Early Chinese Coinage / by Wang Yü-Ch'üan

Early Chinese Coinage
By WANG YU-CH'UAN
THE AMERICAN NUMISMATIC SOCIETY
BROADWAY AT 156TH STREET
NEW YORK
1951
NUMISMATIC NOTES AND MONOGRAPHS
Number 122
NUMISMATIC NOTES AND MONOGRAPHS
is devoted to essays and treatises on subjects relating
to coins, paper money, medals and decorations.
PUBLICATION COMMITTEE
Herbert E. Ives, Chairman
Alfred R. Bellinger
Agnes Baldwin Brett
Thomas O. Mabbott
Sawyer McA. Mosser, Editor
CONTENTS
PREFACE .' vii
I. INTRODUCTION
1. An Historical Sketch of Ancient Chinese Numismatics 1
2. Difficulties in the Study of Ancient Chinese Coins u
A. Decipherment of Legends 11
B. Use of Epigraphical Evidence in Dating Coins 13
C. Lack of Historical Records and Archaeological Reports 17
D. Identification of Mint Names 19
II. DEVELOPMENT OF COMMERCE IN ANCIENT CHINA
1. The Shang and Chou Periods 22
2. The Ch'un-ch'iu Period (77o 481 B.C.) 3o
3. The Chan-kuo Period (4o3 221 B.C.) 42
III. MONEY BEFORE COINAGE COWRIES AND THEIR IMITATIONS
1. Cowrie Shells as Media of Exchange 54
2. Species of the Cowries and How the Ancient Chinese Obtained Them . 66
3. Imitation of Cowrie Shells 69
4. The / Pi Ch'ien (Ant Nose Money) 76
5. P'eng, the Measure of Cowries 83
IV. THE SPADE COINAGE
1. The Origin of the Spade Coinage 9o
2. The Date of the Coinage N 1oo
3. The Various Types of Spades and Their Chronology 114
A. The Prototype Spade 116
B. Hollow-Handle Spade 117
C. The Old Spade 121
D. The Late Spade 123
4. The Regional Distribution of the Spades 129
5. Special Old Spades of Liang 137
V. THE KNIFE COINAGE
1. Its Origin and Date 144
2. The Early Knives and Their Distribution 157
V
vi Contents
3. The Late Knives and Their Distribution 162
A. The Sharp-pointed Knives 162
B. The Ming Knives 166
C. The Small Knives 172
D. Dating of the Late Knives 173
E. Expansion of the Knife Coinage 17
VI. THE "YUAN CHIN" OF CH'U 180
VII. THE ROUND COINAGE
1. The Round Coins of the Knife Area 187
2. Round Coins of the Spade Area 193
3. Date of the Round Coinage 198
4. Some Historical Explanation 202
VIII. MONETARY DESIGNATIONS AND MONETARY UNITS
1. The Lieh 207
2. The Chin 211
3. The Huo 218
4. The Liang 221
IX. THE RIGHT OF COINAGE IN CHINESE ANTIQUITY 224
APPENDIX I: Objects Wrongly Regarded as Money 237
APPENDIX II: Spades of Probable Post-Chou Origin 240
KEY TO THE PLATES 245
MAPS
China, 5th3rd Centuries B. C 252
China, 8th5th Centuries B. C 253
Distribution of Coin Types Ca. 500250 B. C 254
PREFACE
In this monograph we have attempted to make a preliminary
reconstruction of the monetary systems of Chinese antiquity. From
the pages which follow we hope our readers will find that our attempt
has been fruitful.
The reason for the choice of this topic is twofold. Firstly, practi-
cally no historical literature has been preserved which provides in-
formation concerning ancient Chinese coinages, though the coinages
must have played an important part in the nation's economic, social
and political development. Secondly, coins of ancient China have
been found in such large numbers in recent decades that they should
provide helpful data for serious works in the field of historical studies,
and negligence to use them should be inexcusable.
The American Numismatic Society possesses, in our opinion, the
largest single collection of Chinese coins in the world. Its officers and
council have long felt the necessity of such a work as the present one
as a step towards developing the scholarly potentialities of its cabinet
in the advancement of numismatic and historical studies of Chinese
civilization. For this reason, I was generously granted the opportunity
and provided with all necessary facilities to prepare this monograph.
The collection of the ancient Chinese coins at the Museum of the
American Numismatic Society consists of 4,35o specimens not in-
cluding cowries, cowrie imitations and the so-called "Ant Nose
Money." A part of the Museum's collection was acquired by the
Society itself in the course of many years. The greater part was don-
ated by Mrs. Eric N. Baynes, daughter of the late John Reilly, Jr., who
during his life time made the collection of Chinese coins his chief
interest and built up a very large and excellent cabinet. The bulk of
the Reilly collection was originally that of Henry Ramsden, the
famous numismatist of the early years of this century. It was on the
basis of the collection at the Museum of the American Numismatic
Society, occasionally supplemented by information gathered from
previously published coin catalogues, that this monograph was
prepared.
vii
viii Preface
In preparing the monograph at the Society's Museum, I have
enjoyed the complete confidence of Mr. Sydney P. Noe, Chief Curator
of the Society, who relieved me from administrative duties in order to
let me concentrate on my research. I benefited also from the kind
encouragement and advice of Dr. George C. Miles, Curator of Islamic
Coins and President of the New York Oriental Club. Everyone of my
colleagues at the Museum have extended assistance to me, especially
Mr. Sawyer McA. Mosser, Secretary and Editor, and Mr. William
L. Clark, Curator of Mediaeval and Modern Coins. To Mr. Mosser I
must particularly express my heartfelt thanks for the revision of the
manuscript. Without his help this monograph might have never
reached the public.
Outside the Museum generous assistance has been received from
friends and libraries. Dr. Roswell S. Britton, Professor at New York Uni-
versity, was consulted on various questions. He and Dr. L. Carrington
Goodrich, Professor at Columbia University, read the manuscript and
made valuable suggestions which have been incorporated in the mono-
graph. Mr. H. F. Bowker, a Fellow of the American Numismatic So-
ciety, kindly lent books from his private library, and the Eastern
Asiatic Collection of Columbia University, the Chinese and Japanese
Library of Harvard University, and the library of the American Geo-
graphical Society also extended to me the privilege of using their faci-
lities. Miss Miwa Kai, Senior Assistant at the Eastern Asiatic Collection,
Columbia University, frequently assisted me, and checked translitera-
tions of Japanese personal names and titles of Japanese books.
These are only a few of the names which might be mentioned in
grateful acknowledgement. The author has likewise benefited from
the labor of the coin collectors, numismatists, and scholars in the
general historical field of the past as well as from the academic
achievements of those of the present.
If any contribution has been made to Chinese numismatics and the
historical studies of ancient China in this monograph, it certainly has
not been made by this writer alone.
January 1, 195o Wang Yii-ch'iian
I. INTRODUCTION
I. AN HISTORICAL SKETCH OF ANCIENT CHINESE NUMISMATICS
Though still young as a science, Chinese numismatics has had a
long history. It may be said to have had its inception in the sixth
century when a scholar named Liu compiled China's first coin cata-
logue, which was entitled ChHen chih (Records of Coins). According to
Sun I-jang (184819o8), the numismatist Liu was Liu Ch'ien (484
55o) who is better known for his other scholarly works.1 Liu Ch'ien's
catalogue seems to have been lost some time during the Sui dynasty
(581618). Our information about him and his numismatic work is
derived from references to him and a few quotations from his writings
by a contemporary, Ku Hsiian, compiler of the famous Ch'ien p'u
(Coin catalogue).2
The text of Ku Hsuan's catalogue has also been lost. The work is
recorded in the section on literature in the official history for the Sui
dynasty, and passages from it are quoted in the Ch'iian chih (Records
of Coins) by Hung Tsun (112o1174).3 Judging from these quota-
tions, Ku Hsuan's catalogue seems to have had no specimens of coins
of the Chou period, and of the periods following the Chou dynasty he
apparently recorded only the few coins which he had seen himself.
The later the coin, the more detailed his description,' which usually
included the coin's design, its legend and its issuing date. His method
of coin description became the pattern for later Chinese numismatists.
Ku Hsiian was followed by a few numismatists during the T'ang
dynasty (6189o7). Among them the most famous is Feng Yen, a
scholar who is better known for his "Things Seen and Things Heard,"
whose work on coins is entitled Hsu chHen p'u, presumably a coin
1 Sun I-jang J jf ||j, Chou-ch'ing shu-lin, 1916, VI, 19b2ob.
2 No. 64 in A Bibliography on Far Eastern Numismatics by A. B. Coole, hereafter cited
as Coole. 3 Coole 112.
1 Monograph 1x3 1
2 Early Chinese Coinage
catalogue supplementing the one by Ku Hsiian. Although this work
is lost also, enough fragments have been preserved to give us an idea
of the work done in numismatics by the "Pang scholars. The first
recorded discovery of Chou coins seems to have taken place in Feng
Yen's time. For each coin known to have come from a find, he
recorded the circumstances of its discovery and the conditions under
which he was able to examine it.4 Otherwise, his statements were
confined to the shape and size of the coin and the structural composi-
tion of the characters in the legend. He did not, however, venture to
interpret the meaning of the legend.
Though limited in scope, the numismatists of T'ang were unpre-
sumtuous and their reports seem to be reliable. The same cannot be
said of the numismatists of the Sung dynasty (96o1279 A. D.)
which followed T'ang. By their time both the Early Knife coins and
the Old Spade coins of the Chou period had been unearthed. Judging
from the information available, all these pieces bore legends. Puzzled
by the strange archaic forms of the characters in the inscriptions and
firmly believing in the legendary stories of prehistoric China which
had been built up gradually since the Han time (2o6 B. C.22o A. D.),
the numismatists and historians of the Sung dynasty indulged in
conjectural decipherment and interpretation of the Chou coin legends.
They believed all these coins to be of prehistoric origin. Tung Yu
(fl. 11o11125), compiler of a coin catalogue, assigned some Chou
coins as issues of the period of T'ai-hao, a legendary figure of the very
early mythical history of China. Dissatisfied with Tung Yu's attribu-
tion as being too late, Lo Mi, an historian well versed in legendary
history, placed a coin as early as Kuo-t'ien,5 another mythical figure
who, if he ever actually lived, would have been contemporary with
the Peking Man. Hung Tsun's Ch'uan chih, the earliest coin catalogue
extant, was a product of this period.
* Some of these statements are quoted by Hung Tsun in his Ch'iian chih (Coole 112),
1874 ed., IX, 6b, 7a, 12b.
5 "Lun pi so ch'i" (On the origin of money), Lu shih fa-hui jj- $, $ &., Ssu-pu
pei-yao ed., I 12b14a.
Introduction 3
However ill founded the allegations of the Sung scholars were, their
opinions prevailed for some six hundred years in the field of Chinese
numismatics and lasted well into the eighteenth century. Liu Shih-lu,
one of the foremost numismatists of the nineteenth century, still
attributed spade coins of Liang, capital of the state of Wei, of the
Chan-kuo period (4o3221 B. C.), to the dynasties of Yii and Hsia,
both of which precede the Shang dynasty in the second millennium
B. C. Another of his conjectures, likewise groundless, considered
these coins as issues for use in the payment of fines. His interpreta-
tions are contained in his essay, the Yii Hsia shu-chin shih-wen,6
which later became a classic, widely read and admired by both
Chinese and Western numismatists into the early years of the twen-
tieth century. The dependence of Chinese numismatic studies on
mythology did not disappear until Ts'ai Yiin (17641824), an historian
and philologist interested in numismatics, declared that the ancient
copper coins preserved today were not objects of remote antiquity
but were rather currencies which "flourishingly circulated during the
Ch'un-Ch'iu and the Chan-kuo periods (77o221 B. C.)."7
Like Chinese classics, philology and history, Chinese numismatics
witnessed an unprecedented advancement in the Manchu period
(16441911) and produced a methodology that can be considered
scientific. In the decipherment of the coin inscriptions, especially
those on the coins of the Chou period, there are the famous names of
Ts'ai Yiin, Ma Ang and Liu Hsin-yuan.8 Of these, Ts'ai Yiin is also
known for his contribution to the studies of coin chronology. These
scholars demonstrated that the legends on the Chou coins are not the
names of T'ai-hao and Kuo-t'ien but the names of cities or towns of
the Chou period. Not one of these three scholars, however, was a
professional numismatist; their chief interest and contributions were
historical and epigraphic.
In a narrow sense of the term, scientific numismatics was not
6 Coole 385. 'P'i-t'an (Coole 342), photostat ed., II, 1b.
8 Ma Ang, Huo pu wen-tzu k'ao (Coole 222) and Liu Hsin-yuan, Ch'i-ku-shih chi-chin
wSn shit (Coole 12).
established in China until the publication in 1864 of the famous
catalogue, Ku ch'uan hui, by Li Tso-hsien.9 This catalogue contains
illustrations of more than five thousand specimens accompanied by
decipherment of their legends and, whenever possible, notes of their
history. The author examined carefully and determined the authen-
ticity of every specimen in his catalogue, and excluded those whose
authenticity he could not verify. This careful attitude is not found in
the works of any of his predecessors. It may be safely said that his
is the first scientific work in Chinese numismatics. Up to the present
time his catalogue is still regarded as the best and most reliable by
numismatists. It constitutes the backbone of the comprehensive Ku
chHen ta tz'u-tien (Encyclopaedia of Old Coins) published in 1938.10
In spite of the progress made by scholars and numismatists in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, study of coins in China failed to
arouse wide attention. It was pursued largely by a limited group of
wealthy gentry and retired officials. These elderly gentlemen, with-
drawn from the tumultuous experiences of earlier years, f oundse renity
of life in the companionship of antiquities. In satisfying their personal
desires for large collections and in persistent search for rare speci-
mens, they did a great service to the study of an important phase of
ancient Chinese civilization in gathering the basic materials for its
serious study. The only regrettable fact is that, in many cases, these
men, not being trained historians and philologists, were unable to
undertake satisfactorily the study of the coins. As a result, they
needed the assistance of the epigraphers in deciphering coin legends.
These epigraphers, in their study of the inscriptions on Shang and
Chou bronzes, were led to the study of those on coins in the hope
that it might help their primary work. This situation produced a
somewhat bilateral development in ancient Chinese numismatics. On
the one hand, the collector-numismatists studied the coin specimens
but were unable to contribute substantially in deciphering the
legends; on the other hand, the epigraphical scholars studied their
inscriptions but neglected all other aspects of the coins. Neither group
Coole 266. 10 Coole 24o.
Introduction 5
possessed the knowledge of the other, but both contributed toward
the advancement of ancient Chinese numismatics. If the knowl-
edge and the interest of both had been combined, numismatic studies
in China might have advanced further.
Chinese numismatists of the nineteenth century paid little atten-
tion in their studies to the evidence of the coins themselves.11 Li Tso-
hsien, the foremost Chinese numismatist of that century, did formu-
late a proposed systematic program for numismatic studies some ten
years after his famous catalogue was published in 1864. This embraced
investigation of the following: epigraphy on coins, metrology, the
shapes and designs of coins, provenance, stories and anecdotes about
coins and collectors, and rare specimens and specimens recorded but
not seen.12 Li's proposed methodology marked a great step forward.
Especially commendable is his emphasis on inquiry into the proven-
ance of coins and their metrology. Yet, effort along these lines alone
is not sufficient to enable us to exploit fully the evidence that coins
can provide concerning the history of economic institutions. Study of
the physical characteristics of the coins and of their inscriptions
constitute the foundation of Chinese numismatics, but they alone are
not enough. In order to fully understand the historical significance of
the coins we must examine them against the general political, social
and economic background of the period in which they circulated.
Therefore, a competent numismatist must not only be an able coin
examiner but an epigrapher and historian as well.13 So far, no Chinese
numismatist has attained this happy combination.
In recent years, serious attempts have been made to raise the level
of numismatic studies in China. In 1938, Ting Fu-pao published the
11 This criticism is voiced by Sun I-jang, op. tit., (see above, n. I), V, 21b.
12 "Hsu ch'iian shuo" (Supplementary Remarks to the Discussions on Coins). The
Discussions on Coins or Ch'iian shuo was written by Pao K'ang, (Coole 296), 1874 ed.,
17b. The article is an appendix in the Kuan-ku-ke ts'ung-kao by Pao K'ang (Coole 298).
13 Lo Chen-yii has also observed that a numismatist must have training in philology
and history, and the ability to determine the authenticity of the coins. Yung-lu jih-cha
(Coole 392), photostat ed., 25b.
coin encyclopaedia, Ku chHen ta tz'u-tien. In this work he entered many
published specimens of Chinese coins and specimens in the possession
of private collectors in China. A large proportion of the illustrations
are reproductions from coin rubbings. Under each specimen he has
given all previously published statements and discussions concerning
it, and these have been reproduced by photographic process so that
they may contain no errors. It is the most comprehensive coin
catalogue in Chinese.
