or if the ight path is not stabilized when reaching
the minimum stabilization height (1,000 feet above airport
elevation in instrument meteorological conditions or 500 feet
above airport elevation in visual meteorological conditions),
a go-around should be initiated immediately.
The pilot not ying (PNF) should announce any ight pa-
rameter that exceeds the criteria for any of the elements of a
stabilized approach (Table 1).
Descent Prole Monitoring
The descent prole should be monitored, using all available
instruments and chart references, including:
FMS vertical-deviation indication, as applicable;
Raw data; and,
Charted descent-and-approach profle.
Wind conditions and wind changes should be monitored
closely to anticipate any decrease in head wind component
or increase in tail wind component, and the ight path prole
should be adjusted appropriately.
The descent also may be monitored and adjusted based on a
typical 3,000 feet per 10 nautical mile (nm) descent gradient
(corrected for the prevailing head wind component or tail wind
component), while adhering to the required altitude/airspeed
restrictions (deceleration management).
Below 10,000 feet, fying at 250 knots, the following recom-
mendations may be used to conrm the descent prole and
to ensure a smooth transition between the various approach
phases:
Table 1
REF
+ 20 knots
REF
;
ducted;
go-around.
9,000 feet above airport elevation at 30 nm from
touchdown; and,
3,000 feet above airport elevation at 15 nm from
touchdown (to allow for deceleration and slats/aps
extension).
Descent Prole Adjustment/Recovery
If the ight path is signicantly above the desired descent
profle (e.g., because of ATC restrictions or a greater-than-
anticipated tail wind), the desired ight path can be recovered
by:
Reverting from FMS vertical navigation (VNAV) to a
selected vertical mode, with an appropriate airspeed
target (e.g., airspeed, heading, altitude) or vertical-speed
target;
Maintaining a high airspeed (and a steep angle of
descent) as long as practical;
Using speed brakes (as allowed by applicable SoPs,
depending on airspeed and conguration, keeping one
hand on the speed-brake handle until the speed brakes
are retracted);
Extending the landing gear, as allowed by airspeed and
conguration, if speed brakes are not sufcient; or,
As a last resort, conducting a 360-degree turn (as
practical, and with ATC clearance). Maintain instrument
references throughout the turn to monitor and control
the rate of descent, bank angle and aircraft position;
this will help avoid loss of aircraft control or CFIT, and
prevent overshooting the localizer or extended runway
centerline.
If the desired descent fight path cannot be established, ATC
should be notied for timely coordination.
Adverse Factors and Typical Errors
The following factors and errors often are observed during
transition training and line training:
late descent, which results in rushing the descent,
approach preparation and brieng, and increases the
likelihood that important items will be omitted;
Failure to cross-check target entry;
Failure to allow for a difference between the expected
routing and the actual routing (e.g., STAR vs. radar
vectors);
distraction leading to or resulting from two heads down;
Fai l ur e t o r esol ve ambi gui t i es, doubt s or
disagreements;
Failure to effectively monitor descent progress using all
available instrument references;
Failure to monitor wind conditions and wind changes;
and/or,
Inappropriate technique to establish the descent
prole.
Summary
The following should be emphasized during transition training,
line training and line audits:
Conduct timely descent-and-approach preparation;
Adhere to SoPs for FMS setup;
Cross-check all target entries;
Use the primary fight display (PFd), navigation display
(Nd) and FMS to support and to illustrate the approach
brieng;
Confrm FMS navigation accuracy before selecting FMS
modes for the descent and approach;
Review terrain-awareness data and other approach
hazards; and,
Monitor the descent profle and adjust the descent profle
as required.
1.3 Golden Rules;
4.2 Energy Management;
5.2 Terrain;
References
ights.
3. The FSF AlAR Task Force defines press-on-itis as
continuing toward the destination despite a lack of
readiness of the airplane or crew.
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Editorial Staff. Pilot loses
Control of Twin Turboprop during IlS Approach in low Vis-
ibility. Accident Prevention Volume 57 (July 2000).
FSF Editorial Staff. learjet Strikes Terrain When Crew Tracks
False glideslope Indication and Continues descent Below
Published decision height. Accident Prevention Volume 56
(June 1999).
FSF Editorial Staff. Boeing 767 descends Below glide Path,
Strikes Tail on landing. Accident Prevention Volume 55
(February 1998).
1995).
Approach Result in Commuter Airplanes Uncontrolled Col-
lision with Terrain. Accident Prevention Volume 52 (January
1995).
lawton, Russell. Moving Power levers Below Flight Idle
during descent Results in dual Engine Flameout and Power-
off Emergency landing of Commuter Airplane. Accident
Prevention Volume 51 (december 1994).
(September 1994).
the Convention of International Civil Aviation, Operation
of Aircraft. Part I, International Commercial Air Transport
Aeroplanes. Appendix 2, Contents of an operations
Manual, 5.18, 5.19. Seventh edition - July 1998, incorpo-
rating Amendments 125.
ICAo. Procedures for Air Navigation Services. Air-
craft Operations. Volume I, Flight Procedures. Fourth
edition, 1993. Reprinted May 2000, incorporating
Amendments 110.
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. Advisory Circular
120-71, Standard Operating Procedures for Flight Deck
Crewmembers. August 10, 2000.
Operations 1, Commercial Air Transportation (Aeroplanes).
1.1045 operations Manual structure and contents. March
1, 1998.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
4.2 Energy Management
The ight crews inability to assess or to manage the aircrafts
energy condition during approach is cited often as a cause of
unstabilized approaches.
Either a decit of energy (low/slow) or an excess of energy
(high/fast) may result in an approach-and-landing incident or
accident involving:
loss of control;
landing before reaching the runway;
hard landing;
Tail strike; or,
Runway overrun.
Statistical Data
1
through 1997.
2
These accidents involved incorrect management of aircraft
energy condition, resulting in an excess or decit of energy,
as follows:
Aircraft were low/slow on approach in 36 percent of the
accidents/incidents; and,
Aircraft were high/fast on approach in 30 percent of the
accidents/incidents.
Aircraft Energy Condition
Aircraft energy condition is a function of the following primary
ight parameters:
Airspeed and airspeed trend;
Altitude (or vertical speed or fight path angle);
drag (caused by speed brakes, slats/faps and landing
gear); and,
Thrust.
one of the primary tasks of the fight crew is to control and
to monitor aircraft energy condition (using all available refer-
ences) to:
Maintain the appropriate energy condition for the fight
phase (i.e., configuration, flight path, airspeed and
thrust); or,
Recover the aircraft from a low-energy condition or a
high-energy condition.
Controlling aircraft energy involves balancing airspeed, thrust
(and drag) and ight path.
Autopilot modes, ight director modes, aircraft instruments,
warnings and protections are designed to relieve or assist the
ight crew in this task.
Going Down and Slowing Down
A study by the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board
3

said that maintaining a high airspeed to the outer marker
(oM) may prevent capture of the glideslope by the autopilot
and may prevent aircraft stabilization at the dened stabiliza-
tion height.
The study concluded that no airspeed restriction should be
imposed by air traffc control (ATC) when within three nauti-
cal miles (nm) to four nm of the oM, especially in instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC).
ATC instructions to maintain a high airspeed to the oM (160
knots to 200 knots, typically) are common at high-density
airports, to increase the landing rate.
Minimum Stabilization Height
Table 1 shows that the minimum stabilization height is:
1,000 feet above airport elevation in IMC; or,
conditions (VMC).
Typical company policy is to cross the oM (usually between
1,500 feet and 2,000 feet above airport elevation) with the air-
craft in the landing conguration to allow time for stabilizing
the nal approach speed and completing the landing checklist
before reaching the minimum stabilization height.
Aircraft Deceleration Characteristics
Although deceleration characteristics vary among aircraft
types and their gross weights, the following typical values
can be used:
deceleration in level fight:
With approach faps extended: 10 knots to 15 knots
per nm; or,
during extension of the landing gear and landing
faps: 20 knots to 30 knots per nm; and,
deceleration on a three-degree glide path (for a typical
140-knot fnal approach groundspeed, a rule of thumb
is to maintain a descent gradient of 300 feet per nm/700
feet per minute [fpm]):
With approach aps and landing gear down, during
extension of landing faps: 10 knots to 20 knots per
nm;
decelerating on a three-degree glide path in a clean
conguration is not possible usually; and,
When capturing the glideslope with slats extended and
no faps, typically a 1,000-foot descent and three nm are
own while establishing the landing conguration and
stabilizing the nal approach speed.
Speed brakes may be used to achieve a faster deceleration of
some aircraft (usually, the use of speed brakes is not recom-
mended or not permitted below 1,000 feet above airport eleva-
tion or with landing aps extended).
Typically, slats should be extended not later than three nm
from the nal approach x (FAF).
Figure 1 shows aircraft deceleration capability and the maxi-
mum airspeed at the oM based on a conservative deceleration
rate of 10 knots per nm on a three-degree glide path.
For example, in IMC (minimum stabilization height, 1,000 feet
Table 1
REF
+ 20 knots
REF
;
ducted;
go-around.
above airport elevation) and with a typical 130-knot fnal ap-
proach speed,
4
the maximum deceleration achievable between
the oM (six nm) and the stabilization point (1,000 feet above
airport elevation and three nm) is:
10 knots per nm x (6 nm 3 nm) = 30 knots.
To be stabilized at 130 knots at 1,000 feet above airport eleva-
tion, the maximum airspeed that can be accepted and can be
maintained down to the oM is, therefore:
130 knots + 30 knots = 160 knots.
Whenever a ight crew is requested to maintain a high airspeed
down to the oM, a quick computation such as the one shown
above can help assess the ATC request.
Back Side of the Power Curve
during an unstabilized approach, airspeed or the thrust setting
often deviates from recommended criteria as follows:
Airspeed decreases below V
REF
; and/or,
Thrust is reduced to idle and is maintained at idle.
Thrust-required-to-y Curve
Figure 2 shows the thrust-required-to-fy curve (also called
the power curve).
The power curve comprises the following elements:
A point of minimum thrust required to fy;
A segment of the curve located right of this point;
and,
A segment of the curve located left of this point, called
the back side of the power curve (i.e., where induced
drag requires more power to y at a slower steady-state
airspeed than the power required to maintain a faster
airspeed on the front side of the power curve).
The difference between the available thrust and the thrust re-
quired to y represents the climb or acceleration capability.
The right segment of the power curve is the normal zone of
operation; the thrust balance (i.e., the balance between thrust
required to y and available thrust) is stable.
Thus, at a given thrust level, any tendency to accelerate in-
creases the thrust required to y and, hence, returns the aircraft
to the initial airspeed.
Conversely, the back side of the power curve is unstable: At a
given thrust level, any tendency to decelerate increases the thrust
required to y and, hence, increases the tendency to decelerate.
approach speed,
4
the maximum deceleration achievable
between the OM (six nm) and the stabilization point (1,000
feet above airport elevation and three nm) is:
To be stabilized at 130 knots at 1,000 feet above airport
elevation, the maximum airspeed that can be accepted and
can be maintained down to the OM is, therefore:
Whenever a flight crew is requested to maintain a high
airspeed down to the OM, a quick computation such as the
one shown above can help assess the ATC request.
During an unstabilized approach, airspeed or the thrust setting
REF
; and/or,
Thrust-required-to-fly Curve
Figure 2 shows the thrust-required-to-fly curve (also called
the power curve).
A point of minimum thrust required to fly;
A segment of the curve located right of this point; and,
drag requires more power to fly at a slower steady-state
The difference between the available thrust and the thrust
required to fly represents the climb or acceleration capability.
required to fly and available thrust) is stable.
Thus, at a given thrust level, any tendency to accelerate
increases the thrust required to fly and, hence, returns the
aircraft to the initial airspeed.
given thrust level, any tendency to decelerate increases the
thrust required to fly and, hence, increases the tendency to
decelerate.
The final approach speed usually is slightly on the back side
of the power curve, while the minimum thrust speed is 1.35
times V
SO
(stall speed in landing configuration) to 1.4 times
V
SO
.
Typical Schedule for Deceleration on
Three-degree Glide Path From Outer
Marker to Stabilization Height (1,000 Feet)
MM = Middle marker OM = Outer marker
V
APP
= Final approach speed V
MAX
= Maximum airspeed
Figure 1
1,000 Feet
Above Airport
Elevation
MM OM
Deceleration
Segment
(10 Knots/
Nautical Mile)
6.0 3.0 0
Nautical Miles
V
APP
at
1,000 Feet =
130 Knots
V
MAX
at OM =
160 Knots
Thrust Required to Fly a Three-degree
Glide Path in Landing Configuration
V
APP
= Final approach speed
Figure 2
90%
100%
110%
120%
130%
140%
150%
160%
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Airspeed (Knots)

T
h
r
u
s
t

R
e
q
u
i
r
e
d
V
APP
V
Minimum Thrust
Thrust for V
APP
Stable
Unstable
Given Gross Weight
Given Pressure Altitude
Given Flight Path
approach speed,
4
the maximum deceleration achievable
between the OM (six nm) and the stabilization point (1,000
feet above airport elevation and three nm) is:
To be stabilized at 130 knots at 1,000 feet above airport
elevation, the maximum airspeed that can be accepted and
can be maintained down to the OM is, therefore:
Whenever a flight crew is requested to maintain a high
airspeed down to the OM, a quick computation such as the
one shown above can help assess the ATC request.
During an unstabilized approach, airspeed or the thrust setting
REF
; and/or,
Thrust-required-to-fly Curve
Figure 2 shows the thrust-required-to-fly curve (also called
the power curve).
A point of minimum thrust required to fly;
A segment of the curve located right of this point; and,
drag requires more power to fly at a slower steady-state
The difference between the available thrust and the thrust
required to fly represents the climb or acceleration capability.
required to fly and available thrust) is stable.
Thus, at a given thrust level, any tendency to accelerate
increases the thrust required to fly and, hence, returns the
aircraft to the initial airspeed.
given thrust level, any tendency to decelerate increases the
thrust required to fly and, hence, increases the tendency to
decelerate.
The final approach speed usually is slightly on the back side
of the power curve, while the minimum thrust speed is 1.35
times V
SO
(stall speed in landing configuration) to 1.4 times
V
SO
.
Typical Schedule for Deceleration on
Three-degree Glide Path From Outer
Marker to Stabilization Height (1,000 Feet)
MM = Middle marker OM = Outer marker
V
APP
= Final approach speed V
MAX
= Maximum airspeed
Figure 1
1,000 Feet
Above Airport
Elevation
MM OM
Deceleration
Segment
(10 Knots/
Nautical Mile)
6.0 3.0 0
Nautical Miles
V
APP
at
1,000 Feet =
130 Knots
V
MAX
at OM =
160 Knots
Thrust Required to Fly a Three-degree
Glide Path in Landing Configuration
V
APP
Figure 2
90%
100%
110%
120%
130%
140%
150%
160%
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Airspeed (Knots)

T
h
r
u
s
t

R
e
q
u
i
r
e
d
V
APP
V
Minimum Thrust
Thrust for V
APP
Stable
Unstable
Given Gross Weight
Given Pressure Altitude
Given Flight Path
The nal approach speed usually is slightly on the back side of
the power curve, while the minimum thrust speed is 1.35 times
V
So
(stall speed in landing conguration) to 1.4 times V
So
.
If airspeed is allowed to decrease below the nal approach
speed, more thrust is required to maintain the desired ight
path and/or to regain the nal approach speed.
If thrust is set to idle and maintained at idle, no energy is
available immediately to recover from a low-speed condi-
tion or to initiate a go-around (as shown in Figure 3, Figure
4 and Figure 5).
Engine Acceleration
When ying the nal approach with the thrust set and main-
tained at idle (approach idle), the pilot should be aware of the
acceleration characteristics of jet engines (Figure 3).
By design, the acceleration capability of a jet engine is con-
trolled to protect the engine against a compressor stall or
ameout and to comply with engine and aircraft certication
requirements.
For example, Figure 4 shows that U.S. Federal Aviation
Regulations (FARs) Part 33 requires a time of fve seconds
or less to accelerate from 15 percent to 95 percent of the go-
around thrust (15 percent of go-around thrust corresponds
typically to the thrust level required to maintain the nal
approach speed on a stable three-degree approach path).
FARs Part 25 requires that a transport airplane achieve a mini-
mum climb gradient of 3.2 percent with engine thrust available
eight seconds after the pilot begins moving the throttle levers
If airspeed is allowed to decrease below the final approach
speed, more thrust is required to maintain the desired flight
path and/or to regain the final approach speed.
If thrust is set to idle and maintained at idle, no energy is available
immediately to recover from a low-speed condition or to initiate
a go-around (as shown in Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5).
Engine Acceleration
When flying the final approach with the thrust set and
maintained at idle (approach idle), the pilot should be aware
of the acceleration characteristics of jet engines (Figure 3).
By design, the acceleration capability of a jet engine is
controlled to protect the engine against a compressor stall or
flame-out and to comply with engine and aircraft certification
requirements.
Regulations (FARs) Part 33 requires a time of five seconds or
less to accelerate from 15 percent to 95 percent of the go-
typically to the thrust level required to maintain the final
FARs Part 25 requires that a transport airplane achieve a
minimum climb gradient of 3.2 percent with engine thrust
available eight seconds after the pilot begins moving the throttle
levers from the minimum flight-idle thrust setting to the go-
around thrust setting.
Go-around From Low Airspeed/Low Thrust
Figure 5 shows the hazards of flying at an airspeed below the
final approach speed.
Typical Engine Response From
Approach-idle Thrust to Go-around Thrust
Figure 3
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (Seconds)
G
o
-
a
r
o
u
n
d

T
h
r
u
s
t
Approach Idle
(Typical
Engine-to-engine
Scatter)
U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs)
Requirements for Engine Response
Flight-idle Thrust to Go-around Thrust
FARs Part 25 = Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category
Airplanes
FARs Part 33 = Airworthiness Standards: Aircraft Engines
Figure 4
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (Seconds)
G
o
-
a
r
o
u
n
d

T
h
r
u
s
t
95% 88%
15%
5 seconds (FARs Part 33)
Typical Altitude Loss
After Initiation of a Go-around
(Aircraft in Landing Configuration)
V
APP
Figure 5
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (Seconds)
A
l
t
i
t
u
d
e

C
h
a
n
g
e

(
F
e
e
t
)
Condition at initiation of go-around:
V
APP
10 Knots, Idle Thrust
V
APP
, Thrust Decreasing
V
APP
, Thrust Stabilized
V
APP
, Idle Thrust
The hazards are increased if thrust is set and maintained at idle.
If a go-around is required, the initial altitude loss and the time
for recovering the lost altitude are increased if the airspeed is
lower than the final approach speed and/or if the thrust is set
at idle.
If airspeed is allowed to decrease below the final approach
speed, more thrust is required to maintain the desired flight
path and/or to regain the final approach speed.
If thrust is set to idle and maintained at idle, no energy is available
immediately to recover from a low-speed condition or to initiate
a go-around (as shown in Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5).
Engine Acceleration
When flying the final approach with the thrust set and
maintained at idle (approach idle), the pilot should be aware
of the acceleration characteristics of jet engines (Figure 3).
By design, the acceleration capability of a jet engine is
controlled to protect the engine against a compressor stall or
flame-out and to comply with engine and aircraft certification
requirements.
Regulations (FARs) Part 33 requires a time of five seconds or
less to accelerate from 15 percent to 95 percent of the go-
typically to the thrust level required to maintain the final
FARs Part 25 requires that a transport airplane achieve a
minimum climb gradient of 3.2 percent with engine thrust
available eight seconds after the pilot begins moving the throttle
levers from the minimum flight-idle thrust setting to the go-
around thrust setting.
Figure 5 shows the hazards of flying at an airspeed below the
final approach speed.
Typical Engine Response From
Approach-idle Thrust to Go-around Thrust
Figure 3
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (Seconds)
G
o
-
a
r
o
u
n
d

T
h
r
u
s
t
Approach Idle
(Typical
Engine-to-engine
Scatter)
U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs)
Requirements for Engine Response
Flight-idle Thrust to Go-around Thrust
FARs Part 25 = Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category
Airplanes
FARs Part 33 = Airworthiness Standards: Aircraft Engines
Figure 4
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (Seconds)
G
o
-
a
r
o
u
n
d

T
h
r
u
s
t
95% 88%
15%
Typical Altitude Loss
After Initiation of a Go-around
(Aircraft in Landing Configuration)
V
APP
Figure 5
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (Seconds)
A
l
t
i
t
u
d
e

C
h
a
n
g
e

(
F
e
e
t
)
Condition at initiation of go-around:
V
APP
10 Knots, Idle Thrust
V
APP
, Thrust Decreasing
V
APP
, Thrust Stabilized
V
APP
, Idle Thrust
The hazards are increased if thrust is set and maintained at idle.
If a go-around is required, the initial altitude loss and the time
for recovering the lost altitude are increased if the airspeed is
lower than the final approach speed and/or if the thrust is set
at idle.
from the minimum ight-idle thrust setting to the go-around
thrust setting.
Figure 5 shows the hazards of fying at an airspeed below the
nal approach speed.
The hazards are increased if thrust is set and maintained at
idle.
If a go-around is required, the initial altitude loss and the time for
recovering the lost altitude are increased if the airspeed is lower
than the nal approach speed and/or if the thrust is set at idle.
Summary
deceleration below the fnal approach speed should be allowed
only during the following maneuvers:
Terrain-avoidance maneuver;
Collision-avoidance maneuver; or,
Wind shear recovery maneuver.
Nevertheless, during all three maneuvers, the throttle levers
must be advanced to maximum thrust (i.e., go-around thrust)
while initiating the maneuver.
6.1 Being Prepared to Go Around;
7.2 Constant-angle Nonprecision Approach.
References
Accident Reduction Task Force dened causal factor
as an event or item judged to be directly instrumental
3. U.S. National Transportation Safety Board. Special Study:
Flightcrew Coordination Procedures in Air Carrier
Instrument Landing System Approach Accidents. Report
No. NTSB-AAS-76-5. August 18, 1976.
4. Final approach speed is V
REF
(reference landing speed
[typically 1.3 times stall speed in landing confguration])
plus a correction factor for wind conditions, aircraft
conguration or other conditions.
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Editorial Staff. Business Jet
overruns Wet Runway After landing Past Touchdown Zone.
Accident Prevention Volume 56 (december 1999).
Sallee, g. P.; gibbons, d. M. Propulsion System Malfunction
Plus Inappropriate Crew Response (PSM+ICR). Flight Safety
Digest Volume 18 (Novemberdecember 1999).
FSF Editorial Staff. Airplanes low-energy Condition and
degraded Wing Performance Cited in Unsuccessful go-around
Attempt. Accident Prevention Volume 56 (July 1999).
FSF Editorial Staff. Boeing 767 descends Below glide
Path, Strikes Tail on landing. Accident Prevention Volume
55 (February 1998).
(February 1996).
Approach Result in Commuter Airplanes Uncontrolled Collision
with Terrain. Accident Prevention Volume 52 (January 1995).
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
2, Contents of an operations Manual, 5.18, 5.19. Seventh edi-
tion July 1998, incorporating Amendments 125.
5.1 Approach Hazards Overview
Few air transport accidents occur on calm sunny days; risk
increases during ight over hilly terrain, with reduced visibility,
adverse winds, contaminated runways and limited approach
aids. Visual illusions also can contribute to approach-and-
landing accidents.
Statistical Data
Reduction Task Force, in an analysis of 76 approach-and-
landing accidents and serious incidents, including controlled-
fight-into-terrain (CFIT) accidents, worldwide in 1984 through
1997,
1
found that:
Fifty-three percent of the accidents and incidents
occurred during nonprecision instrument approaches or
visual approaches (42 percent of the visual approaches
were conducted where an instrument landing system
[IlS] approach was available);
Fifty percent occurred where no radar service was
available;
Sixty-seven percent of the CFIT accidents occurred in
hilly terrain or mountainous terrain;
Fifty-nine percent of the accidents and incidents occurred
in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC);
Fifty percent occurred in precipitation (snow, rain);
Fifty-three percent occurred in darkness or twilight;
Thirty-three percent involved adverse wind conditions
(i.e., strong crosswinds, tail winds or wind shear);
Twenty-one percent involved fight crew disorientation
or visual illusions;
Twenty-nine percent involved nonftment of available
safety equipment (e.g., ground-proximity warning
system [gPWS] or radio altimeter);
Eighteen percent involved runway conditions (e.g., wet
or contaminated by standing water, slush, snow or ice);
and,
Twenty-one percent involved inadequate ground aids
(e.g., navigation aids, approach/runway lights or visual
approach-slope guidance).
Awareness Program
A company awareness program on approach-and-landing
hazards should emphasize the following elements that lead to
good crew decisions:
Use the FSF Approach-and-landing Risk Awareness Tool
to heighten crew awareness of the specic hazards to
the approach;
Use the FSF Approach-and-landing Risk Reduction
Guide;
Anticipate by asking, What if? and prepare;
Identify threats during approach briefngs;
Adhere to standard operating procedures (SoPs) and
published limitations; and,
Prepare options, such as:
Request a precision approach into the wind;
Select an approach gate
2
for a stabilized approach
(Table 1);
Wait for better conditions; or,
divert to an airport with better conditions.
The company awareness program should include review and
discussion of factors that may contribute to approach-and-
landing accidents.
Approach briengs should include factors that are:
Known to the crew (e.g., by means of notices to airmen
[NoTAMs], dispatchers briefng, automatic terminal
information system [ATIS], etc.; or,
Unknown and thus discovered as the approach and
landing progresses.
5.2 Terrain;
5.3 Visual Illusions;
5.4 Wind Shear;
6.3 Terrain-avoidance (Pull-up) Maneuver.
References
ights.
2. The FSF Approach-and-landing Accident Reduction
(AlAR) Task Force defnes approach gate as a point in
space (1,000 feet above airport elevation in instrument
meteorological conditions or 500 feet above airport
elevation in visual meteorological conditions) at which a
go-around is required if the aircraft does not meet dened
stabilized approach criteria.
1997).
FSF Editorial Staff. dubrovnik-bound Flight Crews Im-
properly Flown Nonprecision Instrument Approach Results in
Controlled-Flight-into-Terrain Accident. Flight Safety Digest
Table 1
REF
+ 20 knots
REF
;
ducted;
go-around.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
(September 1994).
Approach-and-Landing Risk Awareness Tool
Elements of this tool should be integrated, as appropriate, with the standard approach brieng prior to top of descent to improve
awareness of factors that can increase the risk of an accident during approach and landing. The number of warning symbols (
) that accompany each factor indicates a relative measure of risk. generally, the greater the number of warning symbols that
accompany a factor, the greater the risk presented by that factor. Flight crews should consider carefully the effects of multiple risk
factors, exercise appropriate vigilance and be prepared to conduct a go-around or a missed approach.
Failure to recognize the need for a missed approach and to execute a missed approach,
is a major cause of approach-and-landing accidents.
Flight Crew
long duty period reduced alertness ....................................................................................................................................
Single-pilot operation ...............................................................................................................................................................
Airport Services and Equipment
No approach radar service or airport tower service ..............................................................................................................
No current local weather report ...............................................................................................................................................
Unfamiliar airport or unfamiliar procedures ............................................................................................................................
Minimal or no approach lights or runway lights ..........................................................................................................................
No visual approach-slope guidance e.g., VASI/PAPI .............................................................................................................
Foreign destination possible communication/language problems ..........................................................................................
Expected Approach
Nonprecision approach especially with step-down procedure or circling procedure ......................................................
Visual approach in darkness .....................................................................................................................................................
late runway change .................................................................................................................................................................
No published STAR .....................................................................................................................................................................
Environment
hilly terrain or mountainous terrain ........................................................................................................................................
Visibility restrictions e.g., darkness, fog, haze, IMC, low light, mist, smoke ....................................................................
Visual illusions e.g., sloping terrain, wet runway, whiteout/snow .......................................................................................
Wind conditions e.g., crosswind, gusts, tail wind, wind shear ...........................................................................................
Runway conditions e.g., ice, slush, snow, water .................................................................................................................
Cold-temperature effects true altitude (actual height above mean sea level) lower than indicated altitude .......................
Aircraft Equipment
No gPWS/EgPWS/gCAS/TAWS .......................................................................................................................................
No radio altimeter .................................................................................................................................................................
No wind shear warning system ....................................................................................................................................................
No TCAS ................................................................................................................................................................................
greater risk is associated with conducting a nonprecision approach (rather than a precision approach) and with conduct-
ing an approach in darkness and in IMC (rather than in daylight and in VMC). The combined effects of two or more of
these risk factors must be considered carefully.
Crews can reduce risk with planning and vigilance. If necessary, plans should be made to hold for better conditions or to divert
to an alternate airport. Plan to abandon the approach if company standards for a stabilized approach are not met.
After commencement of the approach, a go-around or a missed approach should be conducted when:
Confusion exists or crew coordination breaks down;
There is uncertainty about situational awareness;
Checklists are being conducted late or the crew is task overloaded;
Any malfunction threatens the successful completion of the approach;
Table 1
REF
+ 20 knots indicated airspeed and not less than V
REF
;
5. Sink rate is no greater than 1,000 feet per minute; if an approach requires a sink rate greater than 1,000 feet per minute, a special brieng
should be conducted;
operating manual;
special brieng.
An approach that becomes unstabilized below 1,000 feet above airport elevation in IMC or below 500 feet above airport elevation in VMC
requires an immediate go-around.
The approach becomes unstabilized in altitude, airspeed, glide path, course or conguration;
Unexpected wind shear is encountered proceed per company SoP;
gPWS/EgPWS/gCAS/TAWS alert proceed per company SoP;
ATC changes will result in an unstabilized approach; or,
Adequate visual references are absent at dh or MdA.
Notes:
1. All information in the FSF Approach-and-landing Risk Awareness Tool is based on data published in Killers in Aviation: FSF Task
Force Presents Facts about Approach-and-landing and Controlled-fight-into-terrain Accidents, Flight Safety Digest Volume 17
(Novemberdecember 1998) and Volume 18 (JanuaryFebruary 1999).
2. ATC = Air traffc control
dh = decision height
EgPWS = Enhanced ground-proximity warning system
gCAS = ground-collision avoidance system
gPWS = ground-proximity warning system
IMC = Instrument meteorological conditions
MdA = Minimum descent altitude
PAPI = Precision approach path indicator
SoP = Standard operating procedure
STAR = Standard terminal arrival route
TAWS = Terrain awareness and warning system
TCAS = Traffc-alert and collision avoidance system
VASI = Visual approach slope indicator
VMC = Visual meteorological conditions
Suite 300, 601 Madison Street Alexandria, VA 22314 U.S. Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700, Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
In the interest of aviation safety, this publication may be reproduced, in whole or in part, in all media, but may not be offered for sale or used
commercially without the express written permission of Flight Safety Foundations director of publications. All uses must credit Flight Safety Foundation.
Approach-and-Landing Risk Reduction Guide
The Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Approach-and-landing Accident Reduction (AlAR) Task Force designed this
guide as part of the FSF AlAR Tool Kit, which is designed to help prevent AlAs, including those involving controlled
ight into terrain. This guide should be used to evaluate specic ight operations and to improve crew awareness of
associated risks. This guide is intended for use as a strategic tool (i.e., for long-term planning).
Part 1 of this guide should be used by the chief pilot to review fight operations policies and training. Part 2 should be
used by dispatchers and schedulers. The chief pilot should provide Part 3 to fight crews for evaluating pilot understand-
ing of company training objectives and policies. Part 4 should be used by the chief pilot and line pilots.
This guide is presented as a check-the-box questionnaire; boxes that are not checked may represent shortcomings
and should prompt further assessment.
Part 1 Operations: Policies and Training
Check the boxes below that apply to your specifc fight operations.
Approach
Crew Resource Management
Is risk management taught in initial training and recurrent training?
Are crew resource management (CRM) roles defned for each crewmember?
Are CRM roles defned for each crewmember for emergencies and/or system malfunctions?
Are standard operating procedures (SoPs) provided for sterile-cockpit
1
operations?
Are differences between domestic operations and international operations explained in CRM training?
Is decision making taught in CRM training?
Approach Procedures
do detailed and mandatory approach-briefng requirements exist? (See Part 4 below.)
Are approach risks among the required briefng items?
Are standard calls defned for approach deviations?
Are limits dened for approach gate
2
at 1,000 feet in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) or at 500
feet in visual meteorological conditions (VMC).
Is a missed approach/go-around recommended when stabilized approach criteria (Table 1) are exceeded?
Is a no fault go-around policy established? If so, is it emphasized during training?
does the checklist policy require challenge-and-response for specifed items?
does the checklist policy provide for interruptions/distractions?
Is a go-around recommended when the appropriate checklist is not completed before reaching the approach gate?
Are captain/first officer weather limits provided for approach (e.g., visibility, winds and runway
conditions)?
Are crewmember roles dened for approach (e.g., crewmember assigned pilot ying duties, crewmember
monitoring and conducting checklist, crewmember who decides to land or go around, crewmember landing
aircraft, exchange of aircraft control)?
Fuel
Are fuel minimums defned for proceeding to the alternate airport, contingency fuel, dump-fuel limits?
Are crews aware of when to declare minimum fuel or an emergency?
When declaring an emergency for low fuel, is International Civil Aviation organization (ICAo) phraseology
required (e.g., Mayday, Mayday, Mayday for low fuel)?
Approach Type
Is your risk exposure greatest during precision, nonprecision, circling or visual approaches? Is the training
provided appropriate for the risk?
Are SoPs provided for constant-angle nonprecision approaches (CANPAs) using rate of descent or angle?
Environment
Is training provided for visual illusions on approach (e.g., black hole effect,
3
sloping terrain, etc.)?
Is training provided for minimum-safe-altitude awareness?
does a policy exist to use the radio altimeter as a terrain-awareness tool?
Are crews required to adjust altitudes during approach for lower than international standard atmosphere (ISA)
standard temperatures?
Table 1
;
5. Sink rate is no greater than 1,000 feet per minute; if an approach requires a sink rate greater than 1,000 feet per minute, a special
brieng should be conducted;
operating manual;
special brieng.
Are crews aware that most approach-and-landing accidents occur with multiple conditions present (e.g., rain
and darkness, rain and crosswind)?
Airport and Air Trafc Control (ATC) Services
Are crews aware of the increased risk at airports without radar service, approach control service or tower
service?
Is training provided for unfamiliar airports using a route check or a video?
Is potential complacency at very familiar airports discussed?
Are crews provided current weather at destination airelds via automatic terminal information service (ATIS),
airborne communications addressing and reporting system (ACARS) and/or routine weather broadcasts for
aircraft in fight (VolMET)?
Aircraft Equipment
Are procedures established to evaluate the accuracy and reliability of navigation/terrain databases?
Are mechanical checklists or electronic checklists installed?
Is a radio altimeter installed in the pilots normal scan pattern?
does the radio altimeter provide visual/audio alerting?
Is a wind shear alert system (either predictive or reactive) installed?
Is a ground-proximity warning system (gPWS) or a terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS)
4
installed?
Is a traffc-alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) installed?
Are head-up displays (hUds) installed with a velocity-vector indicators?
Are angle-of-attack indicators installed?
For aircraft with a fight management system (FMS), are lateral navigation/vertical navigation (lNAV/VNAV)
approach procedures database-selected?
Are pilots prevented from modifying specifed FMS data points on approach?
Is the FMS system sole-means-of-navigation capable?
Is there a policy for appropriate automation use (e.g., full up for Category III instrument landing system,
okay to turn automation off for a daylight visual approach)?
Is there a policy requiring standard calls by the pilot not ying for mode changes and annunciations on the
mode control panel?
Is training provided and are policies established for the use of all the equipment installed on all aircraft?
Are current and regulator-approved navigation charts provided for each fight crewmember?
Flight Crew
Is there a crew-pairing policy established for new captain/new rst ofcer based on ight time or a minimum
number of trip segments?
Is the check airmen/training captain program monitored for feedback from pilots? Are additional training
needs, failure rates and complaints about pilots from line operations tracked? Is it possible to trace these issues
to the check airmen/training captain who trained specifc pilots?
Is there a hazard reporting system such as a captains report? Are policies established to identify and to correct
problems? Is a system set up to provide feedback to the person who reports a hazard?
Safety Programs
Is a nonpunitive safety reporting system established?
Is a proactive safety monitoring program such as a fight operational quality assurance (FoQA) program or
an aviation safety action program (ASAP) established?
Landing
Is training provided and are policies established for the use of visual landing aids?
Is it recommended that crews use all available vertical guidance for approaches, especially at night?
Is training provided and are policies established for landing on contaminated runways with adverse winds?
Are crews knowledgeable of the differences in braking deceleration on contaminated runways and dry runways?
does training include performance considerations for items such as critical touchdown area, braking required,
land-and-hold-short operation (lAhSo), engine-out go-around, and full-faps/gear-extended go-around?
does the aircraft operating manual (AoM)/quick reference handbook (QRh) provide crosswind
limitations?
Is a policy in effect to ensure speed brake deployment and autobrake awareness?
does policy prohibit a go-around after reverse thrust is selected?
Part 2 Dispatcher/Scheduler
does the company have a dispatch system to provide information to assist fight crews in evaluating approach-
and-landing risks?
Approach and Landing
Are dispatchers and captains familiar with each others authority, accountability and responsibility?
Are crews monitored for route qualifcations and appropriate crew pairing?
Are crew rest requirements defned adequately?
does the company monitor and provide suitable crew rest as defned by requirements?
Are crews provided with timely and accurate aircraft performance data?
Are crews assisted in dealing with minimum equipment list(MEl)/dispatch deviation guide (ddg)/confguration
deviation list (Cdl) items?
do dispatch-pilot communications exist for monitoring and advising crews en route about changing
conditions?
Are updates provided on weather conditions (e.g., icing, turbulence, wind shear, severe weather)?
Are updates provided on feld conditions (e.g., runway/taxiway conditions, braking-action reports)?
Is there coordination with the captain to determine appropriate loads and fuel required for the effects of ATC
fow control, weather and alternates?
Are all the appropriate charts provided for routing and approaches to destinations and alternates?
Is a current notice to airmen (NoTAM) fle maintained for all of your operations and is the appropriate
information provided to crews?
Part 3 Flight Crew
do you believe that you have appropriate written guidance, training and procedures to evaluate and reduce
approach-and-landing risks?
Approach
Is the Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Risk Awareness Tool (RAT) provided to ight crews,
and is its use required before every approach?
does the approach briefng consist of more than the briefng strip minimum? (See Part 4 below.)
do briefngs include information about visual illusions during approach and methods to counteract them?
Are the following briefed: setup of the FMS, autopilot, hUd, navigation radios and missed approach
procedures?
Is a discussion of missed approach/go-around details required during every approach briefng?
Are performance minimums briefed for the approach gate?
Are standard calls required for deviations from a stabilized approach?
does the briefng include execution of a missed approach/go-around if criteria for the approach gate are not
met?
Are stabilized approach criteria defned? Is a go-around recommended in the event that these criteria are not
met?
does your company practice a no-fault go-around policy?
Are you required to write a report to the chief pilot if you conduct a missed approach/go-around?
do you back up the fight plan top-of-descent point with your own calculation to monitor descent profle?
Are approach charts current and readily available for reference during approach?
Are policies established to determine which crewmember is assigned pilot ying duties, which crewmember
is assigned checklist duties, which crewmember will land the aircraft and how to exchange aircraft control?
do these policies change based on prevailing weather?
do terrain-awareness procedures exist (e.g., calling radio altimeter alive, checking radio altimeter altitudes
during approach to confrm that the aircraft is above required obstacle clearance heights)?
do altitude-deviation-prevention policies exist (e.g., assigned altitude, minimum descent altitude/height
[MdA(h)], decision altitude/height [dA(h)])?
Are you familiar with the required obstacle clearance criteria for charting design?
do altimeter-setting procedures and cross-check procedures exist?
do temperature-compensation procedures exist for temperatures lower than ISA at the destination airport?
Are you aware of the increased risk during night/low-visibility approaches when approach lighting/visual
approach slope indicator/precision approach path indicator aids are not available? how do you compensate
for these defciencies? For example, are runways with vertical guidance requested in those conditions?
Are you aware of the increased risk associated with nonprecision approaches compared with precision
approaches?
Is a CANPA policy established at your company? Are you aware of the increased risk associated with step-
down approaches compared with constant-angle approaches?
Is a policy established for maintaining visual look-out, and is there a requirement to call head-down?
does a look-out policy exist for approach and landing in visual fight rules (VFR) conditions?
Part 4 Recommended Approach-and-landing Brieng Items
For the approach-risk brieng, refer to top-of-descent use of the FSF Approach-and-landing RAT.
In addition to the brieng strip items (e.g., chart date, runway, approach type, glideslope angle, check altitudes),
which of following items are briefed, as appropriate?
Automation setup and usage
Navigation equipment setup and monitoring
Rate of descent/angle of descent
Intermediate altitudes and standard calls
Altitude-alert setting and acknowledgment
MdA(h)/dA(h) calls (e.g., landing, continue, go-around); runway environment expected to see (offsets);
lighting
Radio-altimeter setting in the dh window, calls required (e.g., radio altimeter alive and below 1,000 feet
prior to an intermediate approach fx; below 500 feet prior to the fnal approach fx [FAF]; go around
after the FAF if minimums is called [with radio altimeter at 200 feet] and if visual contact with the required
references is not acquired or the aircraft is not in position for a normal landing)
Aircraft conguration
Airspeeds
Checklists complete
ATC clearance
Uncontrolled airport procedures
Manual landing or autoland
Missed approach procedure/go-around
Performance data
Contaminated runway/braking action and autobrakes
Illusions/hazards or other airport-specic items
Abnormals (e.g., aircraft equipment/ground facilities unserviceable, MEl/ddg items, glideslope out)
Runway (e.g., length, width, lighting, lAhSo, planned taxiway exit)
Procedure for simultaneous approaches (as applicable)
References
1. The sterile cockpit rule refers to U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations Part 121.542, which states: No fight crewmember may engage in,
nor may any pilot-in-command permit, any activity during a critical phase of ight which could distract any ight crewmember from the
performance of his or her duties or which could interfere in any way with the proper conduct of those duties. Activities such as eating meals,
engaging in nonessential conversations within the cockpit and nonessential communications between the cabin and cockpit crews, and
reading publications not related to the proper conduct of the ight are not required for the safe operation of the aircraft. For the purposes of
this section, critical phases of ight include all ground operations involving taxi, takeoff and landing, and all other ight operations below
10,000 feet, except cruise fight. [The FSF AlAR Task Force says that 10,000 feet should be height above ground level during fight
operations over high terrain.]
2. The Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Accident Reduction (AlAR) Task Force defnes approach gate as a point in space
(1,000 feet above airport elevation in instrument meteorological conditions or 500 feet above airport elevation in visual meteorological
conditions) at which a go-around is required if the aircraft does not meet dened stabilized approach criteria.
3. The black-hole effect typically occurs during a visual approach conducted on a moonless or overcast night, over water or over dark, feature-
less terrain where the only visual stimuli are lights on and/or near the airport. The absence of visual references in the pilots near vision
affect depth perception and cause the illusion that the airport is closer than it actually is and, thus, that the aircraft is too high. The pilot
may respond to this illusion by conducting an approach below the correct ight path (i.e., a low approach).
4. Terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS) is the term used by the European Joint Aviation Authorities and the U.S. Federal Aviation
Administration to describe equipment meeting International Civil Aviation organization standards and recommendations for ground-
proximity warning system (gPWS) equipment that provides predictive terrain-hazard warnings. Enhanced gPWS and ground collision
avoidance system are other terms used to describe TAWS equipment.
Suite 300, 601 Madison Street, Alexandria, VA 22314-1756 U.S. Telephone: +1 (703) 739-6700, Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
In the interest of aviation safety, this publication may be reproduced, in whole or in part, in all media, but may not be offered for sale or
used commerciallywithout the express written permission of Flight Safety Foundations director of publications. All uses must credit Flight
Safety Foundation.
5.2 Terrain
Terrain awareness can be dened as the combined awareness
and knowledge of the following:
Aircraft position;
Aircraft altitude;
Applicable minimum safe altitude (MSA);
Terrain location and features; and,
other hazards.
Statistical Data
Reduction Task Force found that controlled ight into terrain
(CFIT) was involved in 37 percent of 76 approach-and-landing
accidents (AlAs) and serious incidents worldwide in 1984
through 1997.
1
The task force said that among these CFIT accidents/inci-
dents:
Sixty-seven percent occurred in hilly terrain or
mountainous terrain, and 29 percent occurred in areas of
at terrain (the type of terrain in which the remainder of
the CFIT accidents/incidents occurred was unknown);
Fifty-seven percent occurred during nonprecision
approaches; and,
Seventy percent occurred in poor visibility or fog.
The absence or the loss of visual references is the most com-
mon primary causal factor
2
in AlAs involving CFIT. These
accidents result from:
descending below the minimum descent altitude/height
(MdA[h]) or decision altitude/height (dA[h]) without
adequate visual references or having acquired incorrect
visual references (e.g., a lighted area in the airport
vicinity, a taxiway or another runway); and,
Continuing the approach after the loss of visual
references (e.g., because of a fast-moving rain shower
or fog patch).
Navigation Deviations and Inadequate Ter-
rain Separation
A navigation (course) deviation occurs when an aircraft is oper-
ated beyond the course clearance issued by air trafc control
(ATC) or beyond the defned airway system.
Inadequate terrain separation occurs when terrain separation of
2,000 feet in designated mountainous areas or 1,000 feet in all
other areas is not maintained (unless authorized and properly
assigned by ATC in terminal areas).
Navigation deviations and inadequate terrain separation are
usually the results of monitoring errors.
Monitoring errors involve the crews failure to adequately
monitor the aircraft trajectory and instruments while program-
ming the autopilot or fight management system (FMS), or
while being interrupted or distracted.
Standard Operating Procedures
Standard operating procedures (SoPs) should emphasize the
following terrain-awareness items:
Adhere to the basic golden rule: aviate (fy), navigate,
Navigate can be defned by the following know where
statements:
Know where you are;
backup include:
Altitude calls;
visual references.
altimeter. The barometric-altimeter bug and the radio-altimeter
decision height (RA dh) bug must be set according to the
aircraft manufacturers SoPs or the companys SoPs.
bug and RA dh bug:
Awareness of the expected altimeter setting (using
both routine aviation weather reports [METARs] and
checking);
Effective pilot fying-pilot not fying (PF-PNF) cross-
check and backup;
Adherence to SoPs for:
Resetting altimeters at the transition altitude/ight
level;
primary altimeters;
Altitude calls;
Setting the barometric-altimeter bug and RA dh bug;
and,
Table 1 shows examples of SoPs for setting the barometric-
altimeter bug and the RA dh bug.
Adhere to the basic golden rule: aviate (fly), navigate,
Navigate can be defined by the following know where
statements:
Know where you are;
backup include:
Altitude calls;
visual references.
altimeter. The barometric-altimeter bug and the radio-
bug and RA DH bug:
Awareness of the expected altimeter setting (using both
routine aviation weather reports [METARs] and
checking);
Effective pilot flying-pilot not flying (PF-PNF) cross-
check and backup;
Resetting altimeters at the transition altitude/flight
level;
primary altimeters;
Altitude calls;
Setting the barometric-altimeter bug and RA DH bug;
and,
Table 1 shows examples of SOPs for setting the barometric-
altimeter bug and the RA DH bug.
Table 1
Barometric-altimeter and
Radio-altimeter Reference Settings
Barometric Radio
Approach Altimeter Altimeter
Visual MDA(H)/DA(H) of 200 feet*
instrument approach
or
200 feet above
airport elevation
Nonprecision MDA/(H) 200 feet*
ILS CAT I DA(H) 200 feet*
no RA
ILS CAT I DA(H) RA DH
with RA
ILS CAT II DA(H) RA DH
ILS CAT III DA(H) RA DH
with DH
ILS CAT III TDZE Alert height
with no DH
DA(H) = Decision altitude/height
ILS = Instrument landing system
CAT = Category
RA DH = Radio altimeter decision height
TDZE = Touchdown zone elevation
* The RA DH should be set (e.g., at 200 feet) for terrain-awareness
purposes. The use of the radio altimeter should be discussed
during the approach briefing.
Note: For all approaches, except CAT II and CAT III ILS
approaches, the approach minimum call will be based on the
barometric-altimeter bug set at MDA(H) or DA(H).
Announced by the PNF (or the fight engineer); or,
generated automatically by a synthesized voice.
To enhance the fight crews terrain awareness, the call radio
altimeter alive should be made by the rst crewmember ob-
serving the radio-altimeter activation at 2,500 feet.
The radio-altimeter indication then should be included in the
instrument scan for the remainder of the approach.
Flight crews should call radio-altimeter indications that are
below obstacle-clearance requirements during the approach.
The radio altimeter indications should not be below the fol-
lowing minimum heights:
1,000 feet during arrival until past the intermediate fx,
except when being radar-vectored;
500 feet when being radar-vectored by ATC or until past
the nal approach x (FAF); and,
250 feet from the FAF to a point on fnal approach to the
landing runway where the aircraft is in visual conditions
and in position for a normal landing, except during
Category (CAT) II instrument landing system (IlS) and
CAT III IlS approaches.
The following cross-check procedures should be used to con-
rm the barometric-altimeter setting:
When receiving an altitude clearance, immediately set
the assigned altitude in the altitude window (even before
readback, if appropriate because of workload);
Ensure that the selected altitude is cross-checked by
the captain and the rst ofcer (e.g., each pilot should
announce what he or she heard and then point to the
altitude window to conrm that the correct altitude has
been selected); and,
Ensure that the assigned altitude is above the applicable
MSA.
Training
Altitude Awareness Program
The altitude awareness program should emphasize the fol-
lowing:
Awareness of altimeter-setting errors:
29.XX inches of mercury (in. hg) vs. 28.XX in. hg
or 30.XX in. hg (with typical errors of approximately
1,000 feet); or,
29.XX in. hg vs. 9XX hectopascals (hPa) (true
altitude [actual height above mean sea level] 600 feet
lower than indicated); and,
Awareness of altitude corrections for low outside
air temperature (oAT) operations and awareness of
pilots/controllers responsibilities in applying these
corrections.
Pilot-Controller Communication
The company should develop and implement an awareness
and training program to improve pilot-controller communi-
cation.
Route Familiarization Program
A training program should be implemented for departure, route,
approach and airport familiarization, using:
high-resolution paper material;
Video display; and/or,
Visual simulator.
Whenever warranted, a route familiarization check for a new
pilot should be conducted by a check airman or with the new
pilot as an observer of a qualied ight crew.
CFIT Training
CFIT training should include the following:
ground-proximity warning system (gPWS) modes or
terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS)
3
modes
(the detection limits of each mode, such as inhibitions
and protection envelopes, should be emphasized clearly);
and,
Terrain-avoidance (pull-up) maneuver.
Departure Strategies
Brieng
Standard instrument departure (SId) charts and en route charts
should be used to cross-check the fight plan and the ATC
route clearance. The FMS control display unit (CdU) and the
navigation display (Nd) should be used for illustration during
the cross-check.
The takeoff-and-departure brieng should include the fol-
lowing terrain-awareness items, using all available charts and
cockpit displays to support and illustrate the brieng:
Significant terrain or obstacles along the intended
departure course; and,
SId routing and MSAs.
If available, SId charts featuring terrain depictions with color-
shaded contours should be used during the brieng.
Standard Instrument Departure
When conducting a SId, the fight crew should:
Be aware of whether the departure is radar-monitored
by ATC;
Maintain a sterile cockpit
4
below 10,000 feet or
below the MSA, particularly at night or in instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC);
Monitor the sequencing of each waypoint and the
guidance after waypoint sequencing (i.e., correct direction
of turn and correct To waypoint, in accordance with
the SId), particularly after a fight plan revision or after
conducting a dIR To; and,
In the event of incorrect sequencing/lateral guidance,
the crew should be alert to conduct a dIR To [an
appropriate waypoint] or to revert to selected lateral
navigation.
En Route Strategies
Navigation
The en route charts should be accessible if a total loss of
FMS navigation occurs or any doubt arises about FMS lateral
guidance.
Flight Progress Monitoring
The ight crew should:
Monitor and cross-check FMS guidance and navigation
accuracy;
Monitor instruments and raw data
5
;
Use all information available (fight deck displays,
charts); and,
Request confrmation or clarifcation from ATC if any
doubt exists about terrain clearance, particularly when
receiving radar vectors.
Descent Strategies
Management and Monitoring
When entering the terminal area, FMS navigation accuracy
should be checked against raw data.
If the accuracy criteria for FMS lateral navigation in a terminal
area and/or for approach are not met, revert to selected lateral
navigation with associated horizontal situation indicator (hSI)-
type navigation display.
Standard Terminal Arrival
When conducting a STAR, the ight crew should:
Be aware of whether the arrival is radar-monitored by
ATC;
Maintain a sterile cockpit;
Monitor the sequencing of each waypoint and the
guidance after waypoint sequencing (i.e., correct direction
of turn and correct To waypoint, in accordance with
the STAR), particularly after a ight plan revision or
after conducting a dIR To; and,
In the event of incorrect sequencing/lateral guidance,
the crew should be prepared to conduct a dIR To
(an appropriate waypoint) or to revert to selected lateral
navigation.
Changes in ATC clearances should be understood before they
are accepted and are implemented.
For example, an ATC clearance to descend to a lower altitude
should never be understood as a clearance to descend (pre-
maturely) below the MSA or an approach-segment minimum
altitude.
When receiving ATC radar vectors, ensure that:
The controller has identifed your radar return by stating
radar contact;
The pilot-controller confrmation/correction process
(communication loop) remains effective at all times;
The fight crew maintains situational awareness; and,
The pilot requests confrmation or clarifcation from
the controller without delay if there is any doubt about
a clearance.
during the fnal approach segment, the attention of both
pilots should be directed to any required altitude restriction
or altitude/distance check prior to reaching the MdA(h) or
dA(h).
Unless the airport is near high terrain, the radio-altimeter
indication should reasonably agree with the height above
airport elevation (obtained by direct reading of the barometric
altimeter if using QFE an altimeter setting that causes the
altimeter to indicate height above the QFE reference datum
[i.e., zero at touchdown on the runway] or by computation
if using QNh an altimeter setting that causes the altimeter
to indicate height above mean sea level [i.e., eld elevation at
touchdown on the runway]).
In IMC or at night, fight crews should respond immediately
to any gPWS/TAWS warning.
Approach Strategies
Brieng
The approach brieng should include information about:
descent profle management;
Energy management;
Terrain awareness;
Elements of a stabilized approach (Table 2) and approach
gate
6
;
Readiness and commitment to respond to a gPWS/
TAWS warning; and,
Missed approach procedures.
If available, approach charts featuring terrain depictions with
color-shaded contours should be used during the approach
brieng to enhance terrain awareness.
A thorough brieng should be conducted, regardless of:
how familiar the destination airport and the approach
may be; or,
how often the pilots have fown together.
The brieng should help the pilot ying (conducting the
brieng) and the pilot not ying (acknowledging the brief-
ing) know:
The main features of the descent, approach and missed
approach;
The sequence of events and actions; and,
Any special hazards.
The ight crew should include the following terrain-awareness
items in the approach brieng:
MSAs;
Terrain and man-made obstacles;
Applicable minimums (ceiling, visibility or runway
visual range [RVR]);
Applicable minimum stabilization height (approach
gate);
and,
go-around altitude and missed approach initial steps.
The following is an expanded review of the terrain-awareness
Table 2
REF
+ 20 knots
REF
;
ducted;
go-around.
items to be included in the approach brieng as practical
and as appropriate for the conditions of the ight.
ATIS
Review and discuss the following items:
Expected arrival route (standard terminal arrival [STAR]
or radar vectors);
Altimeter setting (QNh or QFE, as required); and,
Transition altitude/level (unless standard for the country
or for the airport).
Approach Chart
Review and discuss the following terrain-awareness items us-
ing the approach chart and the FMS/Nd (as applicable):
designated runway and approach type;
Chart index number and date;
MSA reference point, sectors and altitudes;
let-down navaid frequency and identifcation (confrm
the navaid setup);
Airport elevation;
Approach transitions (fxes, holding pattern, altitude and
airspeed restrictions, required navaids setup);
Initial approach fx (IAF) and intermediate approach fx
(IF), as applicable (positions and crossing altitudes);
Approach profle view:
FAF;
Visual descent point (VdP);
Typical vertical speed at expected nal approach
groundspeed; and,
Touchdown zone elevation (TdZE); and,
Missed approach:
lateral navigation and vertical navigation; and,
Signicant terrain or obstacles.
Low-OAT Operation
When oAT is below zero degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahr-
enheit), low-temperature correction should be applied to the
following published altitudes:
Minimum en route altitude (MEA) and MSA;
FAF altitude;
Step-down altitude(s) and MdA(h) during a nonprecision
approach;
outer marker (oM) crossing altitude during an IlS
approach; and,
Waypoint-crossing altitudes during a global positioning
system (gPS) approach fown with barometric vertical
navigation.
In a standard atmosphere, indicated altitude is the true altitude
above mean sea level (MSl) and, therefore, provides a reliable
indication of terrain clearance.
Whenever the temperature is signicantly different from the
standard temperature, indicated altitude is signicantly differ-
ent from true altitude.
In low temperature, true altitude is lower than indicated alti-
tude, thus creating a lower than anticipated terrain clearance
and a potential terrain-separation hazard.
Flying into a low-temperature area has the same effect as
ying into a low-pressure area; the aircraft is lower than the
altimeter indicates.
For example, Figure 1, which is based on low-temperature
altimeter corrections published by the International Civil
Aviation organization (ICAo), shows that indicated altitude
and true altitude are the same for an aircraft fying at 2,000
feet in an area of standard temperature (15 degrees Celsius [59
degrees Fahrenheit] at the surface); however, for an aircraft
fying at 2,000 feet in an area where the surface temperature
is 40 degrees Celsius (40 degrees Fahrenheit), true altitude
would be 440 feet lower than indicated altitude.
Airport Charts
Review and discuss the following terrain-awareness items
using the airport charts:
Approach lighting and runway lighting, and other
expected visual references; and,
Specific hazards (such as man-made obstacles, as
applicable).
If another airport is located near the destination airport, relevant
details or procedures of that airport should be discussed.
Automation
discuss the intended use of automation for vertical navigation
and lateral navigation:
FMS or selected modes; and,
Precision approach, constant-angle nonprecision
approach (CANPA) or step-down approach, as
required.
Preparation for a Go-around
Company policy should stress the importance of:
Being prepared and committed for an immediate
response to a gPWS/TAWS warning; and,
Being prepared to go around.
Circling Approaches
When conducting a circling approach, the crew should be
aware of and remain within the applicable obstruction clear-
ance protected area.
Factors Affecting Terrain Awareness
The following factors affect situational awareness and, there-
fore, terrain awareness.
of defense should be developed to cope with these factors (as
practical).
Aircraft equipment:
lack of navigation display/terrain display/radar
display with mapping function;
lack of area navigation (RNAV) capability;
lack of radio altimeter or lack of (automatic) calls;
and/or,
lack of gPWS or TAWS;
Airport environment:
Night black-hole effect
7
and/or rising or sloping
terrain along the approach path;
Airport equipment:
lack of or restricted radar coverage;
lack of a precision approach, a visual approach slope
indicator (VASI) or precision approach path indicator
(PAPI); and,
limited approach lighting and runway lighting;
Navigation charts:
lack of published approach procedure;
Approach profile view:
FAF;
Visual descent point (VDP);
Typical vertical speed at expected final approach
groundspeed; and,
Touchdown zone elevation (TDZE); and,
Missed approach:
Lateral navigation and vertical navigation; and,
Significant terrain or obstacles.
Low-OAT Operation
When OAT is below zero degrees Celsius (32 degrees
Fahrenheit), low-temperature correction should be applied to
the following published altitudes:
Minimum en route altitude (MEA) and MSA;
FAF altitude;
Step-down altitude(s) and MDA(H) during a
nonprecision approach;
Outer marker (OM) crossing altitude during an ILS
approach; and,
Waypoint-crossing altitudes during a global positioning
system (GPS) approach flown with barometric vertical
navigation.
In a standard atmosphere, indicated altitude is the true altitude
above mean sea level (MSL) and, therefore, provides a reliable
indication of terrain clearance.
Whenever the temperature is significantly different from the
standard temperature, indicated altitude is significantly
different from true altitude.
In low temperature, true altitude is lower than
indicated altitude, thus creating a lower-than-anticipated
terrain clearance and a potential terrain-separation
hazard.
Flying into a low-temperature area has the same effect as flying
into a low-pressure area; the aircraft is lower than the altimeter
indicates.
For example, Figure 1, which is based on low-temperature
altimeter corrections published by the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO), shows that indicated altitude
and true altitude are the same for an aircraft flying at 2,000
feet in an area of standard temperature (15 degrees Celsius
[59 degrees Fahrenheit] at the surface); however, for an aircraft
flying at 2,000 feet in an area where the surface temperature
is 40 degrees Celsius (40 degrees Fahrenheit), true altitude
would be 440 feet lower than indicated altitude.
Effects of Temperature on True Altitude
OAT = Outside air temperature
Figure 1
Given Atmospheric Pressure
(Pressure Altitude)
True Altitude
Low OAT High OAT
Indicated
Altitude
2,000 Feet
3,000 Feet
2,000 Feet
1,000 Feet
Standard OAT
1,560 Feet
440 Feet
lack of color-shaded terrain contours on approach
chart; and,
lack of published minimum radar vectoring
altitudes;
Training:
lack of area familiarization and/or airport
familiarization; and,
Inadequate knowledge of applicable obstacle
clearance and/or minimum vectoring altitude;
SoPs:
Inadequate briengs;
Monitoring errors (i.e., inability to monitor the aircraft
trajectory and instruments while conducting FMS
entries or because of an interruption/distraction);
Inadequate monitoring of flight progress (being
behind the aircraft);
Incorrect use of automation;
omission of a normal checklist or part of a normal
checklist (usually because of an interruption/
distraction); and/or,
deliberate or inadvertent deviation from SoPs.
Pilot-controller communication:
omission of a position report upon frst radio contact
in an area without radar coverage (i.e., reducing the
controllers situational awareness of the aircraft);
Breakdown in pilot-controller or crew communication
(e.g., readback/hearback errors, failure to resolve
doubts or ambiguities, use of nonstandard
phraseology); and/or,
Accepting an amended clearance without prior
evaluation.
human factors and crew resource management
(CRM):
Incorrect CRM practices (e.g., lack of cross-check
and backup for mode selections and target entries,
late recognition of monitoring errors);
Incorrect decision making;
Failure to resolve a doubt or confusion;
Fatigue;
Complacency;
Spatial disorientation; and/or,
Visual illusions.
Summary
Terrain awareness is enhanced by the following:
SoPs defning crew task-sharing for effective cross-
check and backup;
Correct use of the barometric altimeter and radio
altimeter;
Thorough approach briefngs; and,
Use of gPWS/TAWS.
1.2 Automation;
1.3 Golden Rules;
1.4 Standard Calls;
2.4 Interruptions/Distractions;
3.1 Barometric Altimeter and Radar Altimeter;
6.3 Terrain Avoidance (Pull-up) Maneuver.
References
ights.
2. The FSF AlAR Task Force defnes causal factor as
an event or item judged to be directly instrumental in
the causal chain of events leading to the accident [or
organization standards and recommendations for ground-
proximity warning system (gPWS) equipment that
operation of the aircraft.
7. The black-hole effect typically occurs during a visual
approach conducted on a moonless or overcast night,
over water or over dark, featureless terrain where the only
visual stimuli are lights on and/or near the airport. The
absence of visual references in the pilots near vision affect
depth perception and cause the illusion that the airport is
closer than it actually is and, thus, that the aircraft is too
high. The pilot may respond to this illusion by conducting
an approach below the correct ight path (i.e., a low
approach).
Wilson, dale R. darkness Increases Risks of Flight. Hu-
man Factors & Aviation Medicine Volume 46 (November
december 1999).
(June 1999).
1997).
FSF Editorial Staff. dubrovnik-bound Flight Crews Im-
properly Flown Nonprecision Instrument Approach Results in
Controlled-fight-into-terrain Accident. Flight Safety Digest
Enders, John h.; dodd, Robert; Tarrel, Rick; Khatwa, Ratan;
Roelen, Alfred l.C.; Karwal, Arun K. Airport Safety: A study
of Accidents and Available Approach-and-landing Aids. Flight
Safety Digest Volume 15 (March 1996).
1995).
International Civil Aviation organization. Procedures for Air
Navigation Services. Aircraft Operations. Volume I, Flight
Procedures. Part VI, Altimeter Setting Procedures. Fourth
edition 1993. Reprinted May 2000, incorporating Amend-
ments 110.
Regulations (FARs). 91.3 Responsibility and authority of the
pilot in command, 91.119 Minimum safe altitudes: general,
91.121 Altimeter settings, 91.123 Compliance with ATC
clearances and instructions, 91.155 Basic VFR weather
minimums, 91.157 Special VFR weather minimums,
91.175 Takeoff and landing under IFR, 91.185 IFR opera-
tions: Two-way radio communications failure, 97 Standard
Instrument Approach Procedures, Subpart C TERPS Proce-
dures, 121.97 Airports: Required data, 121.117 Airports:
Required data, 121.135 Contents, 121.315 Cockpit check
procedure, 121.443 Pilot in command qualifcation: Routes
and airports, 121.445 Pilot in command airport qualifcation:
Special areas and airports, 121.542 Flight crewmember du-
ties. January 1, 2000.
FAA. FARs. 121.360 ground proximity warning-glide slope
deviation alerting system. March 29, 2000.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
5.3 Visual Illusions
Visual illusions result from many factors and appear in many
different forms.
Illusions occur when conditions modify the pilots perception
of the environment relative to his or her expectations, possibly
resulting in spatial disorientation or landing errors (e.g., land-
ing short or landing long).
Statistical Data
Reduction Task Force found that visual approaches were being
conducted in 28 percent of the 76 approach-and-landing accidents
(AlAs) and serious incidents worldwide in 1984 through 1997.
1
Visual approaches at night typically present a greater risk
because of fewer visual references, and because of visual il-
lusions and spatial disorientation.
The task force found that disorientation or visual illusion
was a causal factor
2
in 21 percent of the 76 AlAs and serious
incidents, and that poor visibility was a circumstantial factor
3