In 194o the Chinese Numismatic Society was established in Shang-
hai by a group of coin collectors and numismatists. It published a
bi-monthly Ch'uan-pi, known in English as Chinese Numismatics, to
promote numismatic studies. In his introductory words explaining
the plans and aims of the Society in publishing the bi-monthly, Chang
Chiung-po outlines a program of numismatic studies which the
members of the organization are asked to follow. He first expresses
his dissatisfaction with the attitude of Chinese scholars and historians
who have hitherto regarded coins as "small things" unworthy of their
attention. He urges rectification of this mistaken attitude and the
recognition of coins as valid historical material. He suggests that
"systematic researches" must be made of them in which the examina-
tion of actual specimens be made, historical records be consulted, and
that coins be treated as relics of an economic and historical institution
which can be studied in the light of monetary theories. Commenting
on the situation in which persons writing about the history of coinage
do not actually handle the coins and those who actually handle them
lack the necessary scientific training to write about coinages, he states
that there must be a combination of both.14
On the whole, Chang's program is well conceived, as it pointedly
sets out to rectify the weaknesses in past Chinese numismatic studies.
The bi-monthly appeared periodically until the end of 1945. It carried
some interesting discussions and a number of articles which were
written on a much higher level than ever before. But on the whole the
14 See the explanatory note on the publication of the Ch'iian-pi Bi-monthly, or
Chinese Numismatics as it is called in English, No. 1, 194o, pp. 2 3.
Introduction 7
effort of the members of the Chinese Numismatic Society fell short of
the goal set by Chang Chiung-po.
However imperfect the writings of the members of the Chinese
Numismatic Society may have been, their efforts in themselves are
significant contributions toward advancement of numismatic studies
in China. It is regrettable that the bi-monthly of the Society had to
exist during the Japanese aggression in China and thus had its
influence greatly limited.
In Japan, Chinese numismatics has been a favorite field with some
Japanese sinologists. In that country, too, the study of old coins was
generally regarded as a hobby of collectors with means and leisure,
and was not accorded the attention it deserved until recently. In the
last few decades Japanese archaeologists have conducted some
extensive excavations in Korea, Manchuria and Jehol, and in many
of the old Chinese remains they found coins of the Chou, the Han and
Wang Mang Periods, with which they dated the remains. The dis-
covery of ancient Chinese coins by these archaeological missions
seems to have stimulated numismatic interest among Japanese
scholars. Probably for this reason, ancient Chinese coins, not only
those unearthed from the old remains but also those in the hands of
collectors, suddenly acquired the dignity of archaeological objects. It
was among Japanese scholars that the question of the initial date of
Chinese metallic coinage was first discussed in a scholarly manner.15
These discussions did not prove very fruitful because historical
scholarship was not well combined with actual knowledge of the
coins, and because the historical sources were not fully understood
and exhausted. However, a proper approach was made toward one of
the many problems of Chinese coinage.
In 1938, the same year in which the Encyclopedia of Old Coins was
published in China, the Toa senshi (Catalogue of Eastern Asiatic
Coins) by Okutaira Masahiro appeared in Japan.16 The catalogue
consists of eighteen volumes of which twelve are devoted to Chinese
coins. The specimens listed in it are illustrated with reproductions of
15 For discussion of the dating of ancient Chinese coinage, see pp. 1oo114.
"CooleJ162.
well-made rubbings. Besides its typographical excellence, the work
can be commended for the number of specimens of rare coins of the
Chou period it includes which are not to be found in other coin
catalogues. In the decipherment of a number of the controversial coin
legends, Okutaira follows the suggestions of Liu Hsin-yiian and Kuo
Mo-jo, noted Chinese experts in epigraphical studies of the Shang and
Chou bronzes, whose decipherments have been neglected so far by
Chinese numismatists. Closely following Kuo Mo-jo, Okutaira at-
tempts to reconstruct the early history of Chinese coinage by making
use of the inscriptions on the bronzes of the Shang and Chou period.
We know of no Chinese numismatists who have ever systematically
utilized this valuable source of information.
Another merit of the catalogue is its illustration of a few specimens
of silver ingots and paper money, through which Okutaira has shown
superiority over his Chinese colleagues in the realization that study of
copper coins alone is not sufficient for a complete understanding of the
Chinese monetary system. The work, however, contains no illustrations
of coin moulds, also important material in the study of Chinese historical
coinages, and a few of those which are listed are likely fabrications.
In the Western languages, books and articles on Chinese coinage
and monetary history have been published in French, English and
German. The names of Biot, Vissering and Lacouperie are the most
prominent. While in China the effort to reconstruct a general mone-
tary history of China was motivated by the study of the ancient coins
and their inscriptions, in the West that effort seems to have been a
result of literary researches. The material on which the works of both
Biot and Vissering17 are based is of such a nature. There were no
studies of ancient Chinese coins on an appreciable scale until La-
couperie, who in 1892 published his Catalogue of Chinese Coins. This
work is the most comprehensive treatment of the earlier Chinese coins
yet produced by a Western numismatist.
17 fidouard Biot, "Memoire sur le Systeme mon^taire des Chinois" Journal Asiatique,
3e serie (1837), III, 422 465; IV, 97 141, 2o9 252, 441 467 and Willem Vissering,
On Chinese Currency, Leiden, 1877.
Introduction 9
In preparing his work Lacouperie benefited from the.intellectual
heritage of the Western world. At his time, the numismatic studies of
Greece and Rome had developed to maturity, and Lacouperie was
able to draw upon the experience of the classical numismatists in
tackling some of the problems in Chinese numismatics. This is prob-
ably the reason why he shows superiority over his Chinese con-
temporaries in his historical approach to Chinese coins. However,
being a Westerner, Lacouperie naturally suffered from handicaps in
preparing his work. He had insufficient training in the Chinese
language to avoid misunderstandings of the texts of Chinese historical
records.18 His knowledge of Chinese ancient history appears rather
limited, and his inexperience in determining authenticity of the coins
caused him to enter many spurious specimens in this catalogue.19 He
does seem to have had training in Chinese philology the "ancient
script" and its evolution which is absolutely indispensable in
deciphering the coin legends or in judging the plausibility of the
decipherments which have been advanced. While in most cases he
follows the decipherment of Chinese scholars, he has been confident
enough to make up some of his own, on which he formed his theory of
the so-called "monetary unions." As L. C. Hopkins has pointed out,20
Lacouperie sometimes offers his conjectures as if they were facts, and
he makes statements which actually have no foundation.21
18 For instance, on page xiv Lacouperie states, "Su, Prince of Tchao, grants to
Tchang-y, a secret political agent of Ts'in, the privilege of issuing pu coins of the
saddle-pattern." I have not been able to verify the one reference given for this state-
ment, and presume that it relates to the story that Su Ch'in, minister of the king of the
state of Chao (Tchao), persuaded the king to "give money, gifts, carriage and horse"
-^ fff^ j|i JP and send a man to secretly follow Chang I (Tchang-y) to Ch'in (Ts'in)
(Shih-chi LXX, 2a). Here no grant of the privilege of issuing pu coin is involved, and
Chang I was not at this time a secret political agent of Ch'in.
19 E. g., p. 16, no. 4o; p. 12o, no. 41; p. 121, no. 52; p. 223, no. 53; p. 224, no. 54; p.225,
no- 55; P- 22, no. 1o3; p. 299, no. 1o2; p. 298, and many others.
!0 L. C. Hopkins, "On the Origin and Earlier History of the Chinese Coinage,"
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1895, 318.
21 E. g. his allegations that Chi-mo (Tsih Moh) was a mint of Lang-yeh (Lang-yaJ
which was a Western settlement on the Shantung coast (p. lxiii).
to Early Chinese Coinage
We should not, however, underrate Lacouperie's contributions
because of these shortcomings. If we read his book against the back-
ground of his time, we realize it was an admirable accomplishment.
When we examine the discussions and publications which appeared
after him and in which his influence can be directly or indirectly-
detected, we must recognize that he contributed much toward the
advancement of Chinese numismatics in the Western world.
Next to Lacouperie among Western numismatists we find the name
of Henry A. Ramsden. A scholar and a collector who collected to
study, he promoted interest in the study of Oriental coins in general
and Chinese coins in particular. "During his life," states H. F.
Bowker, "he was the prime-mover in the study of the coins of his
speciality, and was most probably the direct cause of the popularity
which the coins of the Orient enjoyed in the United States during the
last years of his life."22 In 1913 and the year following he edited the
Numismatic and Philatelic Journal of Japan, the bilingual organ of
the Yokohama Numismatic Society of which he was then the chair-
man. The journal devoted part of its pages to the study of Chinese
numismatics. In that field Ramsden's interest covered a wide range
from "barter money" to modern coinage, from metallic currency to
paper money. A complete list of his works is found in "Ramsdeniana,"
in which the author praises him as "the foremost writer and most
competent occidental authority in ... Far Eastern numismatics" at
the time of his death in 1915.23
Since 1915 sinological studies in both Europe and North America
have advanced considerably, and consequently the interest in Chinese
coins has grown wider not only among collectors and museums but
also among students of Chinese history. Yet, ancient Chinese numis-
matic studies have not progressed as might be desired.
In 1934, a group of Westerners residing in China formed the Numis-
matic Society of China in Shanghai, and subsequently published six
bulletins, all of which deal with the modern coinage of China. In 194o,
after the Chinese Numismatic Society was established, it associated
22 "Ramsdeniana," The Coin Collector's Journal, VIII (1941), 76. 23 Ibid.
Introduction II
itself with the latter in an attempt to combine the efforts of both
organizations in the promotion of Chinese numismatic studies in
China and abroad.
If, in the last thirty years, Western numismatists have not pro-
duced commendable work in the field of ancient Chinese coinage, a
preparatory step has been well taken in the publication A Biblio-
graphy on Far Eastern Numismatics by A. B. Coole and A Numis-
matic Bibliography of the Far East by H. F. Bowker. The former
bibliography is devoted to the listing of numismatic works in Chinese
and Japanese, while the latter, supplementing the former, covers the
literature in Western languages. Both were carefully prepared and are
convenient reference works.
In the above sketch we may have appeared hypercritical in some of
our remarks. It is not intended to discredit our predecessors. The
scholarship of one man is bound to be limited, as are his physical
energy and the scholarly achievement of his age. If, at the present,
numismatists are able to see more problems and penetrate more
deeply into them, this is largely owing to the advancement of
historical studies in general and Chinese numismatics in particular.
Without the effort of the numismatists of the past in collecting the
material and preparing the preliminary studies, any new and con-
structive contributions would be inconceivable.
2. DIFFICULTIES IN THE STUDY OF ANCIENT CHINESE COINS
A. Decipherment of Legends
Observations on the size, weight, fabric, and mint locations of coins
can shed invaluable light on the early monetary history of China. The
valid interpretation of any of these elements depends on the correct
decipherment of the coin's legend. As we have already noted, decipher-
ments of coin legends have in the past been made by epigraphical
scholars whose main interest was ancient script and not coins. As a
rule, collector-numismatists have followed the readings of these
scholars, but, in cases where none had yet been made, they attempted
their own. They were not trained in epigraphy, and some had not
even enough knowledge of philology to determine which of several
possible decipherments was the most plausible. Often a collector's
guess would be colored by an eagerness to enhance the value of his
coin.
The mint name S? (lin, written M in modern script) on a group of
late spades has been variously read as H (lu), j&. (yii), ?[ (huang), M %
(huang-fu), M (chia), H (huo), and M (kuan). The last reading,
kuan, which was suggested by Ma Ang and publicised by Li Tso-hsien,
prevailed in the numismatic world for many years. It was followed by
Lacouperie and all other Western numismatists. Since neither Ma Ang
nor Li Tso-hsien found Kuan as a place name in historical literature,
they assumed the character to be an abbreviation for "kuan-chung,"
a term denoting a region which is now central Shensi. Lacouperie
mistakenly called it the "capital city of Ts'in." The correct decipher-
ment of the character, strangely enough, is said to have been made
many years before the above suggestions were advanced, by Sun
Hsing-yen (styled Yiian-ju, 17531818), a scholar in Chinese classics
and philology and not a numismatist.24 Sun deciphered the character
as the name of a town in the state of Chao during the Chan-kuo
period. All numismatists acquainted with recent numismatic studies
follow his decipherment.
Superior as opinions of epigraphical scholars are in decipherment
of coin inscriptions, they are not always correct. Take the character
' for instance, which appears on many Late Spades. Some numis-
matists read it pa-huo A -i or "eight huo,"25 the latter character
being used here in the sense of a denominational unit. This reading is
incorrect. Actually, it is a single character, not a monogram of two;
and no part of the character can be construed as huo. Epigraphical
scholars read it as fSn %, meaning "belongs to the reign of."26 This
decipherment is also wrong, for it is not suggested on the basis of the
24 Quoted by Hsu Yuan-k'ai (Ku Mien ta-tz'u-tien, XIII, 499a).
25 Such as Li Tso-hsien, op. cit. (see above, n. 9), yuan III, lb.
28 Such as Liu Hsin-yiian, op. cit. (see above, n. 8), XIX, 7b ff. and 23b.
Introduction 13
character's structural identity with fen, but on its resemblance to it.
The correct reading is pan ^r (half), a denominational term (with the
name of the unit understood) of the coinage of the Chou period. When
these coins were in circulation there were only two denominations,
a full unit and a half, the unit being chin SJf. The weight of the coin
bearing the legend pan (half) is just half that of the full unit piece.27
Had the epigraphers gathered and weighed specimens of both sizes
they would not have escaped this conclusion. The same holds true for
the deonominational term liang M which is found on the larger spades
of the state of Ch'in (Late Spade IV) and which has been improperly
deciphered.28 By weighing spade coins of Liang of various sizes, Kuo
Mo-jo, an able contemporary epigrapher, ascertained the correct
reading of the eight-character legend which they bore.29 It was only
after an investigation of the provenance of a group of late square foot
spades that Okutaira accepted Kuo Mo-jo's suggestion that their
legend reads "Hsiang-p'ing," a mint located in present day southern
Manchuria.30 These examples show how important it is to combine
epigraphical and philological with numismatic evidence. The use of
one of these types of evidence to the exclusion of the others con-
stitutes one of the chief obstacles encountered in numismatic works
of the past as well as the present. It is this situation which is respon-
sible for many unacceptable decipherments, which will have to be
reconsidered or discarded in the present study.
B. Use of Epigraphical Evidence in Dating Coins
Some numismatists may cherish the idea that a comparison of the
epigraphy of the coins with that of the bronze vessels of the Shang
27 Okutaira Masahiro has also found this correct decipherment, op. cit. (see above,
n. 16), III, Ljb.
48 Li Tso-hsien reads it as tsai ^5 meaning "the official of the town of," in other words,
the official of the mint whose name appears on the obverse of the coin. Op. cit.
(see above, n. 9), yuan IX, 4b. For a correct explanation of the denominational term
see p. ooo.
*9 Kuo Mo-jo ^t|J ffi ;g=, Liang Chou chin-wen tz'u ta-hsi k'ao-shih, Tokyo, 1935, 13b.
"o Ibid, IV, 15b.
and Chou periods should furnish criteria for dating the coins. This
task, however, is not as easy as it appears at first glance.
There are two aspects of ancient Chinese epigraphy: (a) the
structural form of the character and (b) the style or manner of
executing the character. So far as the structural form of the characters
is concerned two changes have taken place which have bearing on the
epigraphical chronology of Chinese script. In the course of time, many
characters have undergone simplification while many others have
become more complicated through acquisition of significs (i. e.,
radicals signifying "water," "walled city," etc.). In other words, with
some characters, the more complicated their form the older they are;
with others, the simpler their form, the older they are. On coins of the
Chou period we sometimes find simpler forms of characters of the
second group in inscriptions of pieces of a considerably late date,
when the complicated form of the character had become the norm.
Because of this circumstance, dependence on coin epigraphy alone
will fail to determine correctly the date of a coin.
The style of Shang bronze inscriptions is characterized by a peculiar
execution of the strokes. Each end of the stroke is usually very thin
while the central part is broad and thick. This style of script has been
called the K'o-tou, or tadpole, script. However, the tadpole script is
found also to be the dominant style in inscriptions of the early years
of the Chou period. Without considering its content along with other
factors, even an expert epigrapher cannot determine to which period
an inscription in the script belongs.
The period of the Chou dynasty is, for convenience sake, usually
divided into three smaller periods: The Western (Early) Chou period
covering almost three hundred years from 1122 B. C. (traditional
date) or 1o27 B. C. to 771 B. C.; the Ch'un-ch'iu period from 77o to
481 B. C.; the Chan-kuo period ending in 221 B. C. During the first
period bronzes were almost entirely made by or for kings and ministers
of the royal court; during the second and third periods they were
made practically only by rulers and nobles of the various feudal
states. The style of the inscriptions of these three periods were roughly
Introduction 15
the so-called Ta-chuan (great "seal" character), the Chou-wen
(slightly simplified Ta-chuan), and the Hsiao-chuan (small "seal"
character). Whether the Ta-chuan can be regarded as also the style
used in the various feudal states during the first period and whether
the other styles found in the various feudal states can be regarded as
also the style in the royal domain of Chou during the second and the
third periods cannot be said with absolute certainty, especially when
we realize that, though so simply stated above, the styles of script
during the second and the third periods of Chou present strong local
divergence. All these factors complicate any attempt to use com-
parative study of coin inscriptions and bronze vessel inscriptions in
determining dates of coins.
Even if we disregard these complications, dating of coins by com-
parative study of inscriptions on bronzes is made impossible by
another circumstance. Coins and bronzes have different epigraphical
styles which result from the difference in their purpose and in the
techniques of inscribing them. On bronzes, inscriptions were cast on
the vessels, which were made in honor of the maker's forefathers or
other relatives, to commemorate a victory in war or a royal or princely
grant, to glorify his enfeudation as a prince or his appointment to an
office, to record an important event or a settlement of a dispute. The
personages involved are always kings, princes and upper class nobles.
Some of the vessels bearing the inscriptions commemorating enfeuda-
tions were kept in the ancestral temples by princes and venerated as
symbols of the existence of their states. They thus had a monumental
character and their inscriptions were accordingly rendered in a con-
ventional and elegant manner.
The coins were not personal treasures of kings, princes or nobles;
they were made to be used as media of exchange in a society, the
overwhelming majority of which was illiterate. Inscriptions on the
coins are merely marks indicating the mint's name, sometimes the
serial number of minting, and occasionally also the denomination. To
coins of full intrinsic quality, whose value depends largely on their
alloy and weight, these marks are not essential; accuracy and elegance
in style of character are matters of secondary importance. That is
probably the reason why the inscriptions on the coins are generally
crudely rendered, while those on bronze vessels are usually models of
calligraphy. A comparative stylistic study between crude script and
highly developed calligraphy is hardly possible.
Furthermore, whereas the inscriptions on the bronzes were, as
generally acknowledged, written by persons with training in calli-
graphy, those on the coins were left to artisans at the mint, who did
not always follow the conventional style and contracted the structure
of the characters to the extreme. Technically, inscriptions on bronze
vessels were cast from a mould which was made from a model, on
which both the designs and the inscription were carved out to the
desired fineness. The inscription on the coin was, on the other hand,
cast from a mould which was not made after a model and on which
the inscription was carved directly and in reverse. As a result, the
strokes of the characters on coins were generally in contracted straight
lines, for these were much easier to make than curved lines. The
straightening of lines and consequently the contraction of the
structure of the characters further reduces the possibility of a satis-
factory comparative stylistic study of the coin inscriptions with those
on bronze vessels.
Can we detect an evolution of style within coin inscriptions them-
selves with which we may find out the order of appearance of the
coins? This question also brings complications. The fact is that the
coins were cast by local mints many of which undoubtedly belonged
to princes and minor nobles and even wealthy private individuals.
Under these circumstances local character and individual inclinations
could not but exert their influence. T'ang Lan, a contemporary
-epigrapher who has specialized in the study of inscriptions on oracle
bones and bronzes of the Shang and Chou dynasties, holds the
opinion that during the Chou period the style of script in common use
was much more simple and irregular than the official script and that
it had influenced the official writings towards the end of the period.31
31 T'ang Lan ||f j|||, Ku wen-tzu-hsiieh tao-lun, Peiping, 1935, I, 51a.
Introduction 17
Local variances render the study of the evolution of the style of coin
inscriptions difficult if not altogether impossible. The curious thing is
that we find some of the most archaic forms of characters on com-
paratively late coins cast in the border regions of Chou China, where,
sociologically speaking, as in modern colonies, conservatism was
usually stronger than the central area.
However, this does not mean that epigraphical studies have no
bearing at all on the determination of coin chronology. On the whole,
we may say they do, but only in a general way. They can be applied
only in the cases in which stylistic distinctions can be positively
established and this is possible only with either the very old or the
very late coins. The older the coins are, the closer is the style of their
inscriptions to the Ta-chuan (great seal character), and the later the
coins, the closer to the Hsiao-chuan (small seal character). The former
is identified with the epigraphical style of the inscriptions of the
vessels of the Western Chou period, and the latter is the style offi-
cially adopted and made universal in 221 B. C. In structure, the
Hsiao-chuan is much simpler.
C. Lack of Historical Records and Archaeological Reports
Another difficulty in studying ancient Chinese coins is the lack of
literary records. Excepting the simple terms of pei (cowrie), tao (knife
coin) and pu (spade coin), other data regarding the ancient Chinese
monetary system is not found in historical literature. The widely
believed traditional story about the casting of the "big coins" by
King Ching of Chou in 524 B. C. is embodied with unreliable elements
(i. e., the remarks made by Shan-mu-kung). The anecdote that King
Chuang of Ch'u (613519 B. C.) aroused resentment among his
people by replacing "light" coins with "big" coins, which also has
been regarded as factual, must be accepted with reserve. The story
recorded in the Kuan-tzu and the "present edition" of the Bamboo
Annals that Ch'eng-T'ang, founder of the Shang dynasty, cast
metallic money is pure folklore. Even if these stories were reliable,
they still contain no essential information on ancient Chinese coinage.
2 Monograph 113
The only reliable material in our possession with regard to monetary
systems in Chinese antiquity are the coins themselves, but some
problems presented by them are hard to resolve because of the lack of
historical records.
The major problem that suffers from lack of historical records con-
cerns the date of the origin of coinage in China. The difficulty in dat-
ing the earliest coins would be also considerably less if the conditions
were known under which the coins had been discovered.
What knowledge we have about discoveries of coins is scanty. In
the scientific excavations of the Academia Sinica at early Chou and
pre-Chou sites in North China only cowries were found.32 The excava-
tions at Ch'eng-tzu-yai in eastern Shantung produced only a broken
handle from an early knife coin.33 Ming knives were unearthed among
old remains in I county of Hopeh Province by an expedition led by
Ma Heng in 1920.34 These knives, however, were very late in date.
Mr. Kuo Pao-chiin of the Academia Sinica has reported to the author
that a number of pointed-foot hollow-handle spades were discovered in
Chou tombs of Chun County, Honan. During the last fifty years
Japanese archaeologists have excavated both spade and knife coins
of the late Chou period in Jehol, Manchuria and Korea.35 Except for
those reported by Kuo Pao-chiin and the handle of the knife coin,
there are no reports by excavators of the discovery of early coins.
Coins of the earlier periods have been found casually, for the most
part by farmers while tilling their fields. From the farmers they pas-
sed to collectors, either directly or through coin dealers. Thus, by the
32 See An-yang fa-chuek pao-kao ^ ^Sf- ^j; ^ T'ien-yeh k'ao-ku pao-kao
[JJ Iff ^ ^ -g. and Chung-kuo k'ao-ku hsueh-pao tfr (g| - Jfl ^g.
33 Ch'eng-tzu-yai ^ -J- J Nanking, 1934, 89 and Plate LII, no. 9.
34 Fu Chen-lun, "Yen hsia-tu fa-chiieh pao-kao," Kuo-hsiieh chi-k'an [ l ^5 ^fjj
III (1932), 180.
35 See the volumes of the Archaeologia Orientalis ^ ~)j "jj" || ^J, a series
published by the Toa Kokogaku Kwai from 1929 on. The results of these discoveries
and those made in Korea have been summarized by Fujita Ryosoku jj^ 0] j|j
(1892 ) in his "Chosen hakken no meito-sen to sono iseki," Keijo Teikoku Daigaku
Bungaku Kwai ronsan ^ gg| ^1 fft |J j^jf ^ No. 7, Shigaku ronsan,
St f& H 1 -88 J939-
Introduction 19
time they reach the hands of collectors they are isolated objects,
completely dissociated with the site of discovery and the other objects
with which they had originally been deposited. This condition would
not obtain, had their discovery been made under the trained observa-
tion of archaeologists. The situation becomes the more regrettable
when we realize that tens of thousands of Chou coins have been casu-
ally retrieved and, so to speak, lost again.
Among the late spade coins there is a group, which, as forerunners
of the fan-liang (half liang) round coins of imperial Ch'in, are impor-
tant for the reconstruction of early Chinese coinage. The group is of
the round-footed type with three holes (Late Spade IV). Their
monetary unit is the liang, as is specified on the reverse legend, and so
far one liang and half liang (i. e., 12 chu) pieces have been found.
Fifteen specimens from nine different unidentified mints are known.36
If the places of their discovery and the conditions of their finding were
known, it might be possible to locate their mints with some certainty.
D. Identification of Mint Names
The fourth major difficulty in the study of the Chou coins lies in the
identification of the mint names. This difficulty arises not from the
lack of historical information, but from, so to speak, the mass of it.
With the exception of a few early spades, the coins of the Chou period,
be they knives or spades, usually bear a legend or legends on both
their obverse and reverse. Part of, or the entire, legend on the obverse
is the name of the mint which cast the coin. By locating these mints a
reconstruction of the distribution of the coin types can be achieved
and the problem of the right of coinage of the minor feudatories can
be investigated. But during the Chou period, towns in different states,
and sometimes in the same state, may have the same name.37 For
34 For the illustrations of these specimens see Okutaira, op. cit. (see above, n. 16), IV,
71b74a and Ku ch'ien ta-tz'u-tien, VII, 4o6b, no. 1226.
37 For a general idea of the situation of confusion see Ku Tung-kao jgj fjji jSj (1679
1759), Ch'un-ch'iu ta-shih nien-piao, 1752, VI, Part 2, 25a34a for the Ch'un-ch'iu
period. For the Chan-kuo period see Ku Kuan-kuang jjgj ${ -ft (17991862),
Ch'i-kuo ti-li k'ao.
2*
instance, we find "An-yang" as a mint name in the legend on one
group of the early knife coins. In literary sources we find three towns
of this name. There are four towns with the name "Chung-tu," which
is found on a group of square-foot late spade pieces (Late Spade II).
For "P'ing-yang," which appears as the mint-name of some square-
foot late spades, there are five towns. Seven are found for "Hsin-
ch'eng" (meaning "new city"), a mint name on a group of point-
footed late spades (Late Spade I). Such examples would make a long
and tedious list.
To identify the mints with towns recorded in historical literature
is not easy, and there is no literary information available which will
help. In solving the question we must depend mostly on our know-
ledge of the coins themselves. With some degree of certainty we may
presume that coins within a general given area will have similar
shapes and designs, that they will have the same denominational
system. Therefore, by studying these aspects of the coinage of towns
neighboring the possible mint we may be able to identify and locate
it. Thus, we reach the conclusion that the mint An-yang of early knife
coins must be the one located in present southeastern Shantung for
the reason that during the Chou period towns outside of that province
did not use the early type of knife coin. The An-yang of the round-
footed spades with three holes (Late Spade IV) is most likely the one
located in present northern Honan which was captured by Ch'in in
257 B. C., for this type of spade coins is probably of Ch'in origin. We
can approach the tentative solution of the locations of Chung-tu and
P'ing-yang by the same method.
Not all of the mint names which appear on the coins can be found
in the literary sources. As a matter of fact, many cannot be. In such
cases, to reduce our difficulties in locating the mints to a possible
minimum, we may resort to the locations of the mountains, rivers,
and other landmarks after which early settlements in China were
often named. For example, "Chi-yin," a mint name on some of the
round coins of Chou, is not found in the literature of this period. The
meaning of the place name is "on the yin side of the Chi." This means
Introduction 21
that the town in question was located on the yin side of either a
mountain or a river by the name of Chi. In Chinese antiquity there
was no mountain of this name, but one of the four most important
rivers was so designated. It traversed the western part of present
Shantung. The yin side of a river is its southern side, and therefore,
the town in question must have been located on the southern side of
the Chi River. Since this town was named Chi-yin, there may have
been also a town named Chi-yang (meaning "on the northern side of
the Chi River"). Luckily, a town by this name did exist during the
Chou time and is recorded in the contemporary literature.38 It was
located northeast of modern Lan-feng in eastern Honan (approx.
115E and 35N). Judging from their names, the towns of Chi-yin and
Chi-yang may have been opposite to each other, or at least they must
have been located in the same neighborhood. This assumption is
confirmed by the location of a city also named Chi-yin in the third
century B. C. It was the capital of a Han province of the same name.
The city was located about a mile northeast of modern Ting-t'ao in
southeastern Shantung, and about thirty miles northeast of old Chi-
yang. In all probability, the Chi-yin of Han may have been the Chi-
yin of Chou. Thus, by resorting to landmarks we can locate Chi-yin
and other mints whose names, though not to be found in ancient
literature, have a geographical origin.
In connection with the identification of mint names mention should
be made of the practice among Chinese numismatists of regarding
some single character legends on ancient coins as abbreviations for
two character mint names. For instance, mu has been considered an
abbreviation for Mu-men, yang for Kao-yang, li for Kung-li, kung for
San-hung, etc. It is true that a mint name can be abbreviated for lack
of space. The abbreviation of "Chin-yang" as "Chin" on a Small
Knife is an example. It, however, can be proved, while those mention-
ed above cannot. Unless a claim of abbreviation can be proved, it
must not be accepted without reserve.
88 See Chu-shu chi-nien jft ^f jjig fi (Wang Kuo-wei ]j || $j| (1877 1927), Ku-pSn
chu-shu chi-nien chi-chiao in Wang-chung-ch'io-kung i-shu, second series, p. 16b.). The
town belonged to the state of Liang (Wei ^j|) and was walled in 341 B.C.
II. THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMERCE IN
ANCIENT CHINA*
1. THE SHANG AND CHOU PERIODS
A brief survey of the development of commerce in ancient China
seems necessary to provide a general background for our discussion of
the origin and evolution of Chinese coinage, for there are no works,
either in Chinese or other languages, which can be recommended for
reference on this topic.
According to an old myth, markets were established in prehistoric
China by a legendary hero, Shen-nung. It is idle speculation to con-
sider the possibility of commerce at such a remote time, since its
significance in the general economy could not have been any greater
than that of barter trade among present day primitive peoples. It will
be more profitable to study the economic conditions under the Shang
dynasty, for which period there is a fair amount of archaeological
devience.
* A few of the works quoted in this and other sections have been translated into
English and French. The Shang-shu has been translated by Legge and Karlgren under
the titles of Shoo King (Chinese Classics III) and "Glosses of the Book of Documents"
(BMFEA No. 2o) respectively. The Shih ching (Mao Shih) has been translated by
Legge, Waley and Karlgren under the titles of She King (Chinese Classics IV), Book of
Songs (incomplete), and "Book of Odes" (BMFEA, Nos. 16 and 17). The Lun-yu, the
Meng-tzu, the Tso chuan, and the Li chi have been translated by Legge under the
titles Confucian Annalects, Works of Mencius, The Ch'un ts'eu with the Tso chuen
(Chinese Classics I, II, V), and L% Ki (Sacred Book of China, IV and V). The first forty-
seven chapters of the Shih-chi have been translated by Chavannes under the title of
Les Mimoires historiques des Se-ma Ts'ien. Portions of Chapter XXX and CXXIX of
this work and parts of Han shu XXIV have been translated by R. C. Blue in Harvard
Journal of Asiatic Studies II. Part of the Hsiin-tzu has been translated by Dubs under
the title of Works of Hsiintze, and part of the Mo-tzu has been translated by Yi-pao
Mei under the title of The Ethical and Political Works of Motze. The Yen t'ieh lun has
been translated by Gale under the title of The Discourses on Salt and Iron.
Commerce in Ancient China 23
Some scholars have asserted that the Shang economy was based
either on cattle-breeding or on a combination of cattle-breeding and
rudimentary agriculture. Others would have us believe that the Shang
people lived in an even more primitive state. However, study of oracle
bone inscriptions has proved rather the contrary.1 By conquest and
colonization the Shang had built up a large empire. During the last
two hundred and fifty years of their history, which ends in 1122 B. C.
according to the traditional chronology, their territory extended to
the sea in the east, to central Shensi in the west, to southern Hopeh
in the north, and to the banks of the Huai River in the south.2 The
people of this empire led a life which was predominantly agricultural.3
Recently a Chinese scholar suggested the possibility that ploughs
1 This point is also well illustrated by the change of opinion in the works of Kuo Mo-jo
?|5 $C jjij, one of the leading authorities on the institutional history of the Shang
dynasty. In his Chung-kuo ku-tai she-hui yen-chiu, published in 193o, the author
categorically declares, "There is no doubt that the Yin (Shang) dynasty was a period
during which cattle-breeding was most flourishing" (p. 245), and "Although agri-
culture had been discovered, it was not fully developed" (p. 254). But in his Shih
p'i-p'an shu, published in 1945, he rejects his former opinion and declares that during
the Shang dynasty "agriculture had actually become predominant" (p. 13).
* The boundaries of the Shang kingdom can be traced from the locations of its vassal
states and of the countries it attacked and conquered. The names of these states and
countries are found in inscriptions on oracle bones discovered at Yin-hsii, the site of
the last Shang capital. See Tung Tso-pin jj jfe ^, Yin li p'u (calendar of Yin), 1945,
Part II, IX, 37b4ob and 61a63a; Hu Hou-hsiian j^ JJpL j|[, "Pu-tz'u chung
so-chien chih Yin-tai nung-yeh" (Agriculture of the Yin dynasty as seen in the
inscriptions on the oracle bones), Chia-ku-hsueh Shang-shih lun-ts'ung, Second Series,
1945, 31a47a; and Ch'en MSng-chia |} ^ ^ "Shang-tai ti-li hsiao-chi" (A note on
the geography of the Shang dynasty), Yii-kung j^ j|' (Chinese historical geography)
VII (1937), Nos. 67, 1o1 1o8. In 1935 Prof. Fu Ssu-nien |jj ^Jtjj 4p published his
essay, "I Hsia tung hsi shuo" (Ch'ing-chu Ts'ai Yiian-p'ei hsien-shlng liu-shih-wu-sui
lun-wen-chi, 1o93 1134), in which he says that at the peak of its power the eastern
boundary of the Shang empire extended to the "east of the sea" (meaning part of
Korea) in the east, to the "south of the Ch'i mountains" in central Shensi in the west,
and to the valley of the Huai river in the southeast. In other words, the territory of
Shang covered present Hopei, Shantung, Northern Kiangsu, Northern Anhui, Honan,
Southern Shensi, and Eastern Shensi. His study is based entirely on literary sources,
and, except for his claim on the northeastern boundary of Shang, which has not been
otherwise proved, is confirmed by studies made of oracle bone inscriptions.