in 59 percent of the accidents and incidents.
Visual Illusions
The following factors and conditions affect the ight crews
ability to perceive accurately the environment, resulting in
visual illusions.
Airport environment:
ground texture and features;
off-airport light patterns, such as brightly lighted
parking lots or streets;
Black-hole effect
4
along the nal approach ight path;
and/or,
Uphill-sloping terrain or downhill-sloping terrain in the
airport vicinity.
Runway environment:
Runway dimensions;
Runway slope (uphill gradient or downhill gradient);
Terrain drop-off at the approach end of the runway;
Approach lighting and runway lighting; and/or,
Runway condition.
Weather conditions:
Ceiling;
Visibility; and/or,
obstructions to vision.
Pilots Perception
Visual illusions result from the absence of visual references
or the alteration of visual references, which modify the pilots
perception of his or her position (in terms of height, distance
and/or intercept angle) relative to the runway threshold.
Visual illusions are most critical when transitioning from instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC) and instrument references to visual
meteorological conditions (VMC) and visual references.
Visual illusions affect the ight crews situational awareness,
particularly while on base leg and during the nal approach.
Visual illusions usually induce crew inputs (corrections) that
cause the aircraft to deviate from the vertical ight path or
horizontal ight path.
Visual illusions can affect the decision process of when and
how rapidly to descend from the minimum descent altitude/
height (MdA[h]).
The following are factors and conditions that create visual
illusions that can affect the pilots perception of:
The airport and runway environment;
Terrain separation; and,
deviation from the horizontal fight path or vertical
ight path.
Usually, more than one factor is involved in a given ap-
proach.
Airport environment
Conditions that create visual illusions include:
Black-hole effect along the fnal approach fight path;
Uphill-sloping terrain or downhill-sloping terrain:
An uphill slope in the approach zone or a drop-off
of terrain at the approach end of the runway creates
an illusion of being too high (impression of a steep
glide path [Figure 1]), thus:
Possibly inducing a correction (e.g., increasing the
rate of descent) that places the aircraft below the
intended glide path; or,
Preventing the fight crew from detecting a too-
shallow ight path; and,
A downhill slope in the approach zone creates an
illusion of being too low (impression of a shallow
Possibly inducing a correction that places the
aircraft above the intended glide path; or,
Preventing the fight crew from detecting a too-
steep ight path.
Runway environment
Runway dimensions:
The runway aspect ratio (i.e., its length relative to
its width) affects the crews visual perception of the
runway (Figure 3, middle panel, shows the expected
image of the runway);
A wide or short runway (low aspect ratio) creates an
impression of being too low (Figure 3, left panel);
and,
A narrow or long runway (high aspect ratio) creates
an impression of being too high (Figure 3, right
panel);
Runway uphill slope or downhill slope:
Visual illusions are most critical when transitioning from
instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) and instrument
references to visual meteorological conditions (VMC) and
visual references.
Visual illusions affect the flight crews situational awareness,
particularly while on base leg and during the final approach.
cause the aircraft to deviate from the vertical flight path or
horizontal flight path.
height (MDA[H]).
Deviation from the horizontal flight path or vertical flight
path.
Usually, more than one factor is involved in a given approach.
Airport environment
Black-hole effect along the final approach flight path;
An uphill slope in the approach zone or a drop-off of
terrain at the approach end of the runway creates an
illusion of being too high (impression of a steep glide
path [Figure 1]), thus:
Preventing the flight crew from detecting a too-
shallow flight path; and,
steep flight path.
Actual
Glide Path
Perceived
Glide Path
Uphill Slope Creates Illusion That Aircraft
Is on Steeper-than-actual Glide Path
Figure 1
Downhill Slope Creates
Illusion That Aircraft Is on
Shallower-than-actual Glide Path
Figure 2
Actual Glide Path
Perceived Glide Path
Runway environment
Runway dimensions:
The runway aspect ratio (i.e., its length relative to its
width) affects the crews visual perception of the
runway (Figure 3, page 105, middle panel, shows the
expected image of the runway);
impression of being too low (Figure 3, left panel); and,
panel);
An uphill slope creates an illusion of being too high
(impression of a steep glide path); and,
A downhill slope creates an illusion of being too low
(impression of a shallow glide path);
Visual illusions are most critical when transitioning from
instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) and instrument
references to visual meteorological conditions (VMC) and
visual references.
Visual illusions affect the flight crews situational awareness,
particularly while on base leg and during the final approach.
cause the aircraft to deviate from the vertical flight path or
horizontal flight path.
height (MDA[H]).
Deviation from the horizontal flight path or vertical flight
path.
Usually, more than one factor is involved in a given approach.
Airport environment
Black-hole effect along the final approach flight path;
An uphill slope in the approach zone or a drop-off of
terrain at the approach end of the runway creates an
illusion of being too high (impression of a steep glide
path [Figure 1]), thus:
shallow flight path; and,
steep flight path.
Actual
Glide Path
Perceived
Glide Path
Uphill Slope Creates Illusion That Aircraft
Is on Steeper-than-actual Glide Path
Figure 1
Downhill Slope Creates
Illusion That Aircraft Is on
Shallower-than-actual Glide Path
Figure 2
Actual Glide Path
Perceived Glide Path
Runway environment
Runway dimensions:
The runway aspect ratio (i.e., its length relative to its
width) affects the crews visual perception of the
runway (Figure 3, page 105, middle panel, shows the
expected image of the runway);
impression of being too low (Figure 3, left panel); and,
panel);
lighting:
Approach lighting and runway lighting (including
touchdown-zone lighting) affect depth perception,
depending on:
lighting intensity;
daytime conditions or nighttime conditions; and
Weather conditions;
Bright runway lights create the impression of being
closer to the runway (thus, on a steeper glide path);
low-intensity lights create the impression of being
farther away (thus, on a shallower glide path);
Nonstandard spacing of runway lights modies the
pilots perception of distance to the runway and glide
path; and,
If the runway lighting is partially visible (e.g., while
on base leg during a visual approach or circling
approach), the runway may appear farther away or
at a different angle (e.g., intercept angle is perceived
as smaller than actual).
The following runway approach-aid conditions may increase
the crews exposure to visual illusions:
A glideslope that is unusable beyond a certain point
because of terrain or below a certain altitude because
of water;
offset localizer course; and,
Two-bar visual approach slope indicator (VASI), if used
below (typically) 300 feet height above touchdown
(hAT) for glide-path corrections.
Weather conditions
The following weather conditions can create visual illu-
sions:
Ceiling and visibility (vertical, slant and horizontal
visibility):
Flying in light rain, fog, haze, mist, smoke, dust, glare
or darkness usually creates an illusion of being too
high;
Shallow fog (i.e., a fog layer not exceeding 300 feet
thickness) results in a low obscuration and in low
horizontal visibility:
When on top of a shallow fog layer, the ground (or
airport and runway, if ying overhead) can be seen;
but when entering the fog layer, forward visibility
and slant visibility are lost; and,
Entering a fog layer also creates the perception of
a pitch-up, which causes the pilot to respond with
a nose-down correction that steepens the approach
path;
Flying in haze creates the impression that the runway
is farther away, inducing a tendency to shallow the
glide path and land long;
In light rain or moderate rain, the runway may appear
indistinct because of the rain halo effect, increasing
the risk of misperception of the vertical deviation
or horizontal deviation during the visual segment
(the segment own after transition from instrument
references to visual references);
heavy rain affects depth perception and distance
perception:
Rain on a windshield creates refraction effects that
cause the crew to believe that the aircraft is too high,
resulting in an unwarranted nose-down correction
and ight below the desired ight path;
Lighting:
Approach lighting and runway lighting (including
touchdown-zone lighting) affect depth perception,
depending on:
Lighting intensity;
Daytime conditions or nighttime conditions; and
Weather conditions;
Bright runway lights create the impression of being
closer to the runway (thus, on a steeper glide path);
Low-intensity lights create the impression of being
farther away (thus, on a shallower glide path);
Nonstandard spacing of runway lights modifies the
pilots perception of distance to the runway and glide
path; and,
If the runway lighting is partially visible (e.g., while
on base leg during a visual approach or circling
approach), the runway may appear farther away or at
a different angle (e.g., intercept angle is perceived as
smaller than actual).
The following runway approach-aid conditions may increase
the crews exposure to visual illusions:
A glideslope that is unusable beyond a certain point
because of terrain or below a certain altitude because of
water;
Offset localizer course; and,
Two-bar visual approach slope indicator (VASI), if used
below (typically) 300 feet height above touchdown
(HAT) for glide-path corrections.
Weather conditions
The following weather conditions can create visual illusions:
Ceiling and visibility (vertical, slant and horizontal
visibility):
Flying in light rain, fog, haze, mist, smoke, dust, glare
or darkness usually creates an illusion of being too
high;
Shallow fog (i.e., a fog layer not exceeding 300 feet
thickness) results in a low obscuration and in low
horizontal visibility:
When on top of a shallow fog layer, the ground
(or airport and runway, if flying overhead) can be
seen; but when entering the fog layer, forward
visibility and slant visibility are lost; and,
Entering a fog layer also creates the perception of a
pitch-up, which causes the pilot to respond with a
nose-down correction that steepens the approach path;
Flying in haze creates the impression that the runway
is farther away, inducing a tendency to shallow the
glide path and land long;
In light rain or moderate rain, the runway may appear
indistinct because of the rain halo effect, increasing
the risk of misperception of the vertical deviation or
horizontal deviation during the visual segment (the
segment flown after transition from instrument
references to visual references);
Heavy rain affects depth perception and distance
perception:
Rain on a windshield creates refraction effects that
cause the crew to believe that the aircraft is too
high, resulting in an unwarranted nose-down
correction and flight below the desired flight path;
In daylight conditions, rain diminishes the apparent
intensity of the approach light system (ALS),
resulting in the runway appearing to be farther
away. As a result of this illusion, the flight crew
tends to shallow the flight path, resulting in a long
landing; and,
In nighttime conditions, rain increases the apparent
brilliance of the ALS, making the runway appear
to be closer, inducing a pitch-down input and the
risk of landing short of the runway threshold;
When breaking out at both ceiling minimums and
visibility minimums, the slant visibility may not be
sufficient for the crew to see the farther bar(s) of the
Effects of Runway Dimensions on
Perception of Height
Note: All three panels show a pilots sight picture from an aircraft
at 200 feet and on a three-degree glide path. The runway in panel
A is 150 feet (45 meters) wide and 11,500 feet (3,500 meters)
long. The runway in panel B is wider/shorter than the runway in
panel A; the crew may believe that the aircraft is on shallower-
than-actual glide path. The runway in panel C is narrower/longer
than the runway in panel A; the crew may believe that the aircraft
is on steeper-than-actual flight path.
Figure 3
B A C
In daylight conditions, rain diminishes the apparent
intensity of the approach light system (AlS),
resulting in the runway appearing to be farther
away. As a result of this illusion, the ight crew
tends to shallow the ight path, resulting in a long
landing; and,
In nighttime conditions, rain increases the apparent
brilliance of the AlS, making the runway appear
to be closer, inducing a pitch-down input and the
risk of landing short of the runway threshold;
When breaking out at both ceiling minimums and
visibility minimums, the slant visibility may not
be sufcient for the crew to see the farther bar(s)
of the VASI or precision approach path indicator
(PAPI), thus reducing the available visual cues for
the visual segment in reduced visibility;
Crosswind:
In crosswind conditions, the runway lights and
environment will appear at an angle to the aircraft
heading; the ight crew should maintain the drift
correction and resist the tendency to align the aircraft
with the runway centerline; and,
Runway surface condition:
A wet runway reects very little light; this can affect
depth perception and cause the ight crew to perceive
incorrectly that the aircraft is farther away from the
runway. This effect usually results in a late are and
hard landing.
Table 1 provides a summary of visual illusions factors and
their effects on the pilots perception and actions.
Lessening the Effects
To lessen the effects of visual illusions, company accident-
prevention strategies and personal lines of defense should be
developed and implemented based on the following recom-
mendations.
Hazard Awareness
Companies should assess their exposure to visual illusions
on their route network and in their operating environment(s).
Flight crews should be trained to recognize and to understand
the factors and conditions that cause visual illusions and their
effects, including:
Perception of height/depth, distances and angles; and,
Assessment of the aircrafts horizontal position and glide
path.
Hazard Assessment
Approach hazards should be assessed during the approach
brieng by reviewing the following elements:
Ceiling conditions and visibility conditions;
Weather:
Wind, and turbulence;
Rain showers; and/or,
Fog or smoke patches;
Crew experience at the airport and in the airport
environment:
Surrounding terrain; and/or,
VASI or precision approach path indicator (PAPI),
thus reducing the available visual clues for the visual
segment in reduced visibility;
Crosswind:
In crosswind conditions, the runway lights and
environment will appear at an angle to the aircraft
heading; the flight crew should maintain the drift
correction and resist the tendency to align the aircraft
with the runway centerline; and,
Runway surface condition:
A wet runway reflects very little light; this can affect
depth perception and cause the flight crew to perceive
incorrectly that the aircraft is farther away from the
runway. This effect usually results in a late flare and
hard landing.
Table 1 provides a summary of visual illusions factors and
their effects on the pilots perception and actions.
Lessening the Effects
To lessen the effects of visual illusions, company accident-
prevention strategies and personal lines of defense should be
developed and implemented based on the following
recommendations.
Hazard Awareness
Companies should assess their exposure to visual illusions on
their route network and in their operating environment(s).
Flight crews should be trained to recognize and to understand
the factors and conditions that cause visual illusions and their
effects, including:
Perception of height/depth, distances and angles; and,
Assessment of the aircrafts horizontal position and glide
path.
Hazard Assessment
Approach hazards should be assessed during the approach
briefing by reviewing the following elements:
Ceiling conditions and visibility conditions;
Weather:
Wind, and turbulence;
Rain showers; and/or,
Fog or smoke patches;
Crew experience at the airport and in the airport
environment:
Specific airport hazards and runway hazards
(obstructions, black-hole effect, off-airport light
patterns); and,
Runway approach aids and visual aids:
Type of approach (let-down navaid restriction, such
as a glideslope that is unusable beyond a specific point
or below a specific altitude);
Type of approach lights; and,
VASI or PAPI availability.
Terrain Awareness
When requesting or accepting a visual approach, the flight
crew should be aware of the surrounding terrain features and
man-made obstacles.
At night, an unlighted hillside between a lighted area and the
runway may prevent the flight crew from correctly perceiving
the rising terrain.
Table 1
Factors That Cause Visual Illusions and
Result in Incorrect Pilot Responses
Factor Perception Action Result
Narrow or
long runway
Runway or Too high Push Land
terrain short/hard
uphill slope
Wide or
short runway
Runway or Too low Pull Land long/
terrain overrun
downhill slope
Bright runway Too close Land
lighting (too steep) Push short/hard
Low-intensity Farther away Pull Land long/
lighting (too shallow) overrun
Light rain, fog, Too high Push Land
haze, mist, short/hard
smoke, dust
Entering fog Steepen
(shallow layer) Pitch-up Push over glide path/
(CFIT)
Flying in Farther away Pull Land long/
haze (too shallow) overrun
Wet runway Farther away Late flare Hard
(too high) landing
Crosswind Angled with Cancel drift Drifting
runway correction off track
CFIT = Controlled flight into terrain
Source: Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing
Accident Reduction (ALAR) Task Force
Specific airport hazards and runway hazards
(obstructions, black-hole effect, off-airport light
patterns); and,
Runway approach aids and visual aids:
Type of approach (let-down navaid restriction, such as
a glideslope that is unusable beyond a specic point
or below a specic altitude);
Type of approach lights; and,
VASI or PAPI availability.
Terrain Awareness
When requesting or accepting a visual approach, the ight
crew should be aware of the surrounding terrain features and
man-made obstacles.
At night, an unlighted hillside between a lighted area and the
runway may prevent the ight crew from correctly perceiving
the rising terrain.
Type of Approach
At night, whenever an instrument approach is available (par-
ticularly an instrument landing system [IlS] approach) the
instrument approach should be preferred to a visual approach,
to reduce the risk of accidents caused by visual illusions.
If an IlS approach is available, fy the IlS and use VASI or
PAPI for the visual portion of the approach.
If an IlS approach is not available, a nonprecision approach
supported by a VASI or PAPI should be the preferred option.
on a nonprecision approach, do not descend below the
MdA(h) before reaching the visual descent point (VdP), even
if visual references have been acquired.
To help prevent transitioning too early to visual references and
descending prematurely, the pilot ying (PF) should maintain
instrument references until reaching the VdP.
during a visual or circling approach, when on the base leg,
if the VASI or PAPI indicates that the aircraft is below glide
path, level off or climb until the VASI or PAPI indicates on-
glide-path.
Flight Path Monitoring
Resisting the tendency to pitch down or to descend intention-
ally below the appropriate altitude is the greatest challenge
during the visual segment of the approach. This includes:
Pitching down toward the approach lights in an attempt
to see the runway during a precision approach; or,
descending prematurely because of the incorrect
perception of being too high.
The pilot not ying (PNF) must maintain instrument refer-
ences, including glideslope deviation, during the visual portion
of an IlS approach.
Monitoring the VASI or PAPI, whenever available, provides
additional visual references to resist the tendency to increase
or to decrease the rate of descent.
on runways with an AlS with sequenced fashing lights II
(AlSF-II), fight crews should be aware that two rows of red
lights are aligned with the touchdown zone lights; this will
provide an additional guard against descending prematurely.
The following can counter visual illusions (and prevent a ight
crew from descending prematurely):
Maintain an instrument scan down to touchdown;
Cross-check instrument indications against outside
visual references to conrm glide path;
Use an IlS approach whenever available;
Use a VASI or PAPI, if available, down to runway
threshold; and,
Use other available tools, such as an extended runway
centerline shown on the ight management system
(FMS) navigation display, IlS-dME (distance-
measuring equipment) or VoR (very-high-frequency
omnidirectional radio)-dME distance, altitude above
airport elevation to conrm the glide path (based on a
typical 300-feet/one-nautical-mile approach gradient).
Crew Resource Management (CRM)
CRM should ensure continuous monitoring of visual refer-
ences and instrument references throughout the transition to
the visual segment of an instrument approach.
In demanding conditions, the PNF should reinforce his or her
monitoring of instrument references and of the ight progress
for effective cross-check and backup of the PF.
Altitude calls and excessive-parameter-deviation calls should
be the same for instrument approaches and for visual ap-
proaches, and should be continued during the visual portion
of the approach (including glideslope deviation during an IlS
approach or vertical-speed deviation during a nonprecision
approach).
Consequences
The following are cited often in the analysis of approach-
and-landing incidents and accidents resulting from visual
illusions:
Unconscious modifcation of the aircraft trajectory to
maintain a constant perception of visual references;
Natural tendency to descend below the glideslope or the
initial glide path;
The preceding tendencies combined with the inability to
judge the proper are point because of restricted visual
references (often resulting in a hard landing before
reaching the desired touchdown point);
Inadequate reference to instruments to support the visual
segment;
Failure to detect the deterioration of visual references;
and,
Failure to monitor the instruments and the fight path
because both pilots are involved in the identication of
visual references.
Summary
To guard against the adverse effects of visual illusions, ight
crews should:
Be aware of all weather factors;
Be aware of surrounding terrain and obstacles;
Assess the airport environment, airport and runway
hazards; and,
Adhere to defined PF-PNF task-sharing after the
transition to visual ying, including:
Monitoring by the PF of outside visual references
while referring to instrument references to support
and monitor the ight path during the visual portion
of the approach; and,
Monitoring by the PNF of head-down references
while the PF ies and looks outside, for effective
cross-check and backup.
5.2 Terrain;
7.3 Visual References; and,
7.4 Visual Approaches.
References
2. The Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Approach-and-
landing Accident Reduction (AlAR) Task Force defned
causal factor as an event or item judged to be directly
instrumental in the causal chain of events leading to the
accident [or incident]. Each accident and incident in the
3. The FSF AlAR Task Force defned circumstantial factor
as an event or item that was judged not to be directly in
the causal chain of events but could have contributed to
the accident [or incident].
approach conducted on a moonless or overcast night, over
water or over dark, featureless terrain where the only visual
stimuli are lights on and/or near the airport. The absence
of visual references in the pilots near vision affect depth
perception and cause the illusion that the airport is closer
than it actually is and, thus, that the aircraft is too high. The
pilot may respond to this illusion by conducting an approach
below the correct ight path (i.e., a low approach).
Wilson, dale R. darkness Increases Risks of Flight. Hu-
man Factors & Aviation Medicine Volume 46 (November
december 1999).
(March 1993).
International Civil Aviation organization. Preparation of an
Operations Manual. Second edition 1997.
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. Federal Aviation
Regulations. 91.175 Takeoff and landing under IFR. July
1, 2000.
Operations 1. Commercial Air Transport (Aeroplanes). 1.430
Aerodrome operating Minima general, 1.435 Terminol-
ogy. July 1, 2000.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
5.4 Wind Shear
Flight crew awareness and alertness are key factors in the suc-
cessful application of wind shear avoidance techniques and
recovery techniques.
Statistical Data
dent Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that adverse wind
conditions (i.e., strong crosswinds, tail winds or wind shear)
were involved in about 33 percent of 76 approach-and-landing
1997.
1
Denition
Wind shear is a sudden change of wind velocity/direction.
The following types of wind shear exist:
Vertical wind shear (vertical variations of the horizontal
wind component, resulting in turbulence and affecting
aircraft airspeed when climbing or descending through
the shear layer); and,
horizontal wind shear (horizontal variations of the wind
component [e.g., decreasing head wind or increasing
tail wind, or a shift from a head wind to a tail wind],
affecting the aircraft in level ight, climb or descent).
Wind shear is associated usually with the following weather
conditions:
Jet streams;
Mountain waves;
Frontal surfaces;
Thunderstorms and convective clouds; and,
Microbursts.
Microbursts present two distinct threats to aviation safety:
A downburst that results in strong downdrafts (reaching
40 knots vertical velocity); and,
An outburst that results in strong horizontal wind shear
and wind-component reversal (with horizontal winds
reaching 100 knots).
Avoidance
The following information can be used to avoid areas of po-
tential wind shear or observed wind shear:
Weather reports and forecasts:
The low-level wind shear alert system (llWAS)
is used by controllers to warn pilots of existing or
impending wind shear conditions:
llWAS consists of a central wind sensor (sensing
wind velocity and direction) and peripheral wind
sensors located approximately two nautical miles
(nm) from the center. Central wind sensor data
are averaged over a rolling two-minute period and
compared every 10 seconds with the data from the
peripheral wind sensors.
An alert is generated whenever a difference in
excess of 15 knots is detected. The llWAS may
not detect downbursts with a diameter of two nm
or less:
Terminal doppler weather radar (TdWR) detects
approaching wind shear areas and, thus, provides
pilots with an advance warning of wind shear
hazard;
Pilot reports:
Pilot reports (PIREPs) of wind shear causing airspeed
fuctuations in excess of 20 knots or vertical-speed
changes in excess of 500 feet per minute (fpm) below
1,000 feet above airport elevation should be cause for
caution;
Visual observation:
Blowing dust, rings of dust, dust devils (i.e.,
whirlwinds containing dust or sand) and any other
evidence of strong local air outow near the surface
often are indications of wind shear;
on-board wind component and groundspeed
monitoring:
on approach, a comparison of the head wind
component or tail wind component aloft (as available)
and the surface head wind component or tail wind
component indicates the likely degree of vertical
wind shear;
on-board weather radar; and,
on-board predictive wind shear system.
Recognition
Timely recognition of wind shear is vital for successful imple-
mentation of a wind shear recovery procedure.
Some ight guidance systems can detect a wind shear condition
during approach and during go-around, based on analysis of
aircraft ight parameters.
The following are indications of a suspected wind shear
condition:
Indicated airspeed variations in excess of 15 knots;
groundspeed variations (decreasing head wind or
increasing tail wind, or a shift from head wind to tail
wind);
Vertical-speed excursions of 500 fpm or more;
Pitch attitude excursions of fve degrees or more;
glideslope deviation of one dot or more;
heading variations of 10 degrees or more; and,
Unusual autothrottle activity or throttle lever position.
Reactive/Predictive Warnings
In addition to fight director (Fd) wind shear recovery guid-
ance, some aircraft provide a wind shear warning.
The wind shear warning and Fd recovery guidance are referred
to as a reactive wind shear system, which does not incorporate
any forward-looking (anticipation) capability.
To complement the reactive wind shear system and provide
an early warning of wind shear activity, some weather radars
detect wind shear areas ahead of the aircraft (typically provid-
ing a one-minute advance warning) and generate a wind shear
warning (red WINd ShEAR AhEAd), caution (amber
WINd ShEAR AhEAd) or advisory alert messages.
This equipment is referred to as a predictive wind shear sys-
tem.
Operating Procedures
The following opportunities are available to enhance wind
shear awareness and operating procedures.
Standard Operating Procedures
Standard operating procedures (SoPs) should emphasize the
following wind shear awareness items:
Wind shear awareness and avoidance:
Approach brieng; and,
Wind shear recognition:
Task-sharing for effective cross-check and backup,
particularly for excessive parameter deviations;
Energy management during approach; and,
Elements of a stabilized approach (Table 1) and
approach gate
2
; and,
Wind shear recovery procedure:
Readiness and commitment to respond to a wind shear
warning.
Training
A wind shear awareness program should be developed and
implemented, based on the industry-developed Windshear
Training Aid or the Flight Safety Foundation-developed Wind-
shear Training Aid Package.
3
Training on the wind shear recovery procedure should be
conducted in a full-ight simulator, using wind shear proles
recorded during actual wind shear encounters.
Departure Brieng
The takeoff-and-departure brieng should include the follow-
ing wind shear awareness items:
Assessment of the conditions for a safe takeoff based
on:
Most recent weather reports and forecasts;
Visual observations; and,
Crew experience with the airport environment and
the prevailing weather conditions; and,
Consideration to delaying the takeoff until conditions
improve.
Takeoff and Initial Climb
If wind shear conditions are expected, the crew should:
Select the most favorable runway, considering the
location of the likely wind shear/downburst condition;
Select the minimum faps confguration compatible
with takeoff requirements, to maximize climb-gradient
capability;
Use the weather radar (or the predictive wind shear
system, if available) before beginning the takeoff to
ensure that the ight path is clear of hazards;
Select maximum takeoff thrust;
After selecting the takeoff/go-around (TogA) mode,
select the ight-path-vector display for the pilot not
ying (PNF), as available, to obtain a visual reference
of the climb ight path angle; and,
Closely monitor the airspeed and airspeed trend during
the takeoff roll to detect any evidence of impending wind
shear.
Wind Shear Recovery
If wind shear is encountered during the takeoff roll or during
initial climb, the following actions should be taken without
delay:
Before V
1
:
The takeoff should be rejected if unacceptable
airspeed variations occur (not exceeding the target
V
1
) and if there is sufcient runway remaining to
stop the airplane;
After V
1
:
disconnect the autothrottles (A/ThR), if available,
and maintain or set the throttle levers to maximum
takeoff thrust;
Rotate normally at V
R
; and,
Follow the Fd pitch command if the Fd provides
wind shear recovery guidance, or set the required pitch
attitude (as recommended in the aircraft operating
manual [AoM]/quick reference handbook [QRh]);
during initial climb:
Table 1
REF
+ 20 knots
REF
;
ducted;
go-around.
disconnect the A/ThR, if available, and maintain or
set the throttle levers to maximum takeoff thrust;
If the autopilot (AP) is engaged and if the Fd provides
wind shear recovery guidance, keep the AP engaged;
or,
Follow the Fd pitch command, if the Fd provides
wind shear recovery guidance; or,
Set the required pitch attitude (as recommended in
the AoM/QRh);
level the wings to maximize the climb gradient,
unless a turn is required for obstacle clearance;
Closely monitor the airspeed, airspeed trend and fight
path angle (as available);
Allow airspeed to decrease to stick shaker onset
(intermittent stick shaker activation) while monitoring
the airspeed trend;
do not change the faps or landing-gear confgurations
until out of the wind shear condition; and,
When out of the wind shear condition, increase
airspeed when a positive climb rate is conrmed,
retract the landing gear, aps and slats, then establish
a normal climb prole.
Approach Brieng
The approach brieng should include the following:
Based on the automatic terminal information service
(ATIS) broadcast, review and discuss the following
items:
Expected arrival route (standard terminal arrival
[STAR] or radar vectors);
Prevailing weather; and,
Reports of potential low-level wind shear (llWAS
warnings, TdWR data); and,
discuss the intended use of automation for vertical
navigation and lateral navigation as a function of the
suspected or forecast wind shear conditions.
Descent and Approach
Before conducting an approach that may be affected by wind
shear conditions, the crew should:
Assess the conditions for a safe approach and landing
based on:
Most recent weather reports and forecasts;
Visual observations; and,
Crew experience with the airport environment and
the prevailing weather conditions;
Consider delaying the approach and landing until
conditions improve, or consider diverting to a suitable
airport;
Whenever downburst/wind shear conditions are
anticipated, based on pilot reports from preceding
aircraft or based on an alert by the airport llWAS, the
landing should be delayed or the aircraft should be own
to the destination alternate airport;
Select the most favorable runway, considering:
The location of the likely wind shear/downburst
condition; and,
The available runway approach aids;
Use the weather radar (or the predictive wind shear
system, if available) during the approach to ensure that
the ight path is clear of potential hazards;
Select the fight path vector display for the PNF, as
available, to obtain a visual reference of the ight path
angle;
Select less than full faps for landing (to maximize climb-
gradient capability), if authorized by the AoM/QRh,
and adjust the nal approach speed accordingly;
If an instrument landing system (IlS) approach is
available, engage the AP for more accurate approach
tracking and for warnings of excessive glideslope
deviations;
Select a fnal approach speed based on the reported
surface wind an airspeed correction (usually a
maximum of 15 knots to 20 knots, based on the expected
wind shear value) is recommended;
Compare the head wind component aloft or the tail wind
component aloft with the surface head wind component
or surface tail wind component to assess the likely degree
of vertical wind shear;
Closely monitor the airspeed, airspeed trend and
groundspeed during the approach to detect any evidence
of impending wind shear;
Be alert for microbursts, which are characterized by
a signicant increase of the head wind component
followed by a sudden change to a tail wind; and,
Be alert to respond without delay to a predictive wind
shear warning or to a reactive wind shear warning, as
applicable. The response should adhere to procedures
in the AoM/QRh.
Recovery During Approach and Landing
If wind shear is encountered during the approach or landing, the
following recovery actions should be taken without delay:
Select the takeoff/go-around (TogA) mode and set and
maintain maximum go-around thrust;
Follow the Fd pitch command (if the Fd provides wind
shear recovery guidance) or set the pitch-attitude target
recommended in the AoM/QRh;
If the AP is engaged and if the Fd provides wind shear
recovery guidance, keep the AP engaged; otherwise,
disconnect the AP and set and maintain the recommended
pitch attitude;
do not change the fap confguration or landing-gear
conguration until out of the wind shear;
level the wings to maximize climb gradient, unless a
turn is required for obstacle clearance;
Allow airspeed to decrease to stick-shaker onset
(intermittent stick-shaker activation) while monitoring
airspeed trend;
Closely monitor airspeed, airspeed trend and fight path
angle (if ight-path vector is available and displayed for
the PNF); and,
When out of the wind shear, retract the landing gear,
aps and slats, then increase the airspeed when a positive
climb rate is conrmed and establish a normal climb
prole.
Awareness
of defense should be developed to address the following fac-
tors:
Aircraft equipment:
Absence of reactive/predictive wind shear system(s);
and,
Absence of glideslope excessive-deviation warning;
Airport equipment:
Absence of an llWAS; and,
Absence of TdWR;
Training:
Absence of a wind shear awareness program; and/
or,
Absence of wind shear recovery (escape) simulator
training;
SoPs:
Inadequate briengs;
Inadequate monitoring of ight progress; and/or,
Incorrect use of automation; and,
human factors and crew resource management
(CRM):
Absence of cross-checking (for excessive parameter
deviations);
Absence of backup (standard calls); and/or,
Fatigue.
Summary
Avoidance
Assess the conditions for a safe approach and landing,
based on all available meteorological data, visual
observations and on-board equipment;
As warranted, consider delaying the approach, or
consider diverting to a more suitable airport; and,
Be prepared and committed to respond immediately to
a wind shear warning.
Recognition
Be alert for wind shear conditions, based on all available
weather data, on-board equipment and aircraft ight
parameters and ight path; and,
Monitor the instruments for evidence of impending wind
shear.
Recovery
Avoid large thrust variations or trim changes in response
to sudden airspeed variations;
If a wind shear warning occurs, follow the Fd wind
shear recovery pitch guidance or apply the recommended
escape procedure; and,
Make maximum use of aircraft equipment, such as the
ight path vector (as available).
1.2 Automation;
1.3 Golden Rules;
1.4 Standard Calls;
5.1 Approach Hazards Overview; and,
6.1 Being Prepared to Go Around.
References
ights.
Accident Reduction (AlAR) Task Force defnes approach
gate as a point in space (1,000 feet above airport elevation
in instrument meteorological conditions or 500 feet above
3. The two-volume Windshear Training Aid, developed
primarily for operators of air carrier aircraft, is available
for purchase from the U.S. National Technical Information
Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfeld, VA
22161 U.S.A. Telephone: (800) 553-6847 (U.S.) or +1
(703) 605-6000. Fax: +1 (703) 605-6900. Internet site:
www.ntis.gov. Each volume costs US$123 plus shipping-
and-handling charges.
The multimedia Windshear Training Aid Package,
developed by Flight Safety Foundation for operators of
regional, on-demand, business and other general aviation
aircraft, is available for purchase from NTIS for $330, plus
shipping-and-handling charges.
1997).
(February 1996).
FSF Editorial Staff. Wind Shear Sends Commuter Aircraft
Plunging out of Control. Accident Prevention Volume 49
(September 1992).
U.S National Center for Atmospheric Research. Improved
Microburst Warnings Aim for Safer Terminal operations.
Accident Prevention Volume 47 (July 1990).
FSF. Summer hazards. Accident Prevention Volume 44
(July 1988).
ICAo. Circular 186, Wind Shear. 1987.
Operation of Aircraft. Part I, International Commercial Air
Transport Aeroplanes. Chapter 6, Aeroplane Instruments,
Equipment and Flight documents, 6.21 Seventh edition July
1998, incorporating Amendments 1-25.
Regulations. 121.135 Contents, 121.315 Cockpit check pro-
cedure, 121.357 Airborne weather radar equipment require-
ments, 121.358 low-altitude windshear system equipment
requirements, 121.424 Pilots: Initial, transition, and up-grade
fight training, 121.542 Flight crewmember duties, 121.599
Familiarity with weather conditions. January 1, 2000.
FAA. FARs. 121.360 ground proximity warning-glide slope
deviation alerting system. March 29, 2000.
FAA. Advisory Circular 00-54, Pilot Windshear Guide. No-
vember 25, 1988.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
6.1 Being Prepared to Go Around
The importance of being go-around-prepared and being go-
around-minded must be emphasized, because a go-around is
not a frequent occurrence. This requires having a clear mental
image of applicable briengs, standard calls, sequences of
actions, task-sharing and cross-checking, and being prepared
to abandon the approach if requirements are not met in terms
of:
Weather minimums; or,
Criteria for a stabilized approach (Table 1).
The sequence of events leading to a go-around can begin at
the top of descent, so the following recommendations begin
with descent preparation.
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that failure to recognize
the need for and to execute a missed approach when appro-
priate is a primary cause of approach-and-landing accidents
(AlAs), including those involving controlled fight into ter-
rain (CFIT).
1
The task force found that inadequate professional judgment/
airmanship was a causal factor
2
and-landing accidents and serious incidents worldwide in
1984 through 1997.
Among the ight crew errors committed in these occurrences
was failure to conduct a go-around when required by: an
unstabilized approach; excessive glideslope/localizer devia-
tions; absence of adequate visual references at the minimum
descent altitude/height (MdA[h]) or decision altitude/height
(dA[h]); confusion regarding aircraft position; and automa-
tion-interaction problems.
The task force found that only 17 percent of the accident/
incident ight crews initiated go-arounds when conditions
indicated that go-arounds should have been conducted.
General
Being go-around-prepared and go-around-minded implies
the following:
Knowledge of applicable briefings, standard calls,
sequences of actions, task-sharing and cross-checking;
Being ready to abandon the approach if the weather
minimums or the criteria for a stabilized approach are
not met, or if doubt exists about the aircrafts position
or about aircraft guidance; and,
After the go-around is initiated, the fight crew must fy
the published missed approach procedure.
Operational Recommendations
Task-sharing
Adherence to the dened pilot ying-pilot not ying (PF-PNF)
task-sharing procedures for normal operations and abnormal
operations is a major part of preparing for a go-around and of
conducting a safe go-around.
Table 1
REF
+ 20 knots
REF
;
ducted;
go-around.
Descent Preparation
descent preparation and the approach briefng should be
planned and should be conducted to prevent delaying the
initiation of the descent and to prevent rushed management
of the descent prole.
Approach Brieng
To be go-around-prepared, the approach brieng should in-
clude a discussion of the primary elements of the go-around
maneuver and the published missed approach procedure. The
discussion should include the following:
Approach gate
3
;
go-around call (e.g., a loud and clear go around/
aps);
PF-PNF task-sharing (flow of respective actions,
including desired guidance, mode selection, airspeed
target, go-around altitude, deviations calls); and,
Missed approach vertical navigation and lateral navigation
(including airspeed and altitude restrictions).
track, altitude, vertical speed, airspeed and attitude) during the
Descent Prole Monitoring
The descent prole should be monitored, using all available
instrument references (including ight management system
[FMS] vertical navigation [VNAV]).
The descent prole also may be monitored or may be adjusted
based on a typical 10 nautical mile per 3,000 feet descent
gradient (corrected for the prevailing head wind component or
tail wind component) while adhering to the required altitude/
airspeed restrictions (deceleration management).
If the ight path is signicantly above the desired descent
profle (e.g., because of an air traffc control [ATC] restriction
or greater-than-expected tail wind), the desired ight path can
be recovered by:
Reverting from FMS VNAV to a selected vertical mode,
with an appropriate airspeed target or vertical-speed
target;
Maintaining a high airspeed and a high descent rate as
long as practical;
Using speed brakes;
Extending the landing gear, if the use of speed brakes
is not sufcient; or,
As a last resort, conducting a 360-degree turn (as
practical, and with ATC clearance).
If the desired descent fight path cannot be established, ATC
should be notied for timely coordination.
\
Final Approach
Because the approach briefng was conducted at the end of
the cruise phase, the crew should review primary elements of
the go-around maneuver and the missed approach procedure
at an appropriate time during nal approach.
To be prepared to take over manually when ying with the
autopilot (AP) engaged, the following should be considered:
Seat adjustment and armrest adjustment (this is of
primary importance for effective aircraft handling in a
dynamic phase of ight); and,
Flying with one hand on the control column and one
hand on the throttle levers.
Transitioning Back to Instrument Flying
one of the most frequent reasons for conducting a go-around
is weather.
When approaching the minimum descent altitude/height
(MdA[h]) or the decision altitude/height (dA[h]), one pilot
attempts to acquire the required visual references. during this
time, the pilot is in almost-visual ying conditions.
If a go-around is initiated, an immediate transition to instru-
ment ying should occur.
It is, therefore, of primary importance that the other pilot
maintain instrument references and be ready to make appropri-
ate calls if any ight parameter (airspeed, pitch attitude, bank
angle, thrust) deviates from the normal value.
To ease this transition back to instrument ying, all efforts
should be made to initiate the go-around with wings level and
with no roll rate.
The above discussion does not apply when captain/rst ofcer
task-sharing is accomplished in accordance with an operating
policy known as the shared approach, monitored approach or
delegated handling approach. [See FSF AlAR Briefng Note
7.3 Visual References.]
Summary
Because a go-around is not a frequent occurrence, the impor-
tance of being go-around-prepared and go-around-minded
should be emphasized.
If the criteria for safe continuation of the approach are not
met, the crew should initiate a go-around and y the published
missed approach.
1.3 Golden Rules;
1.4 Standard Calls;
4.1 Descent-and-approach Profle Management;
6.2 Manual Go-around;
7.3 Visual References.
References
ights.
FSF Editorial Staff. Business Jet overruns Wet Runway After
landing Past Touchdown Zone. Accident Prevention Volume
56 (december 1999).
degraded Wing Performance Cited in Unsuccessful go-around
(February 1996).
Pope, John A. Faulty Angle-of-attack Sensor Provokes go/
No-go decision with an Inadequately Coordinated Crew.
Accident Prevention Volume 50 (August 1993).
5.16, 5.18, 5.19. Seventh edition July 1998, incorporating
Amendments 125.
ICAo. Manual of All-Weather Operations. Second edition
1991.
Regulations. 91.175 Takeoff and landing under IFR, 91.189
Category II and III operations: general operating rules.
January 1, 2000.
FAA. Advisory Circular 60-A, Pilots Spatial Disorientation.
February 8, 1983.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
6.2 Manual Go-around
The importance of being go-around-prepared and being go-
around-minded must be emphasized, because a go-around is
not a frequent occurrence.
This requires that the pilots have a clear mental image of ap-
plicable briengs, standard calls, sequences of actions, task-
sharing and cross-checking, and that the pilots are prepared
to abandon the approach if requirements are not met in terms
of:
Weather minimums; or,
Criteria for a stabilized approach (Table 1).
After the go-around is initiated, the ight crew must y the
missed approach procedure as published (i.e., following the
published vertical navigation and lateral navigation).
Recommendations
Task-sharing
The following task-sharing principles are important in the very
dynamic phase of initiating a go-around.
The pilot ying (PF) is responsible for controlling vertical
navigation and lateral navigation, and for energy manage-
ment, by either:
Supervising autopilot vertical guidance and lateral
guidance, and autothrottle (A/ThR) operation; and
maintaining awareness of flight-mode annunciator
(FMA) status and FMA changes; or,
Flying manually, with fight director (Fd) guidance and
an adapted (e.g., horizontal situation indicator [hSI]-
type) navigation display (Nd) mode.
If manual thrust is selected, the pilot not ying (PNF) should
monitor closely the airspeed, airspeed trend and thrust, and
call any excessive deviation (e.g., airspeed decreasing below
V
REF
[reference landing speed]).
The PNF is responsible for monitoring tasks and for conducting
actions requested by the PF, including:
Conducting the standard PNF tasks:
Performing standard operating procedures (SoPs);
Conducting selections on the automatic fight system
(AFS) control panel when in manual ight; and,
Reading abnormal checklists or emergency checklists
(electronic and/or paper checklists) and conducting
required actions in case of failure;
Monitoring the thrust setting;
Monitoring vertical speed and radio-altimeter altitude;
and,
Monitoring pitch attitude, bank angle, airspeed
and airspeed trend, and calling out any excessive
deviation.
Understanding the Flight Dynamics of the Go-
around
Unlike the takeoff rotation, in which the aircraft is pre-trimmed
and the thrust is already set, the initiation of a go-around re-
quires a very dynamic sequence of actions and changes (thrust,
conguration) affecting the pitch balance.
Pitch effects depend largely on the location of engines (i.e.,
mounted under the wings or on the tail) and other aircraft or
systems features.
Pitch effects are amplied:
At low gross weight, low altitude and low outside air
temperature (hence, at a high thrust-to-weight ratio);
and/or,
With all engines operative, as compared to a one-engine-
inoperative go-around.
The pitch effects of underwing-mounted engines are discussed
in this brieng note.
When initiating a go-around at decision altitude/height
(dA[h]), the PF is expected to minimize the altitude loss:
The PF must apply simultaneously nose-up pitch pressure on
the control column, advance the throttle levers and select the
takeoff/go-around (TOGA) mode.
Pitch is affected by the following factors:
The nose-up elevator input initiates a pitch-attitude
change that minimizes altitude loss;
Within a few seconds, thrust increases (resulting in an
additional nose-up pitch effect); and,
Retracting one step of faps results usually in a slight
nose-up pitch effect.
As a result of these three nose-up pitch effects:
The pitch-attitude rate increases; and,
The nose-up pitch force required to maintain the
pitch-attitude target decreases until a nose-down pitch
force is required to prevent an excessive nose-up pitch
attitude.
To maintain the desired pitch-attitude target (and prevent
overshooting this target), the PF must:
Release back (nose-up) pressure on the control
column;
Apply progressively, as thrust increases, forward (nose-
down) pressure on the control column; and,
Re-trim the aircraft (nose-down), as necessary.
Stated simply, the PF should aviate (y the aircraft) while
closely monitoring the primary fight display (PFd).
If the pitch attitude is not controlled positively, pitch will
continue to increase and will reach values at which airspeed
will decrease despite the go-around thrust.
Flying a Manual Go-around
For a safe go-around, the following three Ps constitute a
golden rule:
Pitch:
Set and maintain the pitch-attitude target;
Power:
Table 1
REF
+ 20 knots
REF
;
ducted;
go-around.
Set and check the go-around thrust; and,
Performance:
Check aircraft performance: positive rate of climb,
airspeed at or above V
REF
, speed brakes retracted,
radio-altimeter indications and barometric-altimeter
indications increasing, wings level, gear up, aps as
required.
The operational recommendations and task-sharing for the safe
conduct of a manual go-around can be expanded as follows:
For the PF:
When calling go-around/faps, without delay:
Select the TogA mode and follow through the A/
ThR operation;
Rotate (at the same rate as for takeoff, typically three
degrees per second);
Follow the Fd pitch command (but do not exceed
the maximum pitch attitude applicable to the aircraft
type);
Check go-around power (thrust); and,
Check go-around performance:
Positive rate of climb;
Airspeed at or above V
REF
;
Speed brakes retracted;
Radio-altimeter indication and barometric-
altimeter indication increasing;
Wings level;
gear up; and,
Flaps as required;
As thrust increases, be prepared to counteract the nose-
up pitch effect (i.e., apply increasing forward pressure
nose-down input on the control column); and,
Trim the aircraft nose-down, as required.
The pitch attitude should not be allowed to exceed an ultimate
value (e.g., 25 degrees), because such a pitch attitude would
result in a signicant airspeed reduction.
Immediate and frm elevator nose-down input (together with
a nose-down pitch trim adjustment), however, may allow
recovering the pitch-attitude target.
For the PNF:
When hearing the go-around/flaps call, without
delay:
Set aps as appropriate;
Announce positive climb and retract the landing
gear on PF command;
Monitor:
Airspeed and airspeed trend;
Pitch attitude and bank angle; and,
Thrust increase (confrm the thrust-limit mode, as
applicable, and actual thrust on fan-speed [N
1
] or
engine-pressure-ratio [EPR] indicators);
Check the FMA:
Announce in a loud and clear voice the FMA-thrust
mode, vertical-mode and lateral-mode selection;
Check the autopilot (AP) status; call AP engaged
or hand fying); and,
Check Fd engagement status; and,
Continue monitoring the fight parameters and call
any excessive deviation:
Speed, if dropping below V
REF
;
Speed trend, if negative;
Pitch attitude, if approaching the ultimate value
(e.g., at 20 degrees if the ultimate value is 25
degrees);
Bank angle, if in excess of 15 degrees (30
degrees if the missed approach procedure requires
a turn); and/or,
Thrust, if a significant thrust reduction is
observed.
Summary
To manually y a safe go-around, adhere to the three-Ps
golden rule:
Pitch:
Set and maintain the pitch-attitude target;
Power:
Set and check go-around thrust; and,
Performance:
Check the aircraft performance: positive rate of climb,
airspeed at or above V
REF
, speed brakes retracted, radio-
altimeter indication and barometric-altimeter indication
increasing, wings level, gear up, aps as required.
While conducting the go-around, adherence to the dened
PF-PNF task-sharing and the optimum use of crew resource
management (e.g., for monitoring ight parameters and calling
any excessive ight-parameter deviation) are of paramount
importance.
The manual go-around technique must:
Minimize the initial altitude loss; and,
Prevent an excessive nose-up pitch attitude by following
Fd pitch commands, not exceeding the ultimate pitch
attitude applicable to the aircraft type.
Should any warning be triggered or any other abnormal condi-
tion occur during the go-around, the PF must concentrate his
or her attention on ying the aircraft (controlling the vertical
ight path and the lateral ight path).
1.3 Golden Rules;
1.4 Standard Calls;
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF). Killers in Aviation: FSF
Task Force Presents Facts about Approach-and-landing and
Volume 1718 (Novemberdecember 1998, JanuaryFebruary
1999).
(March 1993).
FSF Editorial Staff. Unstabilized Approach, Icing Conditions
lead To Commuter Tragedy. Accident Prevention Volume 49
(december 1992).
5.14, 5.16, 5.18, 5.21, 5.22. Seventh edition July 1998,
incorporating Amendments 125.
tion 1997.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
6.3 Terrain-avoidance (Pull-up) Maneuver
A typical training program to reduce approach-and-landing
accidents (AlAs), including those involving controlled fight
into terrain (CFIT), includes the following:
Alert fight crews to the factors that may cause AlAs
and CFIT;
Ensure that situational awareness is maintained at all
times;
Ensure that crews attain proficiency in conducting
approach procedures for their aircraft type;
Provide crews with adequate knowledge of the capabilities
and limitations of the ground-proximity warning system
(gPWS) or terrain awareness and warning system
(TAWS)
1
installed on their aircraft; and,
Ensure that crews are proficient in conducting the
terrain-avoidance maneuver required in response to a
gPWS warning or a TAWS warning (as published in
the aircraft operating manual [AoM]/quick reference
handbook [QRh]).
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that CFIT was involved
in 37 percent of 76 approach-and-landing accidents and serious
2
GPWS/TAWS Training
The rigorous application of standard operating procedures
(SoPs) to reinforce situational awareness and the optimum use
of automated systems and displays during approach procedures
should be incorporated in transition training and recurrent
training programs developed by the aircraft manufacturer or
by the companys training department.
A training program should include:
An instructor-led classroom briefng or a self-briefng
based on the FSF ALAR Tool Kit;
A complete discussion about the operation of the gPWS/
TAWS;
The FSF Controlled Flight Into Terrain: An Encounter
Avoided video;
Exercises to be incorporated in simulator training
sessions during transition training/recurrent training
(three typical sample exercises are described later);
and,
A simulator briefng for nonprecision approaches to
emphasize CFIT risks and the advantages of using a
constant-angle nonprecision approach (CANPA).
Simulator Requirements
The fight simulator database should include terrain in
the vicinity of the airports selected for training. The
terrain database should extend to an area with a radius
(centered on the airfeld reference point) of 25 nautical
miles (nm) to 30 nm (45 kilometers to 55 kilometers).
This terrain also should be displayed by the visual
system;
The capability should be available to insert an electronic
mountain from the instructors panel at a selected point
on the aircrafts projected ight path.
Inserting an electronic mountain at an airport that does
not have such terrain, however, may result in the trainee
dismissing the gPWS/TAWS warning as a spurious
warning, thus resulting in negative training.
The slope and height of the mountain should be
tailored to a particular aircraft at a representative gross
weight (e.g., maximum landing weight [MlW]), so that
maximum performance is required to avoid striking the
mountain.
The slope of the mountain therefore should be adjustable
to match the climb gradients that can be achieved in the
pull-up maneuver; and,
To prevent negative training, the simulator must represent
realistically the handling qualities and performance as
airspeed reduces to stick-shaker speed or minimum
airspeed.
Simulator Exercises
All gPWS/TAWS modes should be demonstrated. The objec-
tive should be to ensure an understanding of the capabilities
and limitations of the gPWS/TAWS installed on the aircraft
type.
These exercises can be conducted in either a xed-base simula-
tor (FBS) or a full-fight simulator (FFS).
The following scenarios, to be conducted in an FFS, are
designed to increase CFIT awareness and to allow the pilot
to practice the correct response to gPWS/TAWS warnings
without signicantly increasing the training time. The scenarios
should be modied in accordance with the companys training
requirements or operating environment.
Pull-up in VMC Exercise
Objectives. demonstrate gPWS/TAWS warnings, that a
pull-up maneuver must be immediate, the pull-up technique
(with special emphasis on pitch force and attitude) and crew
coordination.
Brieng. Explain the objectives and emphasize that this is a
training exercise. describe the pull-up technique required for
the particular aircraft type.
Initial Conditions. Establish initial approach conguration
and airspeed, at or near the MlW, in a shallow descent or in
level ight.
Procedure. The instructor inserts an electronic mountain ahead
of the aircraft and talks to the ight crew throughout the ma-
neuver, insisting on an immediate and aggressive response.
Ensure proper crew coordination, with the pilot not ying
(PNF) calling radio altitudes and trend (e.g., 300 feet de-
creasing).
Continue the maneuver at maximum performance until the
mountain is cleared. The duration of the maneuver should be
sufcient for the crew to demonstrate prociency in maintain-
ing maximum climb performance.
Repeat the exercise, as needed, until crew prociency is
achieved.
Debrieng. Review the exercise, as appropriate.
Pull-up in IMC Exercise
Objective. Reinforce and confrm correct response to a gPWS/
TAWS warning in instrument meteorological conditions
(IMC), including pilot technique and crew coordination.
Brieng. Explain the objective. Although the trainees will
know that the exercise is to be conducted, explain that it is
intended to simulate an inadvertent descent below minimum
safe altitude (MSA) because of a loss of situational awareness
(e.g., because of a lateral navigation error, an incorrect altitude
selection or an incorrect nonprecision approach procedure).
Initial Conditions. Either of the following two scenarios can
be used:
Establish initial approach confguration and airspeed, at
or near the MlW, in a shallow descent or in level fight;
or,
Establish landing confguration and approach speed, at
or near MlW, on a typical three-degree descent.
Procedure. The instructor inserts an electronic mountain ahead
of the aircraft and talks to the ight crew throughout the ma-
neuver, insisting on an immediate and aggressive response.
Ensure proper crew coordination, with the PNF calling radio
altitudes and trend (e.g., 300 feet decreasing).
Continue the maneuver at maximum performance until the
terrain is cleared. The duration of the maneuver should be suf-
cient for the crew to demonstrate prociency in maintaining
the maximum climb performance.
Repeat the exercise, as needed, until crew prociency is
achieved.
Unexpected GPWS/TAWS Warning
This scenario should be included during a line-oriented ight
training (loFT) session, which normally is programmed at
the end of transition training and during periodic recurrent
training loFT sessions.
Objective. To maintain crew awareness of the CFIT hazard
and to confrm crew profciency in responding to a gPWS/
TAWS warning.
Brieng. None.
Initial Conditions. Establish either initial-approach congu-
ration and airspeed, or clean conguration and maneuvering
speed, at MlW, descending or in level fight.
Procedure. The instructor clears the crew to descend to an
altitude below the MSA or provides radar vectors toward
high terrain.
If the fight crew takes corrective action before any gPWS/
TAWS warning (as expected), an electronic mountain can be
inserted at a later stage in the session.
Verify crew response to gPWS/TAWS and crew coordination
during the pull-up maneuver.
Summary
The following should be emphasized when discussing CFIT
awareness and response to a gPWS/TAWS warning:
Situational awareness must be maintained at all times;
Preventive actions (ideally) must be taken before a
gPWS/TAWS warning;
Response to a gPWS/TAWS warning by the pilot fying
(PF) must be immediate;
The PNF must monitor and call the radio altitude and its
trend throughout the terrain-avoidance maneuver; and,
The pull-up maneuver must be continued at maximum
climb performance until the warning has ceased and
terrain is cleared (radio altimeter).
1.2 Automation;
5.2 Terrain;
7.1 Stabilized Approach;
7.2 Constant-angle Nonprecision Approach;
7.3 Visual References; and,
7.4 Visual Approaches.
References
ights.
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Editorial Staff. Preparing for
last-minute Runway Change, Boeing 757 Flight Crew loses
Situational Awareness, Resulting in Collision with Terrain.
Accident Prevention Volume 54 (JulyAugust 1997).
(February 1996).
International Civil Aviation organization. International
Chapter 6, Aeroplane Instruments, Equipment and Flight
documents, 6.15. Appendix 2, Contents of an operations
Manual, 5.23. Seventh edition July 1998, incorporating
Amendments 125.
Regulations. 91.223 Terrain awareness and warning system,
121.360 ground proximity warning-glide slope deviation
alerting system, 121.354 Terrain awareness and warning
system, 135.154 Terrain awareness and warning system.
March 29, 2000.
ground proximity warning system. July 1, 2000.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
6.4 Bounce Recovery Rejected Landing
A rejected landing (also called an aborted landing) is a
go-around maneuver initiated after touchdown of the main
landing gear. A rejected landing is a challenging maneuver
and typically is recommended only when an aircraft bounces
more than approximately fve feet (1.5 meters) off the runway
after touchdown.
No global statistical data are available on rejected-landing
incidents or accidents. Nevertheless, the following are possible
consequences of an incorrect decision to conduct a rejected
landing:
Tail strike following a go-around initiated because
of directional control difculties after thrust reverser
selection;
Aircraft performance limitation following the
inappropriate selection of reverse thrust during a touch-
and-go landing and failure of one reverser to stow;
and,
loss of control following a go-around initiated after
thrust reverser selection and failure of one reverser to
stow.
Touch-and-go Training
A touch-and-go landing is a training exercise. Nevertheless,
the conditions required for the safe conduct of this maneuver
provide a valuable introduction to the discussion of bounce
recovery/rejected landing.
Preconditions
Four preconditions (usually referred to as the four-no rule)
must be observed before initiating a touch-and-go:
No ground spoilers:
ground spoilers must not be armed or manually
selected after touchdown;
No autobrake system:
Autobrakes must not be armed;
No reverse:
Thrust reversers must not be selected upon touchdown;
and,
No pedal braking:
Pedal braking must not be used after touchdown.
The above preconditions show that conducting a rejected
landing during a nontraining ight (i.e., with ground spoilers
and autobrakes armed, and being ready to select reverse thrust
upon touchdown) involves an added challenge.
Aircraft Reconguration
After touchdown during a planned touch-and-go, the aircraft
must be recongured for the takeoff conguration:
Flaps reset;
Pitch trim reset;
Rudder trim reset; and,
Throttle-lever stand-up (i.e., initial movement of the
throttle levers to a straight-up position) for symmetric
engine acceleration.
Task-sharing
Conducting a touch-and-go also is dynamic and demanding
in terms of task-sharing:
The pilot fying (PF) is responsible for:
Tracking the runway centerline; and,
Advancing initially the throttle levers slightly above
idle;
The pilot not fying (PNF) is responsible for:
Reconguring the aircraft for takeoff;
Resetting systems, as required;
Monitoring engine parameters and flight-mode
annunciations;
Conducting the takeoff calls;
deciding to reject the takeoff, if required; and,
Ensuring backup of the PF during rotation and initial
climb.
Conducting a rejected landing further amplifes the importance
of adherence to dened task-sharing by the PF and the PNF.
Bouncing and Bounce Recovery
Bouncing during a landing usually is the result of one or more
loss of visual references;
Excessive sink rate;
late fare initiation;
Incorrect fare technique;
Excessive airspeed; and/or,
Power-on touchdown (preventing the automatic extension
of ground spoilers, as applicable).
The bounce-recovery technique varies with each aircraft type
and with the height reached during the bounce.
Recovery From a Light Bounce (Five Feet or Less)
When a light bounce occurs, a typical recovery technique can
be applied:
Maintain or regain a normal landing pitch attitude (do
not increase pitch attitude, because this could lead to a
tail strike);
Continue the landing;
Use power as required to soften the second touchdown;
and,
Be aware of the increased landing distance.
Recovery From a High Bounce (More Than Five
Feet)
When a more severe bounce occurs, do not attempt to land,
because the remaining runway may be insufcient for a safe
landing.
The following go-around technique can be applied:
Maintain or establish a normal landing pitch attitude;
Initiate a go-around by activating the go-around levers/
switches and advancing the throttle levers to the go-
around thrust position;
Maintain the landing faps confguration or set a different
aps conguration, as required by the aircraft operating
manual (AoM)/quick reference handbook (QRh).
Be prepared for a second touchdown;
Be alert to apply forward pressure on the control
column and reset the pitch trim as the engines spool up
(particularly with underwing-mounted engines);
When safely established in the go-around and when
no risk remains of touchdown (steady positive rate of
climb), follow normal go-around procedures; and,
Re-engage automation, as desired, to reduce
workload.
Commitment to a Full-stop Landing
Landing incidents and accidents have demonstrated that after
the thrust reversers have been deployed (even at reverse idle),
the landing must be completed to a full stop because a suc-
cessful go-around may not be possible.
The following occurrences have resulted in a signicantly
reduced rate of climb or in departure from controlled ight:
Thrust asymmetry resulting from asymmetric engine
spool-up (i.e., asymmetric engine acceleration
characteristics as thrust increases from a ground-idle
level);
Thrust asymmetry resulting from asymmetric stowing
of thrust reversers (i.e., one reverser going to the stowed
position faster than the other); and,
Severe thrust asymmetry resulting from one thrust
reverser failing to stow.
Commitment to Go Around
If a go-around is elected, the fight crew must be committed
to conduct the go-around. The crew must not change the go-
around decision and must not retard the throttle levers in an
attempt to complete the landing.
Such a change of decision usually is observed when the deci-
sion to reject the landing and the go-around are initiated by the
rst ofcer (as PF) but are overridden by the captain.
Runway overruns, collisions with obstructions and major air-
craft damage (or postimpact re) often are the consequences
of landing after a go-around is initiated.
Summary
The ight crew should adhere to decision criteria for:
Committing to a full-stop landing; or,
Committing to a rejected landing and a go-around.
These criteria (adapted for each individual aircraft type) should
be incorporated in the standard operating procedures (SoPs)/
supplementary techniques of each AoM/QRh.
8.1 Runway Excursions and Runway Overruns.
degraded Wing Performance Cited in Unsuccessful goaround
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF). Killers in Aviation: FSF
Task Force Presents Facts about Approach-and-landing and
Volume 1718 (Novemberdecember 1998, JanuaryFebruary
1999).
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
7.1 Stabilized Approach
Unstabilized approaches are frequent factors in approach-and-
landing accidents (AlAs), including those involving controlled
fight into terrain (CFIT).
Unstabilized approaches are often the result of a ight crew
who conducted the approach without sufcient time to:
Plan;
Prepare; and,
Conduct a stabilized approach.
Statistical Data
1
through 1997.
2
The task force said that although some low-energy approaches
(i.e., low/slow) resulted in loss of aircraft control, most involved
CFIT because of inadequate vertical-position awareness.
The task force said that the high-energy approaches (i.e., high/
fast) resulted in loss of aircraft control, runway overruns and
runway excursions, and contributed to inadequate situational
awareness in some CFIT accidents.
The task force also found that ight-handling difculties (i.e.,
the crews inability to control the aircraft to the desired ight
parameters [e.g., airspeed, altitude, rate of descent]) were a
causal factor in 45 percent of the 76 approach-and-landing
accidents and serious incidents.
The task force said that ight-handling difculties occurred in
situations that included rushing approaches, attempts to comply
with demanding ATC clearances, adverse wind conditions and
improper use of automation.
Denition
An approach is stabilized only if all the criteria in company
standard operating procedures (SoPs) are met before or when
reaching the applicable minimum stabilization height.
Table 1 shows stabilized approach criteria recommended by
the FSF AlAR Task Force.
Note: Flying a stabilized approach that meets the recom-
mended criteria discussed below does not preclude fying a
delayed-faps approach (also referred to as a decelerated ap-
proach) to comply with air traffc control (ATC) instructions.
The following minimum stabilization heights are recom-
mended to achieve a stabilized approach:
1,000 feet above airport elevation in instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC); or,
conditions (VMC).
At the minimum stabilization height and below, a call should
be made by the pilot not ying (PNF) if any ight parameter
exceeds criteria shown in Table 1.
Any time an approach is not stabilized at the minimum stabi-
lization height or becomes unstabilized below the minimum
stabilization height, a go-around should be conducted.
Benets of a Stabilized Approach
Conducting a stabilized approach increases the fight crews
overall situational awareness, including:
horizontal awareness, by closely monitoring the
horizontal ight path;
Vertical awareness, by monitoring the vertical fight path
and the rate of descent;
Airspeed awareness, by monitoring airspeed trends;
and,
Energy-condition awareness, by maintaining the engine
thrust at the level required to y a three-degree approach
path at the target nal approach speed (or at the minimum
groundspeed, as applicable). This also enhances go-
around capability.
In addition, a stabilized approach provides:
More time and attention for monitoring ATC
communications, weather conditions and systems
operation;
More time for monitoring and backup by the PNF;
defned fight-parameter-deviation limits and minimum
stabilization heights to support the decision to land or
to go around; and,
landing performance consistent with published
performance.
Factors in Unstabilized Approaches
Unstabilized approaches are attributed to:
Fatigue;
Any crew-induced or ATC-induced circumstances
resulting in insufcient time to plan, prepare and conduct
a safe approach. This includes accepting requests from
ATC to fy higher/faster or to fy shorter routings than
desired;
ATC instructions that result in fying too high/too fast
during the initial approach;
Excessive altitude or excessive airspeed (e.g., inadequate
energy management) early in the approach;
late runway change (lack of ATC awareness of the time
required by the ight crew to recongure the aircraft for
a new approach);
Excessive head-down work (e.g., fight management
system [FMS] reprogramming);
Short outbound leg or short downwind leg (e.g., because
of trafc in the area);
late takeover from automation (e.g., because the
autopilot [AP] fails to capture the glideslope);
Premature descent or late descent caused by failure to
positively identify the nal approach x (FAF);
Inadequate awareness of wind conditions, including:
Table 1
REF
+ 20 knots
REF
;
ducted;
go-around.
Tail wind component;
low-altitude wind shear;
local wind gradient and turbulence (because of
terrain or buildings); or,
Recent weather along the nal approach path (e.g.,
wind shift or downdrafts caused by a descending cold
air mass following a rain shower);
path;
Failure to recognize deviations or failure to adhere to
the excessive-parameter-deviation limits;
stabilization height or shortly thereafter;
Excessive confdence by the PNF that the pilot fying
(PF) will achieve a timely stabilization;
PF-PNF too reliant on each other to call excessive
deviations or to call for a go-around; and,
Visual illusions.
Deviations in Unstabilized Approaches
one or more of the following deviations often are involved in
unstabilized approaches:
Entire approach fown at idle thrust down to touchdown,
because of excessive airspeed and/or excessive altitude
from early in the approach;
Steep approach (above desired fight path with excessive
vertical speed). Steep approaches are conducted typically
twice as often as shallow approaches;
Shallow approach (below desired glide path);
low-airspeed maneuvering (energy defcit);
Excessive bank angle when capturing the fnal approach
course;
Activation of the ground-proximity warning system
(gPWS) or the terrain awareness and warning system
(TAWS)
3
:
Mode 1: sink rate;
Mode 2A: terrain (not full faps); or,
Mode 2B: terrain (full faps);
late extension of flaps, or flaps-load-relief-system
activation resulting in the late extension of aps;
Excessive fight-parameter deviation when crossing the
minimum stabilization height:
Excessive airspeed;
Not aligned with runway;
Excessive bank angle;
Excessive vertical speed; or,
Flight path above glideslope;
Excessive bank angle, excessive sink rate or excessive
maneuvering while conducting a side-step maneuver;
Speed brakes remain extended on short-final
approach;
Excessive fight-parameter deviation down to runway
threshold;
high at runway threshold crossing (i.e., more than 50
feet above threshold); and,
Extended fare and extended touchdown.
Company Accident-prevention Strategies
and Personal Lines of Defense
Preventing unstabilized approaches can be achieved by devel-
oping recommendations for the early detection and correction
of factors that contribute to an unstabilized approach.
The following strategy is recommended:
Anticipate;
detect;
Correct; and,
decide.
Anticipate
Some factors likely to result in an unstabilized approach can be
anticipated. For example, pilots and controllers should avoid
situations that result in rushing approaches.
The approach brieng provides opportunities to identify and
discuss factors such as nonstandard altitude, airspeed restric-
tions and energy management. The ight crew should agree
on the management of the descent, deceleration and stabiliza-
tion. This agreement will constitute a common objective for
the PF and PNF.
Detect
The purpose of dened excessive-parameter-deviation limits
and minimum stabilization heights is to provide the PF and
PNF with a common reference for effective monitoring (early
detection of deviations) and backup (timely and precise calls
for effective corrections).
To ensure monitoring and backup, the following should be
avoided:
late briefngs;
Unnecessary radio calls (e.g., company calls);
Unnecessary actions (e.g., use of airborne communications
addressing and reporting system [ACARS]); and,
Nonpertinent conversations on the fight deck (i.e.,
breaking the sterile cockpit rule
4
).
Reducing workload and ight deck interruptions/distractions
also allows the ight crew to:
Better cope with fatigue;
Comply with an unexpected ATC request (e.g., runway
change);
Adapt to changing weather conditions; and,
Manage a system malfunction (e.g., faps jamming or
landing gear failing to extend).
Correct
Positive corrective actions should be taken before deviations
develop into a challenging situation or a hazardous situation
in which the only safe action is a go-around.
Corrective actions may include:
The timely use of speed brakes or landing gear to correct
excessive height or excessive airspeed; and,
Extending the outbound leg or downwind leg.
Decide
If the approach is not stabilized before reaching the minimum
stabilization height, or if any ight parameter exceeds deviation
limits (other than transiently) when below the minimum stabi-
lization height, a go-around must be conducted immediately.
The following behaviors often are involved when unstabilized
approaches are continued:
Excessive confdence in a quick recovery (postponing
the go-around decision when flight parameters are
converging toward excessive-deviation limits);
Excessive confdence because of a long-and-dry runway
and a low gross weight, although airspeed or vertical
speed may be excessive;
Inadequate preparation or lack of commitment to
conduct a go-around. A change of mindset should take
place from we will land unless to lets be prepared
for a go-around, and we will land if the approach is
stabilized and if we have sufcient visual references to
make a safe approach and landing; and,
Absence of decision making (failure to remember the
applicable excessive-deviation limits) because of fatigue
or workload.
track, vertical speed, altitude, airspeed and attitude) during the
The minimum stabilization height constitutes an approach gate
5