* Hu Hou-hsiian, ibid.
pulled by oxen were used to till the fields and that bronze plough-
shares were known.4 These ideas are challenging, even though there is
no positive evidence to prove them.
In his campaign against the "Kuei-fang" state, northwest of the
Shang kingdom in modern Shansi province, King Wu-ting called to
arms 23,ooo of his subjects in a period of three months.5 In one of his
expeditions against the Ch'iang people in the west, he conscripted
1o,ooo on a single day together with 3ooo more from a vassal state.6
Conscriptions on such a scale could not have been possible unless
there had been a fairly large population, and the existence of a large
population presupposes a developed economic production, at least in
agriculture.
In handicrafts the Shang people achieved exceptional skill and
great delicacy of aesthetic taste, as is widely demonstrated in their
beautiful bronzes. Their skill in casting finds no match in later periods
of Chinese history.7 The excellence of their workmanship has caused
Creel to claim that it can barely be surpassed by today's metal worker
with modern science and technology at his command,8 and that it has
seldom been attained "anywhere in human history."9 Creel's opinions
4 Hu Hou-hsuan, op. cit. 8ob81a.
6 Tung Tso-pin, op. cit. Part II, IX, 38a. This was compiled by Prof. Tung according to his
reconstructed Shang (Yin) calendar. Its final validity depends on that of his calendar.
8 Tung Tso-pin, op. cit. 39a and 4ob. The bone inscription quoted by Tung Tso-pin is
no. 31o in The Couling-Chalfant Collection by F. H . Chalfant, Shanghai, 1935.
'See T'ang Lan ^j? jjjjjj, "Chung-kuo ku-tai mei-shu yii t'ung-ch'i" (Art and the
Bronzes of Ancient China), Chung-kuo i-shu lun-ts'ung (Essays on Chinese Art), ed. by
T'eng Ku Jg JSJ, Ch'ang-sha, 1938, m113; Hsu Chung-shu $$ f\* ^ff, "Kuan-
yu t'ung-ch'i chih i-shu" (On the Art of the Bronzes), op. cit. 125 137; and Hu Hou-
hsuan, "Chung-yang-yen-chiu-yuan Yin-hsu ch'u-t'u chan-p'in tsan-kuan chi" (A
Note on the Exhibit of the Objects Recovered at the Yin Ruins by Academia Sinica),
op. cit. 157 167. 8 Creel, Birth of China, New York, 1937, *12-
9 Creel, op. cit. 124. In his Studies in Early Chinese Culture (1937) 233> Creel remarks,
"Chinese bronze vessels are equal to the finest objects of the sort ever produced any-
where by man. Shang bronze vessels, as a group, are probably the finest of Chinese
bronzes. Among the Shang bronzes excavated by the National Research Institute in
1934 and 1935 are complicated vessels which show a genius of design and a complete
mastery of technique such as to take the breath of a hardened connoisseur."
may be accented with enthusiasm, but they testify to the high quality
of the products of Shang craftsmen. Such a degree of technical
accomplishment could have been attained only through specializa-
tion, which in turn, could result only from division of labor. The
presence of these two factors, specialization and division of labor,
precludes the possibility that each family unit was economically self-
sufficient. It obviously points to the existence of an economy based,
at least partly, on exchange.
The economy of the state as a whole showed a similar dependence
on products of other regions. The basic metals, copper and tin, which
were used in the manufacture of weapons, sacrificial vessels, and
many other utensils, were not to be found within the boundaries of
the kingdom. They had to be obtained from the south, in and beyond
the Yangtze Valley.10 The same was true of gold, silver and cowrie
shells,11 which last were used both for ornaments and as media of
exchange. Their red pigment, known as cinnabar, came from Shu
(modern western Szechuan) and their jade was imported from western
regions far beyond the Shang borders.12 Most of the tortoise shells,
10 The "Yu-kung" in the Shang-shu states that Yang Chou (in the Yangtze Valley)
produced "three kinds of metal," said to be gold, silver and copper. Ssu-ma Ch'ien
r] f^y j states that gold, tin and lead were produced in Chiangnan (south of the
Yangtze River) and copper was produced in the region of Wu (lower stream of the
river). Shih-chi, Po-na-pen ed. CXXIX, 1b and na. W. Yetts believes that copper
was once produced in the interior of ancient China. Local tradition says that long
ago copper and tin as well as other metals were mined some forty li northwest of
An-yang city (in Honan) from the T'ung Shan or Copper Hills. Two other place
names, T'ung Shan Chen and Nan T'ung-yeh (Southern Copper Foundry), testify
to the tradition (An-yang: A Retrospect, The China Society, London, 1942, 25. Prof.
L. C. Goodrich kindly furnished this information).
11 For gold and silver see the above note. The Kuan-tzu states that gold came from
the valleys of the Ju and the Han rivers. Ssu-pu pei-yao ed., XXIII, 3a. The Han
River was a branch of the Yangtze. The cowrie shells which are discovered in large
numbers at Yin-hsu are Cypraea moneta and C. annulus. They may have come from
the Ryukyus, the Malay Peninsula, the T'zord Banks, or as far as the coast along the
Indian Ocean. See pp. 55 56 and 66 69 for more details.
12 In the excavation of the remains at Yin-hsu in An-yang there have been found a
number of inscribed oracle bones painted with red and black pigments. The red
pigment has been identified as raw cinnabar through chemical analysis by Professors
which were highly prized and served for divination, were of non-local
origin; some of the larger specimens may have come from as far away
as Malaya.13
It is very likely that the Shang kings obtained a good part of these
imported products as tribute from southern states subject to them, or
as booty. As the amount obtainable from such sources could not have
satisfied the demands of both the court and the people, a certain
proportion of the products must have been acquired through exchange.
The mutual dependence of the various regions within the kingdom
was even more evident.14 Take salt for example. There were probably
Beneditti-Pichler and Gettens (see Dr. R. S. Britton, Fifty Shang Inscriptions, 1940,
7). Throughout ancient China cinnabar was the chief material used for red paint, as
witnessed by the statement of Li Ssii (d. 2o8 B. C.) in his memorial to the king of
Ch'in in 237 B. C. (Shih-chi, LXXXVII, 4b). At a somewhat later date it became
associated with Taoist magic. Cinnabar is produced in both Szechuan and Hunan,
but Szechuan, anciently known as Shu, was the producing district in Chinese antiquity.
13 Tortoise shells which the Shang people used for divination and which they used in
large quantities were not produced within the Shang territory; they came from the
Yangtze valley and the farther south (See Hu Hou-hsiian, "Yin-tai pu-kuei chih
lai-yiian" or "The Origin of the Divination Tortoise Shells of the Yin Dynasty,"
Chia-ku-hsiieh Shang-shih lun-ts'ung or "Essays on the History of the Yin (Shang)
Dynasty based on the Study of the Oracle Bones," first series, 1944, Vol. 4, 1 ff.)
Prof. Tung Tso-pin quotes Wu Hsien-wen to the effect that the large tortoise shell of
the Wu-ting period discovered at the old remains of the Shang capital resembles the
species found today in the Malay Peninsula ("Tsai-t'an Yin-tai ch'i-hou," or "Again
on the Weather during the Yin dynasty," reprint from the Stitdia Serica, p. 16, and
Lien-sheng Yang, "Ten Examples of Early Tortoise-shell Inscriptions," Harvard
Jour, of Asiatic Studies, XI, 1948, 122.)
14 A general picture of the local products in ancient China can be gathered from the
statements in the "Yu-kung," a section in the present text of the Shang shu, and from
those in the "Huo-ch'ih chuan" (CXXIX) in the Shih-chi. The former was written
during the Chan-kuo period and the latter was written about 1oo B. C. Sun Yuan-
cheng J|j g ^ has selected various items from the above mentioned works and
compiled a table showing the distribution of raw materials and the products of
industry in different regions of ancient China, Yu-kung, I (1934), No. 3, 26 38. The
local products recorded in the Shih-chi are quoted in the text below. Those recorded
in the "Yii-kung" are roughly salt, lacquer, embroidery, silk, the ch'ih linen from the
east; lumber from tall trees, gold, silver, copper, ivory, hides, feathers, big tortoise
shells, pearls, and oranges from the south; iron and silver from the southwest; and
various jades from the west.
only two sources for this commodity. One was lake salt from present
southwestern Shansi and the other sea salt from the east coast. At
the present time there are no other areas within the limits of the
Shang dominion which produce salt in any quantity, and it is prob-
able that there was none in ancient times. In addition to salt there
were no doubt other necessities of daily life which were specialties of
particular regions also.
Due to lack of archaeological or literary evidence we are ignorant of
the extent of exchange in this early period. We can, though, conclude
with confidence that commerce had reached an active stage. Since
Han times the word shang has been used to designate "trade." The
explanation of Han scholars that shang (i. e., tradesmen) refers to
traders who travel long distances is a rationalized interpretation of
the word rather than an exposition of its original meaning. Recent
research has shown that the character "shang" was used in ancient
China only to denote the dynasty, the people, or their capital. Hence,
Hsu Chung-shu identifies the term shang-jen in the sense of "trades-
men" with shang-jen meaning "people of Shang."15 In his opinion,
after their conquest by the Chou, the Shang people found themselves
relegated to an inferior position, which circumstance forced many of
them to take up trading, an occupation deemed degrading by the
upper classes. Hsu draws a parallel between the Shang people and the
Jews, both being peoples forced by circumstance into trade as their
special profession. While he may be correct in this conjecture, it is
equally possible and even more plausible that the identification by
the Chou of Shang natives with tradesmen took place a few centuries
15 Hsu Chung-shu, "Ts'ung ku-shu-chung t'ui-ts'e chih Yin Chou min-tsu" (A tenta-
tive study of the peoples of the Yin and the Chou based on the ancient literature),
Kuo-hsueh Lun-ts'ung jjjg JJ1 jj^ jj I (1927), 1o9 113. The literary datum on which
Hsu Chung-shu bases his identification of merchants with the Shang (Yin) people is in
Tso chuan, Ssu-pu pei-yao ed., XLVII, 8b 1ob. In 1937 Ojima Sukema /J> Jj jj^j J^,
a Japanese scholar, published an article on the origin of the name, shang-jen. Using
the same document, he identifies the first Chinese merchants with the conquered
Shang people. This article forms part of his recent book entitled Kodai Shina kenkyu,
Tokyo, 1944, 138-154.
earlier when the Shang, at the peak of their prosperity, came to the
more backward Chou to exchange their own products for those of the
tribes of the west. Assuming this as true, it would be only natural for
the Chou to identify trading as an outstanding characteristic of the
Shang.16 If this interpretation is plausible, we may venture that a
group of professional merchants existed in the Shang state whose
business extended well beyond their own borders.
That the Shang people had engaged in widespread trade can be
inferred from a statement in "Chiu kao," a decree issued by King
Wu,17 the founder of the Chou dynasty, ordering the vanquished
Shang of the "Mei State" to cease their overindulgence in wine and to
devote themselves to farming and trade. The decree says, "You
should, working hard, take your carriages and oxen and pursue trade
over long distances so that you can filially nurture your fathers and
mothers."18
A statement of Confucius indicates that the Chou people, who
possessed a cruder culture, absorbed the Shang civilization after its
conquest.19 This is corroborated by both archaeological and literary
evidence. In the economic sphere, likewise, they must have inherited
the pattern of the people they conquered. Unfortunately, with the
exception of a few inscriptions on early Chou bronzes, we have
practically no information on the economic life of the first two
hundred years after the change of dynasties.
For the later Chou period, reference to trade is made in the Ode of
Chan-yang which has been preserved in the Shih ching or Book of
16 Kuo Mo-jo attributes the origin of the twofold meanings of the term shang-jin as
"Shang people" and "tradesmen" to the possibility that the Shang people may have
been the first traders (Shih p'i-p'an shu, 16.)
17 Some other scholars regard King Ch'eng, son of King Wu, as the one who issued the
"Chiu kao." Which opinion is correct is not material, for King Ch'eng ascended to the
throne in the seventh year after his father conquered the Shang nation, a date which
is very close to the Shang period. The decree is contained in the Shang-shu, known
in the West as the Book of History or the Book of Documents.
18 Shang-shu, Ssti-pu pei-yao ed., VIII, 6b.
18 Confucius says that the Chou people followed the li (institutions) of the Yin (Shang)
dynasty. Lun-yii, Ssu-pu pei-yao ed., ii, 6a.
Odes. This ode expresses grievances of the people against misconduct
of government, interference in politics by women, and pursuit of
trade by the nobility. A part of it runs:
Such things as trade yielding
three times (its capital),
A superior man should have
knowledge of.
A woman has nothing to do with
public affairs,
Yet she leaves her silkworms and weaving.21
This is a description of behavior contrary to the accepted norm. It
was considered degrading for a nobleman to engage in trade, but
obviously the temptation of three hundred per cent profit was hard
to resist.
The woman referred to in the ode is said to have been Pao Ssu, first
a court lady of King Yu (781771 B. C.) who was made his queen
when he ascended the throne. Through her influence, he is reported to
have misruled his people and to have invited the Jung invasion which
almost ended the Chou. If this identification is correct, the ode must
have originated in the eighth century B. C.
20 The Shih ching contains many odes originating in the nth to 6th centuries B. C.
Except for a limited number, the odes are songs of the people, and as such they reflect
actual living conditions. (Karlgren takes exception to this interpretation. He believes
that the odes are too elaborate to be products of farmers. See his "Glosses on the Kuo
Feng Odes," BMFEA 14 (1942), 75. Prof. Goodrich kindly furnished this information).
21 Shih ching, Ssu-pu pei-yao ed., XVIII, 24b. Legge's translation of these lines (Chi-
nese Classics, 1871, iv, Part 2, 5612) reads:
As if in the three times cent, per cent, of traffic,
A superior man should have any knowledge of it;
So a women who has nothing to do with public affairs,
Leaves her silk worms and weaving.
Karlgren's translation ("Book of Odes" BMFEA, No. 17, 1945, 86.) reads:
They are like those who sell at a triple profit; the noble man knows
this, and (therefore) the women have no public service, they have to
(rest) abide by their silk worm work and their weaving.
Legge's version is closer to the meaning of the Chinese text.
2. THE CH'UN-CH'IU PERIOD (77o481 B. C.)
In the early years of the eighth century B. C., Duke Huan (8o6771
B. C.) of the State of Cheng entered into a sworn agreement with the
merchants in his territory. Such an event presupposes that a flourish-
ing trade had become important enough to elevate greatly the social
position of the merchant class. An account of this agreement was
made by Cheng Tzii-ch'an, a member of the Cheng ruling family and
the most famous statesman of Cheng, to a high minister from the
state of Chin in 526 B. C.22 According to Tzu-ch'an, when Duke Huan
moved from the west to the east and established his state in what is
now central Honan,23 he concluded an agreement with the merchants
who had helped him develop this new territory. Under the agreement
the merchants promised not to rebel against the state, and Duke
Huan pledged himself not to compel the merchants to sell, nor to seize
their merchandise by force, nor to inquire into their capital or profits.
This account indicates that, as early as the end of the ninth and be-
ginning of the eighth century B. C., the importance of merchants in
Cheng had won the recognition of the state and had secured for them
an official protection not previously enjoyed.
The growing importance of commerce was even more manifest in
the state of Ch'i, where the government itself engaged in trade. When
Duke Huan (not to be confused with the ruler of Cheng with the same
title) assumed its rule in 685 B. C., Ch'i was a very small state on the
lower stream of the Chi River, which formed its western boundary.
Its eastern boundary was less than ten miles from its capital, Lin-tzu
(also a modern city).24 However, the state was situated on the coast,
where fish abounded and where salt could be easily produced from
the sea. Kuan Chung (d. 645 B. C.), the Duke's chief minister, realized
the potentialities of these natural economic resources. He formulated
and put into practice his policy of "creating profits through [the
22 Tso chuan, Ssu-pu pei-yao ed., XLVII, 8b 1o .
23 Originally the territory of the state of Cheng was in the area below the Wei River in
eastern Shensi.
. u Kuo-yii (Stories of the States), Ssu-pu pei-yao ed., VII, 9a.
production and sale of] fish and salt."25 In co-ordination with this
policy he devised a means of market control through regulation of
supply and demand.26 By putting these measures into effect Duke
Huan in a short time raised the "tiny Ch'i" to a position of hegemony
within the Chou empire. As a reward to Kuan Chung, Duke Huan
granted to him the revenue from taxes on trade.27 His benefit from
this revenue made Kuan Chung, the minister of a feudal lord,
"wealthier than the ruler of a state."28
The salt and fishing industries from which Ch'i of the seventh cen-
tury B. C. derived so much power had, of course, developed long
before this date. Likewise, there must have been an earlier export
trade in fish and salt already developed which Duke Huan and Kuan
Chung promoted and expanded with such great success. Evidence for
this is found in the early history of Ch'i as related by Ssu-ma Ch'ien in
his Shih-chi. The historian states that when T'ai-kung Wang, the
25 Shih-chi, XXXII, 8b, and XXX, 2ob.
26 Ibid, and op. cit., CXXIX, 2b.
27 The term for the market tax is san-kuei Jj ^jjj. When Confucius was asked whether
Kuan Chung was frugal, he said he was not because Kuan Chung "had the san-kuei."
(Lun-yii, III, 5b). In the Han-fei-tzu it is said after Kuan Chung became the chief
minister of Duke Huan of Ch'i, the latter bestowed upon him the san-kuei in order to
enrich him. (1875, XII, 11a). As the term was obscure to later scholars, it has been
interpreted as meaning "the name of a terrace" or "wives from three different fam-
ilies." Kuo Sung-t'ao |tj5 S Up (18181891) rejects these explanations and
suggests that it was a general term applied to market taxation, meaning thirty per
cent of the profit. See his Yang-chih shu-wu wSn-chi (A collection of writings of the
Yang-chih Study), I, "Shih san-kuei" (Interpretation of San-kuei).
Kuo Sung-t'ao's interpretation appears most satisfactory. The san-kuei grant to
Kuan Chung as recorded by Liu Hsiang ^|j |p] (77 6 B. C.) is "one year's tax from
the market of the Ch'i state." (Shuo-yiian, Ssu-pu pei-yao ed., VIII, 12a). The market
from which Kuan Chung was to receive his revenue was probably that in the Ch'i
capital.
28 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 2b. In LXII, 3a, Ssi-ma Ch'ien gives a slightly different state-
ment of Kuan Chung's wealth. There he says, "Kuan Chung was so wealthy that he
equalled the house of the ruler of state (of Ch'i)."
a The story quoted below in the text concerns the enfeudation of Lu Wang g ^ or
Pai-kung Wang (the first ancestor Wang) with Ying-ch'iu 4jf a town in the
ancient Ch'i state, as his fief. It tells how Lii Wang established his state in Ch'i and
first ancestor of the house of Ch'i, was enfeoffed and granted Ying-
ch'iu, a town in Ch'i, he found that its soil was alkaline and its popula-
tion small. Therefore, he "promoted its silk textile industry, perfected
its skillful handicrafts, an dopened up [production and trade in] fish
and salt."30 As a result, "both people and goods came to it [the town
of Ch'i]. They arrived carrying babies on their backs and converged on
it like the spokes of a wheel. Consequently, Ch'i provided the world
with hats, sashes, clothes and slippers."31 Although the enfeudation of
T'ai-kung Wang with Ch'i has been proven untrue, the remainder of
the account may contain elements of truth.32 If so, Ch'i must have
been an industrial center in ancient China for a long period with ex-
ports not only of sea products but also of handicrafts, particularly
silks, which are mentioned by Ssu-ma Ch'ien elsewhere.33 Its immedi-
developed its economic resources. The story does not correspond with the historical
facts. As has been ably disproved by Prof. Fu Ssii-nien, at the time when Lii Wang
was supposed to have been made the feudal lord of Ch'i, the territory which later came
to be known as Ch'i was still in the hands of the Shang people or their vassals. The
very name of the beneficiary, Lii Wang or Wang of Lii, indicates strongly that the
fief of Wang was Lii, not Ch'i. Even a generation later, his son Chi { was still called
Lii Chi or Chi of Lii. Prof. Fu's arguments are contained in his article "On Ta-Tung
and Hsiao-Tung," Bulletin of the National Research Institute of History and Philology,
Academia Sinica, II (193o), 1o1 1o9. What immediately concerns us here is not the
authenticity of the enfeudation of Lii Wang in Ch'i but the possibility of the early
development of industry and commerce in the region of Ch'i, which is the main point
of the story.
80 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 2b.
31 Ibid. This statement and the one immediately preceding are significantly absent in
Shih-chi, XXX, 2ob, where the historical development of industry and commerce is
related by Ssii-ma Ch'ien and in LXII where the history of the state of Ch'i is treated
by the same historian. In neither place is the first ancestor of the house of Ch'i
mentioned to be the first developer of the economy of Ch'i. This is another point
which can be used to support Prof. Fu in his argument disputing Lii Wang as the first
ruler of the feudatory Ch'i. The story about Tai-kung Wang seems to have some
historical elements with its features borrowed from the story about Duke Huan and
Kuan Chung. s2 See note 29.
83 Such as silk fabrics recorded in Shih-chi, CXXIX, 1oa. Li Ssii speaks of the fine kao
of O |S5[ j^ as one of the luxurious industrial goods imported intoCh'in in his memorial
to the king of Ch'in quoted above. O was a town in Ch'i, located northwest of the
modern city of Tung-o in western Shantung.
ate markets were the territories of Liang (Wei), Chao,34 Sung and
Wei, according to Kuan-tzu.SB Corroboration of the great demand for
the sea produce of Ch'i and of its eastern neighbor, Lai, is found in the
gratitude of consumer states to Duke Huan when he abolished
custom tolls and promoted direct purchases from Lai.36
Another fact which attests to early development of trade in Ch'i is
the mention of "big merchants and hoarders"37 in conjunction with
Kuan Chung's program for maintaining equilibrium of the market.
Kuan Chung proposed to regulate trade and prevent market mani-
pulation by storing ample stocks of grain in times of plenty for release
in times of scarcity.38 His plan was called "well conceived and well
adapted to problems of scarcity and oversupply."39 The regulation of
the market reveals two significant points: trade played an essential
part hi Ch'i's economy and "big merchants and hoarders" had ap-
peared who manipulated the market and "forcefully exploited the
people."40 Even if we grant a measure of discount to the account of
34 Neither Liang (Wei) nor Chao, the state mentioned immediately after Liang,
existed during the Ch'un-ch'iu period which we are discussing. These states came into
being only after 431 B. C. through a split of the territory of Chin. The creation of these
states received official sanction in 4o3 B. C. when the king of Chou granted the rulers
of the two de facto states the status of the hou or marquis. We use the names of the
two states instead of Chin to preserve the original wording of the passage in Kuan-tzu,
which is here referred to.
In the Chou period, there were two states whose name was pronounced Wei. One,
written ^f, existed throughout the whole Chou period, and the other, written 0|,
was officially created in 4o3 B. C. Although the names of these two states cannot be
confused in Chinese script, they can be easily in English. In order to avoid the con-
fusion, we will refer to the state created in 4o3 B. C. as Liang, which was the name of
its capital. In the literature of the Chan-kuo period this state is frequently so
designated.
86 Kuan-tzu, XXIII, 15b.
38 Kuo-yii, VI, 1ob.
37 Op. cit., XXII, 6b. The statement is also quoted in Han shu, i. e. Ch'ien Han shu
1641 ed., XXIV, Part 2, 1b.
38 Ibid.
* Shih-chi, XXX, 2ob.
40 Kuan-tzu, XXII, 6b.
3 Monograph 113
Kuan-tzu,*1 the fact remains that trade had developed to an advanced
stage in the Ch'i economy.42
We have evidence that by the middle of the seventh century B. C.,
and possibly earlier, economic needs had transcended state boundaries
and that political divisions proved a hindrance to normal exchange.
In 651 B. C. a conference of feudal lords convened at K'uei-ch'iu
where Duke Huan of Ch'i demanded that the participants henceforth
"shall not hoard grain" and "shall not curtail (the export of) raw-
materials."43 Because of its alkaline soil Ch'i was unable to support
its entire population and the large army it required to maintain its
hegemony. It is also probable that its handicraft industries needed
raw materials from other areas. These were the reasons, no doubt,
for the demands of the Duke. Another treaty drawn up in 562 B.C.
practically repeats the provisions of the earlier one. In it the agreeing
parties promise "not to hoard grain in bad years" and "not to block
(the flow) of products."44
An early development of industry and commerce can be traced also
in the state of Wei. In 658 B. C., the year after the state was invaded
by the Ti people, Duke Wen moved his capital eastwards to Ch'u-
ch'iu on the northern border of the present Honan province. There he
pursued a program of reconstruction by "promoting commerce and
favoring industry." As a result, the population of Wei increased
threefold in a period of twenty-three years.45 More than a century
later, when Confucius visited the state he was greatly impressed with
its flourishing condition.46
41 The Kuan-tzu, attributed to Kuan Chung, is a work of the Ch'an-kuo period (4o3
221 B. C.) which contains many later interpolations. However badly interpolated, it
does contain valid Ch'i traditions. The chapter here quoted is mentioned by Ssi-ma
Ch'ien as also a part of the work as circulated at his time (145 86 B. C. ?). Moreover,
the wording of Pan Ku's (3292) quotation (XXIV, Part 2, 1alb) of the portion
relating to market regulation is identical with the present text.
42 HuanK'uan;|g W of the later Han dynasty (2522o) speaks of the Ch'i commercial
caravan consisting of three thousand carriages. Yen t'ieh lun, Ssu-pu pei-yao ed., II, 6a.
43 MSng-tzu, Ssu-pu pei-yao ed., XII, 9b; Tso chuan, XIII, 4b5a.
44 Tso chuan XXXI, 1o. Op. cit., XI, 8b. 4 Lun-yu, XII, 3a 3b.
Geographically speaking, Wei was situated at that time in the
center of ancient China, in the plain at the middle of the old Yellow
River valley, and on the Wu-tao (cross-roads).47 During the Ch'un-
ch'iu period, Wei, capital of the state, was one of the three cities
renowned for their riches, the other two being Lin-tzu, capital of
Ch'i, and T'ao. It has on several occasions been mentioned together
with T'ao as a place abounding in wealth.48
Across the northern and western borders of Wei we enter the terri-
tory of the state of Chin. Although it lagged behind Ch'i and Wei,
there are signs of an early development of commerce there. Duke Wen
(636628 B. C.) of Chin, the first of its rulers to bring the state to a
position of power, realized the benefits of trade and promoted it for
the benefit of both the state and its people. On assumption of rule in
636 B. C., he "reduced duties at the passes, flattened the roads,
opened up commerce, and lessened the burdens of the peasants ... in
order to better the life of the people."49 As a result, in the middle of
the sixth century B. C. we find that "the rich merchants of Chiang
(capital of Chin) ... could decorate their carriages with gold and jade
and have their clothing embroidered with flowery patterns."50 "They
could," furthermore, "(befriend and) distribute gifts to the feudal
lords."51 These words of Shu-hsiang, the grand tutor, to Han Hsiian-
tzii, chief minister of state, give a good picture of the amount of
wealth that merchants had accumulated in this state. From the
degree of their prosperity we can easily infer the state of development
of trade. As an ancient folk saying put it, "The longer the sleeves, the
better the dancer dances; the wealthier the merchant, the more
successfuly he trades."52
47 The interpretation of wu-tao ^p- ^ as meaning "cross-road" is advanced by Meng
Wen-t'ung J|f ^ jj in his article "Lun ku shui-tao yu chiao-t'ung," (A Discussion
of Ancient Rivers and Communication), Yii-kung (Chinese Historical Geography),
II (1935), No- 3, P- 4-
48 For more information on the commercial centers of "Pao and Wei see below pp.
46 47. 4 Kuo-yu, X, 13b. M Kuo-yii, XIV, na.
61 Ibid. - Han-feUzti, 1875, XIX, 1oa.
As a result of increased development in the seventh century B. C,
trade was recognized to be as essential as agriculture and indu-
stry. A simultaneous and balanced development of the three be-
came a criterion by which the strength of a state was judged. In
597 B. C., when Chin was preparing an attack on Ch'u, Sui-wu-tzu
dissuaded Duke Li of Chin from acting, for as he observed, in Ch'u
"neither the merchants, the farmers, nor the artisans have shown any
relaxation in production."ss In 564, when Ch'u consented to join
forces with Ch'in against Chin, Tzu-nang, a Ch'u minister, opposed
the move, giving practically the identical reason.54 When, in 516 B. C,
Duke Ching of Ch'i was concerned about the strength of his state, his
minister Yen-tzu (named Ying), suggested that li be put into practice.
Along with a few other administrative measures his li (proper prin-
ciples for government) provided that "farmers do not shift their
occupations, artisans and merchants do not change their professions.' '55
Why did the ancient Chinese rulers consider the balance between
trade, agriculture, and industry important? The Chou shu (Book of
Chou) says, "If the farmers do not produce, there will be a shortage of
food. If foresters do not produce, some works will not be accomplished.
If the merchants do not produce, the sources of wealth will be cut."56
Ssu-ma Ch'ien remarks, "From the farmers food is obtained, by the
foresters the materials are produced by which the artisans' goods are
manufactured, by the merchants they are circulated."57 "These four,"
he continues, "are the sources for clothes and food for the people. If
the sources are great, abundance will result; if the sources are small,
scarcity will result. They enrich the state above, and enrich the people
below."58
One way in which the state reaped direct benefit from commerce
was through collection of taxes on market transactions and of
customs duties at passes (kuan). To supervise markets and probably
to collect taxes therein special officials were appointed. They were
called ku-cheng (director of trade) in Lu,59 ch'u-shih (market super-
Tso chuan, XXIII, 3a. * Tso chuan, XXX, 15a. Tso chuan, LII, 7a.
"Shih-chi, CXXIX, 2a. 8' Ibid. Ibid. M Tso chuan, LI, 12b.
visor) in Chftig,60 shih-ling (market prefect) and shih-yuan (assistant
to market prefect) in ChH,61 ssu-shih (director of the market) and
ku-shih (trade supervisor) in the Chou li.62
Frontier passes (kuari) as strategic points through which invaders
might enter were originally the sites of military outposts. It was only
after the volume of interstate trade had become substantial that
they became also collection points of customs duties. The Kuan-tzu
defines a pass as "a feudal lord's strategic road and the door for out-
side wealth."63 As soon as feudal rulers realized the large amount of
revenue they were reaping from duty collections at frontier passes,
greed inevitably led them to set up kuan for collection of duties
within their interiors. Some states like Ch'i extended duty collections
to points close to the walls of their capitals. In 522 B. C. Yen-tzu
stated that "the passes [customs stations] close to the capital [of
Ch'i] tyrannically collect duties for personal profit,"64 that is, of the
prince of Ch'i. One hundred and three years before (in 625 B. C.) the
state of Lu had set up six additional such customs offices. Confucius
referred to their establishment as one of the three inhuman acts per-
formed by the Lu minister, Tsang Wen-chung,65 The phraseology of
Confucius gives the impression that these customs stations were in the
interior. The whole practice of customs collections was bitterly de-
nounced by Mencius: "In ancient times the erection of customs
stations was directed against tyranny [meaning agression]; at the
present [fourth century B. C.] the erection of customs stations is for
exercising tyranny."66
* Tso chuan, XXXII, 3a.
61 T'ien Tan |JJ ^, the famous general of Ch'i is said to have previously held the
position of the shih-yiian fjj ^ of Lin-tz<i. Shih-chi, LXXXII, 1a. In the ancient
Chinese official hierarchy yuan was assistant to the ling (prefect) or chang (chief) of an
office. Since there was the position of yuan there must also have been the position of
ling or chang.
e2 Chou li, Ssu-pu pei-yao ed., XIV, 7b and XV, 2b. (Hstin-tzu, 1876, XV, 8b, has also
ku-shih but it is not certain whether this is a title of an official or a general term to
mean "teacher of merchants.").
8 Kuan-tzU, IX, 15b. * Tso chuan, XLIX, 7b. Tso chuan, XVIII, 8a.
M MSng-Uu, XIV, 3a-3b.
The above data concerning the establishment of stations for collec-
tion of duties throw considerable light on the development of com-
merce. The lack of concrete figures or even general statements regard-
ing the amount of revenue collected at a customs station makes it
impossible to estimate the volume of trade. A portion of the Tso
chuan, however, does enable us to gauge its value. The author of the
Tso chuan relates that the Ti people invaded Sung during the reign of
Duke Wu (766749 B. C.). In the battle with the invaders all the
Sung generals perished except Erh-pan, whose chariot led the de-
fense's charge. To reward him, "the Duke granted a customs station
to Erh-pan as his fief and let him live on its collections."67 That the
collection of duties was granted as a reward or fief to a victorious
warrior indicates that this source of revenue had become sizeable and
fairly regular. Even more significant is the fact that Erh-pan's grant
took place in the middle of the eighth century, almost a hundred
years before the commercial policies of Duke Huan of Ch'i and Duke
Wen of Wei were adopted.
The development of trade and the large profits accruing to those
engaged in it would naturally bring merchants out of relative obscu-
rity into activity in public affairs. The names of a few merchants be-
fore the fifth century B. C. are mentioned in extant historical liter-
ature in connection with important events. Primary among these are
the names of Pao Shu-ya and Kuan Chung, whom we have already
mentioned as the advisor of Duke Huan of Ch'i.