on the nal approach; a go-around must be initiated if:
The required configuration and airspeed are not
established, or the ight path is not stabilized when
reaching the minimum stabilization height; or,
The aircraft becomes unstabilized below the minimum
stabilization height.
Transition to Visual Flying
When transitioning from instrument ight to visual ight,
the pilots perception of the runway and outside environment
should be kept constant by maintaining:
drift correction, to continue tracking the runway
centerline (i.e., resisting the tendency to align the aircraft
with the runway centerline);
The aiming point, to remain on the correct glide path
until are height (resisting the tendency to advance the
aiming point and, thus, descend below the correct glide
path); and,
The final approach speed to maintain the energy
condition.
Summary
Three essential parameters must be stabilized for a safe ap-
proach:
Aircraft track;
Flight path angle; and,
Airspeed.
depending on the type of approach and aircraft equipment,
the most appropriate level of automation, as well as available
visual references, should be used to establish and to monitor
the stabilization of the aircraft.
4.1 Descent-and-approach Profle Management;
7.2 Constant-angle Nonprecision Approach;
8.2 The Final Approach Speed; and,
8.3 Landing Distances.
References
ights.
high terrain.]
(June 1999).
FSF Editorial Staff. Boeing 767 descends Below glide Path,
Strikes Tail on landing. Accident Prevention Volume 55
(February 1998).
FSF Editorial Staff. Md-88 Strikes Approach light Struc-
ture in Nonfatal Accident. Accident Prevention Volume 54
(december 1997).
1997).
(September 1994).
FSF Editorial Staff. Unstabilized Approach, Icing Conditions
lead to Commuter Tragedy. Accident Prevention Volume 49
(december 1992).
FSF. head-up guidance System Technology (hgST) A
Powerful Tool for Accident Prevention. Flight Safety Digest
Volume 10 (September 1991).
2, Contents of an operations Manual, 5.18, 5.19. Seventh
tion 1997.
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. Air Transportation
Operations Inspectors Handbook. Volume 4, Aircraft Equip-
ment and operational Authorizations. Chapter 2, All-weather
Terminal Area operations, Section 3, Factors Affecting
All-Weather Terminal Area operations. August 26, 1998,
incorporating changes 112.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
7.2 Constant-angle Nonprecision
Approach
Planning and conducting a nonprecision approach are chal-
lenging tasks that involve:
decision making on strategies and options;
Task-sharing;
Crew resource management (e.g., crew coordination,
cross-check and backup); and,
Controlled-fight-into-terrain (CFIT) risk awareness
(e.g., awareness of the requirement for immediate
response to a ground-proximity warning system [gPWS]
warning or a terrain awareness and warning system
[TAWS]
1
warning).
Nonprecision approaches have common features but require
approach-specic techniques, depending on the navaids being
used or on the strategy being used for:
lateral navigation and vertical navigation;
descent from the final approach fix (FAF) to the
minimum descent altitude/height (MdA[h]); and,
decision making before or upon reaching the
MdA(h).
Note: The charted MdA(h) is referenced either to the touch-
down zone elevation (TdZE) or to the airport elevation, which
is the highest point in the landing area. The International Civil
Aviation organization (ICAo) defnes MdA(h) as: obstacle
clearance altitude/height (oCA[h]) plus 30 feet.
2
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that CFIT was involved
in 37 percent of 76 approach-and-landing accidents and seri-
ous incidents worldwide in 1984 through 1997, and that 57
percent of the CFIT accidents and incidents occurred during
step-down nonprecision approaches.
3
The task force recommended expedited implementation
worldwide of constant-angle nonprecision approach (CANPA)
procedures and training ight crews to properly use such
procedures.
Denition
A nonprecision approach is an instrument approach that does
not incorporate vertical guidance (i.e., no glideslope).
This discussion will include nonprecision instrument ap-
proaches that use the following navaids: nondirectional beacon
(NdB), very-high-frequency omnidirectional radio (VoR),
localizer (loC), VoR-dME (distance-measuring equipment),
loC-dME and loC back course (BC).
Instrument approaches normally include three approach seg-
ments:
Initial approach:
Beginning at an initial approach fx (IAF) and ending
at the intermediate x (IF), if dened; and,
With obstacle clearance of 1,000 feet;
Intermediate approach:
From the IF to the nal approach x (FAF); and,
With obstacle clearance of 500 feet; and,
Final approach:
From the FAF to the MdA(h), visual descent point
(VdP) or missed approach point (MAP); and,
With obstacle clearance of 250 feet.
during the intermediate approach, the aircraft is confgured
for the nal approach as follows:
Confguration established (landing faps and landing
gear extended);
Airspeed stabilized at the fnal approach speed;
Aircraft aligned with the fnal approach course; and,
landing checklist and briefngs completed.
The CANPA fnal approach features a constant-angle descent
using the vertical-speed mode or the ight path vector (as
available), with altitude-distance checks.
VDP Concept
The VdP is the location at the MdA(h) where the aircraft
can be own on approximately a three-degree glide path to
the runway (Figure 1).
The VdP location is defned by:
distance from a VoR-dME or loC-dME; or,
Time from the FAF.
The VdP should be considered the last point from which a
stabilized approach can be conducted (Table 1).
CANPA Benets
Traditional step-down approaches are based on an obstacle-
clearance profle; such approaches are not optimum for modern
turbine aircraft and turboprop aircraft.
Beginning at an initial approach fix (IAF) and ending
at the intermediate fix (IF), if defined; and,
With obstacle clearance of 1,000 feet;
Intermediate approach:
From the IF to the final approach fix (FAF); and,
With obstacle clearance of 500 feet; and,
Final approach:
From the FAF to the MDA(H), visual descent point
(VDP) or missed approach point (MAP); and,
With obstacle clearance of 250 feet.
During the intermediate approach, the aircraft is configured
for the final approach as follows:
Configuration established (landing flaps and landing
gear extended);
Airspeed stabilized at the final approach speed;
Aircraft aligned with the final approach course; and,
Landing checklist and briefings completed.
The CANPA final approach features a constant-angle descent
using the vertical-speed mode or the flight-path vector (as
available), with altitude-distance checks.
VDP Concept
The VDP is the location at the MDA(H) where the aircraft can
be flown on approximately a three-degree glide path to the
runway (Figure 1).
Visual Descent Point Provides
Normal Descent to Runway
MDA(H)
Go-around Decision
FAF VDP MAP
M
Land
V
FAF = Final approach fix
VDP = Visual descent point
MAP = Missed approach point
Figure 1
The VDP location is defined by:
Distance from a VOR-DME or LOC-DME; or,
Time from the FAF.
The VDP should be considered the last point from which a
stabilized approach can be conducted (Table 1).
CANPA Benefits
Traditional step-down approaches are based on an obstacle-
clearance profile; such approaches are not optimum for modern
turbine aircraft and turboprop aircraft.
Table 1
All flights must be stabilized by 1,000 feet above
airport elevation in instrument meteorological
conditions (IMC) and by 500 feet above airport
elevation in visual meteorological conditions (VMC).
An approach is stabilized when all of the following
criteria are met:
1. The aircraft is on the correct flight path;
maintain the correct flight path;
REF
+ 20 knots
REF
;
4. The aircraft is in the correct landing configuration;
feet per minute, a special briefing should be
conducted;
6. Power setting is appropriate for the aircraft
configuration and is not below the minimum power
for approach as defined by the aircraft operating
manual;
7. All briefings and checklists have been conducted;
8. Specific types of approaches are stabilized if they
also fulfill the following: instrument landing system
(ILS) approaches must be flown within one dot of
the glideslope and localizer; a Category II or
Category III ILS approach must be flown within the
expanded localizer band; during a circling
approach, wings should be level on final when the
aircraft reaches 300 feet above airport elevation;
and,
9. Unique approach procedures or abnormal
conditions requiring a deviation from the above
elements of a stabilized approach require a special
briefing.
go-around.
Table 1
REF
+ 20 knots
REF
;
ducted;
go-around.
Flying a constant-angle approach prole:
Provides a more stabilized fight path;
Reduces workload; and,
Reduces the risk of error.
Strategies and Options
Planning for a nonprecision approach requires several decisions
on the following strategies and options:
lateral navigation:
Use of selected modes (heading or localizer); or,
Use of the fight management system (FMS) lateral-
navigation (lNAV) mode down to MdA(h) or until
loC interception;
Vertical navigation:
Use of selected modes (altitude hold and vertical
speed); or,
Use of the FMS vertical-navigation (VNAV)
mode down to the FAF (or beyond, as applicable
in accordance with the aircraft operating manual
[AoM]/quick reference handbook [QRh]), and use of
the vertical-speed mode down to the MdA(h); and,
Final descent from the FAF:
Constant-angle descent with the decision made before
or upon reaching MdA(h).
The requirement to make the nal-descent decision
before or upon reaching the MdA(h) depends upon
applicable operating regulations about descent below
the MdA(h) during a go-around maneuver. The
CANPA MdA(h) may be considered a dA(h) only
if the approach has been surveyed and approved by
the appropriate regulatory authorities.
A nonprecision approach may be conducted using either:
lateral-navigation guidance, with monitoring of raw
data
4
;
Raw data only;
Flight path director, with or without the autopilot (AP)
engaged; or,
Raw data supported by the fight path vector (as available
on the primary fight display [PFd] or head-up display
[hUd]).
A nonprecision approach may be conducted with the AP
engaged.
The autothrottle system should remain in the speed mode.
CFIT Awareness
during the fnal descent to the MdA(h), both pilots must
monitor the ight path to ensure that descent is not continued
through a charted step-down altitude before reaching the as-
sociated charted fx (dME distance or other reference).
A gPWS/TAWS warning in instrument meteorological condi-
tions (IMC) or night conditions demands an immediate pull-up
maneuver.
Descending Below MDA(H)
during a nonprecision approach, the pilot fying (PF) is either
hand ying the aircraft or supervising AP operation; the pilot
not ying (PNF) is responsible for acquiring and calling out
the visual references.
Continuing the approach below the MdA(h) is permitted only
if at least one of the required visual references is distinctly
visible and identiable by the PF.
A nonprecision approach is completed visually with a hand
own landing, or a go-around is conducted.
SOPs and Standard Calls
Task-sharing, standard calls and altitude-deviation and
parameter-deviation calls are especially important during a
nonprecision approach.
The following overview outlines the actions and standard
calls required by standard operating procedures (SoPs) and
illustrates the typical phases of the approach and the sequence
of decisions involved in a nonprecision approach.
Descent/Approach Preparation
Anticipate and confrm the runway in use and the type
of approach to be conducted;
defne the approach strategy for lateral navigation:
Select heading mode and raw data (or VoR mode, if
allowed for navigation in terminal areas); or,
Select FMS lNAV mode with monitoring of raw
data, provided that the approach is dened in the
FMS navigation database and that FMS navigation
accuracy meets the criteria for approach;
defne the approach strategy for vertical navigation:
Vertical-speed mode; or,
FMS VNAV mode down to the FAF (or beyond, as
applicable, in accordance with the AoM/QRh), then
vertical-speed mode down to the MdA(h);
Insert the desired standard terminal arrival (STAR) and
approach (from the database) in the FMS fight plan;
Enter the descent winds and surface winds on the
appropriate FMS page, as applicable;
Enter the landing confguration and wind correction on
the appropriate FMS page, as applicable;
If the VNAV mode is authorized after the FAF, enter the
MdA(h) on the appropriate FMS page, as applicable;
Set up navaids (identify, as required); and,
Plan the descent to reach the IAF at the prescribed
altitude and planned airspeed.
Approach Brieng
Check FMS navigation accuracy (usually by ensuring
that the FMS bearing/distance to a tuned VoR-dME
and the radio magnetic indicator [RMI] raw data agree
according to criteria defned in SoPs) and confrm
strategies for lateral navigation and vertical navigation
(i.e., FMS or selected guidance);
Review terrain features, location of obstacles and
obstacle clearances;
Confrm the minimum safe altitude (MSA);
Review the approach procedure (altitudes, bearings and
headings);
Review the approach vertical profile (step-down
altitudes) and MdA(h);
Set and check the MdA(h) on the barometric-altimeter
bug;
Review the expected visual references (approach
lighting and runway lighting);
Review the missed approach procedure;
Confrm the timing from the FAF to the MAP or to the
VdP, or confrm the dME reading for the VdP;
Confirm the navaids (frequencies, courses and
identications);
Compute the expected groundspeed;
Confirm the published vertical speed or computed
vertical speed for the nal descent; and,
Confrm use of the fight director (Fd) or the fight path
director (as applicable).
Before Reaching the IAF/Holding Fix
Keep the AP engaged with FMS or selected lateral-
navigation mode and vertical-navigation mode, as
desired;
Keep both navigation displays (Nds) in MAP mode
(unless FMS navigation accuracy is greater than one
nautical mile [nm], or per applicable SoPs);
If the FMS lNAV mode is used:
Check the FMS navigation accuracy level (e.g., R/I
or hIgh or [], depending on the FMS type and
standard);
Check the Nds for correct fight plan and for correct
To WPT;
Confrm that the FMS lNAV mode is shown on the
fight-mode annunciator (FMA); and,
Maintain both Nds in MAP mode (in accordance
with the AoM/QRh);
Adjust the descent rate to reach the IAF at the charted/
prescribed altitude and target airspeed;
Establish the desired configuration (clean or slats
extended) and airspeed; and,
Adjust weather radar gain and tilt, as applicable, for
optimum use of the system for weather avoidance or
enhanced horizontal situational awareness.
Upon Reaching the IAF or Holding Fix
If the FMS lNAV mode will be used beyond the IAF or
holding fx, keep both Nds in MAP mode if the FMS
is certifed as sole means of navigation for approach
otherwise, one Nd must be used to monitor raw data;
If selected heading mode or localizer mode will be used
to capture and to track the nal approach course, set
the PFs Nd to the arc or horizontal situation indicator
(hSI)-type display; and,
The PNF may keep the Nd in MAP mode (with display
of airspeed and altitude restrictions) for situational
awareness.
While Holding or When Appropriate
Confgure the aircraft (slats extended only or approach faps)
and establish the associated maneuvering speed.
Exiting the Holding Pattern
Select the holding EXIT prompt to allow the correct sequenc-
ing of the FMS fight plan.
After Leaving the Holding Pattern
If the FMS lNAV mode is not used, use the selected
heading mode (or the VoR mode, if allowed for terminal
area navigation; or the track mode, as available) to
intercept the nal approach course, as follows:
For an NdB approach, set the fnal approach course
on the IlS course selector; this will set the IlS course
pointer on the Nd and provide a course reference;
For a VoR or VoR-dME approach, set the fnal
approach course on the VoR course selector, but do
not arm the VoR mode. Capture and track the VoR
course using the selected heading/track mode; or,
For a loC or loC-dME approach, set the fnal
approach course on the IlS course selector and arm
the localizer mode; and,
To prepare for re-engaging the lNAV mode for a go-
around, check the correct FMS fight plan sequencing
(the To WPT must be the FAF; if not, program a dIR
To the FAF).
Before Reaching the FAF
Align the aircraft within five degrees of the final
approach course;
Extend the landing gear;
Arm the ground spoilers;
Set landing faps;
Enter the target fnal approach speed;
Set the go-around altitude (if the go-around altitude is
the same as the FAF crossing altitude, set the go-around
altitude only after beginning the nal descent);
Conduct the lANdINg checklist;
If the FMS VNAV mode will be used after the FAF, enter
the published or computed vertical speed and course;
If the fight path vector will be used after the FAF (as
available on the PFd or hUd), enter the published or
computed ight path angle and track; and,
If the VNAV mode is not authorized beyond the FAF,
deselect the VNAV mode by selecting the altitude-hold
mode or the vertical-speed mode, as required.
Approaching the FAF
Typically 0.3 nautical mile (nm) to 0.2 nm before reaching the
FAF, to begin descent at the FAF on prole:
Engage the VNAV mode and check mode engagement
on the FMA;
Enter the published (or computed) vertical speed, as a
function of the groundspeed;
Select the fight path vector display (as available);
Start timing (as required); and,
Cross-check and call the next fx (or dME distance, as
applicable) and crossing altitude.
During the Descent to the MDA(H)
Monitor the raw data (vertical speed, fight path vector
[as available], course, distances, altitudes) and call the
vertical prole for correct slope and track (i.e., at each
altitude/distance check):
Cross-check and call the altitude deviation;
Adjust vertical speed, as required; and,
Call the next fx (or dME distance) and crossing
altitude; and,
Set the altitude selector per applicable SoPs (usually,
the go-around altitude).
Approaching the MDA(H)
At an altitude corresponding to the MdA(h) plus 1/10 the
rate of descent (typically MdA[h] plus 50 feet to 100 feet),
anticipate a go-around decision to avoid descent below the
MdA(h), as required by applicable regulations.
At the MDA(H)
If adequate visual references are acquired:
disconnect the AP and continue the approach visually
(the autothrottles may remain engaged in speed mode
down to the retard point, as applicable).
If adequate visual references are not acquired:
Initiate a go-around climb; and,
overfy the MAP (to guarantee obstacle clearance during
the go-around) and y the published missed approach
procedure.
(ICAo says that although the fight crew should overfy the
MAP before conducting the published missed approach pro-
cedure, this does not preclude fying over the [MAP] at an
altitude/height greater than that required by the procedure [as
shown in Figure 1].)
5
Nonprecision Approach Factors
Training feedback and line-operations experience have shown
that the nonprecision approach is affected by:
Incorrect or outdated instrument approach chart;
late descent preparation;
FMS navigation accuracy not checked;
FMS fight plan not correctly programmed;
Failure to monitor raw data;
Navaids not tuned correctly (frequency or course);
Incomplete briefng;
Incorrect choice of autopilot modes;
Incorrect entry of autopilot targets (e.g., airspeed,
heading, altitude) or autothrottle targets;
Inadequate cross-check and backup by the PF/PNF;
Inaccurate tracking of the fnal approach course, using
the selected heading (or track) mode;
late confguration of aircraft;
Final approach speed not stabilized at FAF;
Failure to include prevailing head wind component in
computing the vertical speed for the nal constant-angle
descent;
No timing or positive identifcation of the VdP or
MAP;
Inadequate monitoring of raw data;
Incorrect identifcation of the FAF;
go-around altitude not entered; and,
Premature descent to the next step-down altitude (if
multiple step-downs) or below the MdA(h).
Summary
Successful nonprecision approaches include:
determining the type of guidance to be used;
Preparing the FMS, as applicable;
Completing an approach briefng;
Planning aircraft confguration setup;
Monitoring descent;
Managing aircraft energy condition during intermediate
approach and nal approach;
Not descending below an altitude before reaching the
associated x;
determining the correct angle (vertical speed) for the
nal descent;
Beginning the descent at the correct point;
Maintaining the correct fight path angle (vertical speed)
during the nal descent;
Acquiring visual references and making the decision to
land; and,
Preparing for a go-around.
1.4 Standard Calls;
7.3 Visual References.
References
2. International Civil Aviation organization (ICAo).
Procedures for Air Navigation Services. Aircraft
Operations. Volume I, Flight Procedures. Fourth edition,
1993. Reprinted May 2000, incorporating Amendments
110.
ights.
Accident Reduction (AlAR) Task Force defnes raw data
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
as data received directly (not via the fight director or
ight management computer) from basic navigation aids
(e.g., AdF, VoR, dME, barometric altimeter).
5. ICAo. Manual of All-Weather Operations. Second edition
1991.
FSF Editorial Staff. Collision with Antenna guy Wire Severs
Jets Wing during Nonprecision Approach. Accident Preven-
tion Volume 54 (october 1997).
1997).
1995).
(September 1994).
Regulatory Resource
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. Special Notice to Air-
men AFS-420 (11/26/99).
7.3 Visual References
The transition from instrument references to external visual
references is an important element of any type of instrument
approach.
Some variations exist in company operating philosophies about
ight crew task-sharing for:
Acquiring visual references;
Conducting the landing; and,
Conducting the go-around.
For task-sharing during approach, two operating philosophies
are common:
Pilot fying-pilot not fying (PF-PNF) task-sharing with
differences about the acquisition of visual references,
depending on the type of approach and on the use of
automation:
Nonprecision and Category (CAT) I instrument
landing system (IlS) approaches; or,
CAT II/CAT III IlS approaches (the captain usually
is the PF, and only an automatic approach and landing
is considered); and,
Captain-frst offcer (CAPT-Fo) task-sharing, which
usually is referred to as a shared approach, monitored
approach or delegated-handling approach.
differences in the philosophies include:
The transition to fying by visual references; and,
Using and monitoring the autopilot.
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that fight crew omission
of action/inappropriate action was a causal factor
1
in 25 percent
of 287 fatal approach-and-landing accidents worldwide in
1980 through 1996 involving jet aircraft and turboprop aircraft
with maximum takeoff weights above 12,500 pounds/5,700
kilograms.
2
The task force said that these accidents typically
involved the following errors:
descending below the minimum descent altitude/height
(MdA[h]) or decision altitude/height (dA[h]) without
adequate visual references or having acquired incorrect
visual references (e.g., a lighted area in the airport
vicinity, a taxiway or another runway); and,
Continuing the approach after the loss of visual
references (e.g., because of a fast-moving rain shower
or fog patch).
Altitude-deviation and Terrain Avoidance
during the fnal-approach segment, the primary attention of
both pilots should be directed to published minimum approach
altitudes and altitude-distance checks prior to reaching the
MdA(h) or dA(h).
An immediate pull-up is required in response to a ground-
proximity warning system (gPWS) warning or a terrain
3
warning in instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC) or at night.
Denition
Whenever a low-visibility approach is anticipated, the approach
brieng must include a thorough review of the approach light
system (AlS) by using the instrument approach chart and the
airport chart.
depending on the type of approach and prevailing ceiling
and visibility conditions, the crew should discuss the lighting
system(s) expected to be observed upon rst visual contact.
For example, U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) Part
91.175 says that at least one of the following references must
be distinctly visible and identiable before the pilot descends
below dA(h) on a CAT I IlS approach or MdA(h) on a
nonprecision approach:
The approach light system, except that the pilot may
not descend below 100 feet above the touchdown zone
elevation using the approach lights as a reference unless
the red terminating bars or the red side-row bars are also
distinctly visible and identiable;
The [runway] threshold;
The threshold markings;
The threshold lights;
The runway end identifer lights;
The visual approach slope indicator;
The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings;
The touchdown zone lights;
The runway or runway markings; [or,]
The runway lights.
The International Civil Aviation organization says that re-
quired visual reference means that section of the visual aids
or of the approach area which should have been in view for
sufcient time for the pilot to have made an assessment of the
aircraft position and rate of change of position in relation to
the desired ight path.
When using external references, the visual references must
be adequate for the pilot to assess horizontal ight path and
vertical ight path.
After adequate visual references have been acquired to allow
descent below the MdA(h) or dA(h), the different elements
of the various AlSs provide references for position, drift
angle, distance and rates of change for the nal phase of the
approach.
Visual References
The task-sharing for the acquisition of visual references and
for the monitoring of the ight path and aircraft systems var-
ies, depending on:
The type of approach; and,
The level of automation being used:
hand fying (using the fight director [Fd]); or,
Autopilot (AP) monitoring (single or dual AP).
Nonprecision and CAT I ILS Approaches
Nonprecision approaches and CAT I IlS approaches can be
own by hand with reference to raw data
4
or to the Fd com-
mands, or with the AP engaged.
The PF is engaged directly in either:
hand fying the airplane, by actively following the Fd
commands and monitoring the raw data; or,
Supervising AP operation and being ready to take
manual control of the aircraft, if required.
The PNF is responsible for progressively acquiring and call-
ing the visual references while monitoring ight progress and
backing up the PF.
The PNF scans alternately inside and outside, calls ight-
parameter deviations and calls:
one hundred above then minimum (if no automatic
call) if adequate visual references are not acquired; or,
Visual (or whatever visual reference is in sight) if
adequate visual references are acquired.
The PNF should not lean forward while attempting to
acquire visual references. If the PNF calls visual
while leaning forward, the PF might not acquire the
visual reference because his/her viewing angle will be
different.
The PF then conrms the acquisition of visual references and
calls landing (or go around if visual references are not
adequate).
If landing is called, the PF progressively transitions from
instrument references to external visual references.
CAT II/CAT III ILS Approaches
CAT II/CAT III IlS approaches are fown using the automatic
landing system (as applicable for the aircraft type).
CAT II automatic approaches can be completed with a hand
own landing (although the standard operating procedure is
to use the automatic landing capability).
In CAT III weather conditions, automatic landing is manda-
tory usually.
Consequently, visual reference does not have the same meaning
for CAT II and CAT III approaches.
For CAT II approaches, visual reference means being able
to see to land (i.e., being able to conduct a hand-own land-
ing).
For CAT III approaches, visual references means being able
to see to verify aircraft position.
FARs Part 91.189 and Joint Aviation Requirementsoperations
1.430 consider these meanings in specifying minimum visual
references that must be available at the dA(h).
For a CAT III approach with no dA(h), no visual reference
is specied, but recommended practice is for the PF to look
for visual references before touchdown, because visual ref-
erences are useful for monitoring AP guidance during the
roll-out phase.
during an automatic approach and landing, the fight path is
monitored by the AP (autoland warning) and supervised by
the PNF (excessive-deviation calls).
Thus, the PF can concentrate his or her attention on the acqui-
sition of visual references, progressively increasing external
scanning as the dh is approached.
When an approach is conducted near minimums, the time
available for making the transition from instrument references
to visual references is extremely short; the PF therefore must
concentrate on the acquisition of visual references.
The PNF maintains instrument references throughout the ap-
proach and landing (or go-around) to monitor the ight path
and the instruments, and to be ready to call any ight-parameter
excessive deviation or warning.
Shared Approach/Monitored Approach/
Delegated-handling Approach
Shared approach/monitored approach/delegated-handling
approach provides an alternative denition of the PF and PNF
functions, based on CAPT-Fo task-sharing.
This operating policy can be summarized as follows:
Regardless of who was the PF for the sector, the Fo is
always the PF for the approach;
The CAPT is PNF and monitors the approach and the
acquisition of visual references;
Before or upon reaching the dA(h), depending on the
companys policy:
If visual references are acquired, the CAPT calls
landing, takes over the controls and lands; or,
If visual references are not acquired, the CAPT calls
go-around, and the Fo initiates the go-around and
ies the missed approach.
Whatever the decision, landing or go-around, the Fo maintains
instrument references for the complete approach and landing
(or go-around and missed approach).
depending on the Fos experience, the above roles can be
reversed.
This operating policy minimizes the problem of transitioning
from instrument ying to visual ying and, in a go-around,
the problem of resuming instrument ying. Nevertheless, this
operating policy involves a change of controls (i.e., PF/PNF
change) and requires the development of appropriate standard
operating procedures (SoPs) and standard calls.
depending on the companys operating philosophy, this tech-
nique is applicable to:
CAT II/CAT III approaches only (for all other approaches,
the PF is also the pilot landing); or,
All types of approaches (except automatic landings
where the CAPT resumes control earlier, typically from
1,000 feet radio altitude to 200 feet radio altitude).
Implementation
Implementation of the shared approach/monitored approach/
delegated-handling approach requires the development of cor-
responding SoPs and standard calls.
of particular importance is that the sequence of planned actions
or conditional actions and calls must be briefed accurately
during the approach brieng.
Such actions and calls usually include the following:
For the CAPT:
If adequate visual references are acquired before or at
dA(h):
Call landing; and,
Take over fight controls and thrust levers, and call I
have control or my controls, per company SoPs;
If adequate visual references are not acquired at
dA(h):
Call go-around, cross-check and back up the
Fo during the go-around initiation and missed
approach.
For the Fo:
If CAPT calls landing, I have controls or landing,
my controls:
Call you have control or your controls, per
company SoPs; and,
Continue monitoring instrument references;
If CAPT calls go-around:
Initiate immediately the go-around and fy the missed
approach;
If CAPT does not make any call or does not take over
the ight controls and throttle levers (e.g., because of
subtle incapacitation):
Call go-around and initiate immediately the go-
around.
Standard Calls
The importance of task-sharing and standard calls during the
nal portion of the approach cannot be overemphasized.
Standard calls for conrming the acquisition of visual refer-
ences vary from company to company.
Visual or the acquired visual reference (e.g., runway in
sight) usually is called if adequate visual references are
acquired and the aircraft is correctly aligned and on the ap-
proach glide path; otherwise, the call visual or [acquired
visual reference] is followed by an assessment of the lateral
deviation or vertical deviation (offset).
The CAPT determines whether the lateral deviation or verti-
cal deviation can be corrected safely and calls continue (or
landing) or go-around.
Recovery From a Deviation
Recovering from a lateral deviation or vertical deviation when
transitioning to visual references requires careful control of the
pitch attitude, bank angle and power with reference to raw data
to help prevent crew disorientation by visual illusions.
The PNF is responsible for monitoring the instruments and for
calling any excessive deviation.
Vertical Deviation
A high sink rate with low thrust when too high may result in
a hard landing or in a landing short of the runway.
The crew should establish the correct ight path, not exceed-
ing the maximum permissible sink rate (usually 1,000 feet
per minute).
A shallow approach with high thrust when too low may result
in an extended are and a long landing.
The crew should establish level ight until the correct ight
path is established.
Lateral Deviation
Establish an aiming point on the extended runway centerline,
approximately half the distance to the touchdown point, and
aim toward the point while maintaining the correct ight path,
airspeed and thrust setting.
To avoid overshooting the runway centerline, anticipate the
alignment by beginning the nal turn shortly before crossing
the extended runway-inner-edge line.
Loss of Visual References Below MDA(H)
or DA(H)
If loss of adequate visual references occurs below the MdA(h)
or dA(h), a go-around must be initiated immediately.
For example, FARs Part 91.189 requires that each pilot op-
erating an aircraft shall immediately execute an appropriate
missed approach whenever [the conditions for operating below
the authorized dA(h)] are not met.
Summary
during nonprecision approaches and CAT I IlS
approaches, ensure that both the PF and PNF have
acquired the same and the correct visual references;
and,
during CAT II/CAT III IlS approaches and during
all shared/monitored/delegated-handling approaches,
the Fo must remain head-down, monitoring flight
instruments, for approach and landing or go-around.
1.2 Automation;
1.4 Standard Calls; and,
5.3 Visual Illusions.
References
1. The Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Accident
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force defnes causal factor as an
event or item judged to be directly instrumental in the causal
chain of events leading to the accident. Each accident in the
ights.
and the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration to describe
equipment meeting International Civil Aviation organization
standards and recommendations for ground-proximity
warning system (gPWS) equipment that provides predictive
terrain-hazard warnings. Enhanced gPWS and ground
collision avoidance system are other terms used to describe
TAWS equipment.
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Editorial Staff. learjet Strikes
Terrain When Crew Tracks False glideslope Indication and
Continues descent Below Published decision height. Ac-
cident Prevention Volume 56 (June 1999).
FSF Editorial Staff. Inadequate Visual References in Flight
Pose Threat of Spatial disorientation. Human Factors & Avia-
tion Medicine Volume 44 (Novemberdecember 1997).
Mohler, Stanley R. The human Balance System: A Refresher
for Pilots. Human Factors & Aviation Medicine Volume 42
(JulyAugust 1995).
dC-8 Freighter Crash. Accident Prevention Volume 50 (March
1993).
Antuano, Melchor J.; Mohler, Stanley R. Infight Spatial
disorientation. Human Factors & Aviation Medicine Volume
39 (JanuaryFebruary 1992).
tional Standards and Recommended Practices, Annex 6 to the
Convention of International Civil Aviation, Operation of Air-
craft. Part I, International Commercial Air Transport Aero-
planes. Chapter 4, Flight operations, 4.2.7, 4.4.1. Seventh
1991.
Regulations. 91.175 Takeoff and landing under IFR, 91.189
Category II and III operations: general operating rules,
121.567 Instrument approach procedures and IFR landing
minimums. January 1, 2000.
FAA. Advisory Circular (AC) 60-A, Pilots Spatial Disorienta-
tion. February 8, 1983.
FAA. AC 120-29, Criteria for Approving Category I and Cat-
egory II Landing Minima for FAR 121 Operators. September
25, 1970, incorporating Change 1, december 15, 1971; Change
2, July 27, 1972; Change 3, december 3, 1974.
FAA. AC 120-28d, Criteria for Approval of Category III
Landing Weather Minima for Takeoff, Landing, and Rollout.
July 13, 1999.
Aerodrome operating Minima general. July 1, 2000.
JAA. Joint Aviation Requirements All Weather Operations.
August 1, 1996.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
7.4 Visual Approaches
Accepting an air traffc control (ATC) clearance for a visual
approach or requesting a visual approach should be balanced
carefully against the following:
Ceiling and visibility conditions;
darkness;
Weather:
Wind, turbulence;
Rain or snow; and/or,
Fog or smoke;
Crew experience with airport and airport environment:
Specic airport and runway hazards (obstructions,
etc.); and,
Runway visual aids:
Type of approach light system (AlS); and,
Availability of visual approach slope indicator (VASI)
or precision approach path indicator (PAPI).
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that visual approaches
were being conducted in 41 percent of 118 fatal approach-and-
landing accidents worldwide in 1980 through 1996 involving
jet aircraft and turboprop aircraft with maximum takeoff
weights above 12,500 pounds/5,700 kilograms, and in which
the type of approach being conducted was known.
1
Denition
Although slightly different denitions are provided by the
International Civil Aviation organization (ICAo), the Euro-
pean Joint Aviation Authorities and the U.S. Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA), the following denition, from the
FAA Aeronautical Information Manual, will be used in this
discussion:
[A visual approach is] an approach conducted on an
instrument ight rules (IFR) ight plan which authorizes
the pilot to proceed visually and clear of clouds to the
airport;
The pilot must, at all times, have either the airport or
the preceding aircraft in sight;
[The visual] approach must be authorized and under
the control of the appropriate air trafc control facility;
[and],
Reported weather at the airport must be ceiling at or
above 1,000 feet and visibility three miles or greater.
Visual Approach at Night
during a visual approach at night, fewer visual references are
usable, and visual illusions and spatial disorientation occur
more frequently.
Visual illusions (such as the black-hole effect
2
) affect the
ight crews vertical situational awareness and horizontal
situational awareness, particularly on the base leg and when
turning nal.
A visual approach at night should be considered only if:
Weather is suitable for fight under visual fight rules
(VFR);
A close-in pattern is used (or a published visual approach
is available);
A pattern altitude is defned; and,
The fight crew is familiar with airport hazards and
obstructions. (This includes the availability of current
notices to airmen [NoTAMs].)
At night, whenever an instrument approach is available (par-
ticularly an instrument landing system [IlS] approach), an in-
strument approach should be preferred to a visual approach.
If a precision approach is not available, select an approach
supported by VASI or PAPI.
Overview
The following overview provides a description of the various
phases and techniques associated with visual approaches.
References
Visual approaches should be conducted with reference to
either:
A published visual approach chart for the intended
runway; or,
The visual approach procedure (altitude, aircraft
conguration and airspeed) published in the aircraft
operating manual (AoM)/quick reference handbook
(QRh) or the pattern published in the AoM/QRh.
Terrain Awareness
When selecting or accepting a visual approach, the ight crew
should be aware of the surrounding terrain and man-made
obstacles.
For example, at night, with an unlighted hillside between a
lighted area and the runway, the ight crew may not see the
rising terrain.
Objective
The objective of a visual approach is to conduct an ap-
proach:
Using visual references; and,
Being stabilized by 500 feet above airport elevation
according to company standard operating procedures
(SoPs). (See Table 1.)
If the aircraft is not stabilized by 500 feet above airport eleva-
tion or if the approach becomes unstabilized below 500 feet
above airport elevation, go around.
Automated Systems
Automated systems (autopilot, ight director, autothrottles)
should be adapted to the type of visual approach (i.e., visual
approach chart or AoM/QRh visual approach procedure/
pattern) and to the ATC environment (radar vectors or crew
navigation).
Table 1
REF
+ 20 knots
REF
;
ducted;
go-around.
during the fnal phase of the approach, the crew should dis-
connect the autopilot, clear the ight director command bars,
maintain the autothrottles in speed mode and select the ight
path vector symbol (as available on the primary ight display
[PFd] or head-up display [hUd]).
Initial/Intermediate Approach
The fight management system (FMS) may be used to build
the teardrop outbound leg or the downwind leg, for enhanced
situational awareness. This should be done when programming
the FMS before reaching the top-of-descent point.
As applicable, set navaids for the instrument approach associ-
ated with the landing runway (for monitoring and in case of
loss of visual references).
Review the primary elements of the visual approach and the
primary elements of the associated instrument approach.
Review the appropriate missed approach procedure.
Extend slats and fly at the corresponding maneuvering
speed.
Barometric-altimeter and radio-altimeter bugs may be set (per
company SoPs) for enhanced terrain awareness.
Outbound/Downwind Leg
To be aligned on the nal approach course and stabilized at
500 feet above airport elevation, the crew should intercept
typically the nal approach course at three nautical miles from
the runway threshold (time the outbound leg or downwind leg
accordingly, as a function of the prevailing airspeed and wind
component).
Maintain typically 1,500 feet above airport elevation (or the
charted altitude) until beginning the nal descent or turning
base leg.
Confgure the aircraft per SoPs, typically turning base leg
with approach aps, landing gear extended and ground spoil-
ers armed.
do not exceed a 30-degree bank angle when turning onto
base leg.
Base Leg
Resist the tendency to y a continuous closing-in turn toward
the runway threshold.
Before turning fnal (depending on the distance from the run-
way threshold), extend landing aps and begin reducing to the
target nal approach speed.
Estimate the glide path angle to the runway threshold based
on available visual references (e.g., VASI) or raw data
3
(IlS
glideslope or altitude/distance). (glideslope indications and
VASI indications are reliable only within 30 degrees of the
nal approach course.)
do not exceed a 30-degree bank angle when tuning fnal.
Anticipate the crosswind effect (as applicable) to complete the
turn correctly established on the extended runway centerline
with the required drift correction.
Final Approach
Plan to be aligned with the runway (wings level) and stabi-
lized at the fnal approach speed by 500 feet above airport
elevation.
Monitor groundspeed variations (for wind shear awareness)
and call altitudes and excessive ight-parameter deviations as
for instrument approaches.
Maintain visual scanning toward the aiming point (typically
1,000 feet from the runway threshold) to avoid any tendency to
inadvertently descend below the nal approach path (use raw
data or the VASI/PAPI, as available, for a cross-check).
Visual Approach Factors
The following factors often are cited when discussing unsta-
bilized visual approaches:
Crew-induced circumstances or ATC-induced
circumstances resulting in insufcient time to plan,
prepare and conduct a safe approach;
Excessive altitude or excessive airspeed (e.g., inadequate
energy management) early in the approach;
downwind leg too short (visual pattern) or interception
too close (direct base-leg interception);
Inadequate awareness of tail wind component and/or
crosswind component;
path;
Failure to recognize deviations or failure to adhere to
excessive-parameter-deviation criteria;
stabilization height or shortly thereafter;
Excessive confdence by the pilot not fying (PNF) that
the pilot ying (PF) will achieve a timely stabilization,
or reluctance by the PNF to challenge the PF;
PF and PNF too reliant on each other to call excessive
deviations or to call for a go-around;
Visual illusions;
Inadvertent modifcation of the aircraft trajectory to
maintain a constant view of visual references; and,
loss of ground visual references, airport visual references
or runway visual references, with the PF and the PNF
both looking outside to reacquire visual references.
Unstabilized Visual Approaches
The following deviations are typical of unstabilized visual
approaches:
Steep approach (high and fast, with excessive rate of
descent);
Shallow approach (below desired glide path);
ground-proximity warning system (gPWS)/terrain
awareness warning system (TAWS)
4
activation:
Mode 1: sink rate;
Mode 2A: terrain (less than full faps);
Mode 2B: terrain (full faps);
Final-approach-course interception too close to the
runway threshold because of an inadequate outbound
teardrop leg or downwind leg;
laterally unstabilized fnal approach because of failure
to correct for crosswind;
Excessive bank angle and maneuvering to capture the
extended runway centerline or to conduct a side-step
maneuver;
Unstabilized approach with late go-around decision or
no go-around decision; and,
Inadvertent descent below the three-degree glide path.
Summary
The following should be discussed and understood for safe
visual approaches:
Weighing the time saved against the risk;
Awareness of all weather factors;
Awareness of surrounding terrain and obstacles;
Awareness of airport environment, airport and runway
hazards;
Use of a visual approach chart or AoM/QRh procedures/
pattern;
Tuning and monitoring all available navaids;
optimizing use of automation with timely reversion to
hand ying;
Adhering to defned PF/PNF task-sharing (monitoring
by PNF of head-down references [i.e., instrument
references] while PF fies and looks outside);
Maintaining visual contact with the runway and other
trafc at all times; and,
Announcing altitudes and excessive fight-parameter
deviations, and adhering to the go-around policy for
instrument approaches.
1.2 Automation;
1.3 Golden Rules;
1.4 Standard Calls;
5.2 Terrain;
5.3 Visual Illusions; and,
References
ights.
approach conducted on a moonless or overcast night,
over water or over dark, featureless terrain where the
only visual stimuli are lights on and/or near the airport.
The absence of visual references in the pilots near
vision affect depth perception and cause the illusion
that the airport is closer than it actually is and, thus, that
the aircraft is too high. The pilot may respond to this
illusion by conducting an approach below the correct
ight path (i.e., a low approach).
Accident Reduction (AlAR) Task Force defnes raw data
as data received directly (not via the fight director or
ight management computer) from basic navigation aids
(e.g., AdF, VoR, dME, barometric altimeter).
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Editorial Staff. B-757 dam-
aged by ground Strike during late go-around from Visual
Approach. Accident Prevention Volume 56 (May 1999).
(december 1997).
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Federal Avia-
tion Regulations. 91.175 Takeoff and landing under IFR.
January 1, 2000.
FAA. Advisory Circular 60-A, Pilots Spatial Disorientation.
February 8, 1983.
Terminology. July 1, 2000.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
8.1 Runway Excursions and
Runway Overruns
Runway excursions occur when:
Aircraft veer off the runway during the landing roll;
and,
Aircraft veer off the runway or taxiway when exiting
the runway.
Runway overruns occur when the aircraft roll-out extends
beyond the end of the landing runway.
Runway excursions and runway overruns can occur after
any type of approach in any light condition or environmental
condition.
Statistical Data
The Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-landing Ac-
cident Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that runway
excursions and runway overruns were involved in 20 percent
of 76 approach-and-landing accidents and serious incidents
worldwide in 1984 through 1997.
1
Factors Involved in Runway Excursions
Runway excursions are usually the result of one or more of
the following factors:
Weather Factors
Runway condition (wet or contaminated by standing
water, snow, slush or ice);
Wind shear;
Crosswind;
Inaccurate information on wind conditions and/or
runway conditions; and,
Reverse-thrust effect in a crosswind and on a wet runway
or a contaminated runway.
Crew Technique/Decision Factors
Incorrect crosswind landing technique (e.g., drifting
during the transition from a wings-level crosswind
approach [crabbed approach] to a steady-sideslip
crosswind approach, or failing to transition from a wings-
level approach to a steady-sideslip approach [decrab]
when landing in strong crosswind conditions);
Inappropriate differential braking by the crew;
Use of the nosewheel-steering tiller at airspeeds that are
too fast; and,
Airspeed too fast on the runway to exit safely.
Systems Factors
Asymmetric thrust (i.e., forward thrust on one side,
reverse thrust on the opposite side);
Speed brakes fail to deploy; or,
Uncommanded differential braking.
Factors Involved in Runway Overruns
Runway overruns are usually the result of one or more of the
following factors:
Weather Factors
Unanticipated runway condition (i.e., worse than
anticipated);
Inaccurate surface wind information; and,
Unanticipated wind shear or tail wind.
Performance Factors
Incorrect assessment of landing distance following a
malfunction or minimum equipment list (MEl)/dispatch
deviation guide (ddg) condition affecting aircraft
conguration or braking capability; and,
Incorrect assessment of landing distance for prevailing
wind and runway conditions.
Crew Technique/Decision Factors
Unstable approach path (steep and fast):
landing fast; and,
Excessive height over threshold, resulting in landing
long;
No go-around decision when warranted;
decision by captain (pilot not flying) to land,
countermanding rst ofcers decision to go around;
Extended fare (allowing the aircraft to foat and to
decelerate [bleed excess airspeed] in the air uses
typically three times more runway than decelerating on
the ground);
Failure to arm ground spoilers (usually associated with
thrust reversers being inoperative);
Power-on touchdown (i.e., preventing the auto-extension
of ground spoilers, as applicable);
Failure to detect nondeployment of ground spoilers (e.g.,
absence of related standard call);
Bouncing and incorrect bounce recovery;
late braking (or late takeover from autobrake system,
if required); and,
Increased landing distance resulting from the use of
differential braking or the discontinued use of reverse
thrust to maintain directional control in crosswind
conditions.
Systems Factors
loss of pedal braking;
Anti-skid system malfunction; or,
hydroplaning.
Accident-prevention Strategies and Lines
of Defense
The following company accident-prevention strategies and
personal lines of defense are recommended:
Policies
defne policy to promote readiness and commitment to go
around (discouraging any attempt to rescue a situation
that is likely to result in a hazardous landing);
defne policy to ensure that inoperative brakes (cold
brakes) are reported in the aircraft logbook and that they
receive attention in accordance with the MEl/ddg;
define policy for a rejected landing (bounce
recovery);
defne policy prohibiting landing beyond the touchdown
zone; and,
defne policy encouraging a frm touchdown when
operating on a contaminated runway.
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
define criteria and standard calls for a stabilized
approach, and dene minimum stabilization heights in
SoPs (Table 1);
defne task-sharing and standard calls for fnal approach
and roll-out phases in SoPs; and,
Incorporate in SoPs a standard call for [feet or
meters] runway remaining or [feet or meters] to
go in low-visibility conditions, based on:
Runway-lighting color change;
Runway-distance-to-go markers (as available); or,
other available visual references (such as runway/
taxiway intersections).
Performance Data
Publish data and defne procedures for adverse runway
conditions; and,
Provide fight crews with specifc landing-distance data
for runways with a downhill slope/high elevation.
Procedures
Publish SoPs and provide training for crosswind-landing
techniques;
Publish SoPs and provide training for flare
techniques;
Publish SoPs for the optimum use of autobrakes and
thrust reversers on contaminated runways;
Provide recommendations for the use of rudder and
differential braking/nosewheel steering for directional
control, depending on airspeed and runway condition;
and,
Publish specifc recommendations for aircraft lateral
control and directional control after a crosswind
landing.
Crew Awareness
Ensure fight crew awareness and understanding of all
factors affecting landing distances;
Ensure fight crew awareness and understanding of
conditions conducive to hydroplaning;
Ensure fight crew awareness and understanding of
crosswind and wheel-cornering issues;
Ensure fight crew awareness of wind shear and develop
corresponding procedures (particularly for the monitoring
of groundspeed variations during approach);
Ensure flight crew awareness of the relationships
among braking action, friction coefcient and runway-
condition index, and maximum crosswind components
recommended for runway conditions; and,
Ensure fight crew awareness of runway lighting changes
when approaching the runway end:
Standard centerline lighting: white lights changing to
alternating red and white lights between 3,000 feet
and 1,000 feet from runway end, and to red lights for
the last 1,000 feet; and,
Runway edge lighting (high-intensity runway light
system): white lights changing to yellow lights on
the last 2,000 feet of the runway.
Summary
Runway excursions and runway overruns can be categorized
into six families of events, depending on their primary causal
factor:
Events resulting from unstabilized approaches;
Events resulting from incorrect fare technique;
Events resulting from unanticipated or more-severe-
than-expected adverse weather conditions;
Events resulting from reduced braking or loss of
braking;
Events resulting from an abnormal configuration
(e.g., because the aircraft was dispatched under MEl
conditions or ddg conditions, or because of an in-fight
malfunction); and,
Events resulting from incorrect crew action and
coordination, under adverse conditions.
Corresponding company accident-prevention strategies and
personal lines of defense can be developed to help prevent
runway excursions and runway overruns by:
Adherence to SoPs;
Enhanced awareness of environmental factors;
Enhanced understanding of aircraft performance and
handling techniques; and,
Enhanced alertness for fight-parameter monitoring,
Table 1
REF
+ 20 knots
REF
;
ducted;
go-around.
deviation calls and crew cross-check.
1.4 Standard Calls;
6.4 Bounce Recovery Rejected Landing;
8.2 The Final Approach Speed;
8.3 Landing Distances;
8.4 Braking Devices;
8.5 Wet or Contaminated Runways; and,
8.7 Crosswind Landings.
Reference
ights.
King, Jack l. during Adverse Conditions, decelerating to
Stop demands More from Crew and Aircraft. Flight Safety
Digest Volume 12 (March 1993).
125.
1991.
tion 1997.
tion Regulations. 121.97 Airports: Required data, 121.117
Airports: Required data, 121.133 Preparation, 121.141
Airplane Flight Manual, 121.401 Training program: gen-
eral, 121.195 Airplanes: Turbine-engine-powered: landing
limitations: destination airports, 121.197 Airplanes: Turbine-
engine-powered: landing limitations: Alternate airports,
125.287 Initial and recurrent pilot testing requirements,
135.293 Initial and recurrent pilot testing requirements.
January 1, 2000.
FAA. Advisory Circular 120-51C, Crew Resource Management
Training. october 30, 1998.
FAA. Air Transportation Operations Inspectors Handbook.
Volume 4, Aircraft Equipment and operational Authoriza-
tions. Chapter 2, All-weather Terminal Area operations,
August 26, 1998, incorporating changes 112.
1.515 landing dry Runways, 1.520 landing Wet and
contaminated runways. March 3, 1998.
U.K. Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). Aeronautical Informa-
tion Circular (AIC) 11/98, Landing Performance of Large
Transport Aeroplanes. January 27, 1998.
U.K. CAA. AIC 61/1999, Risks and Factors Associated with
Operations on Runways Affected by Snow, Slush or Water.
June 3, 1999.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
8.2 The Final Approach Speed
Assuring a safe landing requires achieving a balanced distribu-
tion of safety margins between:
The computed fnal approach speed (also called the
target threshold speed); and,
The resulting landing distance.
Statistical Data
Computation of the fnal approach speed rarely is a factor in
runway overrun events, but an approach conducted signi-
cantly faster than the computed target nal approach speed is
cited often as a causal factor.
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that high-energy ap-
proaches were a causal factor
1
and-landing accidents and serious incidents worldwide in 1984
through 1997.
2
Dening the Final Approach Speed
The nal approach speed is the airspeed to be maintained down
to 50 feet over the runway threshold.
The nal approach speed computation is the result of a deci-
sion made by the ight crew to ensure the safest approach and
landing for the following:
gross weight;
Wind;
Flap confguration (when several fap confgurations are
certied for landing);
Aircraft systems status (airspeed corrections for abnormal
congurations);
Icing conditions; and,
Use of autothrottle speed mode or autoland.
The nal approach speed is based on the reference landing
speed, V
REF
.
V
REF
usually is defned by the aircraft operating manual (AoM)
and/or the quick reference handbook (QRh) as:
1.3 x stall speed with full landing faps
or with selected landing faps.
Final approach speed is dened as:
V
REF
+ corrections.
Airspeed corrections are based on operational factors (e.g.,
wind, wind shear or icing) and on landing conguration (e.g.,
less than full aps or abnormal conguration).
The resulting nal approach speed provides the best compro-
mise between handling qualities (stall margin or controllability/
maneuverability) and landing distance.
Factors Affecting the Final Approach
Speed
The following airspeed corrections usually are not cumulative;
only the highest airspeed correction should be added to V
REF