Before his rise to prominence, or in his own words "when I was in a
difficult situation," Kuan Chung had been a merchant, originally
from Ying-shang68 (in what is now Central Honan), trading in Nan-
yang,69 a large city in the southwestern part of the province. For
sometime he had been a business associate of Pao Shu-ya,70 who like-
wise rose to high position in the ruling circle of Ch'i. It was, in fact,
Pao Shu-ya who recommended Kuan Chung to Duke Huan. Both
' Tso chuan, XIX, Part 2, 2a. M Shih-chi, LXII, 1b.
69 Lii-shih ch'un-ch'iu, quoted by Ssfi-ma Cheng ^J $| j=|, a T'ang commentator of
the Shih-chi (LXII, 1a). 70 Shih-chi, LXII, 1b.
Pao Shu-ya and Kuan Chung became high officials in the state. The
latter was honored by Duke Huan with the title chung-fu11 and Con-
fucius paid tribute to him for having saved the Chinese from conquest
by barbarians.72
Next we find the name of Hstian Kao, a merchant of Ch6ng.73 In
627 B. C, when driving his herds of cattle to the city of Chou to market
them, Hsiian Kao met the armies of Ch'in marching eastward to
make a surprise attack on his home state. Sensing the danger, he
pretended he was an official emissary sent by Cheng to welcome and
feast the invading troops. While entertaining them he secretly dis-
patched warning and thereby saved his state.74
From Cheng there was another merchant, whose identity is un-
known. In 568 B. C., an important general of Chin, Hsiin Ying, was
captured by the enemy in the course of a battle with the army of Ch'u.
Partisans of the general asked a merchant, who had come to Ch'u on
business, for help in an escape plot. The merchant agreed and worked
out a plan for smuggling the general out among his merchandise.
Although Hsiin Ying was released before the plot was carried out, he
was nonetheless so grateful that when the merchant came to Chin to
trade he offered him special favors. Declining the general's generosity,
the merchant went on to Ch'i in pursuance of his business.75 Obviously
this merchant must have been prominent and one with social con-
nections among important personages in both Ch'u and Chin. To
warrant such extensive travelling in Cheng, Ch'u, Chin and Ch'i,
practically all over the then known Chinese world, his business must
have been on a large scale.
Of all the big merchants of this period the most famous was Tuan-
mu Ssu, a disciple of Confucius, better known as Tzu-kung. Tzu-kung,
a native of Wei which had long prospered through trade, is said to
71 Meaning next to one's father in honor. n Lun-yii, XIV, 5b.
78 Lii-shih ch'un-ch'iu records a partner of Hsvian Kao ij jgj by the name of Hsi
Shih H #. 1875, XVI, 12a.
74 Tso chuan XVII, 7b8a. The story is slightly differently worded in Shih-chi,
V, 14b -15a. Tso chuan, XXVI, 3b.
40
have been a master of market manipulation. "He hoarded merchan-
dise or released it according to the prospects of making profit,"76 and
thereby acquired a great fortune. Although Confucius reproached him
for his interest in trade and for his lack of it in studies, he praised his
ability in commercial speculation." Tzu-kung's wealth enabled him
to travel from one princely court to another accompanied by a long
retinue of horses and carriages laden with fine silks of which he made
gifts to the feudal princes. Wherever he went, rulers accorded him
the courteous treatment of an equal.78 In the opinion of Ssu-ma
Ch'ien, the great historian, it was Tzu-kung who "made the name of
Confucius popular over the world."79 Even though he may not have
done so consciously, Tzu-kung, as both the favorite disciple of Con-
fucius and a prominent merchant, must have publicized his teacher
widely. Moreover, he was not only a business man renowned for his
wealth, but was an influential politician as well. While a trader he
served Lu and Wei in various official capacities.80 His last years were
spent in Ch'i, the state most famous for its industry and commerce.
Another personage reported to have come to Ch'i was the famous
statesman Fan Li, who had aided the king of Yiieh (modern Chekiang)
to conquer Wu (southern Kiangsu), to extend the state's territory to
the borders of Lu and Ch'i, and thus to attain a political position on
a par with the central states. This was in the first half of the fifth
century B. C. According to the account, after Yiieh had attained its
greatest power, Fan Li resigned, changed his name, went to Ch'i, and
later established himself as a business man in T'ao, which city was
regarded as the geographical center of the empire. Henceforth, Fan
Li became known as T'ao Chu-kung (Old Gentleman Chu of T'ao).
The fortune he made from trade profits and interest on money-lending
became so great that he became a symbol of wealth81 and served as a
model to Chinese businessmen from that day to the present. Though
' Shih-chi, LXVII, 12a. "Lun-yii, XI, 4b.
78 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 5a. 79 Ibid.
80 Tsochuan, LVIII, 4a; LIX, 2a; 12a. Shih-chi, CXXIX,5a.
81 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 4b -5a.
Commerce in Ancient China
41
the identification of Chu-Kung with Fan Li seems open to doubt82 the
historical character of the Old Gentleman Chu remains.
Like the Old Gentleman Chu of T'ao, Po Kuei also achieved great
success in trade and gained even greater fame. He was a native of
Chou, an area which was highly commercialized. Ssu-ma Ch'ien says
that he lived in the time of Marquis Wen (446397 B. C.) of Wei, but
some modern scholars believe he lived a century later.83 According to
Ssu-ma Ch'ien he "was very successful in predicting the trend of the
time." Hoarding merchandise which would bring him large returns,
he purchased when others dumped, and vice versa. "In grasping the
advantages of the moment, he acted as ferocious animals and vultures
do in falling on their prey."84 He boasted that he conducted his busi-
ness in the manner I Yin and Lii Shang (statesmen of an earlier time)
laid out their administrative policies, Sun Pin and Wu Ch'i (famous
military strategists) commanded their armies, and Shang Yang (a
reformist statesman) executed his orders.85
The above accounts of early Chinese merchants are not to be read
as biographical notes only, for in them we find data upon which a
clearer picture of early commerce in China can be reconstructed.
Fragmentary as the information is, it all points to a considerable
development of trade in this period. Let us summarize our findings.
As far back as the early part of the eighth century B. C. the contribu-
tion of commerce to general economic life had won the attention of
the ruling authorities. Around the middle of that century custom
duties collections, at least in Sung, had reached considerable propor-
tions. In the following century Ch'i and Wei successively pursued
programs of commercial expansion. The lucrative profits of trade
attracted many to take it up as an occupation even though it had
been considered an ignoble one. Merchants travelled throughout the
81 See Ch'ien Mu Hsien-Ch'in chu-tzu hsi-nien k'ao-pien (A Study of the
Chronology of the Pre-Ch'in Philosophers), Shanghai, 1935, 101.
83 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 5a. For the critical discussion on the life-time of Po Kuei see
Ch'ien Mu, op. cxt. 234 236.
84 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 5 a -5b. 85 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 5b.
the world then known to the Chinese and amassed such fortunes that
nobles accepted them as equals and appointed them to high adminis-
trative positions in their governments.
3. THE CHAN-KUO PERIOD
The Chan-kuo Period (4o3221 B. C.) witnessed a further develop-
ment of commerce. The civil wars regarded as characteristic of the
period (Chan-kuo means "warring states") in actuality surpassed very
little those of earlier times in either frequency or destructiveness.
They certainly do not appear to have hindered the growth of trade.
It is significant that the agrarianist Hsu Hsing, a contemporary of
Mencius (39o3o5 B. C.), advanced a political philosophy which
aimed to eradicate the evils of the day by making a farmer of every-
one. It is said that he and his disciples cultivated fields themselves
and lived extremely simple lives so as to set an example for their
teachings. Mencius disapproved of both their theory and their practice
of it. Encountering a follower of Hsu Hsing he questioned him and
learned that the philosopher had been unable to maintain himself
without acquiring clothes, hats, utensils and iron implements from
other people. As Mencius puts it Hsu Hsing was engaged in a "busy
and confused" [i. e., 'complicated'] exchange with the hundred [i. e.,
'many'] artisans for the goods [he needs]."86
Some of the things which Hsii Hsing needed could be purchased in
the locality (both he and Mencius lived in the state of T'eng at the
time), such as simple pottery utensils. Some others, such as iron for
making tools, could not be so obtained. Artisans who manufactured
iron tools had to secure their metal from other areas.87 Many other
86 Meng-tzu, Ssu-pu pei-yao ed., V, 9a 11b.
87 T'eng is not known as an iron producing area in either ancient or modern times.
According to Ssii-ma ChMen, places where iron industry produced great fortunes in the
Chan-kuo period were Chao including Han-tan, Lin-Ch'iung in Shu, Liang (Wei), Wan
in Ch'u and Lu. For the iron smelter Kuo Tsung of Han-tan see Shih-chi CXXIX, 66;
for the iron smelter of the Cho family of Chao and later of Lin-ch'iung in Shu, see
ibid., 17a; for the smelter of the Kung family of Liang and later of Wan in Ch'u, and
things were as necessary to life on an economically higher level as
iron was to the ascetic. Timber, bamboo, ku barks for writing material,
lu mountain hemp for making cloth, yak tails, jade and other precious
stones from west of the mountains;88 fish, salt, lacquer, silk, musical
instruments and embroideries89 from east of the mountains; wood of
the nan (Machilus nanmu) and the tzu (Lindera tzutnu), ginger, cin-
namon trees, gold, tin, lead, cinnabar, rhinoceros (hide or horn),
tortoise shells, pearls, ivory, and other hides from south of the Chiang
(Yangtze River); horses, oxen, sheep, furs, sinews and horns from the
north; and copper and iron from many other places90 "all these,"
as Ssu-ma Ch'ien observes, "were what the people of the central king-
dom91 enjoyed and the materials from which, according to the custom
of the day, were made clothes, food and articles for nurturing the
living and burying the dead."92
These commodities listed above are taken from the introduction of
the section on merchants and manufactures in pre-Ch5in China in
also for the smelter family of Ping of Lu, see ibid., 18a. As Ssu-ma Ch'ien mentions
only iron manufacturers of great wealth, this does not preclude the existence of
relatively small producers in still other districts.
88 The Chinese term is Shan-tung, meaning "east of the mountains." The mountains
referred to here must be the range of T'ai-hang which spreads over the central region
of ancient Chinese civilization on the border of modern Shansi and Honan Provinces.
However, the term which was used obviously in a general sense should not be under-
stood literally. As Wang Ming-sheng ]J PJ|| jjj has pointed out, during the Chan-kuo
period it denoted the regions east of the Han-ku Pass in western Honan, roughly east
of the state of Ch'in. See his Shih-ch'i-shih shang-chHao (Discussions on the Seventeen
Dynastic Histories), 1667, XXXV, 1a2b.
89 The word used by Ssu-ma Ch'ien is s& ^S meaning "colors" or "colorful things."
Embroideries being colorful fabrics, we may assume that they are what the historian
meant. In Shih-chi CXXIX, 1oa, where the noted local products of the state of Ch'i
are mentioned, Ssu-ma Ch'ien does mention embroideries using the term wen-ts'ai
^t ?. which signifies "patterned and variegated fabrics."
90 See note 87.
11 The term chung-kuo, generally rendered as "central kingdom," denoted the interior
of the country as distinguished from the vassal states in the border regions, and China
as distinguished from non-Chinese peoples.
Shih-chi by Ssu-ma Ch'ien. What he describes is but a general
picture,93 and he does not pretend to give a complete enumeration.
Besides these, jujubes from Yen (roughly modern Hopeh) and An-i
(southern Shansi), chestnuts from Yen and Ch'in (roughly Shensi),
fish and salt from Yen and Wu (southern Kiangsu), copper from Wu,
copper and iron from Pa and Shu (Szechuan), fruits and cloth from
Pan-yii (Canton), oranges from Shu, Han and Chiang-ling (Szechuan
and southern Hupeh), etc., formed part of the merchandise which
crowded many of the markets.94
Flourishing trade brought about commercialization of a part of the
agricultural produce. We find it stated that a cattle breeder who
possessed 5o horses, 166 oxen, 25o sheep, and 25o pigs; a fish grower
who produced 1ooo piculs (shih) in his ponds; an orchardist of 1o00
jujube trees in An-i, or of 1ooo chestnut trees in Yen or Ch'in, or of
1ooo orange trees in Shu, Han or Chiang-ling; a grower of 1oo ch'iu
trees (Mallotus japonicus) in the Yellow River valley, or of 1ooo mou
(land measure) of lacquer trees in Ch'en or Hsia (central and eastern
Honan), or of 1ooo mou of mulberry trees or hemp in Ch'i or Lu
(Shantung); or of 1ooo fertile mou of grain, or of 1ooo mou of the chih
and the chHen plants (from the flowers of which red and yellowish-red
pigments were made), or of 1ooo plots of ginger or leeks that any
one of them received a revenue equal to that of a marquis with a fief
of one thousand households.95 Since a household paid an annual
tribute of two hundred cash to its noble lord, this revenue in terms of
cash would be 2oo,ooo. Calculated at the twenty per cent rate of
profit accruing to the farmers, artisans and merchants of the time as
recorded by Ssu-ma Ch'ien, a profit of 2oo,ooo represented, so to
speak, a capital of one million.96 Ssu-ma Ch'ien therefore calls the
man of such wealth a "noble without a fief."97
According to the same historian the following merchandise was sold
yearly in a large city: 1ooo jars of wine, 1ooo long-necked jars of
3 Ibid. * Shih-chi, CXXIX, 7b, 9b, ua, 12a, 15a.
Shih-chi, CXXIX, 14b -15a. Shih-chi, CXXIX, 14b.
97
Shih-chi, CXXIX, 14a.
vinegar, 1ooo big jars of sauce, 1ooo heads of butchered oxen and
cows, sheep or pigs, 1ooo chung (1 chung = 64 tou or Chinese pecks) of
grain, 1ooo wagonloads of fuel, boats of a total length of 1ooo chang
(1 chang 1o ch'ih or Chinese feet), 1ooo pieces of lumber, 1o,ooo bam-
boo poles, 1oo carts, 1ooo ox wagons, 1ooo pieces of lacquered furni-
ture, 1ooo chiin (1 chiin = 3o chin or Chinese catties) of bronze vessels,
10oo shih (1 shih = 12o catties) of plain furniture, 1ooo shih of iron
utensils, 1ooo shih of chih and Mien yellowish red pigment, 2oo horses,
250 oxen and cows, 2ooo sheep, 2ooo pigs, 1oo slaves, 1ooo chin
(Chinese catty) of animal sinew, horn and cinnabar, 1ooo chiin of silk
and fine cloth, 1ooo bolts of embroidered silk, 1ooo shih of fa-pu
(cotton cloth) and hide, 1ooo tou (pecks) of lacquer, 1ooo chin of fai
fish (a sea fish) and knife fish, 1ooo shih of chou (miscellaneous small)
fish, 1ooo chiin of pao fish, 3ooo shih of jujube and chestnuts, 1ooo fox
and seal furs, 1ooo shih of lamb skins, 1ooo felt rugs, and 1ooo chung
of fruits.98
Ssu-ma Ch'ien's record, being given in round numbers, cannot be
taken as accurate in detail, nor can it be assumed that it is free from
the exaggeration of over-enthusiasm. Nevertheless, the bulk of the
statistics he gives, inaccurate though they may be, does reflect the
large volume of business transactions in a sizeable city of that day.
Again according to Ssu-ma Ch'ien, a merchant could reap a profit of
fifty per cent, though some might make less.99 In pursuit of trade, the
merchants came and departed in large noisy crowds.100 Profit from
their trade was so great that Ssu-ma Ch'ien observed, "For a poor
man seeking wealth, farming was not as good as handicrafts, and
handicrafts not as good as trade; to embroider silk was not as good as
to lean against a shop door."101 "Once a man became rich, all virtues
98 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 15b17a. In enumerating quantities of merchandise we have
altered the wording of the Shih-chi text from which we have quoted. For instance, in
the original Chinese the phrase "1oo slaves" reads Cung shou chHh Mien (one thousand
fingers of slaves). Since each slave has ten fingers, we have changed the wording to a
simpler expression. Similar changes have been made at other points.
M Shih-chi, CXXIX, 17a. " Shih-chi, CXXIX, 3a.
would attach to him."102 "Precedence was accorded to wealth, and
propriety and modesty were not given highest attention."103
During this period, many opulent merchants seem to have arisen to
considerable influence. In the middle of the third century B. C. Lii
Pu-wei, an influential merchant from Yang-ti in the state of Han,
interfered with the line of succession in Ch'in. Mainly through bribery
he helped onto the throne both King Chuang-hsiang (249247 B. C.)
and later, KingCheng (246 B. C.), who unified China and became known
as its First Emperor (22121o B. C.). Lii Pu-wei was appointed Chan-
cellor (ch'eng-hsiang) by King Chuang-hsiang, and received the title
of Marquis of Wen-hsin carrying with it a fief of 1o,ooo households in
Lo-yang.When King Cheng ascended the throne, he further honored
him by making him the Chancellor of the State (hsiang-kuo) and by
calling him chung-fu, meaning "next to his father." With his wealth he
kept ten thousand slaves and three thousand "guests" ( clients in the
sense given to the word in Roman history). Among his clients were a
number of scholars who at his order composed the historically famous
work, the Lu-shih ch'un-chHu or the Lii Ian (Book of the Lii).104
Another result of the development of trade during the Chan-kuo
period was the rise of the "metropolitan centers" (tu-hui). Upon them
"the people from the four directions" converged, and from them
merchandise flowed to distant corners of the continent of Asia.