(unless otherwise stated in the AoM/QRh):
Airspeed correction for wind;
Airspeed correction for ice accretion;
Airspeed correction for autothrottle speed mode or
autoland; or,
Airspeed correction for forecast turbulence/wind shear
conditions.
Gross Weight
Because V
REF
is derived from the stall speed, the V
REF
value
depends directly on aircraft gross weight.
The AoM/QRh usually provides V
REF
values as a function of
gross weight in a table or graphical format for normal landings
and for overweight landings.
Wind Conditions
The wind correction provides an additional stall margin for
airspeed excursions caused by turbulence and wind shear.
depending on aircraft manufacturers and aircraft models, the
wind correction is dened using different methods, such as
the following:
half of the steady head wind component plus the entire
gust value, limited to a maximum value (usually 20
knots);
one-third of the tower-reported average wind velocity
or the gust velocity, whichever is higher, limited to a
maximum value (usually 15 knots); or,
A graphical assessment based on the tower-reported
wind velocity and wind angle, limited to a maximum
value (usually 15 knots).
The gust velocity is not used in this graphical assessment,
but the resulting wind correction usually is very close to the
second method.
Usually, no wind correction is applied for tail winds.
on some aircraft models, the wind correction can be entered
on the appropriate fight management system (FMS) page.
Flap Conguration
When several ap congurations are certied for landing, V
REF

(for the selected conguration) is dened by manufacturers
as either:
V
REF
full aps plus a correction for the selected ap
setting; or,
V
REF
selected aps.
In calm wind conditions or light-and-variable wind conditions,
V
REF
(or V
REF
corrected for the selected landing ap setting)
plus ve knots is a typical target nal approach speed.
Abnormal Conguration
System malfunctions (e.g., the failure of a hydraulic system
or the jamming of slats/aps) require an airspeed correction
to restore:
The stall margin; or,
Controllability/maneuverability.
For a given primary malfunction, the airspeed correction pro-
vided in the AoM/QRh usually considers all the consequential
effects of the malfunction (i.e., no combination of airspeed
corrections is required normally).
In the unlikely event of two unrelated malfunctions both
affecting controllability/maneuverability or stall margin the
following recommendations are applied usually:
If both malfunctions affect the stall margin, the airspeed
corrections must be added;
If bot h mal funct i ons affect cont rol l abi l i t y/
maneuverability, only the higher airspeed correction
must be considered; and,
If one malfunction affects the stall margin and the other
malfunction affects controllability/maneuverability, only
the higher airspeed correction must be considered.
Use of Autothrottle Speed Mode
Whenever the autothrottle system is used for maintaining the
target nal approach speed, the crew should consider an air-
speed correction (typically ve knots) to V
REF
to allow for the
accuracy of the autothrottle system in maintaining the target
nal approach speed.
This airspeed correction ensures that an airspeed equal to
or greater than V
REF
is maintained down to 50 feet over the
runway threshold.
CAT II/CAT III Autoland
For Category (CAT) II instrument landing system (IlS) ap-
proaches using the autothrottles, CAT III IlS approaches and
autoland approaches (regardless of weather minimums), the
ve-knot airspeed correction to V
REF
to allow for the accu-
racy of the autothrottle system is required by certication
regulations.
Ice Accretion
When severe icing conditions are encountered, an airspeed
correction (typically ve knots) must be considered for the
possible accretion of ice on the unheated surfaces of the aircraft
and on the wing surfaces above and below fuel tanks contain-
ing cold-soaked fuel.
Wind Shear
Whenever wind shear is anticipated based on pilot reports from
preceding aircraft or on an alert issued by the airport low-level
wind shear alert system (llWAS), the landing should be de-
layed or the crew should divert to the alternate airport.
If neither a delayed landing nor a diversion is suitable, an
airspeed correction (usually up to 15 knots to 20 knots, based
on the expected wind shear value) is recommended.
landing with less than full faps should be considered to
maximize the climb gradient capability (as applicable, in
compliance with the AoM/QRh), and the fnal approach speed
should be adjusted accordingly.
Wind shear is characterized usually by a signicant increase
of the head wind component preceding a sudden change to
a tail wind component. Whenever wind shear is expected,
groundspeed should be monitored closely to enhance wind
shear awareness.
Combine Airspeed Corrections
The various airspeed corrections either are combined or not
combined to distribute equally the safety margins of the fol-
lowing objectives:
Stall margin;
Controllability/maneuverability; and,
landing distance.
When a system malfunction results in a conguration correc-
tion to V
REF
, the nal approach speed becomes:
V
REF
+ confguration correction + wind correction.
The wind correction is limited usually to a maximum value
(typically 15 knots to 20 knots).
The conguration correction is determined by referring to the
AoM/QRh.
The conguration correction and wind correction are combined
usually according to the following rules (as applicable, based
on the AoM/QRh):
If the confguration correction is equal to or greater
than a specifc limit (e.g., 20 knots), no wind correction
is added; or,
If the confguration correction is lower than a given
value (e.g., 20 knots), then the confguration correction
and wind correction are combined but limited to a
maximum value (e.g., 20 knots).
The ve-knot airspeed correction for the use of autothrottles
and the ve-knot airspeed correction for ice accretion (as ap-
plicable) may be disregarded if the other airspeed corrections
exceed ve knots.
Some manufacturers recommend combining the conguration
correction and the wind correction in all cases. (When a system
malfunction requires a conguration correction, autoland is
not permitted usually.)
Summary
data provided by the manufacturer in the AoM/QRh are
designed to achieve a balanced distribution of safety margins
between:
The target fnal approach speed; and,
The resulting landing distance.
8.1 Runway Excursions and Runway Overruns;
8.3 Landing Distances; and,
8.4 Braking Devices.
References
incident].
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Advisory Circular
(AC) 120-29, Criteria for Approving Category I and Category
II Landing Minima for FAR 121 Operators. September 25,
1970. [Incorporating Change 1, december 15, 1971; Change
2, July 27, 1972; Change 3, december 3, 1974.]
FAA. AC 120-28d, Criteria for Approval of Category III
Landing Weather Minima for Takeoff, Landing, and Rollout.
July 13, 1999.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
8.3 Landing Distances
When discussing landing distance, two categories must be
considered:
Actual landing distance is the distance used in landing
and braking to a complete stop (on a dry runway) after
crossing the runway threshold at 50 feet; and,
Required landing distance is the distance derived by
applying a factor to the actual landing distance.
Actual landing distances are determined during certication
ight tests without the use of thrust reversers.
Required landing distances are used for dispatch purposes (i.e.,
for selecting the destination airport and alternate airports).
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that runway overruns
were involved in 12 percent of 76 approach-and-landing
1997.
1
Dening Landing Distances
Figure 1 shows the denitions of actual landing distances and
required landing distances used by the European Joint Aviation
Authorities (JAA) and by the U.S. Federal Aviation Adminis-
tration (FAA). Figure 2 shows the defnitions of actual landing
distance and required landing distance used by the U.K. Civil
Aviation Authority (CAA).
Factors Affecting Landing Distance
Actual landing distance is affected by various operational
factors, including:
high airport elevation or high density altitude, resulting
in increased groundspeed;
Runway gradient (i.e., slope);
Runway condition (dry, wet or contaminated by standing
water, slush, snow or ice);
Wind conditions;
Tool Kit
Flight Safety Foundation
Approach-and-landing Accident Reduction
FSF ALAR Briefing Note
8.3 Landing Distances
Actual Landing
Distance (Dry)
Regulatory
Factor = 1.67
+15
Percent
If Wet
Wet Runway
Dry Runway
50 Feet at Threshold
Required runway length (dry) = Actual landing distance (dry) x 1.67
Required runway length (wet) = Actual landing distance (dry) x 1.92
Required Runway Length JAA/FAA
JAA = (European) Joint Aviation Authorities
FAA = (U.S.) Federal Aviation Administration
Figure 1
When discussing landing distance, two categories must be
considered:
Actual landing distance is the distance used in landing
and braking to a complete stop (on a dry runway) after
crossing the runway threshold at 50 feet; and,
Required landing distance is the distance derived by
applying a factor to the actual landing distance.
Actual landing distances are determined during certification
flight tests without the use of thrust reversers.
Required landing distances are used for dispatch purposes
(i.e., for selecting the destination airport and alternate
airports).
Statistical Data
Reduction (ALAR) Task Force found that runway overruns
were involved in 12 percent of 76 approach-and-landing
1997.
1
Defining Landing Distances
Figure 1 shows the definitions of actual landing distances
and required landing distances used by the European Joint
Aviation Authorities (JAA) and by the U.S. Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA). Figure 2 (page 168) shows the
definitions of actual landing distance and required landing
distance used by the U.K. Civil Aviation Authority (CAA).
Actual landing distance is affected by various operational
factors, including:
High airport elevation or high density altitude, resulting
in increased groundspeed;
Runway gradient (i.e., slope);
Runway condition (dry, wet or contaminated by standing
water, slush, snow or ice);
Wind conditions;
Type of braking (pedal braking or autobrakes, use of
thrust reversers);
Anti-skid system failure;
Final approach speed;
landing technique (e.g., height and airspeed over the
threshold, thrust reduction and are);
Standard operating procedures (SoPs) deviations (e.g.,
failure to arm ground spoilers/speed brakes);
Minimum equipment list (MEl)/dispatch deviation guide
(ddg) conditions (e.g., thrust reversers, brake unit,
anti-skid or ground spoilers/speed brakes inoperative);
and,
System malfunctions (e.g., increasing fnal approach
speed and/or affecting lift-dumping capability and/or
braking capability).
The approximate effects of these factors on landing distance
are shown in Figure 3.
Airport Elevation
high airport elevation or high density altitude results in a higher
true airspeed (TAS) and groundspeed, and a corresponding
longer landing distance, compared to low airport elevation or
low density altitude.
For example, at 1,000 feet airport elevation, a landing distance
factor of 1.05 to 1.10 (depending on runway condition) must
be applied to the landing distance achieved at sea-level airport
elevation.
Runway Slope
Runway slope (gradient) has a direct effect on landing dis-
tance.
For example, a 1 percent downhill slope increases landing
distance by 10 percent (factor of 1.1). however, this effect is
accounted for in performance computations only if the runway
downhill slope exceeds 2 percent.
Runway Conditions
Although runway contamination increases rolling resistance
and spray-impingement drag (i.e., drag caused by water or
slush sprayed by tires onto the aircraft), it also affects brak-
ing efciency.
The following landing distance factors are typical:
Wet runway: 1.3 to 1.4;
Standing-water or slush-contaminated runway: 2.0 to
2.3;
Compacted-snow-covered runway: 1.6 to 1.7; and,
Icy runway: 3.5 to 4.5.
Wind Conditions
Certifcation regulations and operating regulations require
correction factors to be applied to actual landing distances to
compensate for:
Fifty percent of the head wind component; and,
one hundred ffty percent of the tail wind component.
Type of Braking
Actual landing distances are determined during certication
ight testing under the following conditions:
Flying an optimum fight segment from 50 feet over the
runway threshold to the are;
Achieving a frm touchdown (i.e., not extending the
are); and,
Using maximum pedal braking, beginning at main-
landing-gear touchdown.
Published actual landing distances seldom can be achieved in
line operations.
landing distances published for automatic landings with au-
tobrakes are more achievable in line operations.
Type of braking (pedal braking or autobrakes, use of
thrust reversers);
Anti-skid system failure;
Final approach speed;
Landing technique (e.g., height and airspeed over the
threshold, thrust reduction and flare);
Standard operating procedures (SOPs) deviations (e.g.,
failure to arm ground spoilers);
Minimum equipment list (MEL)/dispatch deviation
guide (DDG) conditions (e.g., thrust reversers, brake
unit, anti-skid or ground spoilers inoperative); and,
System malfunctions (e.g., increasing final approach
speed and/or affecting lift-dumping capability and/or
braking capability).
The approximate effects of these factors on landing distance
are shown in Figure 3 (page 169).
Airport Elevation
High airport elevation or high density altitude results in a higher
true airspeed (TAS) and groundspeed, and a corresponding
longer landing distance, compared to low airport elevation or
low density altitude.
For example, at 1,000 feet airport elevation, a landing distance
factor of 1.05 to 1.10 (depending on runway condition) must
be applied to the landing distance achieved at sea-level airport
elevation.
Runway Slope
Runway slope (gradient) has a direct effect on landing distance.
For example, a 1 percent downhill slope increases landing
distance by 10 percent (factor of 1.1). However, this effect is
accounted for in performance computations only if the runway
downhill slope exceeds 2 percent.
Runway Conditions
Although runway contamination increases rolling resistance
and spray-impingement drag (i.e., drag caused by water or
slush sprayed by tires onto the aircraft), it also affects braking
efficiency.
Wet runway: 1.3 to 1.4;
Standing-water or slush-contaminated runway: 2.0 to
2.3;
Compacted-snow-covered runway: 1.6 to 1.7; and,
Icy runway: 3.5 to 4.5.
Wind Conditions
Certification regulations and operating regulations require
correction factors to be applied to actual landing distances to
compensate for:
Fifty percent of the head-wind component; and,
One hundred fifty percent of the tail-wind component.
Type of Braking
Actual landing distances are determined during certification
flight testing under the following conditions:
Flying an optimum flight segment from 50 feet over the
runway threshold to the flare;
Achieving a firm touchdown (i.e., not extending the
flare); and,
Using maximum pedal braking, beginning at main-
landing-gear touchdown.
Published actual landing distances seldom can be achieved in
line operations.
Landing distances published for automatic landings with
autobrakes are more achievable in line operations.
Airspeed Over Runway Threshold
A 10 percent increase in final approach speed results in a 20
percent increase in landing distance. This assumes a normal
flare and touchdown (i.e., not allowing the aircraft to float
and bleed excess airspeed).
Height Over Threshold
Crossing the runway threshold at 100 feet (50 feet higher than
recommended) results in an increase in landing distance of
Actual Landing
Distance (Dry)
Regulatory
Factor = 1.92
Dry or Wet Runway
Required runway length (dry or wet) = Actual landing distance (dry) x 1.92
Required Runway Length U.K. CAA
CAA = Civil Aviation Authority
Figure 2
Airspeed Over Runway Threshold
A 10 percent increase in fnal approach speed results in a 20
percent increase in landing distance. This assumes a normal
are and touchdown (i.e., not allowing the aircraft to oat and
bleed excess airspeed).
about 1,000 feet (305 meters), regardless of runway condition
and aircraft model (Figure 4, page 170).
Flare Technique
Extending the flare (i.e., allowing the aircraft to float and bleed
excess airspeed) increases the landing distance.
1,000 Feet Elevation
Reference
(No Reverse Thrust)
Icy Runway
Water and Slush
Wet Runway
Compacted Snow
Fi nal Approach
Speed + 10 Knots
Long Flare
No Ground Spoilers
10-knot Tail Wind
Landing Distance Factor
Required Landing Distance
(Wet Runway)
1.92
1. 0 1. 2 1. 4 1. 6 2. 0 3. 0 3. 5
Landing Distance Factors
Figure 3
For example, a 5 percent increase in final approach speed
increases landing distance by:
Ten percent, if a normal flare and touchdown are
conducted (deceleration on the ground); or,
Thirty percent, if touchdown is delayed (deceleration
during an extended flare).
Height Over Threshold
Crossing the runway threshold at 100 feet (50 feet higher than
recommended) results in an increase in landing distance of
about 1,000 feet (305 meters), regardless of runway condition
and aircraft model (Figure 4).
Flare Technique
Extending the are (i.e., allowing the aircraft to oat and bleed
excess airspeed) increases the landing distance.
For example, a 5 percent increase in fnal approach speed
increases landing distance by:
Ten percent, if a normal flare and touchdown are
conducted (deceleration on the ground); or,
Thirty percent, if touchdown is delayed (deceleration
during an extended are).
Ground Spoilers/Speed Brakes Not Armed
Several runway-overrun events have been caused by ground
spoilers/speed brakes not being armed while the aircraft were
being operated with thrust reversers inoperative.
on most transport category aircraft, the ground spoilers/speed
brakes extend when reverse thrust is selected (regardless of
whether the ground spoilers/speed brakes are armed or not);
this design feature must not be relied upon. The ground spoil-
ers/speed brakes must be armed per SoPs.
Failure to arm the spoilers results in a typical landing distance
factor of 1.3 (1.4 if combined with inoperative thrust reversers).
The automatic extension of ground spoilers/speed brakes
should be monitored. Failure of the ground spoilers/speed
brakes to deploy automatically should be called; the crew then
should manually activate the ground spoilers/speed brakes.
delay in lowering the nose landing gear to the runway main-
tains lift, resulting in less load on the main landing gear and,
hence, less braking capability. depending on the aircraft
design, this also delays the nosewheel spin-up signal, which
is required for optimum operation of the anti-skid system on
some aircraft.
MEL/DDG Conditions
When operating with an MEl/ddg condition affecting land-
ing speed or braking capability, the applicable landing speed
correction and landing distance factor must be included in
landing-distance computation.
System Malfunctions
System malfunctions, such as hydraulic system low pressure,
may result in multiple adjustments to landing speed and land-
ing distance, such as:
Increased landing speed because of inoperative slats/
aps (stall margin);
Increased landing speed because of inoperative roll
spoilers (maneuverability);
Increased landing distance because of inoperative ground
spoilers/speed brakes (lift-dumping capability); and,
Increased landing distance because of inoperative normal
braking system (braking capability).
The aircraft operating manual (AoM) and the quick reference
handbook (QRh) provide the applicable landing speed correc-
tions and landing distance corrections for many malfunctions
(including their effects).
landing distance factors result from either:
A landing speed correction (e.g., because of a failure
affecting stall margin or maneuverability); or,
Reduced lift-dumping capability or reduced braking
capability (e.g., because of a failure affecting ground
spoilers/speed brakes or brakes).
Whether published in the AoM/QRh or computed by the pilot,
the combination of landing distance factors for multiple failures
usually complies with the following:
If landing speed corrections are added, the corresponding
landing distance factors must be multiplied;
Ground Spoilers Not Armed
Several runway-overrun events have been caused by ground
spoilers not being armed while the aircraft were being operated
with thrust reversers inoperative.
On most transport category aircraft, the ground spoilers extend
when reverse thrust is selected (regardless of whether the
ground spoilers are armed or not); this design feature must not
be relied upon. The ground spoilers must be armed per SOPs.
Failure to arm the spoilers results in a typical landing distance
factor of 1.3 (1.4 if combined with inoperative thrust reversers).
The automatic extension of ground spoilers should be
monitored. Failure of the ground spoilers to deploy
automatically should be called; the crew then should manually
activate the ground spoilers.
Delay in lowering the nose landing gear to the runway
maintains lift, resulting in less load on the main landing gear
and, hence, less braking capability. This also delays the
nosewheel spin-up signal, which is required for optimum
operation of the anti-skid system on some aircraft.
MEL/DDG Conditions
When operating with an MEL/DDG condition affecting
landing speed or braking capability, the applicable landing
speed correction and landing distance factor must be included
in landing-distance computation.
System Malfunctions
System malfunctions, such as hydraulic system low pressure,
may result in multiple adjustments to landing speed and landing
distance, such as:
Increased landing speed because of inoperative slats/
flaps (stall margin);
1,000 Feet
(300 Meters)
Effect of Threshold-crossing Height
On Landing Distance
Figure 4
Increased landing speed because of inoperative roll
spoilers (maneuverability);
Increased landing distance because of inoperative ground
spoilers (lift-dumping capability); and,
Increased landing distance because of inoperative normal
braking system (braking capability).
The aircraft operating manual (AOM) and the quick reference
handbook (QRH) provide the applicable landing speed
corrections and landing distance corrections for many
malfunctions (including their effects).
Landing distance factors result from either:
A landing speed correction (e.g., because of a failure
affecting stall margin or maneuverability); or,
Reduced lift-dumping capability or reduced braking
capability (e.g., because of a failure affecting ground
spoilers or brakes).
Whether published in the AOM/QRH or computed by the pilot,
the combination of landing distance factors for multiple failures
usually complies with the following:
If landing speed corrections are added, the corresponding
landing distance factors must be multiplied;
If only the highest airspeed correction is considered, then
only the greatest landing distance factor must be
considered; or,
If two landing distance factors are considered, and one
(or both) are related to lift-dumping or braking, the
landing distance factors must be multiplied.
Figure 3 shows typical landing distance factors for various
runway conditions and operational factors.
Summary
When assessing the landing distance for a given landing, all
the following factors should be considered and should be
combined as specified in the applicable AOM/QRH:
MEL/DDG dispatch conditions, as applicable;
In-flight failures, as applicable;
Weather conditions (e.g., wind and gusts, suspected wind
shear, icing conditions/ice accretion);
Runway condition;
Use of braking devices (e.g., thrust reversers,
autobrakes); and,
Airport elevation and runway slope.
If only the highest airspeed correction is considered,
then only the greatest landing distance factor must be
considered; or,
If two landing distance factors are considered, and one
(or both) are related to lift-dumping or braking, the
landing distance factors must be multiplied.
Figure 3 shows typical landing distance factors for various
runway conditions and operational factors.
Summary
When assessing the landing distance for a given landing, all the
following factors should be considered and should be combined
as specifed in the applicable AoM/QRh:
MEl/ddg dispatch conditions, as applicable;
In-fight failures, as applicable;
Weather conditions (e.g., wind and gusts, suspected wind
shear, icing conditions/ice accretion);
Runway condition;
Use of braking devices (e.g., thrust reversers, autobrakes);
and,
Airport elevation and runway slope.
1.4 Standard Calls;
8.4 Braking Devices; and,
8.5 Wet or Contaminated Runways.
Reference
FSF Editorial Staff. Unaware of Strong Crosswind, Fokker
Crew loses Control of Aircraft on landing. Accident Preven-
tion Volume 56 (November 1999).
Yager, Thomas J. The Joint FAA/NASA Aircraft/ground Ve-
hicle Runway Friction Program. Flight Safety Digest Volume
8 (March 1989).
Airports: Required data, 121.171 Applicability, 121.195
Airplanes: Turbine-engine-powered: landing limitations:
destination airports. 121.197 Airplanes: Turbine-engine-
powered: landing limitations: Alternate airports. January
1, 2000.
FAA. Advisory Circular 91-6A, Water, Slush, and Snow on the
Runway. May 24, 1978.
June 3, 1999.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
8.4 Braking Devices
The following braking devices are used to decelerate the air-
craft until it stops:
ground spoilers/speed brakes;
Wheel brakes (including anti-skid systems and auto-
brake systems); and,
Thrust-reverser systems.
Statistical Data
dent Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that runway ex-
cursions and runway overruns were involved in 20 percent
of 76 approach-and-landing accidents and serious incidents
1
The task force also found that delayed braking action during
the landing roll-out was involved in some of the accidents
and serious incidents in which slow/delayed crew action was
a causal factor.
2
Slow/delayed crew action was a causal factor
in 45 percent of the 76 accidents and serious incidents.
Braking Devices
Ground Spoilers/Speed Brakes
ground spoilers/speed brakes usually deploy automatically
(if armed) upon main-landing-gear touchdown or upon acti-
vation of thrust reversers.
ground spoilers/speed brakes provide two aerodynamic ef-
fects:
Increased aerodynamic drag, which contributes to air-
craft deceleration; and,
Lift-dumping, which increases the load on the
wheels and, thus, increases wheel-brake effciency (Figure
1).
Wheel Brakes
Braking action results from the friction force between the
tires and the runway surface.
The friction force is affected by:
Aircraft speed;
Wheel speed (i.e., free-rolling, skidding or locked);
Tire condition and pressure (i.e., friction surface);
Runway condition (i.e., runway friction coeffcient);
The load applied on the wheel; and,
The number of operative brakes (as shown by the mini-
mum equipment list [MEl]/dispatch deviation guide
[ddg]).
Braking force is equal to the load applied on the wheel multi-
plied by the runway friction coefcient.
Anti-skid systems are designed to maintain the wheel-skid-
ding factor (also called the slip ratio) near the point providing
the maximum friction force, which is approximately 10 per-
cent on a scale from zero percent (free-rolling) to 100 percent
(locked wheel), as shown by Figure 2.
With anti-skid operative, maximum pedal braking results
typically in a deceleration rate of eight knots to 10 knots per
second.
Autobrake systems are designed to provide a selectable de-
celeration rate, typically between three knots per second and
six knots per second.
When a low autobrake deceleration rate (referred to hereafter
as a loW mode) is selected, brake pressure is applied usu-
ally after a specic time delay to give priority to the thrust-
reverser deceleration force at high airspeed.
Thrust Reversers
Thrust reversers provide a deceleration force that is indepen-
dent of runway condition.
Thrust-reverser efciency is higher at high airspeed (Figure
Negligible Weight on
Main Wheels
60 Percent Weight on
Main Wheels
Ground Spoilers
Extended
Main Wheels
Plus
130 Percent Drag
Increase From Spoilers
Nosewheel Down Touchdown
(V
REF
)
Effects of Nosewheel Contact and Ground Spoilers
On Weight-on-wheels and Aerodynamic Drag
V
REF
= Reference landing speed
Figure 1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Slip Ratio (Percent)
F
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

F
o
r
c
e

(
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
)
Free-rolling Wheel
Anti-skid Activation
Locked Wheel
Effect of Anti-skid on Friction Force
And Slip Ratio
Figure 2
second.
Autobrake systems are designed to provide a selectable
deceleration rate, typically between three knots per second and
as a LOW mode) is selected, brake pressure is applied usually
after a specific time delay to give priority to the thrust-reverser
deceleration force at high airspeed.
Thrust Reversers
Thrust reversers provide a deceleration force that is
independent of runway condition.
Thrust-reverser efficiency is higher at high airspeed (Figure
3); therefore, thrust reversers must be selected as early as
possible after touchdown (in accordance with standard
operating procedures [SOPs]).
Airspeed (Knots)
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

F
o
r
c
e
140 120 100 80 60 40 20
Autobrake Low Mode
Autobrake Demand
Aerodynamic Drag
Total Stopping Force
Braking and Rolling Drag
Reverse Thrust
Typical Decelerating Forces
During Landing Roll
Figure 3
Main Wheels
Main Wheels
Ground Spoilers
Extended
Main Wheels
Plus
130 Percent Drag
(V
REF
)
V
REF
Figure 1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
F
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

F
o
r
c
e

(
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
)
Free-rolling Wheel
Locked Wheel
And Slip Ratio
Figure 2
second.
Thrust Reversers
Airspeed (Knots)
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

F
o
r
c
e
140 120 100 80 60 40 20
Autobrake Low Mode
Autobrake Demand
Aerodynamic Drag
Reverse Thrust
During Landing Roll
Figure 3
Main Wheels
Main Wheels
Ground Spoilers
Extended
Main Wheels
Plus
130 Percent Drag
(V
REF
)
V
REF
Figure 1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
F
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

F
o
r
c
e

(
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
)
Free-rolling Wheel
Locked Wheel
And Slip Ratio
Figure 2
second.
Thrust Reversers
Airspeed (Knots)
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

F
o
r
c
e
140 120 100 80 60 40 20
Autobrake Low Mode
Autobrake Demand
Aerodynamic Drag
Reverse Thrust
During Landing Roll
Figure 3
3); therefore, thrust reversers must be selected as early as pos-
sible after touchdown (in accordance with standard operating
procedures [SoPs]).
Thrust reversers should be returned to reverse idle at low air-
speed (to prevent engine stall or foreign object damage) and
stowed at taxi speed.
Nevertheless, maximum reverse thrust can be maintained to a
complete stop in an emergency.
Runway Conditions
Runway contamination increases impingement drag (i.e.,
drag caused by water or slush sprayed by the tires onto the
aircraft) and displacement drag (i.e., drag created as the tires
move through a fuid contaminant [water, slush, loose snow]
on the runway), and affects braking efciency.
Wet runway, 1.3 to 1.4;
Water-contaminated or slush-contaminated runway,
2.0 to 2.3;
Compacted-snow-covered runway, 1.6 to 1.7; and,
Icy runway, 3.5 to 4.5.
Typical Landing Roll
Figure 3 shows a typical landing roll and the relation of the
different deceleration forces to the total stopping force as a
function of decelerating airspeed (from touchdown speed to
taxi speed).
The ground spoilers are armed and the autobrakes are select-
ed to the loW mode (for time-delayed brake application).
The autobrake demand in loW mode (typically, three
knots per second constant deceleration rate) is equivalent, at
a given gross weight, to a constant deceleration force.
At touchdown, the ground spoilers automatically extend and
maximum reverse thrust is applied.
The resulting total stopping force is the combined result of:
Aerodynamic drag (the normal drag of the airplane
during the roll-out, not the drag produced by the in-
correct technique of keeping the nose high during an
extended landing are);
Reverse thrust; and,
Rolling drag.
Autobrake activation is inhibited because the total stopping
force exceeds the selected rate of the autobrakes or because
of the autobrake time delay.
As airspeed decreases, total stopping force decreases because
of a corresponding decrease in:
Aerodynamic drag; and,
Reverse thrust effciency.
When the total stopping force becomes lower than the auto-
brake setting or when the autobrake time delay has elapsed,
the wheel brakes begin contributing to the total deceleration
and stopping force.
Typically, at 60 knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) to 80 KIAS,
the thrust-reverser levers are returned to the reverse-idle posi-
tion (then to the stow position at taxi speed).
As a result, the wheel brakes contribution to stopping force
increases to maintain the desired deceleration rate (autobrake
demand) to a complete stop or until the pilot takes over with
pedal braking.
Ground Spoilers/Speed Brakes, Thrust Reversers
and Brakes Stop the Aircraft
Figure 4 shows the respective contributions of the different
braking devices to total stopping energy, as a function of the
achieved or desired stopping distance.
Figure 4 shows the following:
For a given braking procedure (maximum pedal brak-
ing or autobrake mode), the stopping distance; and,
For a desired or required stopping distance, the nec-
essary braking procedure (maximum pedal braking or
autobrake mode).
Factors Affecting Braking
The following factors have affected braking in runway excur-
sions or runway overruns:
Failure to arm ground spoilers/speed brakes, with thrust
reversers deactivated (e.g., reliance on a thrust-reverser
signal for ground-spoilers extension, as applicable);
Failure to use any braking devices (i.e., reliance on the
incorrect technique of maintaining a nose-high attitude
after touchdown to achieve aerodynamic braking);
(The nosewheel should be lowered onto the runway as soon
as possible to increase weight-on-wheels and activate aircraft
systems associated with the nose-landing-gear squat switch-
es.)
Asymmetric thrust (i.e., one engine above idle in for-
ward thrust or one engine failing to go into reverse
thrust);
Brake unit inoperative (e.g., reported as a cold brake
[i.e., a brake whose temperature is lower, by a speci-
ed amount, than the other brakes on the same landing
gear]);
Spongy pedals (air in the hydraulic wheel-braking sys-
tem);
Anti-skid tachometer malfunction;
Failure to adequately recover from loss of the normal
braking system;
late selection of thrust reversers;
No takeover or late takeover from autobrakes, when
required;
No switching or late switching from normal braking to
alternate braking or to emergency braking in response
to abnormal braking; or,
Crosswind landing and incorrect braking technique.
Summary
The following can ensure optimum braking during the land-
ing roll:
Arm ground spoilers/speed brakes;
Arm autobrakes with the most appropriate mode for
prevailing conditions (short runway, low visibility,
contaminated runway);
Select thrust reversers as soon as appropriate with
maximum reverse thrust (this increases safety on dry
runways and wet runways, and is mandatory on run-
ways contaminated by standing water, snow, slush or
ice);
Monitor and call spoilers extension;
Be ready to take over from the autobrakes, if required;
Spongy pedals (air in the hydraulic wheel-braking
system);
Anti-skid tachometer malfunction;
Failure to adequately recover from loss of the normal
braking system;
Late selection of thrust reversers;
No takeover or late takeover from autobrakes, when
required;
No switching or late switching from normal braking to
alternate braking or to emergency braking in response
to abnormal braking; or,
Crosswind landing and incorrect braking technique.
Summary
The following can ensure optimum braking during the landing
roll:
Arm ground spoilers;
Arm autobrakes with the most appropriate mode for
prevailing conditions (short runway, low visibility,
contaminated runway);
Effect of Braking Devices on Stopping Energy and Stopping Distance
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1,000 2,000 3,000
80
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

o
f

T
o
t
a
l

S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

E
n
e
r
g
y
Stopping Distance (Meters) on Dry Runway
Aerodynamic Drag
Maximum Reverse Thrust
Maximum Pedal Braking
(Typically, 8 to 10 Knots per Second)
No Braking
Autobrake Medium Mode
(Typically, 6 Knots per Second)
Autobrake Low Mode
(Typically, 3 Knots per Second)
4,000
Note: Examples assume that airplane touches down at maximum landing weight and at landing reference speed (V
REF
) on a dry runway at
sea level and standard pressure and temperature.
Figure 4
Select thrust reversers as soon as appropriate with
maximum reverse thrust (this increases safety on dry
runways and wet runways, and is mandatory on runways
contaminated by standing water, snow, slush or ice);
Monitor and call spoilers extension;
Be ready to take over from the autobrakes, if required;
Monitor engine operation in reverse thrust (exhaust gas
temperature [EGT], evidence of surge);
Monitor airspeed indication (or fluctuations) and return
engines to reverse idle at the published indicated
airspeed;
If required, use maximum pedal braking; and,
As a general rule, do not stop braking until assured
that the aircraft will stop within the remaining runway
length.
The following FSF ALAR Briefing Notes provide information
Monitor engine operation in reverse thrust (exhaust gas
temperature [EgT], evidence of surge);
Monitor airspeed indication (or fuctuations) and return
engines to reverse idle at the published indicated air-
speed;
If required, use maximum pedal braking; and,
As a general rule, do not stop braking until assured
that the aircraft will stop within the remaining runway
length.
The following FSF AlAR Briefng Notes provide informa-
tion to supplement this discussion:
References
kilograms, detailed studies of 76 AlAs and serious inci-
dents in 1984 through 1997 and audits of about 3,300
ights.
factor as an event or item judged to be directly instru-
mental in the causal chain of events leading to the ac-
cident [or incident]. Each accident and incident in the
FSF Editorial Staff. Managing Aircraft-tire Wear and dam-
age Requires Adherence to Removal limits. Aviation Me-
chanics Bulletin Volume 47 (MayJune 1999).
FSF Editorial Staff. Monitoring Aircraft-tire Pressure helps
Prevent hazardous Failures. Aviation Mechanics Bulletin
Volume 47 (MarchApril 1999).
Thrust Reversers leads to learjet Accident. Accident Pre-
vention Volume 56 (January 1999).
Yager, Thomas J. The Joint FAA/NASA Aircraft/ground
Vehicle Runway Friction Program. Flight Safety Digest Vol-
ume 8 (March 1989).
International Civil Aviation organization (ICAo). Prepara-
tion of an Operations Manual. Second edition 1997.
powered: landing limitations: Alternate airports. January 1,
2000.
FAA. Advisory Circular 91-6A, Water, Slush, and Snow on
the Runway. May 24, 1978.
Operations 1, Commercial Air Transportation (Aeroplanes).
Operations on Runways Affected by Snow, Slush or Wa-
ter. June 3, 1999.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
8.5 Wet or Contaminated Runways
The conditions and factors associated with landing on a wet run-
way or a runway contaminated by standing water, snow, slush or
ice should be assessed carefully before beginning the approach.
Statistical Data
Reduction (AlAR) Task Force found that wet runways were
involved in 11 approach-and-landing accidents and serious
incidents involving runway overruns and runway excursions
1
Dening Runway Condition
Dry Runway
The European Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA)
2
denes dry
runway as one which is neither wet nor contaminated, and
includes those paved runways which have been specially
prepared with grooves or porous pavement and maintained
to retain effectively dry braking action even when moisture
is present.
Damp Runway
JAA says that a runway is considered damp when the surface
is not dry, but when the moisture on it does not give it a shiny
appearance.
Wet Runway
JAA says that a runway is considered wet when the runway
surface is covered with water, or equivalent, less than speci-
fed [for a contaminated runway] or when there is suffcient
moisture on the runway surface to cause it to appear reective,
but without signicant areas of standing water.
Contaminated Runway
JAA says that a runway is contaminated when more than 25
percent of the runway surface area (whether in isolated areas
or not) within the required length and width being used is
covered by the following:
Surface water more than 3.0 mm [millimeters] (0.125
in [inch]) deep, or by slush or loose snow, equivalent to
more than 3.0 mm (0.125 in) of water;
Snow which has been compressed into a solid mass
which resists further compression and will hold together
or break into lumps if picked up (compacted snow);
or,
Ice, including wet ice.
The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration
3
says that a runway
is considered contaminated whenever standing water, ice,
snow, slush, frost in any form, heavy rubber, or other sub-
stances are present.
Factors and Effects
Braking Action
The presence on the runway of a uid contaminant (water, slush
or loose snow) or a solid contaminant (compacted snow or ice)
adversely affects braking performance (stopping force) by:
Reducing the friction force between the tires and the
runway surface. The reduction of friction force depends
on the following factors:
Tire-tread condition (wear) and ination pressure;
Type of runway surface; and,
Anti-skid system performance; and,
Creating a layer of fuid between the tires and the
runway, thus reducing the contact area and creating a
risk of hydroplaning (partial or total loss of contact and
friction between the tires and the runway surface).
Fluid contaminants also contribute to stopping force by:
Resisting forward movement of the wheels (i.e., causing
displacement drag); and,
Creating spray that strikes the landing gear and
airframe (i.e., causing impingement drag). Certifcation
regulations require spray to be diverted away from
engine air inlets.
The resulting braking action is the net effect of the above stop-
ping forces (Figure 1 and Figure 2).
Hydroplaning (Aquaplaning)
hydroplaning occurs when the tire cannot squeeze any more
of the uid-contaminant layer between its tread and lifts off
the runway surface.
hydroplaning results in a partial or total loss of contact and
friction between the tire and the runway, and in a correspond-
ing reduction of friction coefcient.
Main wheels and nosewheels can be affected by hydroplan-
ing. Thus, hydroplaning affects nosewheel steering, as well as
braking performance.
hydroplaning always occurs to some degree when operating
on a uid-contaminated runway.
The degree of hydroplaning depends on the following fac-
tors:
Absence of runway surface roughness and inadequate
drainage (e.g., absence of transverse saw-cut grooves);
depth and type of contaminant;
Tire infation pressure;
groundspeed; and,
Anti-skid operation (e.g., locked wheels).
A minimum hydroplaning speed is dened usually for each
aircraft type and runway contaminant.
hydroplaning may occur at touchdown, preventing the wheels
from spinning and from sending the wheel-rotation signal to
various aircraft systems.
Conducting a frm touchdown can reduce hydroplaning at
touchdown.
Directional Control
on a contaminated runway, directional control should be
maintained using the rudder pedals; do not use the nosewheel-
steering tiller until the aircraft has slowed to taxi speed.
on a wet runway or a contaminated runway, use of nosewheel
steering above taxi speed may cause the nosewheels to hydro-
plane and result in the loss of nosewheel cornering force with
consequent loss of directional control.
If differential braking is necessary, pedal braking should be
applied on the required side and should be released on the
opposite side to regain directional control. (If braking is not
completely released on the opposite side, brake demand may
continue to exceed the anti-skid regulated braking; thus, no
differential braking may be produced.)
Landing Distances
landing distances usually are published in aircraft operating
manuals (AoMs)/quick reference handbooks (QRhs) for dry
runways and for runway conditions and contaminants such as
Tire-tread condition (wear) and inflation pressure;
Type of runway surface; and,
Anti-skid system performance; and,
Creating a layer of fluid between the tires and the
runway, thus reducing the contact area and creating a
risk of hydroplaning (partial or total loss of contact and
friction between the tires and the runway surface).
Fluid contaminants also contribute to stopping force by:
Resisting forward movement of the wheels (i.e., causing
displacement drag); and,
Creating spray that strikes the landing gear and airframe
(i.e., causing impingement drag). Certification
regulations require spray to be diverted away from
engine air inlets.
The resulting braking action is the net effect of the above
stopping forces (Figure 1 and Figure 2, page 181).
Hydroplaning always occurs to some degree when operating
on a fluid-contaminated runway.
The degree of hydroplaning depends on the following factors:
Absence of runway surface roughness and inadequate
drainage (e.g., absence of transverse saw-cut grooves);
Depth and type of contaminant;
Tire inflation pressure;
Groundspeed; and,
Anti-skid operation (e.g., locked wheels).
A minimum hydroplaning speed is defined usually for each
aircraft type and runway contaminant.
Hydroplaning may occur at touchdown, preventing the wheels
from spinning and from sending the wheel-rotation signal to
various aircraft systems.
Conducting a firm touchdown can reduce hydroplaning at
touchdown.
Directional Control
On a contaminated runway, directional control should be
maintained using the rudder pedals; do not use the nosewheel-
steering tiller until the aircraft has slowed to taxi speed.
On a wet runway or a contaminated runway, use of nosewheel
steering above taxi speed may cause the nosewheels to
hydroplane and result in the loss of nosewheel cornering force
with consequent loss of directional control.
If differential braking is necessary, pedal braking should be
applied on the required side and should be released on the
opposite side to regain directional control. (If braking is not
completely released on the opposite side, brake demand may
continue to exceed the anti-skid regulated braking; thus, no
differential braking may be produced.)
Landing Distances
Landing distances usually are published in aircraft operating
manuals (AOMs)/quick reference handbooks (QRHs) for dry
runways and for runway conditions and contaminants such as
the following:
Wet;
6.3 millimeters (0.25 inch) of standing water;
6.3 millimeters (0.25 inch) of slush;
Compacted snow; and,
Ice.
Airspeed (Knots)
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

F
o
r
c
e
140 120 100 80 60 40 20
Autobrake Low Mode
Autobrake Demand
Aerodynamic Drag
Reverse Thrust
During Landing Roll
Figure 1
Hydroplaning (Aquaplaning)
Hydroplaning occurs when the tire cannot squeeze any more
of the fluid-contaminant layer between its tread and lifts off
the runway surface.
Hydroplaning results in a partial or total loss of contact and
friction between the tire and the runway, and in a corresponding
reduction of friction coefficient.
Main wheels and nosewheels can be affected by hydroplaning.
Thus, hydroplaning affects nosewheel steering, as well as
braking performance.
the following:
Wet;
Compacted snow; and,
Ice.
landing distances are published for all runway conditions,
and assume:
An even distribution of the contaminant;
Maximum pedal braking, beginning at touchdown;
and,
An operative anti-skid system.
landing distances for automatic landing (autoland) using the
autobrake system are published for all runway conditions.
In addition, correction factors (expressed in percentages) are
published to compensate for the following:
Airport elevation:
Typically, +5 percent per 1,000 feet;
Wind component:
Typically, +10 percent per five-knot tail wind
component; and,
Typically, 2.5 percent per five-knot head wind
component; and,
Thrust reversers:
The thrust-reverser effect depends on runway
condition and type of braking.
Stopping Forces
Figure 1 shows the distribution of the respective stopping forces
as a function of decreasing airspeed during a typical landing
roll using autobrakes in loW mode (for a low deceleration
rate) and maximum reverse thrust.
Landing distances are published for all runway conditions, and
assume:
An even distribution of the contaminant;
Maximum pedal braking, beginning at touchdown; and,
An operative anti-skid system.
Landing distances for automatic landing (autoland) using the
autobrake system are published for all runway conditions.
In addition, correction factors (expressed in percentages) are
published to compensate for the following:
Airport elevation:
Typically, +5 percent per 1,000 feet;
Wind component:
Typically, +10 percent per five-knot tail-wind
component; and,
Typically, 2.5 percent per five-knot head-wind
component; and,
Thrust reversers:
The thrust-reverser effect depends on runway
condition and type of braking.
Stopping Forces
Figure 1 shows the distribution of the respective stopping
forces as a function of decreasing airspeed during a typical
landing roll using autobrakes in LOW mode (for a low
deceleration rate) and maximum reverse thrust.
Total stopping force is the combined result of:
Aerodynamic drag (the term refers to drag on the
airplane during the roll-out [including impingement
drag on a fluid-contaminated runway]);
Rolling drag.
Distribution of Stopping Energy on a
Contaminated Runway
Figure 2 shows the contribution to the total stopping energy
of various braking devices as a function of the desired or
achieved landing distance on a runway contaminated with
water.
Effect of Braking Devices on Stopping Energy and Stopping Distance
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

o
f

T
o
t
a
l

S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

E
n
e
r
g
y
Maximum Pedal Braking (Typically, 5 Knots per Second)
Autobrake Medium Mode (Typically, 4 Knots per Second)
Autobrake Low Mode (Typically, 3 Knots per Second)
Stopping Distance (Meters)
On Runway Contaminated with Water
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000
Aerodynamic Drag
Maximum Reverse Thrust
No Braking
Note: Examples assume that airplane touches down at maximum landing weight and at reference landing speed (V
REF
) on a runway
contaminated with 6.3 millimeters (0.25 inch) of water at sea level and standard pressure and temperature.
Figure 2
Total stopping force is the combined result of:
Aerodynamic drag (the term refers to drag on the
airplane during the roll-out [including impingement
drag on a fuid-contaminated runway]);
Rolling drag.
Distribution of Stopping Energy on a
Contaminated Runway
Figure 2 shows the contribution to the total stopping energy of
various braking devices as a function of the desired or achieved
landing distance on a runway contaminated with water.
Figure 2 can be used to determine:
For a given braking procedure (pedal braking or an
autobrake mode), the resulting landing distance; or,
For a desired or required landing distance, the necessary
braking procedure (pedal braking or an autobrake
mode).
Figure 2 shows that on a runway contaminated with standing
water (compared to a dry runway):
The effect of aerodynamic drag increases because of
impingement drag;
The effect of braking and rolling drag (balance of
braking force and displacement drag) decreases; and,
Thrust-reverser stopping force is independent of runway
condition, and its effect is greater when the deceleration
rate is lower (i.e., autobrakes with time delay vs. pedal
braking [see Figure 1]).
Runway Condition and Type of Braking
Figure 3 shows the effect of runway condition on landing
distance for various runway conditions and for three braking
procedures (pedal braking, use of loW autobrake mode and
use of MEdIUM autobrake mode).
Figure 3 is based on a 1,000-meter (3,281-foot) landing dis-
tance (typical manual landing on a dry runway with maximum
pedal braking and no reverse thrust).
For each runway condition, the landing distances for a manual
landing with maximum pedal braking and an automatic landing
with autobrakes can be compared.
Similarly, for a manual landing or an autoland (with auto-
brakes), the effect of the runway condition can be seen.
When autobrakes are used, braking efciency is a function of
the selected autobrake mode and of the anti-skid activation
point, whichever is achieved frst, as shown by Figure 3 and
Figure 2 can be used to determine:
For a given braking procedure (pedal braking or an
autobrake mode), the resulting landing distance; or,
For a desired or required landing distance, the
necessary braking procedure (pedal braking or an
autobrake mode).
Figure 2 shows that on a runway contaminated with standing
water (compared to a dry runway):
The effect of aerodynamic drag increases because of
impingement drag;
The effect of braking and rolling drag (balance of braking
force and displacement drag) decreases; and,
Thrust-reverser stopping force is independent of runway
condition, and its effect is greater when the deceleration
rate is lower (i.e., autobrakes with time delay vs. pedal
braking [see Figure 1]).
Runway Condition and Type of Braking
Figure 3 shows the effect of runway condition on landing
distance for various runway conditions and for three braking
procedures (pedal braking, use of LOW autobrake mode and
use of MEDIUM autobrake mode).
Figure 3 is based on a 1,000-meter (3,281-foot) landing
distance (typical manual landing on a dry runway with
maximum pedal braking and no reverse thrust).
For each runway condition, the landing distances for a manual
landing with maximum pedal braking and an automatic landing
with autobrakes can be compared.
Similarly, for a manual landing or an autoland (with
autobrakes), the effect of the runway condition can be seen.
When autobrakes are used, braking efficiency is a function of
the selected autobrake mode and of the anti-skid activation
point, whichever is achieved first, as shown by Figure 3 and
Figure 4.
On a runway contaminated with standing water or slush, the
landing distances with a MEDIUM or a LOW autobrake
mode are similar because the deceleration rate is affected
primarily by aerodynamic drag, rolling drag and reverse thrust,
and because the selected autobrake deceleration rate (e.g.,
MEDIUM mode) cannot be achieved.
Thrust Reversers
Figure 4 shows the effect of reverse thrust with both thrust
reversers operative.
When autobrakes are used, the thrust reverser effect (i.e.,
contribution to landing-distance reduction) is a function of:
The selected deceleration rate and the time delay on
autobrake activation, as applicable; and,
Runway condition (contribution of contaminant to the
deceleration rate).
Runway Condition
L
a
n
d
i
n
g