In the royal domain of Chou, Lo-yang was the commercial metro-
polis. The people of Chou were well-known artisans and tradesmen,
who received a return on their output, as Ssu-ma Ch'ien gives it, of
twenty per cent profit.105 The rich boasted of their ability to go on
business trips of long periods, and the poorer imitated the rich.106
Through them their metropolis traded with Ch'i and Lu in the east,
with Liang (Wei) and Ch'u in the south.107 "Situated in the middle of
Ch'i, Ch'in, Ch'u and Chao, it was (as if) on a street."108
102 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 3a. 108 Shih-chi, XXX, 2ob.
104 For the life story of Lii Pu-wei see his biography in Shih-chi, LXXXV, 1 ff. Cf. also
Derk Bodde, Li SsH. 106 Shih-chi, LXIX, 1a. 10 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 18b.
107 Shih-chi, CXXIX, gb. 108 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 18b.
In the territory of Ch'i, specifically "between the sea and Mount
T'ai (in central Shantung)," Lin-tzu was the trading center.109 Besides
being the capital of the state of Ch'i, Lin-tzu was a commercial city
with a long history and unmatched prosperity (see below p. 177).
Through the four centuries until King Hsiian (3193o1 B. C.) of
Ch'i, Lin-tzu was perhaps the richest and most prosperous city in
the world then known to the Chinese. As Su Ch'in described it to the
King, "On the roads to Lin-tzu the wheels of carriages bump each
other, and the shoulders of the people rub one another. Connected,
the breasts of their coats form a curtain; Ufted, their sleeves form a
tent; swept, their sweat makes rain."110 It was an emporium of salt,
fish, and various silk fabrics.111
The metropolitan center in the northeastern part of ancient China
was Chi, capital of the state of Yen. It was economically connected
with Ch'i and Chao in the south, and traded with the barbarian
peoples to its north and east beyond the Chinese borders.112 It pro-
vided the interior of ancient China with animal furs, sinews, horns,
and horses.
In Chao, the commercial center was Han-tan. It was the state's
capital, a center of iron production and many other skillful handi-
crafts, and an economic pivot for the regions between the Chang and
the Yellow River valleys. Its merchants frequented Chi and Cho in
Yen in the north and the areas of Cheng and Wei in the south.113
Though Ssu-ma Ch'ien does not so state, there certainly must have
been constant visitors on business from Ch'i in the east and from the
regions beyond the T'ai-hang mountain range in the northwest. Yang
and P'ing-yang, cities in the F6n River valley in central Shansi, were
also points of trade. They were the hubs for trade with Ch'in and the
Ti barbarians in the west and with Chung and Tai in the north.114
108 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 1oa. Chan-ktto ts% Ssu-pu pei-yao ed., VIII, 8b.
111 Shih-chi CXXIX, la and 2b. lls Ibid. 113 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 8b.
1,4 Shih-chi, CXXIX, ga. Ssu-ma Ch'ien's exact statement reads: "(The people) made
a living by relying on the profits from skillful works." Here the "skillful works" may
include both artifice handicrafts and trade. In the Yen t'ieh lun (Discourses on Salt
Similarly, W6n and Chih constituted the commercial centers south
of the T'ai-hang Mountains and north of the Yellow River in present day
northwestern Honan. These two cities traded with Shang-tang in the
west and with Chung-shan in the state of Chao, in which localities the
land was not fertile and the population so large that large numbers were
forced to take up trade or skilled handicrafts to earn their living.115
Kuan-chung in modern central Shensi was another important
economic area, in which Li-i, replete with "big merchants," served as
a commercial center in northwestern China. It supplied the east with
the goods from the non-Chinese peoples in the north and the west. To
the south it controlled the merchandising of the special products of
Pa and Shu (modern Szechuan): the chih deep red pigment, ginger,
cinnabar, precious stones, copper, iron, and utensils made of bamboo
and wood, and monopolized the importation of the slaves from P'o,
an area neighboring Pa and Shu in their south. It also had access to
the horses and yaks of the barbarians beyond the southwestern
Chinese border.116
After the Yangtze River emerged from the gorges on the eastern
border of Pa, the first big city on its banks was Ying (modern Chiang-
ling), the capital of Ch'u. Ch'u was famous for its economic resources
from the Yiin-meng,117 an extensive area which, according to Wang-
sun Wei, a Ch'u minister, produced metal (gold), lumber, bamboos,
tortoises, pearls, furs (of wild animals), hides (of rhinoceros), feathers,
and (yak) tails.118 In the lower Yangtze (called Chiang at that time)
Valley, we find the city of Wu, still known today by its old name,
which Ssu-ma Ch'ien calls "the metropolitan center east of the
Chiang." The salt from the sea, the copper from the Chang-shan
mountains, and the products from the many rivers and lakes of this
area constituted the main merchandise of this city for export.119
and Iron) Chung-shan of Chao is described as a thoroughfare of the Chou empire,
where "merchants infested the roads", and the people "took great interest in the
secondary [meaning trade and handicrafts], enjoyed luxury, and did not devote them-
selves to the fundamental [meaning farming]. Their fields were not cultivated." (1,7a.)
llf Shih-chi, CXXIX, 7b. " Shih-chi, CXXIX, 1ob 1 1a.
117 Kuo-yii, XVIII, 8a. "8 Shih-chi, CXXIX, na. " Shih-chi, CXXIX, nb.
The center north of the Huai River was Shou-ch'un, the last capital
of the Ch'u. It lay at the juncture of communication routes between
the Yangtze Valley and the Yellow River Valley. It was an emporium
for animal hides and timber120 as well as many other southern pro-
ducts destined for the northern regions.
In ancient times the region between the Huai and the Yellow Rivers
corresponding to what is now northern Kiangsu, eastern Honan,
northern Anhui and southern Shantung, was traversed by a number
of small streams and artificial canals. The most important of the
canals was the Hung Kou or the Great Canal. The date of its con-
struction is not exactly known. The description of the Great Canal in
the treatise on rivers by Ssii-ma Ch'ien immediately follows the
legend of Yii, who was said to have ended the Great Flood by opening
nine water-ways in the lower valley of the Yellow River, and precedes
the account of the construction of the canals of the Ch'un-ch'iu period
(77o481 B. C.). At the latest, the canal appears to have been in
existence before the fifth century B. C. Its starting point was in Ying-
Yang (same as the modern district of the same name in central Honan)
where it connected with the Yellow River. It ran eastwards parallel
with the present Lunghai Railway, passed Liang (modern Kaifeng),
capital of Liang (Wei), then turned its course southeastwards, and
joined the tributaries of the Huai River in modern northwest Anhui.121
As Ssu-ma Ch'ien sees it, the construction of the canal "was to open
the way to and connect the states of Sung, Cheng, Ch'en, Ts'ai, Ts'ao,
and Wei, and to join the Chi, the Ju, the Huai, and the Ssu Rivers."122
These states covered a large area of ancient east central China,
corresponding to what is today northern Honan, southern Hopeh,
southwestern Shantung, central and eastern Honan, northwestern
130 Ku Tsu-yii jgj jjfj ^ (1624169o) holds that the main course of the Hung-kou
system was dug by King Yen of Hsu Ifjfc fg Ê (Ching-shih ta-wen, in Chieh-i-t'ing chi,
Ssu-pu ts'ung-k'an ed., VIII, 7a 7b). This will bring the date of its construction back
to the first part of the tenth century B. C. according to the traditional chronology.
la For more information on the Hung Kou canal system, especially on the courses of
the rivers which constituted the system, see Ku Tsu-yii, op. cit. 6a 6b.
"2 Shih-chi, XXIX, 2a.
4 Monograph 113
Anhui, and northern Kiangsu. The four rivers mentioned were the
main streams of eastern and southeastern China in ancient times.
Another canal whose importance in the economic life as well as in
the political struggles of this period was the Han Kou or the Han
Canal. This canal was constructed in 486 B. C. by the state of Wu.123
It drew its water from the Chiang (Yangtze River) below the city of
Chiang-tu, an historical commercial center. It followed a northward
course and joined the She-yang Lake in modern central Kiangsu.
Emerging from the lake it continued its northward course and joined
the Huai River in the area of modern Huai-an. In the Huai-an area it
was also connected with the I River which flowed into southern
Shantung and the Ssu River which ran to the northwest and met the
Chi River.124 When the Sui dynasty (589617 A. D.) constructed the
Grand Canal, which was to prove so valuable to later dynasties
for transportation of rice from the south, it made use of the original
course of the Han Canal for the middle of the present Grand Canal
-course.
Thus we see that during the later part of the Chou dynasty, the
great plain north of the Yangtze, south of Mount T'ai (in central
Shantung), west of Lo-yang, capital of Chou, extending as far as the
sea, traversed by many water ways, had become an economic whole,
in spite of political boundaries. In the heart of the water communica-
tion system were situated the states of Sung with its capital Shang-
ch'iu located on the site of its modern namesake in eastern Honan,
and later P'eng-ch'eng which was what is now the city of T'ung-shan
or Suchou in northern Kiangsu, and Liang with its capital Ta-Liang
located on the Great Canal itself. Keeping in mind the strategical
location which Sung occupied we will easily and fully understand the
reason why during the Ch'un-ch'iu period this small state became a
prey of Chin, Ch'u and other powers. We will also easily understand
how the newly created state of Liang, relying on its strategic position,
123 This period is called the period of the hegemony of the state of Liang (Wei) by
Ch'ien Mu, op. cit. (see above, n. 82), tables, p. 9o91.
1M Tso-chuan LVIII, 9a.
could maintain a hegemony for almost a century from 425 to 334
B.C.125
In this great plain knit by the well laid water-ways of communica-
tion and teeming with commercial activities there were a few cities
which may be regarded as "metropolitan centers" in the sense of the
word as Ssu-ma Ch'ien uses it. But the most famous of them all was
T'ao, where the Old Gentleman Chu made his fortune. The city,
located in modern Ting-t'ao County in southwestern Shantung, was
on the bank of the ancient Southern Chi River. It was situated mid-
way between Lin-tzu, Lo-yang, Han-tan and Shou-ch'un four great
metropolises which we have described above. By land route it was
within easy access to Han-tan. By the Chi River it could reach
both Lin-tzii126 and Lo-yang. The Great Canal and the Chi River
connected it with Shou-ch'un. It was on the Wu-tao (cross-road) of
ancient China127 and regarded as the richest place which could be
matched only by Wei.128 It was, as Ssu-ma Ch'ien puts it, "the center
m For more information on the Han Canal see also Ku Tsu-yii, op. cit., 8a 8b.
m Between the Chi River and Tzii River on which Lin-tzQ was situated there was a
canal to connect the two. See Shih-chi, XXIX, 2a.
127 The term wu-tao f- j|f[ appears in the Shih-chi several times always in connection
with the struggle for the region in which T'ao was located. Cheng Hsiian (127 2oo)
interprets it as meaning "cross-road." While many a scholar holds it as the name of a
place with a definite location, Meng Wen-t'ung J ^ }J understands it figuratively.
He contends that there is no place or road of this name; it refers to the region which
was so important to communication in the empire that it was given the name of
"cross-road." ("Lun ku shui-tao ytt chiao-t'ung," (On the water ways and com-
munication in ancient times), Yii-kung II (1935), No. 3, p. 4.
128 In Chan-kuo ts'S (Writings on the Warring States), Ssu-pu pei-yao ed., XIII, 3a,
T'ao and Wei are mentioned together as places of wealth. The text is also quoted in
Shih-chi, LXXXIII, 8a. Some commentators regard T'ao and Wei as referring to two
persons. They are the Old Gentlemen Chu of T'ao and Prince Ching of Wei to Yen Tu
ijj j|, or the lord of T'ao (Wei Jan) |)| |tj. and the lord of Shang, whose name was
Wei, to Wang Shao ^ -gjj. In either case, it makes no difference whether "T'ao"
refers to the Old Gentleman Chu or the Wei Jan, the noble who owned T'ao as his
fief, because both unequivocally refer to the same T'ao and both indicate that T'ao
was a place of great wealth. With regards to "Wei" the comments advanced
are not convincing. Prince Ching of Wei was not known for his riches; nor was the
lord of Shang. Furthermore, if it were the Lord of Shang who is referred to as
of the world, from where all the feudal states could be reached and
where merchandise was bought and sold."129 Hence it was coveted by
all the warring states. In 386 B. C. the Chao state moved its capital to
Han-tan, and in 362 B. C. Liang moved its capital to Ta-Liang. The
action of both states was aimed at the struggle for the "Cross-road"
and the area around the metropolis of T'ao. When the state of Ch'in
embarked on its conquest of the rest of the Chou empire it first cut a
long corridor through the territories of Han and Liang and took T'ao
before 291 B. C., seventy years before it accomplished the conquest.
The occupation of T'ao, the economic center and strategic point of the
day, must have contributed much to the unification of ancient China
by Ch'in in the following decades.
The rise of T'ao and the importance of the "Cross-road" were direct
results of the commercial development during the Chan-kuo period.
The economic forces of trade also created other metropolises, which
served as focal points for their respective regions and helped bring
about political unification.
However, from all this it is not to be understood that the economic
life of China before the end of the third century B. C. had become
highly commercialized. China was, as it still is generally, fundament-
ally agrarian. Economic production was not as much for the market
as it was for the immediate needs of the household. Yet, in the frame-
work of this agrarian economy, commerce had made its appearance,
grown in importance, served well the economic life of ancient China,
and called forth the use of metallic money, which gained increasing
significance as trade developed ever further.
Even if the use of metallic money had been prevailing, it may be
assumed that not every business transaction was made through this
medium of exchange. Compared with Chou China, the Mediterranean
"Wei," why is he not directly referred to as "Shang," but as "Wei ?" as in the case of
the lord of T'ao? If we understand "T'ao and Wei" as two places equally renowned
for their wealth, then we will have no trouble in interpreting the text and the context
in which the phrase stands. In the Han-fei-tzu "T'ao and Wei" are mentioned as places
of great importance. (V, na).
IM Shih-chi, CXXIX, 4b.
world of antiquity appears to have been more commercialized. Even
in this case Prof. W. L. Westermann has cautioned us not to minimize
exchange in kind against exchange in money; for, he argues, "Con-
stantly throughout antiquity exchange in natura and exchange in
money form appear side by side."130 The same may be also said of
China of the Chou period.
lso "Warehousing and Trapezite Banking in Antiquity," Journal of Economic and
Business History, III (193o1), 3o31.
III. MONEY BEFORE COINAGE - COWRIES AND THEIR
IMITATIONS
1. COWRIE SHELLS AS MEDIA OF EXCHANGE
In his brief treatment of money in Chinese antiquity, Ssii-ma Ch'ien
(14586 B. C. ?) mentions tortoise shells and cowrie shells as objects
which had been used as currency and indicates that pearls, jade and
tin had also been so used besides gold, silver, and the spade and knife
coins of bronze.1 Scattered statements in the literature of the Chou
period tend to lend credit to his report. However, it is rather unlikely
that all of these were used without preference either throughout the
whole Chou period, or in all parts of ancient China. This would be true
especially after trade had developed to a considerable extent, say
from the Ch'un-ch'iu period on, when portability and homogeneity
would be required of a currency. Tortoise shells were of limited use in
divination only and are too bulky to be conveniently transported.
Pearls and jade did not exist in any appreciable quantity. Neither
gold, nor silver, nor tin was produced within the borders of the Shang
and the Chou kingdoms, and therefore they lacked another require-
ment of a currency general availability. Because of their limited
availability and consequently high value, they could not have been
suitable for use in ordinary business transactions. Among the mone-
tary commodities mentioned by Ssu-ma Ch'ien, only cowrie shells,
copper and bronze met both these qualifications of a satisfactory
exchange medium, portability and availability.
1 Shih-chi, XXX, 2ob21a. The historian's terms for gold, silver and bronze are
"yellow," "white" and "red" metals. So far as we know, gold and silver were never
cast into any form of coin; they were used in the shape of bullion. Possibly so was
bronze for some time.
M
Cowries and their Imitations 55
To be sure, neither copper nor cowries were of local origin, but they
seemed to have been available in such quantities that they could have
served as currency.2 Both were employed in the beginning as barter
units, copper in the form of a spade or a knife and cowries as orna-
ments. Spades and knives were commodities of general use, and cowries
owed their desirability as money to their highly ornamental value and
their magic functions. This agrees with the general principles on the
origin of money laid down by William Ridgeway.
The importation and use of cowrie shells in China has had a long
history. It is well known that a specimen was discovered by J. G.
Andersson at the neolithic site at Yang-shao-ts'un, Honan. In the
graves of Chu Chia Chai, which also contained pottery of the "Yang-
shao" stage, a piece of bone was found carved in imitation of a cowrie
shell.3 Seventy-three genuine shells were dug out of the old tombs at
Tou-chi-t'ai in the county of Pao-chi, western Shensi. They evidently
served as both ornaments and for magical purposes.4 The archaeologist
Su Ping-ch'i has dated these tombs as belonging to the period of
"bent-feet li" (the li is a tripod), which in his chronology is inter-
mediate between the black pottery (Lung-shan type) culture and the
end of the Shang dynasty.