D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

R
e
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

(
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
)
40
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
35
Manual Landing
Pedal Braking
Autoland
Autobrake Medium
Autoland
Autobrake Low
Dry Wet Water
6.3 mm
(0.25 in)
Water
12.7 mm
(0.5 in)
Slush
6.3 mm
(0.25 in)
Slush
12.7 mm
(0.5 in)
Compacted
Snow
Ice
Effect of Thrust Reversers
On Landing Distance
mm = millimeters in = inch
Figure 4
Runway Condition
0
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
500
L
a
n
d
i
n
g

D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
M
e
t
e
r
s
)
Manual Landing
Pedal Braking
Autoland
Autobrake Medium
Autoland
Autobrake Low
Dry Wet Water
6.3 mm
(0.25 in)
Water
12.7 mm
(0.5 in)
Slush
6.3 mm
(0.25 in)
Slush
12.7 mm
(0.5 in)
Compacted
Snow
Ice
Effect of Braking and Runway Condition
On Landing Distance
mm = millimeters in = inch
Figure 3
Figure 4.
on a runway contaminated with standing water or slush, the
landing distances with a MEdIUM or a loW autobrake
mode are similar because the deceleration rate is affected pri-
marily by aerodynamic drag, rolling drag and reverse thrust,
and because the selected autobrake deceleration rate (e.g.,
MEdIUM mode) cannot be achieved.
Thrust Reversers
Figure 4 shows the effect of reverse thrust with both thrust
reversers operative.
When autobrakes are used, the thrust reverser effect (i.e., con-
tribution to landing-distance reduction) is a function of:
The selected deceleration rate and the time delay on
autobrake activation, as applicable; and,
Runway condition (contribution of contaminant to the
deceleration rate).
on a dry runway or on a wet runway, the effect of the thrust
reversers on landing distance depends on the selected autobrake
mode and on the associated time delay (e.g., MEdIUM
mode without time delay vs. loW mode with time delay),
as shown by Figure 1 and Figure 4.
Operational Guidelines
When the destination-airport runways are wet or contaminated,
the crew should:
Consider diverting to an airport with better runway
conditions or a lower crosswind component when actual
conditions signicantly differ from forecast conditions
or when a system malfunction occurs;
Anticipate asymmetric effects at landing that would
prevent efcient braking or directional control (e.g.,
crosswind);
Avoid landing on a contaminated runway without anti-
skid or with only one thrust reverser operational;
For inoperative items affecting braking or lift-dumping
capability, refer to the applicable:
AoM/QRh for in-fight malfunctions; or,
Minimum equipment list (MEl) or dispatch deviation
guide (ddg) for known dispatch conditions;
Select autobrake mode per SoPs (some AoMs/QRhs
recommend not using autobrakes if the contaminant is
not evenly distributed);
Approach on glide path and at the target fnal approach
speed;
Aim for the touchdown zone;
Conduct a frm touchdown;
Use maximum reverse thrust as soon as possible after
touchdown (because thrust reverser efciency is higher
at high airspeed);
Confirm the extension of ground spoilers/speed
brakes;
do not delay lowering the nosewheel onto the runway.
This increases weight-on-wheels and activates aircraft
systems associated with the nose-landing-gear squat
switches;
Monitor the autobrakes (on a contaminated runway, the
selected deceleration rate may not be achieved);
As required or when taking over from autobrakes, apply
the pedal brakes normally with a steady pressure;
For directional control, use rudder pedals (and differential
braking, as required); do not use the nosewheel-steering
tiller;
If differential braking is necessary, apply braking on the
required side and release the braking on the opposite
side; and,
After reaching taxi speed, use nosewheel steering with
care.
Summary
Conditions associated with landing on a wet runway or a run-
way contaminated by standing water, snow, slush or ice require
a thorough review before beginning the approach.
The presence on the runway of water, snow, slush or ice ad-
versely affects the aircrafts braking performance by:
Reducing the friction force between the tires and the
runway surface; and,
Creating a layer of fuid between the tires and the
runway, which reduces the contact area and leads to a
risk of hydroplaning.
directional control should be maintained on a contaminated
runway by using the rudder pedals and differential braking,
as required; nosewheel steering should not be used at speeds
higher than taxi speed because the nosewheels can hydro-
plane.
8.4 Braking Devices; and,
References
2. Joint Aviation Authorities. Joint Aviation Requirements
Operations. 1.480 Terminology.
3. U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. Flight Services,
7110.10N. Appendix A Pilot/Controller glossary.
Yager, Thomas J. The Joint FAA/NASA Aircraft/ground Ve-
hicle Runway Friction Program. Flight Safety Digest Volume
8 (March 1989).
FSF. Adapting To Winter operations. Accident Prevention
Volume 46 (February 1989).
powered: landing limitations: Alternate airports. January
1, 2000.
FAA. Advisory Circular 91-6A, Water, Slush, and Snow on the
Runway. May 24, 1978.
landing dry Runways, 1.520 landing Wet and con-
taminated runways. March 3, 1998.
June 3, 1999.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
8.6 Wind Information
Wind information is available to the ight crew from two
primary sources:
Air traffc control (ATC); and,
Aircraft systems.
Statistical Data
1997.
1
Reporting Standards
Recommendations for measuring and reporting wind informa-
tion have been developed by the International Civil Aviation
organization (ICAo).
They have been implemented by ICAo member states national
weather services (NWSs) and local airport weather services
(AWSs).
Average Wind and Gust
Wind direction and wind velocity are sampled every second
by wind sensors that may be distant from the runway touch-
down zone.
data averaged over the past two-minute period provide the au-
tomatic terminal information service (ATIS) or tower-reported
average wind.
The average wind is available to the controller on a display
terminal. (Some control towers, however, have instantaneous
indications of wind direction and wind velocity.)
A wind profle of data collected over the past 10-minute period
shows the maximum (peak) wind value recorded during this
period; this value is reported as the gust.
ICAo recommends that gusts be reported if the 10-minute
peak value exceeds the two-minute average wind by 10 knots
or more.
2
Nevertheless, gust values lower than 10 knots often
are provided by AWSs.
Figure 1 shows a 10-minute wind profle with:
A two-minute average wind of 15 knots; and,
A gust of 10 knots (i.e., a 25-knot peak wind velocity)
during the 10-minute period.
This wind condition would be shown in an aviation routine
weather report (METAR) as XXX15g25KT, where XXX is
the wind direction, referenced to true north. ATIS and tower-
reported winds are referenced to magnetic north.
If the peak wind value is observed during the past two-minute
period, the gust becomes part of the average wind (Figure
2).
Such a wind condition would be shown as:
XXX20g25KT; or,
XXX20KT (if the fve-knot gust is not included).
Average-wind values and gust values displayed to a controller
are updated every minute.
The two-minute average wind and the 10-minute peak gust
are used by ATC for:
ATIS broadcasts; and,
Wind information on ground, tower, approach and
information frequencies.
METARs include a 10-minute average-wind velocity and the
10-minute peak gust (Figure 3).
Maximum Demonstrated Crosswind
The maximum demonstrated crosswind published in the
approved airplane fight manual (AFM), aircraft operating
manual (AoM) and/or quick reference handbook (QRh) is
the maximum crosswind component that was encountered and
documented during certication ight tests or subsequent tests
by the manufacturer.
The wind value is recorded during a time period bracketing the
touchdown (typically from 100 feet above airport elevation to
when the airplane reaches taxi speed).
For some aircraft models, if a signicant gust is recorded
during this period, a demonstrated gust value may also be
published.
The maximum demonstrated crosswind;
Is not an operating limitation (unless otherwise
stated);
Is not necessarily the maximum aircraft crosswind
capability; and,
approved airplane flight manual (AFM), aircraft operating
manual (AOM) and/or quick reference handbook (QRH) is
documented during certification flight tests or subsequent tests
The wind value is recorded during a time period bracketing
the touchdown (typically from 100 feet above airport elevation
to when the airplane reaches taxi speed).
For some aircraft models, if a significant gust is recorded during
this period, a demonstrated gust value also is published.
Is not an operating limitation (unless otherwise stated);
capability; and,
Generally applies to a steady wind.
Maximum Computed Crosswind
The maximum computed crosswind reflects the design
capability of the aircraft in terms of:
Rudder authority;
Roll-control authority; and,
Wheel-cornering capability.
Crosswind Capability
Crosswind capability is affected adversely by the following
factors:
Wind Profile Resulting in ATC/ATIS
Report of 15-Knot Wind Velocity
And Gusts to 25 Knots
0 1 2 3 4
Gust
Minutes
5 6 7 8 9 10
25
20
15
10
5
0
W
i
n
d

(
K
n
o
t
s
)
ATIS = Automatic terminal information service
Figure 1
Wind Profile Resulting in METAR
0 1 2 3 4
Minutes
5 6 7 8 9 10
25
20
15
10
5
0
W
i
n
d

(
K
n
o
t
s
)
Gust
METAR = Aviation routine weather report
Figure 3
With Gusts to 25 Knots
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
25
20
15
10
5
0
Gust
Gusts
Minutes
W
i
n
d

(
K
n
o
t
s
)
Figure 2
approved airplane flight manual (AFM), aircraft operating
manual (AOM) and/or quick reference handbook (QRH) is
documented during certification flight tests or subsequent tests
The wind value is recorded during a time period bracketing
the touchdown (typically from 100 feet above airport elevation
to when the airplane reaches taxi speed).
For some aircraft models, if a significant gust is recorded during
this period, a demonstrated gust value also is published.
Is not an operating limitation (unless otherwise stated);
capability; and,
Generally applies to a steady wind.
The maximum computed crosswind reflects the design
capability of the aircraft in terms of:
Rudder authority;
factors:
0 1 2 3 4
Gust
Minutes
5 6 7 8 9 10
25
20
15
10
5
0
W
i
n
d

(
K
n
o
t
s
)
Figure 1
Wind Profile Resulting in METAR
0 1 2 3 4
Minutes
5 6 7 8 9 10
25
20
15
10
5
0
W
i
n
d

(
K
n
o
t
s
)
Gust
METAR = Aviation routine weather report
Figure 3
With Gusts to 25 Knots
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
25
20
15
10
5
0
Gust
Gusts
Minutes
W
i
n
d

(
K
n
o
t
s
)
Figure 2
generally applies to a steady wind.
The maximum computed crosswind reects the design capabil-
ity of the aircraft in terms of:
Rudder authority;
factors:
Runway condition (e.g., contaminated by standing water,
snow, slush or ice);
Systems malfunctions (e.g., rudder jam); or,
Minimum equipment list (MEl)/dispatch deviation
guide (ddg) conditions (e.g., inoperative nosewheel
steering).
Wind Information on Navigation Display
The wind information on the navigation display (Nd) consists
of two elements (Figure 4):
A wind arrow:
The direction of the wind arrow is referenced to
magnetic north and indicates the wind direction;
The length of the wind arrow may be xed (velocity
information is displayed separately), or the length
of the wind arrow may be varied to indicate the
wind velocity (depending on aircraft models and
standards); and,
The wind arrow is the primary visual wind reference
during the final approach (together with the
groundspeed display); and,
digital wind information showing wind direction
(typically referenced to true north) and wind velocity:
digital wind information is used primarily to compare
the current wind to the predicted wind, as provided
on the computerized ight plan.
depending on aircraft models and standards, the wind informa-
tion may be computed either by the inertial reference system
(IRS) or by the fight management system (FMS).
depending on the equipment, different time delays for
smoothing (i.e., averaging) the wind value are applied, as
discussed below.
The wind information on the Nd is updated typically 10 times
per second.
IRS Wind
IRS wind is assessed geometrically using the triangle of true
airspeed (TAS), groundspeed and wind vectors.
The TAS vector and groundspeed vector are dened, in terms
of velocity and direction, as follows:
TAS vector:
Velocity: TAS from the air data computer (AdC);
and,
direction: magnetic heading from the IRS; and,
groundspeed vector:
Velocity: groundspeed from the IRS; and,
direction: magnetic track from the IRS.
The IRS wind is computed and is transmitted typically 10 times
per second to the electronic ight instrument system (EFIS)
for display on the Nd.
The IRS wind display provides, for practical purposes, near-
real-time wind information.
Runway condition (e.g., contaminated by standing water,
snow, slush or ice);
Systems malfunctions (e.g., rudder jam); or,
Minimum equipment list (MEL)/dispatch deviation guide
(DDG) conditions (e.g., inoperative nosewheel steering).
Wind Information on Navigation Display
The wind information on the navigation display (ND) consists
of two elements (Figure 4):
A wind arrow:
The direction of the wind arrow is referenced to
magnetic north and indicates the wind direction;
The length of the wind arrow may be fixed (velocity
information is displayed separately), or the length of the
wind arrow may be varied to indicate the wind velocity
(depending on aircraft models and standards); and,
The wind arrow is the primary visual wind reference
during the final approach (together with the
groundspeed display); and,
Digital wind information showing wind direction
(typically referenced to true north) and wind velocity:
Digital wind information is used primarily to compare
the current wind to the predicted wind, as provided
on the computerized flight plan.
Depending on aircraft models and standards, the wind
information may be computed either by the inertial reference
system (IRS) or by the flight management system (FMS).
Depending on the equipment, different time delays for
smoothing (i.e., averaging) the wind value are applied, as
discussed below.
The wind information on the ND is updated typically 10 times
per second.
IRS Wind
IRS wind is assessed geometrically using the triangle of true
airspeed (TAS), groundspeed and wind vectors.
The TAS vector and groundspeed vector are defined, in terms
of velocity and direction, as follows:
TAS vector:
Velocity: TAS from the air data computer (ADC); and,
Direction: magnetic heading from the IRS; and,
Groundspeed vector:
Velocity: groundspeed from the IRS; and,
Direction: magnetic track from the IRS.
The IRS wind is computed and is transmitted typically 10 times
per second to the electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)
for display on the ND.
The IRS wind display provides, for practical purposes, near-
real-time wind information.
FMS Wind
FMS wind is computed similarly to IRS wind, but FMS wind
is averaged over a 30-second period.
FMS wind is more accurate than IRS wind because distance-
measuring equipment (DME) position or global positioning
system (GPS) position, when available, are included in the
computation.
FMS wind is less accurate (i.e., delayed) under the following
conditions:
Shifting wind;
Sideslip; or,
Climbing or descending turn.
FMS wind cannot be considered instantaneous wind, but the
FMS wind shows:
More current wind information than the ATIS or tower
average wind; and,
The wind conditions prevailing on the aircraft flight path
(aft of the aircraft).
Summary
METAR wind is a 10-minute average wind.
80
40
CDN
AMB
212/20
180
TAS
468
482
GS
CDN
50 NM
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Lower-left Corner of Navigation Display
Shows Winds From 212 Degrees
At 20 Knots
Figure 4
FMS Wind
FMS wind is computed similarly to IRS wind, but FMS wind
is averaged over a 30-second period.
FMS wind is more accurate than IRS wind because distance-
measuring equipment (dME) position or global positioning
system (gPS) position, when available, are included in the
computation.
FMS wind is less accurate (i.e., delayed) under the following
conditions:
Shifting wind;
Sideslip; or,
Climbing or descending turn.
FMS wind cannot be considered instantaneous wind, but the
FMS wind shows:
More current wind information than the ATIS or tower
average wind; and,
The wind conditions prevailing on the aircraft fight path
(aft of the aircraft).
Summary
METAR wind is a 10-minute average wind.
ATIS wind or tower average wind is a two-minute average
wind.
ATIS gust or tower gust is the wind peak value during the past
10-minute period.
The ATIS broadcast is updated only if the wind direction chang-
es by more than 30 degrees or if the wind velocity changes by
more than ve knots over a ve-minute time period.
If an instantaneous wind reading is desired and is requested from
ATC, the phraseology instant wind or wind check should be
used in the request. (ATC may provide instant-wind information
without request under shifting/gusting wind conditions.)
IRS wind is near-real-time wind.
FMS wind is a 30-second-average wind.
Maximum demonstrated crosswind generally applies to a
steady wind and is not a limitation (unless otherwise stated).
The most appropriate source of wind information should be
selected for the ight phase.
References
ights.
2. International Civil Aviation organization (ICAo).
International Standards and Recommended Practices,
Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation.
Chapter 4, Meteorological observations and Reports.
Thirteenth edition July 1998.
Collapses on landing. Accident Prevention Volume 57 (March
2000).
(december 1997).
International Civil Aviation organization. International Stan-
dards and Recommended Practices, Annex 11 to the Conven-
tion of International Civil Aviation, Air Traffc Services. Air
Traffc Control Service, Flight Information Service, Alerting
Service. Twelfth edition July 1998, incorporating Amend-
ments 139.
World Meteorological organization. Guide to Meteorologi-
cal Instruments and Methods of Observation. Sixth edition
1996.
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
8.7 Crosswind Landings
operations in crosswind conditions require adherence to ap-
plicable limitations or recommended maximum crosswinds and
recommended operational and handling techniques, particu-
larly when operating on wet runways or runways contaminated
by standing water, snow, slush or ice.
Statistical Data
1997.
1
The task force also found that adverse wind conditions and
wet runways were involved in the majority of the runway
excursions that comprised 8 percent of the accidents and seri-
ous incidents.
Runway Condition and Maximum Recom-
mended Crosswind
The maximum demonstrated crosswind and maximum com-
puted crosswind are applicable only on a runway that is dry,
damp or wet.
on a runway contaminated with standing water, slush, snow
or ice, a recommended maximum crosswind (Table 1) usually
is dened as a function of:
Reported braking action (if available);
Reported runway friction coeffcient (if available); or,
Equivalent runway condition (if braking action and
runway friction coefcient are not reported).
Equivalent runway condition, as dened by the notes in Table
1, is used only for the determination of the maximum recom-
mended crosswind.
Table 1 cannot be used for the computation of takeoff perfor-
mance or landing performance, because it does not account for
the effects of displacement drag (i.e., drag created as the tires
make a path through slush) and impingement drag (i.e., drag
caused by water or slush sprayed by tires onto the aircraft).
Recommended maximum crosswinds for contaminated run-
ways usually are based on computations rather than ight tests,
but the calculated values are adjusted in a conservative manner
based on operational experience.
The recommended maximum crosswind should be reduced for
a landing with one engine inoperative or with one thrust re-
verser inoperative (as required by the aircraft operating manual
[AoM] and/or quick reference handbook [QRh]).
Some companies also reduce the recommended maximum
crosswind when the rst ofcer is the pilot ying (PF) during
line training and initial line operation.
AoMs/QRhs prescribe a maximum crosswind for conducting
an autoland operation.
The pilot-in-command should request assignment of a more
favorable runway if the prevailing runway conditions and
crosswind are unfavorable for a safe landing.
Approach Techniques
Figure 1 shows that, depending on the recommendations
published in the AoM/QRh, a fnal approach in crosswind
conditions may be conducted:
With wings level (i.e., applying a drift correction to track
the runway centerline); this type of approach usually is
referred to as a crabbed approach; or,
With a steady sideslip (i.e., with the fuselage aligned
with the runway centerline, using a combination of
into-wind aileron and opposite rudder [cross-controls]
to correct the drift).
The following factors should be considered when deciding
between a wings-level approach and a steady-sideslip ap-
proach:
Aircraft geometry (pitch-attitude limits and bank-angle
limits, for preventing a tail strike, engine contact or
wing-tip contact);
Aileron (roll) and rudder (yaw) authority; and,
The magnitude of the crosswind component.
The recommended maximum crosswind and the recommended
crosswind landing technique depend on the aircraft type and
model; limitations and recommendations usually are published
in the AoM/QRh.
Flare Techniques
When approaching the are point with wings level and with
a crab angle, as required for drift correction, one of three
techniques can be used:
Align the aircraft with the runway centerline, while
preventing drift, by applying into-wind aileron and
opposite rudder;
Maintain the crab angle for drift correction until the
main landing gear touch down; or,
Perform a partial decrab, using the cross-controls
technique to track the runway centerline.
Some AoMs and autopilot control requirements for autoland
recommend beginning the alignment phase well before the are
point (typically between 200 feet and 150 feet), which results
in a steady-sideslip approach down to the are.
Landing Limitations
Knowledge of fight dynamics can provide increased under-
standing of the various crosswind techniques.
Landing Capabilities
Figure 2 and Figure 3 show the limitations involved in cross-
wind landings (for a given steady crosswind component):
Bank angle at a given crab angle or crab angle at a given
bank angle:
Table 1
Factors Included in Typical Recommended Maximum Crosswind
Reported Braking Reported Runway Equivalent Recommended
Action (Index) Friction Coefficient Runway Condition Maximum Crosswind
Good (5) 0.40 and above (See Note 1) 35 knots
Good / Medium (4) 0.36 to 0.39 (See Note 1) 30 knots
Medium (3) 0.30 to 0.35 (See Notes 2 and 3) 25 knots
Medium / Poor (2) 0.26 to 0.29 (See Note 3) 20 knots
Poor (1) 0.25 and below (See Notes 3 and 4) 15 knots
Unreliable (9) Unreliable (See Notes 4 and 5) 5 knots
Note 1: Dry, damp or wet runway (less than three millimeters [0.1 inch] of water) without risk of hydroplaning.
Note 2: Runway covered with dry snow.
Note 3: Runway covered with slush.
Note 4: Runway covered with standing water, with risk of hydroplaning, or with slush.
Note 5: Runway with high risk of hydroplaning.
Approach Techniques
Figure 1 (page 191) shows that, depending on the
recommendations published in the AOM/QRH, a final
approach in crosswind conditions may be conducted:
With wings level (i.e., applying a drift correction to track
the runway centerline); this type of approach usually is
referred to as a crabbed approach; or,
With a steady sideslip (i.e., with the fuselage aligned
with the runway centerline, using a combination of into-
wind aileron and opposite rudder [cross-controls] to
correct the drift).
The following factors should be considered when deciding
between a wings-level approach and a steady-sideslip
approach:
Aircraft geometry (pitch-attitude limits and bank-angle
limits, for preventing tail strike, engine contact or wing-
tip contact);
Aileron (roll) and rudder (yaw) authority; and,
The magnitude of the crosswind component.
The recommended maximum crosswind and the recommended
crosswind landing technique depend on the aircraft type and
model; limitations and recommendations usually are published
in the AOM/QRH.
Flare Techniques
When approaching the flare point with wings level and with a
crab angle, as required for drift correction, one of three
techniques can be used:
Align the aircraft with the runway centerline, while
preventing drift, by applying into-wind aileron and
opposite rudder;
Maintain the crab angle for drift correction until the main
landing gear touch down; or,
Perform a partial decrab, using the cross-controls
technique to track the runway centerline.
Some AOMs and autopilot control requirements for autoland
recommend beginning the alignment phase well before the flare
point (typically between 200 feet and 150 feet), which results
in a steady-sideslip approach down to the flare.
Landing Limitations
Knowledge of flight dynamics can provide increased
understanding of the various crosswind techniques.
Landing Capabilities
Figure 2 (page 192) and Figure 3 (page 193) show the
limitations involved in crosswind landings (for a given steady
crosswind component):
Bank angle at a given crab angle or crab angle at a given
bank angle:
The graphs show the bank-angle/crab-angle
relationship required to correct drift and to track
the runway centerline at the target final approach
speed.
Positive crab angles result from normal drift
correction and sideslip conditions (i.e., with the
aircraft pointing into the wind).
The graphs show the bank-angle/crab-angle
relationship required to correct drift and to track
the runway centerline at the target nal approach
speed.
Positive crab angles result from normal drift correction
and sideslip conditions (i.e., with the aircraft pointing
into the wind).
Negative crab angles are shown but would require an
excessive sideslip rudder input, resulting in a more-
than-desired bank angle;
Aircraft geometry limits:
limits result from the maximum pitch attitude/bank
angle that can be achieved without striking the runway
with the tail or with the engine pod (for underwing-
Negative crab angles are shown but would require an
excessive sideslip rudder input, resulting in a more-
than-desired bank angle;
Aircraft geometry limits:
Limits result from the maximum pitch attitude/bank
angle that can be achieved without striking the runway
with the tail or with the engine pod (for underwing-
mounted engines), the flaps or the wing tip; and,
Aileron/rudder authority:
This limitation results from the aircrafts maximum
capability to maintain a steady sideslip under
crosswind conditions.
Figure 2 and Figure 3 assume that the approach is stabilized
and that the flare is conducted at a normal height and rate.
The data in these figures may not apply to all aircraft types
and models, but all aircraft are subject to the basic laws of
flight dynamics that the data reflect.
Crabbed
Approach
Crosswind
Component
Sideslip
Approach
Crosswind
Component
Crabbed Approach and Sideslip Approach
Figure 1
mounted engines), the aps or the wing tip; and,
Aileron/rudder authority:
This limitation results from the aircrafts maximum
capability to maintain a steady sideslip under
crosswind conditions.
Figure 2 and Figure 3 assume that the approach is stabilized
and that the are is conducted at a normal height and rate.
The data in these gures may not apply to all aircraft types and
models, but all aircraft are subject to the basic laws of ight
dynamics that the data reect.
Figure 2 shows that with a 10-knot steady crosswind com-
ponent:
Achieving a steady-sideslip landing (zero crab angle)
requires only a three-degree into-wind bank angle (point
A on the graph); or,
Achieving a wings-level landing (no decrab) requires
only a four-degree to ve-degree crab angle at touchdown
(point B).
A sideslip landing can be conducted while retaining signicant
safety margins relative to geometry limits or to aileron/rudder
authority limits.
Figure 3 shows that with a 30-knot steady crosswind com-
ponent:
requires nearly a nine-degree into-wind bank angle,
placing the aircraft closer to its geometry limits and
aileron/rudder authority limits (point A on the graph);
or,
Achieving a wings-level landing (no decrab) would
result in a 13-degree crab angle at touchdown, potentially
resulting in landing gear damage (point B).
With a 30-knot crosswind component, adopting a combination
of sideslip and crab angle with ve degrees of crab angle and
ve degrees of bank angle restores signicant safety margins
relative to geometry limits and aileron/rudder authority limits
while eliminating the risk of landing-gear damage (i.e., moving
from point A to point C).
on aircraft models limited by their geometry, increasing the
nal approach speed (e.g., by applying a wind correction to
the nal approach speed, even under full crosswind) would
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
115 120 130 140 150 160
Indicated Airspeed (Knots)
C
r
a
b

A
n
g
l
e

(
D
e
g
r
e
e
s
)
B
Pitch Attitude/Bank Angle Limit
Aileron/Rudder Limit
0-degree Bank Angle
2-degree Bank Angle
4-degree Bank Angle
6-degree Bank Angle
8-degree Bank Angle
10-degree Bank Angle
A
Target Final
Approach speed
Crab Angle/Bank Angle Requirements in 10-knot Crosswind
Examples: A sideslip landing (zero crab angle) requires about a three-degree bank angle at touchdown (point A). A wings-level landing
(no decrab) requires a crab angle between four degrees and five degrees at touchdown (point B).
Figure 2
Figure 2 shows that with a 10-knot steady crosswind
component:
requires only a three-degree into-wind bank angle (point
A on the graph); or,
Achieving a wings-level landing (no decrab) requires
only a four-degree to five-degree crab angle at
touchdown (point B).
A sideslip landing can be conducted while retaining significant
safety margins relative to geometry limits or to aileron/rudder
authority limits.
Figure 3 shows that with a 30-knot steady crosswind component:
Achieving a steady-sideslip landing (zero crab
angle) requires nearly a nine-degree into-wind bank
angle, placing the aircraft closer to its geometry
limits and aileron/rudder authority limits (point A
on the graph); or,
Achieving a wings-level landing (no decrab) would
result in a 13-degree crab angle at touchdown, potentially
resulting in landing gear damage (point B).
With a 30-knot crosswind component, adopting a combination
of sideslip and crab angle with five degrees of crab angle and
five degrees of bank angle restores significant safety margins
relative to geometry limits and aileron/rudder authority limits
while eliminating the risk of landing-gear damage (i.e., moving
from point A to point C).
On aircraft models limited by their geometry, increasing the
final approach speed (e.g., by applying a wind correction to
the final approach speed, even under full crosswind) would
increase the safety margin with respect to this limitation (i.e.,
moving from point A to point D).
Operational Recommendations and Handling
Techniques
Figure 2 and Figure 3 show that:
With a relatively light crosswind (typically up to a 15-
knot to 20-knot crosswind component), a safe crosswind
landing can be conducted with either:
A steady sideslip (no crab); or,
Wings level, with no decrab prior to touchdown;
and,
With a strong crosswind (typically above a 15-knot to
20-knot crosswind component), a safe crosswind landing
requires a crabbed approach and a partial decrab prior
to touchdown.
increase the safety margin with respect to this limitation (i.e.,
moving from point A to point d).
Operational Recommendations and Handling Tech-
niques
Figure 2 and Figure 3 show that:
With a relatively light crosswind (typically up to a 15-
knot to 20-knot crosswind component), a safe crosswind
landing can be conducted with either:
A steady sideslip (no crab); or,
Wings level, with no decrab prior to touchdown;
and,
With a strong crosswind (typically above a 15-knot to
20-knot crosswind component), a safe crosswind landing
requires a crabbed approach and a partial decrab prior to
touchdown.
For most transport category airplanes, touching down with a
ve-degree crab angle (with an associated ve-degree bank
angle) is a typical technique in strong crosswinds.
The choice of handling technique should be based on the pre-
vailing crosswind component and on the following factors:
Wind gusts;
Runway length;
Runway surface condition;
Type of aircraft; and,
Pilot experience in type.
Touchdown Friction Forces
Upon touchdown following a crabbed approach down to are
with a partial decrab during are, the ight deck should be on
the upwind side of the runway centerline to ensure that the main
landing gear is close to the runway centerline.
After the main landing gear touches down, the aircraft is inu-
enced by the laws of ground dynamics.
The following are among the events that occur upon touch-
down:
Wheel rotation, unless hydroplaning is experienced.
For most transport category airplanes, touching down with a
five-degree crab angle (with an associated five-degree bank
angle) is a typical technique in strong crosswinds.
The choice of handling technique should be based on the
prevailing crosswind component and on the following factors:
Wind gusts;
Runway length;
Runway surface condition;
Type of aircraft; and,
Pilot experience in type.
Touchdown Friction Forces
Upon touchdown following a crabbed approach down to flare
with a partial decrab during flare, the flight deck should be on
the upwind side of the runway centerline to ensure that the
main landing gear is close to the runway centerline.
After the main landing gear touches down, the aircraft is
influenced by the laws of ground dynamics.
The following are among the events that occur upon
touchdown:
Wheel rotation, unless hydroplaning is experienced.
Wheel rotation is the trigger for:
Automatic-ground-spoiler extension (as applicable);
Autobrake system operation; and,
Anti-skid system operation.
To minimize the risk of hydroplaning and to ensure rotation
of the wheels, a firm touchdown should be made when landing
on a contaminated runway.
Buildup of friction forces begins between the tires and
the runway surface because of the combined effect of:
Wheel-braking forces; and,
Tire-cornering forces (Figure 4, page 194).
Wheel-braking forces and tire-cornering forces are based on
tire conditions and runway conditions, and also on each other
the higher the braking force, the lower the cornering force,
as shown by Figure 5 (page 194).
Transient effects, such as distortion of tire tread (caused by a
yawing movement of the wheel) or the activation of the
anti-skid system, affect the tire-cornering forces and wheel-
braking forces (in both magnitude and direction), and therefore
affect the overall balance of friction forces.
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
115 120 130 140 150 160
Indicated Airspeed (Knots)
C
r
a
b

A
n
g
l
e

(
D
e
g
r
e
e
s
)
Target Final
Approach Speed
A
C
D
B
Pitch Attitude/Bank Angle Limit
Aileron/Rudder Limit
0-degree Bank Angle
2-degree Bank Angle
4-degree Bank Angle
6-degree Bank Angle
8-degree Bank Angle
Crab Angle/Bank Angle Requirements in 30-knot Crosswind
Examples: A sideslip landing (zero crab angle) requires about a nine-degree bank angle at touchdown (point A). A wings-level landing
(no decrab) requires about a 13-degree crab angle at touchdown (point B). Point C represents a touchdown using a combination of
sideslip and crab angle (about five degrees of bank angle and about five degrees of crab angle). Point D represents a steady-sideslip
landing conducted about four knots above V
REF
.
Figure 3
Wheel rotation is the trigger for:
Automatic-ground-spoiler/speed-brakes extension
(as applicable);
Autobrake system operation; and,
Anti-skid system operation.
To minimize the risk of hydroplaning and to ensure rotation of
the wheels, a rm touchdown should be made when landing
on a contaminated runway.
Buildup of friction forces begins between the tires and
the runway surface because of the combined effect of:
Wheel-braking forces; and,
Tire-cornering forces (Figure 4).
Wheel-braking forces and tire-cornering forces are based on
tire conditions and runway conditions, and also on each other
the higher the braking force, the lower the cornering force,
as shown by Figure 5.
Transient effects, such as distortion of tire tread (caused by
a yawing movement of the wheel) or the activation of the
anti-skid system, affect the tire-cornering forces and wheel-
braking forces (in both magnitude and direction), and therefore
affect the overall balance of friction forces.
Thus, the ideal balance of forces shown in Figure 3 is main-
tained rarely during the initial landing roll.
Effect of Touchdown on Alignment
When touching down with some crab angle on a dry runway,
the aircraft tends to realign itself with the direction of travel
down the runway.
When touching down with some crab angle on a contaminated
runway, the aircraft tends to continue traveling with a crab
angle along the runway centerline.
Effect of Wind on the Fuselage and Con-
trol Surfaces
As the aircraft touches down, the side force created by the
crosswind striking the fuselage and control surfaces tends to
make the aircraft skid sideways off the centerline (Figure 6).
Thrust Reverser Effect
When selecting reverse thrust with some crab angle, the reverse
thrust results in two force components (Figure 6):
A stopping force aligned with the aircrafts direction of
travel (runway centerline); and,
A side force, perpendicular to the runway centerline, which
further increases the aircrafts tendency to skid sideways.
The thrust-reverser effect decreases with decreasing air-
speed.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
F
o
r
c
e

(
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
)
Free-rolling Wheel
Anti-skid
Activation
Braking Force
Cornering Force
Interaction of Tire-cornering and
Wheel-braking Forces
Figure 5
Tire-cornering
Force
Aircraft Motion
Crosswind
Component
Wheel-braking
Force
Tire-cornering and Wheel-braking Forces
Figure 4
Thus, the ideal balance of forces shown in Figure 3 is
maintained rarely during the initial landing roll.
Effect of Touchdown on Alignment
When touching down with some crab angle on a dry runway,
the aircraft tends to realign itself with the direction of travel
down the runway.
When touching down with some crab angle on a contaminated
runway, the aircraft tends to continue traveling with a crab
angle along the runway centerline.
Effect of Wind on the Fuselage and
Control Surfaces
As the aircraft touches down, the side force created by the
crosswind striking the fuselage and control surfaces tends to make
the aircraft skid sideways off the centerline (Figure 6, page 195).
Thrust Reverser Effect
When selecting reverse thrust with some crab angle, the reverse
thrust results in two force components (Figure 6):
A stopping force aligned with the aircrafts direction of
travel (runway centerline); and,
A side force, perpendicular to the runway centerline,
which further increases the aircrafts tendency to skid
sideways.
The thrust-reverser effect decreases with decreasing airspeed.
Rudder authority also decreases with decreasing airspeed and
is reduced further by airflow disturbances created by the thrust
reversers. Reduced rudder authority can cause directional-
control problems.
Effect of Braking
In a strong crosswind, cross-control usually is maintained after
touchdown to prevent the into-wind wing from lifting and to
counteract the weather-vane effect (i.e., the aircrafts tendency
to turn into the wind). (Some flight crew training manuals say
that the pilot should continue to fly the aircraft during the
landing roll.)
However, into-wind aileron decreases the lift on the into-wind
wing, thus resulting in an increased load on the into-wind
landing gear.
Because braking force increases as higher loads are applied
on the wheels and tires, the braking force increases on the
into-wind landing gear, creating an additional tendency to turn
into the wind (Figure 7, page 195).
When runway contamination is not evenly distributed, the anti-
skid system may release only the brakes on one side.
Maintaining Directional Control
The higher the wheel-braking force, the lower the tire-
cornering force. Therefore, if the aircraft tends to skid
sideways, releasing the brakes (i.e., by taking over from the
Rudder authority also decreases with decreasing airspeed and
is reduced further by airow disturbances created by the thrust
reversers. Reduced rudder authority can cause directional-
control problems.
Effect of Braking
In a strong crosswind, cross-control usually is maintained after
touchdown to prevent the into-wind wing from lifting and to
counteract the weather-vane effect (i.e., the aircrafts tendency
to turn into the wind). (Some ight crew training manuals say
that the pilot should continue to fy the aircraft during the
landing roll.)
however, into-wind aileron decreases the lift on the into-wind
wing, thus resulting in an increased load on the into-wind
landing gear.
Because braking force increases as higher loads are applied
on the wheels and tires, the braking force increases on the
into-wind landing gear, creating an additional tendency to turn
into the wind (Figure 7).
When runway contamination is not evenly distributed, the anti-
skid system may release only the brakes on one side.
Maintaining Directional Control
The higher the wheel-braking force, the lower the tire-cor-
nering force. Therefore, if the aircraft tends to skid sideways,
releasing the brakes (i.e., by taking over from the autobrakes)
will increase the tire-cornering force and help maintain direc-
tional control.
Selecting reverse idle thrust will cancel the side-force compo-
nent caused by the reverse thrust, will increase rudder authority
Crosswind
Component
Effect of Uneven Braking Forces
On Main Landing Gear
Figure 7
Recovery From a Skid Caused by Crosswind and Reverse Thrust Side Forces
Figure 6
Crosswind
Component
Touchdown
with Partial
Decrab
Aircraft Skidding
Sideways Because of
Body Side Force
and Reverse Thrust
Side Force
Reverse Cancelled
and Brakes Released,
Directional Control
Regained
Reverse Thrust
and Pedal
Braking
Reapplied
autobrakes) will increase the tire-cornering force and help
maintain directional control.
Selecting reverse idle thrust will cancel the side-force component
caused by the reverse thrust, will increase rudder authority and
will further assist in returning to the runway centerline.
After the runway centerline and directional control have been
regained:
Pedal braking can be applied (autobrakes were
previously disarmed) in a symmetrical or asymmetrical
manner, as required; and,
Reverse thrust can be reselected.
Factors Involved in Crosswind Incidents
and Accidents
The following factors often are involved in crosswind-landing
incidents and accidents:
time (e.g., wind shift, wind velocity/gust increase);
Failure to seek additional evidence to confirm initial
information and initial options (i.e., reluctance to change
plans);
wind conditions;
Insufficient time to observe, evaluate and control aircraft
attitude and flight path in a highly dynamic situation;
and/or,
Pitch effect on aircraft with underwing-mounted engines
caused by the power changes required in gusty conditions.
Summary
To increase safety during a crosswind landing, flight crews
should:
Understand all applicable operating factors,
recommended maximum values and limitations;
Use flying techniques and skills designed for crosswind
landings;
Crosswind
Component
Effect of Uneven Braking Forces
On Main Landing Gear
Figure 7
Recovery From a Skid Caused by Crosswind and Reverse Thrust Side Forces
Figure 6
Crosswind
Component
Touchdown
with Partial
Decrab
Aircraft Skidding
Sideways Because of
Body Side Force
and Reverse Thrust
Side Force
Reverse Cancelled
and Brakes Released,
Directional Control
Regained
Reverse Thrust
and Pedal
Braking
Reapplied
autobrakes) will increase the tire-cornering force and help
maintain directional control.
Selecting reverse idle thrust will cancel the side-force component
caused by the reverse thrust, will increase rudder authority and
will further assist in returning to the runway centerline.
regained:
Pedal braking can be applied (autobrakes were
previously disarmed) in a symmetrical or asymmetrical
manner, as required; and,
and Accidents
Failure to seek additional evidence to confirm initial
plans);
wind conditions;
Insufficient time to observe, evaluate and control aircraft
attitude and flight path in a highly dynamic situation;
and/or,
Pitch effect on aircraft with underwing-mounted engines
caused by the power changes required in gusty conditions.
Summary
To increase safety during a crosswind landing, flight crews
should:
Understand all applicable operating factors,
recommended maximum values and limitations;
Use flying techniques and skills designed for crosswind
landings;
and will further assist in returning to the runway centerline.
regained:
Pedal braking can be applied (autobrakes were previously
disarmed) in a symmetrical or asymmetrical manner, as
required; and,
and Accidents
Failure to seek additional evidence to confrm initial
plans);
wind conditions;
Insuffcient time to observe, evaluate and control aircraft
attitude and ight path in a highly dynamic situation; and/or,
Pitch effect on aircraft with underwing-mounted
engines caused by the power changes required in gusty
conditions.
Summary
To increase safety during a crosswind landing, ight crews
should:
Understand all applicable operating factors, recommended
maximum values and limitations;
Use fying techniques and skills designed for crosswind
landings;
A wings-level touchdown (i.e., without any decrab)
usually is safer than a steady-sideslip touchdown with
an excessive bank angle;
Request assignment of a more favorable runway if
the prevailing runway conditions and crosswind are
unfavorable for a safe landing;
Adjust the autopilot-disconnect altitude for prevailing
conditions to provide time to establish manual control
and trimming of the aircraft before the align/decrab and
are;
detect changes in automatic terminal information
service (ATIS) broadcasts and tower messages (e.g.,
wind shift, wind velocity/gust increase); and,
Understand small-scale local effects associated with
strong winds:
Updrafts and downdrafts; and,
Vortices created by buildings, trees or terrain.
8.1 Runway Excursions and Runway Overruns;
8.4 Braking Devices;
8.6 Wind Information.
Reference
Collapses on landing. Accident Prevention Volume 57
(March 2000).
erations 1, Commercial Air Transportation (Aeroplanes). 1.1045
Initiative (JSSI).
following:
Autobrakes;
Thrust reversers;
Telephone +1 (703) 739-6700
Fax: +1 (703) 739-6708
www.ightsafety.org
Notice
RUNWAY EXCURSIONS
FSF Runway Safety Initiative Brieng Note
Pilot Braking Action Reports
Pilot braking action reports that are based on reliable assess-
ment procedures and that use the proper terminology are
potentially valuable supplements to other runway condition
information. The limitations of pilot braking action reports
should be understood.
Statistical Data
The Flight Safety Foundation Runway Safety Initiative (RSI) Task
Force found that overruns were involved in 50 percent of the runway
excursion accidents
1
that occurred in 1995 through March 2008.
2
Braking Action
When stopping an aircraft, the pilot expects a deceleration level
that is proportional to the amount of wheel braking applied and
to runway surface friction. When the actual deceleration is less
than expected, braking action is degraded. The degree to which
deceleration by the wheel brakes is degraded is indicated by
the use of the terms good, medium and poor. The term
nil is used in the United States for braking action that is less
than poor (Table 1).
Braking action is directly affected by friction between the tire
and the runway/taxiway surface. The available tire-to-surface
friction is not only affected by the surface macro-/micro-texture
but also by contaminants such as standing water, snow, slush
and ice. In addition, the level of longitudinal braking force is
inversely affected by the level of lateral force acting on the
tires, sometimes referred to as cornering force. Cornering
forces are caused by pilot input, such as in nosewheel steering,
or by crosswinds acting on the aircraft.
Braking Action Advisories
When braking action is less than good or weather conditions are
conducive to deteriorating or rapidly changing braking action,
air traffc control (ATC) should advise pilots that braking ac-
tion advisories are in effect. This means that reports on braking
action are expected from the pilots of landing aircraft.
During the time that braking action advisories are in effect,
ATC will issue the latest braking action reports for the runway
in use to each arriving and departing aircraft. The report issued
should include the type of aircraft that made the report and the
time the observation was made. Both of these items are very
GOOD
Braking deceleration is normal for
the wheel braking effort applied.
Directional control is normal.
MEDIUM
Braking deceleration is noticeably
reduced for the wheel braking
effort applied. Directional control
may be slightly reduced.
POOR
Braking deceleration is signicantly
reduced for the wheel braking effort
applied. Directional control may be
signicantly reduced.
NIL
Braking deceleration is minimal to
nonexistent for the wheel braking
effort applied. Directional control
may be uncertain.
Table 1
GOOD
Braking deceleration is
normal for the wheel
braking effort applied.
Directional control is
normal.
MEDIUM
noticeably reduced for the
wheel braking effort
applied. Directional control
may be slightly reduced.
POOR
significantly reduced for
the wheel braking effort
may be significantly
reduced.
NIL
minimal to nonexistent for
the wheel braking effort
may be uncertain.
Table1

important to assess the validity of the report.
Pilot Braking Action Assessment
When the pilot applies wheel brakes, the wheels begin to slow
down relative to the velocity of the aircraft. Wheel speed is
expressed as a slip ratio. A slip ratio of zero percent means
that the wheel is rolling freely, and a slip ratio of 100 percent
means that the wheels are locked and not rotating at all; values
between these extremes indicate the extent to which the wheels
are skidding (Figure 1).
As the slip ratio increases, braking force increases to a point.
Figure 1 shows that there is an optimum slip ratio for maximum
braking force. The effect of reduced surface friction is to lower
the possible braking force for a given slip ratio.
Anti-skid braking systems are designed to maintain the opti-
mum slip ratio regardless of the surface conditions. The opti-
mum slip ratio can be thought of as the anti-skid limit. The pilot
has control of the level of wheel slip through the application
of pedal braking as long as the anti-skid limit is not reached.
Once the anti-skid limit is reached, pressing the brake pedals
any harder will not increase the wheel braking force because
the runway friction capability has been reached.
Consider an aircraft with anti-skid only, no thrust reverse or
autobrakes. As the wheel brakes are applied upon landing,
the pilot begins to feel the deceleration of the aircraft. The
deceleration builds as brake pedal pressure increases. On a
dry runway, it is unlikely that the pilot will ever reach the
anti-skid limit because the resultant braking forces are more
than enough to stop the aircraft. In fact, most pilots of large
transport aircraft have never reached maximum manual braking
on dry runways. It would be a very uncomfortable experience
due to the very high deceleration rates.
The pilots perception of increasing deceleration with applica-
tion of pedal brakes is the key to pilot braking action reports,
even when thrust reverse also is being used.
For example, when thrust reverse is selected after landing, the
pilot feels a certain level of deceleration. As wheel brakes are
applied, an increase in deceleration should be felt if the surface
friction can support it.
Autobrakes are designed to generate a specifed level of decel-
eration. If thrust reverse alone meets the required deceleration
for the autobrake setting used, the system will not apply any
wheel brake pressure. The pilot may not know this has oc-
curred. Consequently, in this case, pilot braking action cannot
be assessed until autobrakes are overridden. By overriding the
autobrakes with application of pedal braking, the pilot can
assess braking action because he or she directly controls the
wheel slip up to the anti-skid limit.
This is not to imply that autobrakes should not be used. On
the contrary, autobrakes should be used in accordance with
the manufacturers recommendations. An advantage of using
autobrakes is that the system will promptly apply wheel brakes
after touchdown, thus avoiding pilot-induced delays.
Pilots can assess braking action by noting whether the decelera-
tion force felt is increasing with increasing brake pedal force
(Figure 2). The point at which the deceleration force remains
constant with increasing brake pedal force is the anti-skid
limit. If this occurs when only light pedal pressure is applied,
braking action is poor. If this occurs with moderate brake pedal
pressure, braking action is medium. If the anti-skid limit is
reached with heavy braking, braking action is good.
It is important to understand that for proper operation of anti-
skid braking systems, a steady increase in brake pedal force is
needed. The pilots goal in assessing braking action is to note
at what brake pedal force the airplanes deceleration ceases
to increase. However, the pilot should continue to increase
the brake pedal pressure to maximum if necessary to ensure
that the airplane remains at the anti-skid limit, providing the
optimum wheel slip ratio.
Benets of Pilot Braking Action Reports
Although pilot braking action reports are subjective, they
do provide valuable information about rapidly deteriorating
runway surface conditions.
In addition, some aircraft manufacturers provide advisory
landing distance performance information as a function of pilot
braking action reports. They do this by choosing a conserva-
tive aircraft braking coeffcient for the braking action terms
of good, medium and poor. The appropriate value of aircraft
braking coeffcient is used in the manufacturers advisory
landing distance calculations.
Limitations of Pilot Braking Action Reports
Because the pilot is basing a braking action assessment on the
amount of deceleration that he perceives, it may be challenging
to discern the true braking action because it may be masked
by the use of reverse thrust and any displacement/impingement
drag from loose surface contamination.
The technique to get around this limitation is to note whether
deceleration increases with the application of manual wheel
braking. An increase in deceleration above that from thrust
reverse may be felt, the magnitude of which will depend on
the runway surface conditions.
If no increase in deceleration is felt with the application of
manual wheel braking, the pilot should continue using thrust
reverse, all the way to a stop if necessary.
Variability in pilot braking action reports can occur for rea-
sons other than pilot subjectivity. The portion of the runway
used by the landing airplane, as well as the type of airplane,
may cause differences between what is reported and what is
experienced by the pilot.
Reliable Braking Action Reports
A reliable braking action report is one that is submitted by
the pilot of an airplane with landing performance capabilities
similar to those of other airplanes being operated.
Consider the following aircraft characteristics when assessing
the reliability of a braking action report:
Type of power plant (turboprop or turbojet);
Weight class (super, heavy, large, small);
Main landing gear confguration (twin, dual twin-
tandem, etc.); and,
Thrust reverse confguration (turboprop, tail-
mounted or wing-mounted turbine engines).
When the reporting airplane does not have similar charac-
teristics to the airplane being operated, the pilot will have to
decide the extent to which the report should be considered in
the decision-making process. Such reports should not be sum-
marily disregarded, especially if the report is conservative.
Making a Pilot Braking Action Report
When braking action advisories are in effect, the pilot might
be asked to provide a braking action report to ATC. The report
should include the following:
The appropriate braking action term (i.e., good,
medium, poor or nil);
The portion of the runway for which the braking
action report applies;
The type of aircraft; and,
Where the runway was exited.
When relaying a pilot braking action report, ATC should
include the time since the report was made. For example:
Braking action reported 10 minutes ago as medium by a
Boeing 737 that exited at Taxiway A7. The time of the last
braking action report is very important; if it is not provided,
the pilot should ask for it.
The report also should include braking action that varies along
the runway. For example, First half of landing roll medium,
last half poor. However, the use of terms such as good to
medium and medium to poor apply to intermediate levels
of braking action, not to braking action that varies along the
runway length.
Additionally, when providing a braking action report for taxi-
ways or ramps, include the surface for which the report applies.


For example, Runway good, turn-off Taxiway A6 poor.
The U.S. National Transportation Safety Board recommends
that if mixed braking action reports are received, such as me-
dium to poor, the most conservative term should be used to
increase landing safety margins.
NIL Braking Action
The term nil is not currently part of International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) braking action terminology; however
it is used in the United States, where it would indicate to the
airport authorities that runway treatment is required before
further aircraft operations are allowed on that runway.
Historically, there has been some hesitation by pilots to report
nil runway conditions. Perhaps this is due in part to the realiza-
tion that reporting nil runway conditions will close the runway
to subsequent aircraft.
Because of this, it may be helpful to pilots to have specifc
target criteria for determining when runway conditions are
likely to be nil. A nil report should be made when any of the
following conditions are encountered during a maximum-effort
landing on a contaminated runway (following an on-speed and
on-path crossing of the threshold):
As brake pedal pressure is applied, the pilot per-
ceives little or no increase in deceleration;
Stowing the thrust reversers produces a sensation of
acceleration despite having wheel brakes applied;
Actual landing distance exceeds the distance calcu-
lated for poor braking action or for runway condi-
tions equivalent to poor braking action, for those
operators that have operational landing distances as
a function of runway condition; or,
Discontinuing the use of reverse thrust was required
to restore directional control when the crosswind
was within limits for the reported runway condi-
tions.
If any of these results are experienced on at least some part of
the runway, there has been a signifcant loss of friction and a
report of nil is justifed. If a nil report is not made, the following
crew will not consider it a favor if they go off the end of the
runway on which the previous aircraft only just got stopped.
Summary
Whenever braking action is less than good or runway surface
conditions are conducive to braking action that is less than
good, ATC advisories should state that braking action advi-
sories are in effect. This alerts pilots that pilot braking action
reports are expected.
The pilot should report the braking action experienced, the type
of aircraft and the exit taxiway whenever possible.
ATC should report to arriving and departing aircraft the latest
braking action report, including the type of aircraft and where
that aircraft exited the runway.
Although pilot braking action reports are subjective assess-
ments of runway conditions, they provide valuable informa-
tion to supplement other runway condition information. Pilots
are encouraged to use the descriptions of the braking action
terms in Table 1 to provide standardized and reliable braking
action reports.
It is important that pilots not base their runway surface assess-
ment solely on pilot braking action reports. Pilots must consider
all available information such as contaminant type and depth,
Mu values, pilot braking action reports, snow-related notices
to airmen (SNOWTAMs), aviation routine weather reports
(METARS) and personal observations.
The FSF RSI Briefng Note Runway Condition Reporting
provides information to supplement this discussion.
References
1. The Flight Safety Foundation Runway Safety Initiative
(RSI) Task Force analyzed 548 runway-excursion acci-
dents that occurred in 1995 through March 2008 involving
civil airplanes weighing more than 12,500 pounds/5,700
kilograms.
2. The FSF RSI Task Force defnes a runway excursion ac-
cident as a mishap characterized by an aircraft departing
the usable surface of a runway during takeoff or landing.
The task force said, An excursion can occur either by
overrunning the end of the runway or by veering off its
side. A runway excursion during takeoff assumes that
the aircraft started its takeoff roll on the runway surface
and later departed that surface with its wheels still on the
ground. Runway excursions during landing are generally
predicated on an aircraft having initially touched down
on the runway surface, followed by a departure from that
surface with its wheels still on the ground. Events where
aircraft depart the runway while airborne are not consid-
ered runway excursions.
Mook, Reinhard. Treacherous Thawing Slush may induce
poor/nil aircraft braking action, contrary to runway friction
readings. AeroSafety World Volume 3 (October 2008): 14-
19.
Lacagnina, Mark. Missed Assessment Tired pilots neglect-
ed to perform a required review before landing. AeroSafety
World Volume 3 (October 2008): 20-24.
Werfelman, Linda. Safety on the Straight and Narrow
Aviation safety experts aim for the Runway Safety Initiative
to provide the tools to help prevent runway incursions. Ae-
roSafety World Volume 3 (August 2008): 12-17.
Lacagnina, Mark. Overrun at Midway The crew applied
reverse thrust too late. AeroSafety World Volume 3 (February
2008): 28-33.
Werfelman, Linda. Blindsided The pilots of an Airbus
A340 did not anticipate the severe deterioration of weather as
they approached the runway threshold at Toronto. AeroSafety
World Volume 3 (February 2008): 40-45.
Mook, Reinhard. Insidious Ice Basic physics makes slip-
pery-runway issues crystal clear. AeroSafety World Volume
2 (October 2007): 24-28.
Johnsen, Oddvard. Improving Braking Action Reports Us-
ing performance data from landing aircraft would eliminate
current inaccuracies. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (August
2007): 36-40.
Rosenkrans, Wayne. Knowing the Distance The FAA plans
to require commercial and fractional turbojet fight crews to
confrm landing distance capability on arrival in specifc situ-
ations. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (February 2007): 22-25.
International Civil Aviation Organization. International Stan-
dards and Recommended Practices, Annex 14 to the Conven-
tion on International Civil Aviation: Aerodromes.
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Aeronautical In-
formation Manual. Paragraph 4-3-8, Braking Action Reports
and Advisories. Paragraph 4-3-9, Runway Friction Reports
and Advisories.
FAA. Advisory Circular 91-79, Runway Overrun Protection.
FAA Safety Alert for Operators 06012, Landing Performance
Assessments at Time of Arrival (Turbojets). Aug. 31, 2006.
FSF Runway Safety Initiative Brieng Note
Runway Condition Reporting
Flight dispatchers and fight crewmembers should obtain ac-
curate and timely information on runway conditions. Runway
conditions are not static, they change with time as surface
temperature changes and precipitation accumulates.
Measuring and reporting runway condition is the airports
responsibility; however, understanding the information and
its possible problems is the operators responsibility.
Dispatchers and fight crewmembers can make good decisions
only by understanding the basis for and limitations of the
information that has been reported to them.
Statistical Data
The Flight Safety Foundation Runway Safety Initiative (RSI)
Task Force found that runways contaminated by standing
water, snow, slush or ice were involved in approximately 80
percent of the runway excursion accidents
1
that occurred in
1995 through March 2008.
2
Runway Condition Reporting
Runway condition typically is provided in pilot reports of
braking action, physical descriptions of runway conditions
and/or friction measurements.
Physical Description of Runway Condition
The airport provides a physical description of runway surface
condition using terms such as wet, fooded, patches
of ice, 5 mm of slush, compact snow, 10 mm of dry
snow and standing water. These surface condition reports
provide an indication of braking action, but they can also be
misleading if all the appropriate information is not known. For
example, very cold, compact snow on the runway may have
relatively good friction characteristics, but with a change of
a few degrees in temperature, causing the snow to change to
slush, and/or additional precipitation in the form of wet snow,
runway friction will deteriorate.
When evaluating surface condition reports, it is important to
know how much additional contamination has occurred since
the report was issued. For example, a report might say that
there is a trace of residual snow on a runway that had just been
cleaned. However, snow may continue to fall, and the report
quickly becomes out of date. With a snowfall rate between
20 and 40 mm (0.7 and 1.6 in) per hour, braking action can
deteriorate from good to poor within 15 minutes.
Pilot Reports of Braking Action
Pilot braking action reports can be affected by the reporting
crews experience and the equipment they are operating.
The terminology recommended by the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) is good, good to medium,
medium, medium to poor and poor. The terminology
recommended by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) is good, fair, poor and nil. The following table
provides a conservative correlation of reported braking action
with runway states.
RUNWAY EXCURSIONS
GOOD Wet
MEDIUM Compact Snow
POOR Ice
Pilot braking action reports generally are the most recent
information available and therefore provide information
about changing runway conditions. However, pilot
reports are subjective. The pilot of a small airplane may
perceive different braking conditions than the pilot of a
large airplane. The braking action assessment also can be
infuenced by the airplanes weight, approach speed, amount
of wheel braking applied and the location on the runway
where the highest amount of wheel braking is used.
Friction Measurement
Runway friction is reported numerically (e.g., 30 or 0.30).
The reports are derived from measurements by a variety of
vehicles and by different methods. For example, some vehicles
have decelerometers that measure the deceleration of the test
vehicle during a maximum-effort stop. This deceleration is
then converted to a friction reading.
Another method is to use a device, typically towed, that con-
tinuously measures the force on a braked wheel. Friction is then
calculated from the forces on this wheel. Typically, these friction
measurements are reported for each third of the runway.
Runway friction reports are objective and predictive. However,
the different methods used to measure friction can provide
different results.
Measurements by either the same vehicle/device or the same
type of vehicle/device can vary between runs. Especially
on soft surfaces (e.g., loose snow, slush, standing water), the
vehicles/devices modify the surface over which they are run
due to their contact with the deformable contaminate. The FAA
states that ground friction vehicle reports are not considered
reliable when the depth of the contaminant exceeds:
1 mm of water;
3 mm of slush or wet snow; or,
2.5 cm (1 in) of dry snow.
ICAO provides a similar warning.
A decelerometer should not be used in loose snow or slush,
as it can provide misleading friction values. Other friction
measuring devices also can give misleading friction values
under certain combinations of contaminants and air/pavement
temperature.
Friction measurements are taken at specifc times, and runway
condition may change between reports. More precipitation may
fall, the temperature may change, or other traffc may cause
changes in the runway condition. These changes may increase
or decrease runway friction.
Manufacturers currently do not supply performance informa-
tion based on friction measurements due to concerns about
the accuracy of relating the measured friction to an airplanes
performance capability.
How Reports Are Disseminated
Runway condition reports may be included in routine notices
to airmen (NOTAMs), snow-related NOTAMs (SNOWTAMs),
aviation routine weather reports (METARs), automatic termi-
nal information system (ATIS) broadcasts or via ATC com-
munication with the fight crew. For a short fight, the fight
crew may have NOTAMs and/or SNOWTAMs available prior
to departure that will enable them to perform a preliminary
evaluation of the airplanes capability based on conditions
reasonably expected at the time of arrival. The fight crew must
recognize that conditions may change during the fight and that
updated reports will be required as they near the airport.
Best Practices
During the preliminary evaluation, the fight crew should con-
sider whether it is probable or possible that the conditions will
change by the time of arrival and whether the conditions will
change for the better or worse. A second evaluation should be
performed to help with operational decisions such as:
How long can a hold be maintained until a diversion
decision must be made?
Should extra fuel be loaded in order to hold while the
runway is being improved?
Are there any minimum equipment list (MEL) items
that would affect the airplanes performance?
Should landing weight (and therefore takeoff weight)
be restricted to ensure the airplanes performance
capability?
Should the fight be delayed?
Should an alternate airport be specifed that has a higher
likelihood of adequate runway conditions?
What is the possibility that the expected wind condi-
tions will exceed the recommended crosswind for the
runway conditions?
On a long fight, the fight crew should perform another evalu-
ation two to four hours before arrival. If it is determined that
the conditions likely will change for the worse, the evaluation
should include the following considerations:
How long can a hold be maintained until a diversion
decision must be made?
Are there any MEL items that would affect the air-
planes performance?
What is the possibility that the expected wind condi-
tions will exceed the recommended crosswind for the
runway conditions?
As the fight nears the airport, the fight crew should perform
a landing distance assessment based on the data provided by
the airline. This assessment should take into account:
Known and anticipated conditions at the airport;
Runway condition;
Pilot braking action reports;
Weather conditions;
Runway to be used;
Runway length and slope (if available);
Planned landing confguration and approach speed;
Planned use of autobrakes or manual braking;
Thrust reverser status;
Expected speed at the threshold (per manufacturers
recommendation) and the possibility of hydroplan-
ing;
Expected visibility of runway markings; and,
Runway lighting confguration.
As part of the landing distance assessment, the fight crew
should develop a strategy that results in a land/no-land decision
if additional information is received late in the approach.
Human Factors
The fight crews training and experience will directly affect
how they evaluate the information they receive on runway
conditions. Flight crews who fy in specifc areas such as
Alaska, northern Europe or Russia may have more conf-
dence in and place more importance on specifc information
based on local knowledge.
During international operations, the fight crew may have
less confdence in runway-condition information because the
terminology, measuring equipment and methods of reporting
vary. In addition, the fight crew may have limited training or
experience in the area.
Company Prevention Strategies
To help fight crews cope with contaminated runways, the
airline or aircraft operator should provide the following:
Winter operation/slippery runway standard operating
procedures (SOPs);
Interpretation of the manufacturers data;
Analysis of specifc runway conditions;
No-fault diversion policy; and,
Training programs that include winter-operations ele-
ments such as evaluation of runway condition informa-
tion.
Summary
Flight crews need timely, accurate information on runway
conditions so that they can make informed decisions about
the suitability of the runway for landing.
There are three primary methods of reporting runway condi-
tions:
Runway descriptions, which are the responsibility of
the airport;
Friction measurements, which also are the responsibil-
ity of the airport; and,
Pilot braking action reports transmitted from fight
crews to ATC and then to other pilots.
Runway descriptions and friction measurements are made at
specifc times and may not refect changing conditions.
Pilot braking action reports refect the changing conditions at
an airport; however, these reports are subjective.
In changing conditions, fight crews should determine ahead of
time the worst runway condition they will accept, so that they
can make an informed decision if runway condition informa-
tion becomes available very late in the fight.
Flight crews should not ignore parts of a condition report and
rely on a single runway condition description; the most precise
is not necessarily the most accurate.
The FSF RSI Briefng Note Pilot Braking Action Reports
provides information to supplement this discussion.
References
1. The Flight Safety Foundation Runway Safety Initiative
(RSI) Task Force analyzed 548 runway-excursion acci-
dents that occurred in 1995 through March 2008 involving
civil airplanes weighing more than 12,500 pounds/5,700
kilograms.
2. The FSF RSI Task Force defnes a runway excursion ac-
cident as a mishap characterized by an aircraft departing
the usable surface of a runway during takeoff or land-
ing. The task force said, An excursion can occur either
by overrunning the end of the runway or by veering off
its side. A runway excursion during takeoff assumes that
the aircraft started its takeoff roll on the runway surface
and later departed that surface with its wheels still on the
ground. Runway excursions during landing are generally
predicated on an aircraft having initially touched down
on the runway surface, followed by a departure from that
surface with its wheels still on the ground. Events where
aircraft depart the runway while airborne are not considered
runway excursions.
Mook, Reinhard. Treacherous Thawing Slush may induce
poor/nil aircraft braking action, contrary to runway friction
readings. AeroSafety World Volume 3 (October 2008): 14-
19.
Lacagnina, Mark. Missed Assessment Tired pilots neglected
to perform a required review before landing. AeroSafety World
Volume 3 (October 2008): 20-24.
Werfelman, Linda. Blindsided The pilots of an Airbus A340
did not anticipate the severe deterioration of weather as they
approached the runway threshold at Toronto. AeroSafety World
Volume 3 (February 2008): 40-45.
Mook, Reinhard. Insidious Ice Basic physics makes slip-
pery-runway issues crystal clear. AeroSafety World Volume 2
(October 2007): 24-28.
Johnsen, Oddvard. Improving Braking Action Reports Us-
ing performance data from landing aircraft would eliminate
current inaccuracies. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (August
2007): 36-40.
Rosenkrans, Wayne. Knowing the Distance The FAA plans
to require commercial and fractional turbojet fight crews to
confrm landing distance capability on arrival in specifc situ-
ations. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (February 2007): 22-25.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). International
vention on International Civil Aviation: Aerodromes.
ICAO. International Standards and Recommended Practices,
Annex 15 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation:
Aeronautical Information Services.
ICAO. Doc 9137, Airport Services Manual. Part 2, Pavement
Surface Conditions.
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Advisory Circular
(AC) 150-5200.30C, Airport Winter Safety and Operations.
FAA. AC 91-79, Runway Overrun Prevention.
APPENDIX III
Report on the Design and Analysis
of a Runway Excursion Database
(click to open pdf document)
APPENDIX IV
Selected Flight Safety Foundation Publications
Selected Flight Safety Foundation
Publications
(Available from the Publications section of the FSF web site fightsafety.org.)
Lacagnina, Mark. Too Long at the Wheel Fatigue factors in a runway excursion. AeroSafety World Volume 4 (March
2009): 28-31.
Burin, James M. Steady State Accident categories in 2008 were mostly familiar, including the unwelcome return of the
no-faps takeoff. AeroSafety World Volume 4 (February 2009): 18-23.
Rosenkrans, Wayne. Moment of Truth Rigid adherence to procedures for takeoff weight, center of gravity and stabilizer
trim setting reduces the likelihood of uncommanded or delayed rotation. AeroSafety World Volume 4 (February 2009): 44-
47.
Dean, Alan; Pruchnicki, Shawn. Deadly Omissions Human memory fails in predictable patterns that can be avoided by
paying close attention to SOPs when distractions occur. AeroSafety World Volume 3 (December 2008): 10-16.
Mook, Reinhard. Treacherous Thawing Slush may induce poor/nil aircraft braking action, contrary to runway friction
readings. AeroSafety World Volume 3 (October 2008): 14-19.
Lacagnina, Mark. Missed Assessment Tired pilots neglected to perform a required review before landing. AeroSafety
World Volume 3 (October 2008): 20-24.
Lacagnina, Mark. Snowed The runway was in and out of sight, but the crew pressed ahead. AeroSafety World Volume 3
(September 2008): 22-27.
Werfelman, Linda. Calculating Errors Mistakes in determining takeoff parameters are frequent, a French study says, and
methods of detecting them are not always effective. AeroSafety World Volume 3 (September 2008): 28-32.
Werfelman, Linda. Safety on the Straight and Narrow Aviation safety experts aim for the Runway Safety Initiative to pro-
vide the tools to help prevent runway excursions. AeroSafety World Volume 3 (August 2008): 12-17.
Lacagnina, Mark. Margin for Error Enhancing overrun survivability with runway end safety areas. AeroSafety World
RUNWAY EXCURSIONS
Volume 3 (August 2008): 22-26.
Lacagnina, Mark. Bad Call A relayed company message distracted the crew during an autoland approach. AeroSafety
World Volume 3 (July 2008): 12-17.
Lacagnina, Mark. Overrun at Midway The crew applied reverse thrust too late. AeroSafety World Volume 3 (February
2008): 28-33.
Werfelman, Linda. Blindsided The pilots of an Airbus A340 did not anticipate the severe deterioration of weather as
they approached the runway threshold at Toronto. AeroSafety World Volume 3 (February 2008): 40-45.
Lacagnina, Mark. High, Hot and Fixated Despite several warnings, the Garuda 737 pilot stayed focused on landing. Ae-
roSafety World Volume 3 (January 2008): 42-46.
Carbaugh, David. Good for Business Conclusion of a series focusing on the development and safety benefts of preci-
sion-like approaches, a project of the FSF International Advisory Committee. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (December 2007):
11-15.
Johnsen, Oddvard. Go or No-Go? A tire burst, and a decision had to be made quickly. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (De-
cember 2007): 28-29.
Baron, Robert. Cockpit Discipline Violating the sterile cockpit rule and ignoring other standard operating procedures
can lead to tragedy. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (December 2007): 47-48.
Bateman, Don; McKinney, Dick. Dive-and-Drive Dangers Third in a series focusing on the development and safety
benefts of precision-like approaches, a project of the FSF International Advisory Committee. AeroSafety World Volume 2
(November 2007): 13-17.
Lacagnina, Mark. Mistaken Identity The CRJ crew lined up for takeoff on the wrong runway. AeroSafety World Volume
2 (November 2007): 38-43.
Rosenkrans, Wayne. ADS-B On Board UPS Airlines takes aim at runway incursions and unstabilized approaches. Aero-
Safety World Volume 2 (November 2007): 44-47.
Tarnowski, Etienne. From Nonprecision to Precision-Like Approaches Second in a series focusing on the development
and safety benefts of precision-like approaches, a project of the FSF International Advisory Committee. AeroSafety World
Volume 2 (October 2007): 12-21.
Mook, Reinhard. Insidious Ice Basic physics makes slippery-runway issues crystal clear. AeroSafety World Volume 2
(October 2007): 24-28.
Douglass, John W. Technology Can Reduce Runway Mishaps ADS-B moving map displays will cut through bad vis-
ibility and provide pilots not only with their position on the airport grounds, but also with information about all other ground
traffc and the positions of other aircraft fying near the runways. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (October 2007): 36-37.
FSF International Advisory Committee. Pursuing Precision Introduction to a series focusing on the development and
safety benefts of precision-like approaches. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (September 2007): 20-21.
Johnsen, Oddvard. Improving Braking Action Reports Using performance data from landing aircraft would eliminate cur-
rent inaccuracies. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (August 2007): 36-40.
Chiles, Patrick. Planning the Departure Takeoff performance myths and methods. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (July
2007): 26-32.
Rosenkrans, Wayne. Real-Time Defenses Wind shear avoidance can reach the next level if airlines and ATC update their
procedures to match current detection capabilities. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (May 2007): 34-38.
Lacagnina, Mark. Streaking Into Vegas Failure of a business jets lift-dump system was the last ingredient in a spoiled
landing. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (April 2007): 38-41.
Donoghue, J.A. Incursions, Excursions & Confusions. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (March 2007): 5.
Lacagnina, Mark. Off-Balance Overrun Nose-heavy Challenger would not rotate for takeoff. AeroSafety World Volume
3 (March 2007): 30-36.
Fahlgren, Gunnar. Tail Wind Traps Birds never land downwind. Should we? AeroSafety World Volume 2 (March 2007): 46-47.
Rosenkrans, Wayne. Knowing the Distance The FAA plans to require commercial and fractional turbojet fight crews to
confrm landing distance capability on arrival in specifc situations. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (February 2007): 22-25.
Agur, Peter V. Jr. Discipline as Antidote The importance of procedures and the adherence to procedures cannot be over-
stated. AeroSafety World Volume 2 (February 2007): 35-38.
Berman, Benjamin A.; Dismukes, R. Key. Pressing the Approach A NASA study of 19 recent accidents yields a new per-
spective on pilot error. AviationSafety World Volume 1 (December 2006): 28-33.
Rosenkrans, Wayne. Break, Distort or Yield Updated approach lighting system standards address risks during the
100-millisecond impact of an airplane. AviationSafety World (December 2006): 36-39.
Rash, Clarence E. Flying Blind When an aircraft is engulfed in blowing dirt or snow, the onset of IMC usually is instan-
taneous. AviationSafety World Volume 1 (December 2006): 44-46.
Werfelman, Linda. Fatal Calculation Failure of the fight crew to detect a computer programming error led to inadequate
takeoff performance by their 747. AviationSafety World Volume 1 (October 2006): 18-24.
Rosenkrans, Wayne. Rethinking Overrun Protection Midway International Airports December 2005 accident makes air-
port operators reconsider installing the latest engineered materials arresting system. AviationSafety World Volume 1 (August
2006): 13-19.
Rosenkrans, Wayne. Making ALAR Pervasive Five years of workshops have propelled the FSF Approach and Landing
Accident Reduction Tool Kit into many corners of the world. Thats not enough. AviationSafety World Volume 1 (July 2006):
26-39.
Flight Safety Foundation Approach-and-Landing Accident Reduction (ALAR) Task Force. Killers in Aviation: FSF Task
Force Presents Facts About Approach-and-Landing and Controlled-Flight-Into-Terrain Accidents. Flight Safety Digest Vol-
ume 17 (NovemberDecember 1998) and Volume 18 (JanuaryFebruary 1999): 1-121.
APPENDIX V
Additional Resources (click to open pdf documents)
Runway Excursions, Part 1: A worldwide review of commercial jet aircraft runway excursions
Australian Transport Safety Bureau
Takeoff Safety Training Aid
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration
Stabilized Approaches: Good Practice Guide
Direction Gnrale de lAviation Civile, France
Unstabilized Approaches
Direction Gnrale de lAviation Civile, France
Runway Overrun Prevention
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration
APPENDIX VI
Runway Safety Initiative Participating Organizations
Air Trafc Control The Netherlands (LVNL)
Air Line Pilots Association, International
Airbus
Airports Council International (ACI)
Asociacin Latinoamericana de Transporte Areo (ALTA)
Association of Asia Pacic Airlines (AAPA)
Association of European Airlines (AEA)
Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation (CANSO)
Direction Gnrale de lAviation Civile (DGAC), France
Embraer
Eurocontrol
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)
European Regions Airline Association (ERA)
Flight Safety Foundation (FSF)
Honeywell
International Air Transport Association (IATA)
International Federation of Air Line Pilots Associations (IFALPA)
International Federation of Air Trafc Controllers Associations (IFATCA)
National Aerospace LaboratoryThe Netherlands (NLR)
The Boeing Co.
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
U.S. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)

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4 RUNWAY SAFETY INITIATIVE FlIghT SAFETY FoUNdATIoN MAY 2009

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