When the site of Yin-hsu, at An-yang (northern Honan), which
served as a capital to the Shang kings for the last four to five hundred
years of their dynasty was excavated by archaeologists of Academia
Sinica, large numbers of the shells were discovered. During the first
season, in 1928, ninety-six "cowrie shells and large clam shell utensils"
were excavated.5 In 1929, a pit designated as Ta-lien yielded "a layer
of cowries" together with some bronze objects and stone knives at a
2 The existence of large quantities of copper during the Shang and the Chou periods
can be gauged from the large amount of the bronze wares, bronze weapons and other
bronze objects which are preserved and discovered today.
8 J. G. Andersson, Children of the Yellow Earth, 1934, 323-
1 Su Ping-ch'i jjjjfi j| jjjj, Tou-chi-t'ai kou-tung-ch'u mu-tsang, 1948, 1771, 2334
6 Tung Tso-pin, "Chung-hua-min-kuo shih-ch'i-nien shih-chiieh An-yang Hsiao-t'un
pao-kao-shu," An-yang fa-chiieh pao-kao jjj |gj ^ |jj} ^ |^, I (1929), 35-
depth of 5.6 meters, between a layer of tortoise shells and another of
clam shells.6 In 1931, cowries were found in pit E16 at a depth of 4.5
to 4.9 meters.7 A considerable number the report says "very
many" were found in Section B14 at a depth of 1.1 meters. In 1932,
some more were found in Section E157 at a depth of 2.4 meters
together with some pottery, clam shells, stones, tortoise shells and
reindeer horns.8 In the same year in the square pit designated as E181,
at the depth of 6 meters, 163 cowrie shells and two large shells were
found together with a long lo-shih (melania libertina), tortoise shells,
bone plates, stone knives, animal bones, stone effing music instru-
ments, stone vessels, carved stones and clam shells.9 It must be noted
that the square pit designated as E181 and the rectangular pit
designated as Ta-lien have been identified by the archaeologists who
participated in the excavations as kao or store pits.
Now the question arises: Had the cowrie shells discovered in the
Shang remains been used as money? To this question the answers
offered are almost unanimously affirmative. Archaeologists such as
Li Chi and Tung Tso-pin, who participated in the Yin-hsii excava-
tions, assert that they were.10 So do also Creel and Okutaira and some
Li Chi 2pf }j|f, "Min-kuo shih-pa-nien ch'iu-chi f a-chiieh Yin-hsii chih ching-kuo chi
ch'i chung-yao fa-hsien," An-yang fa-chiieh pao-kao, II (193o), 236.
'Li Chi, "An-yang tsui-chin fa-chiieh pao-kao chi liu-tz'u kung-tso chih tsung-ku-
chi," An-yang fa-chiieh pao-kao, IV (1933), 565.
8 Shih Chang-ju ^JJ J[| rj, "Ti-ch'i-tz'u Yin-hsii fa-chiieh: E ch'ii kung-tso pao-kao,"
An-yang fa-chiieh pao-kao, IV (1933), 71972o.
Shih Chang-ju, op. cit., 723.
10 In one of his articles on the findings at Yin-hsii, Li Chi says "Both the cowrie and
clam shells were carved into ornaments; they were also money in circulation at the
time. The salt-water shells were mostly used for money, and the fresh-water shells
were mostly used for ornaments." An-yang fa-chiieh pao-kao, IV (1933), 375. This
statement is shrouded in ambiguity. It is regretted that Prof. Li, like all others dealing
with the problem, fails to offer any evidence to prove his point. Prof. Tung Tso-pin
writes, "During the Yin (Shang) dynasty cowries were definitely the important
money. Of those discovered [at Yin-hsii] which have a hole for stringing all belong to it
(money)." T'ien-yeh k'ao-ku pao-kao 0J gf ^ ^ fg -jy, I (1936), 126. He, too, fails
to supply his reasons,
other Chinese scholars.11 While in an earlier publication Kuo Mo-jo
seems to have the idea that cowrie shells were used as money during
the Shang time;12 in a later one he expresses the opinion that use of
cowries as money began during the transitional period from the Shang
to the Chou,13 which, according to the traditional chronology, is
around 1122 B. C. However, none of these scholars has produced any
evidence to support their opinions.
Before attempting our own answer to the question, let us first
examine the available facts, archaeological as well as historical. In
the literature of or concerning the Shang dynasty we have only one
statement on the cowries. It is in the chapter P'an-k6ng in the
Shang-shu (Book of Documents), popularly known as the Shu ching.u
u Creel, Birth of China, 69, and 91 2. Okutaira, Toa senshi, II, 24a 24b. Lo Chen-yti
is one of these Chinese scholars. His opinion is found at the end of his work Yin-hsii ku
chH-wu fan t'it-lit. The scholars quoted in this and the preceding notes are those who
have expressed their opinions directly in connection with the Yin-hsii finds. Not in
direct connection with the Yin-hsii finds, but rather in a general manner, some other
scholars have expressed similar opinions. Terrien de Lacouperie has alleged that
cowrie shells had been used as currency as far back as the twenty-third century B. C.
("Metallic Cowries of Ancient China," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great
Britain and Ireland, XX, 1888, 428 ff.). Henry A. Ramsden says that cowrie shells
were used as money during the Shang dynasty ("The Cowry Currency of Ancient
China," The Numismatic and Philatelic Journal of Japan, 11,1913, 161). A number of
other Western numismatists share their opinion. Henry E. Gibson even goes as far as
to allege, "It has been definitely determined that during the Shang period (1766
1122 B. C.) the use of Cypraea shells as a medium of exchange was well established
and actually the money of the period." ("The Use of Cowries as Money During the
Shang and Chou Periods," Jour. N. C. B. Royal Asiat. Soc. LXXI, 194o,33.) But if we
should ask how and when the question "has been definitely determined," Mr.Gibson
may not be able to answer. Copied from one another a belief has become a conviction,
and a conviction a fact.
11 Ku-tai shi-hui yen-chiu (a study of ancient Chinese society), 193o, 3rd print, 251.
13 Pu-tz'H Pung-tsuan, 1934, M ">1.
11 The P'an-keng chapter in the Shang-shu has been accepted as a reliable document
concerning the Shang dynasty by such leading Chinese historians as Wang Kuo-wei
in the past (Ku shih hsin cheng), and Kuo Mo-jo at the present (Shih p'i-p'an shu, 1945,
15). But Creel contends that it is a forgery, and certainly it cannot be regarded as
reliable historical literature. The reasons which Creel lists to prove the document a
forgery are: 1) During the Shang time its capital was called Shang or ta i Shang, "the
In this document, P'an-keng, the Shang king who moved the Shang
capital to Yin (hence Shang is also designated as Yin) on the site of
what is now known as Yin-hsu, reproached his ministers for neglecting
their duties and coveting "cowries and jade." At the end of the
document the king instructs his ministers thus, "You shall not
accumulate the huo and the pao and make profits for your own use."
"Huo" means "money," and "pao" means "treasures." These words
obviously have reference to the "cowries and jade" used in the be-
ginning of the document. Since these objects, or at least one of them,
could yield the profit or income indicated in the words of P'an-keng,
great city Shang," while in the document it is called Yin; 2) In the inscriptions on the
oracle bones the chief Shang deity is the Shang Ti (god on high) while in the document
it is T'ien (Heaven); 3) The style of the writing does not seem to be of Shang origin
because it is smoother than the inscriptions or the authentic books of the Western
Chou period; 4) The document fails to state the reasons why P'an-keng moved his
capital to Yin, a fact which shows the forger to be ignorant of them. (Studies in Early
Chinese Culture, Baltimore, 1937, 6567). Creel's accusations show some legitimate
ground to doubt the writing as a contemporary original document, but they are not
sufficiently strong to prove it a forgery. The factors which led P'an-keng to move his
capital to Yin may have been known to his people, and thus a statement on that point
may have not been necessary. The question of the style, while plausible in one respect,
is uncertain in others. Any comparison of the writing with the terse inscriptions on the
bronze vessels for obvious reasons is inappropriate. Compared with Chou literary
documents its smoothness is very slight, and it is a matter of degree not of substance.
I, for one, cannot be sure if I understand correctly more than half of the document.
Other scholars may not be able to claim much more. Furthermore, in intellectual
training and in cultural life as a whole the Shang people were much superior to the
Chou. It is not unnatural to find better writing by the hands of Shang intellectuals.
Later revisions and copyist changes may have taken place and altered the original
composition somewhat. But revision does not imply forgery. Creel's discussion on the
god of T'ien is based on negative evidence. The Chou people worshipped both Tien
and Shang Ti. The Shang people may have done the same. The phrase which Creel
reads ta i Shang is also written t'ien i Shang in no less than three oracle bone inscrip-
tions. On the name of the capital of P'an-keng, Creel shows that he has not studied
the inscriptions on the oracle bones carefully. In those inscriptions "Shang" or the
"ta i Shang" or "t'ien i Shang" does not refer to the capital in Yin to which P'an-keng
moved but to the older capital of Shang which was what is now called Shang-ch'iu in
eastern Honan (See Tung Tso-pin, Yin li p'u, 1945, Part II, IX, 62f). Shang-ch'iu
was also the capital of the Sung state during the Chou dynasty, and the ruling house
of the Sung state were the descendents of the Shang kings.
they obviously had an economic function beyond their ornamental
value.
The importance attached to cowrie shells by the Shang and their
possible monetary function may also be gathered from certain in-
scriptions on oracle bones, which are of a divinatory character, and
those on bronze vessels, which serve a commemorative purpose. One
oracle bone inscription says:
(Divined) on keng-hsii day, (a personal name) declaring
the query: Grant (one) p'eng of cowries to the mothers
(or wives).15
Another, which is very fragmentary, reads:
Mother (or wife)
ten p'eng (of cowries)
( ) the sons.16
These are divinations for granting cowries. The p'eng is the unit which
will be discussed on another occasion.
A third oracle bone inscription is a divination asking whether cow-
ries would be captured. It reads:
Divined on wu-shen day, (a personal name) declaring
the query: Would there be captured cowries?17
Besides these there are four more fragmentary inscriptions record-
ing the "taking" (or "receiving") of cowries:
1. ... takes cowries.18
2. ... takes one hundred cowries
. .. takes six hundred cowries.19
15 Lo Chen-yii, Yin-hsii shu-ch'i hou-pien (A supplementary collection of the in-
scriptions of the oracle bones found in Yin-hsu), Part II, 8, no. 5.
18 Quoted in Okutaira, Toa senshi, II, 25a.
17 Lo Chen-yii, Yin-hsii shu-ch'i ch'ien-pien (An earlier collection of the inscriptions of
the oracle bones found in Yin-hsii), V, 1o, no. 4.
18 Quoted by Tung Tso-pin in his "An-yang Hou-chia-chuang ch'u-t'u chih chia-ku
wen-tzu" (The oracle bone inscriptions unearthed at Hou-chia-chuang village in
An-yang," Vien-yeh k'ao-ku pao-kao (Journal of Field Archaeology), I (1936), 126.
19 Ibid.
3. ... takes cowries.20
4. Divined on ting-hat day, Kuang takes two p'eng of
cowries, in the first month. Took.21
The meaning of the character ch'ii (to take) in the inscriptions above
quoted is not clear. It may have been used in the sense of "to receive"
as Dr. R. S. Britton has indicated. In a number of the Chou bronze
inscriptions there are found expressions such as "ch'ii (an undecipher-
able monetary appellation) five lieh (a weight or monetary unit),"
"ch'ii ( ) twenty lieh," and "ch'ii ( ) thirty lieh." Those who
take or receive the money (ch'ii) are all ministers of the Chou court.
Kuo Mo-jo regards the expression as denoting that a given minister
takes (or receives) a given amount of money as monthly salary.22
This interpretation is plausible. However, whether the same character
is used in the same sense as it is in the oracle bone inscriptions is hard
to say.
According to Tung Tso-pin, inscription No. 1 belongs to the period
ending 1281 B. C.; No. 2 belongs to the period from 124o to 1227
B. C.; Nos. 3 and 4 belong to the period from 12o9 to 1112 B. C,
which corresponds to the reigns of the last two kings of the Shang
dynasty.23
In the inscriptions of the Shang bronzes we more frequently find
references to grants of cowries to those who had the bronzes made.
There are nine such inscriptions in the Yin wen ts'un (A Collection of
the Yin or Shang bronze inscriptions) and the Hsu Yin wen ts'un
(a supplement to the former work).24 A typical one reads:
On the day ting-mao the king ordered Tsu-tzu to meet
(the chief or representative of) the Kuei state at Hsing.
*> Ibid.
11 Ibid. The translation of this inscription is also found in Britton, Fifty Shang
Inscriptions, 194o, 15.
** Liang Chou chin-wln-tz'H ta-hsi k'ao-shih, I, 57b.
13 Tung Tso-pin, ibid., and Yin li-p'u, Part I, I, 2a.
u The second work may contain some inscriptions belonging to the early Chou, but
that would not affect our case.
Upon his return the king rewarded him with one p'eng
of the cowries which were captured in the expedition
against Yung. For this he (Tsu-tzii) made this tripod in
honor of his father I.25
In some of the inscriptions the number of p'eng granted is not re-
corded, a fact which indicates that the number may be one. The
numbers which are given range from one to ten.
The fact that meritorious ministers of the Shang kings were re-
warded with cowries which evidently served no ornamental purpose
indicates strongly the financial value of the shells.26
In the inscriptions of the Chou bronzes, especially those of the first
three centuries of the dynasty, the use of cowries as rewards and
gifts by kings and nobles to their inferiors is very conspicuous. Of the
162 inscriptions concerning the royal court of Chou, which have been
collected, dated and discussed by Kuo Mo-jo in his Liang Chou chin-
wen-tz'u ta-hsi k'ao-shih, twenty-one contain statements of grants of
cowries as rewards or gifts. The bronze inscriptions on the vessels
classified by him as belonging to the various feudatories are not
included in this count.27 The following are two examples in the
simplest form:
85 Lo Chen-yii, Yin wSn ts'un (A collection of Yin inscriptions), I, 8b, no. 2. Tran-
scriptions of the inscription are also found in Yii Hsing-wu ~J~ ^ ^? Shuang-chien-
ch'ih chi-chin-wSn hsiian, III, Part 1, 4a4b; and Wu K'ai-sheng ^ [^ . Chi-chin
wen lu, I,1ob. Yii Hsing-wu, like some other epigraphers, reads the character for "Kuei"
as hsi or "western." Wu K'ai-sheng reads the character for "Hsing" as hsiang ^g. The
phrase "which were captured in the expedition against Yung" is given by Wu.
26 There is no literary or archaeological evidence which indicates that the male
nobility of the Shang or the Chou dynasty used cowries as personal decorations.
17 Creel reports that he found thirty-three inscriptions of the Chou period in which
"cowries are said to have given, as reward for service or as a mark of esteem, to vassals
by their superiors." (Birth of China, 92). This number should include the twenty-one
inscriptions which have been dated more closely by Kuo Mo-jo and which we have
used in our present study. Creel's number should also include the inscriptions on the
bronzes belonging to the Chou feudatories. Jung Keng Jgt j^j lists fifty-one inscrip-
tions which have the character pei (cowries) (Chin-wen pien, 1939, VI, 13b 14a). In
the bronze inscriptions whenever cowries are mentioned they are always in the form
of a grant. Jung Keng's fifty-one include a few inscriptions of the Shang period.
In the thirteenth month, on the day hsin-mao, the King
was at Han. He granted Ch'ien a fief called (the name of
the fief, undecipherable). He granted [him also] five
p'eng of cowries. In gratitude for the king's favor, he
(Ch'ien) had this Chi precious vessel made.28
When King Ch'eng offered the great Pen sacrifice at
Tsung-chou (capital of Chou), he rewarded Marquis
Hsien, Hsiao, cowries. For this he (Marquis Hsien) had
this Marquis Ting vessel made. Tien-yuan [clan].29
Although the reasons for these grants are not expressed, it is obvious
that they were made in return for some meritorious service by the
beneficiaries. Another inscription on a kuei vessel made by Su indi-
cates that he received cowries and was exempted from further military
service on account of his valor in a campaign against the Eastern
Barbarians.30 A tripod made by Lu bears a record that ten P'eng of
cowries had been bestowed upon him for his contributions in a
campaign against a barbarian people in revolt.31
As to the question whether cowries were used as money during the
Chou time, we have not the slightest doubt. The well informed great
historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien says that they were,32 as do the learned
scholar Hsu Shen (first century A. D.)33 and the authoritative com-
mentator on the Confucian classics, Cheng Hsiian (1272oo).34 In the
original text of the / or the / ching (a book for divination) the loss of
cowries is expressed as the loss of property.35 In a love ode in the Shih
or the Shih ching (a book of odes) a girl sings that after she met her
man he gave her one hundred p'eng as a gift.36 As has been correctly
commented by Cheng Hsiian, the phrase "one hundred p'eng" means
18 Kuo Mo-jo, Liang Chou chin-wSn-tz' u ta-hsi k'ao-shih, I, 15b.
** Kuo Mo-jo, op. cit., 31b. *0 Kuo Mo-jo, op. cit., 23a 23b.
81 Kuo Mo-jo, op. cit., 27a. 8I Shih-chi, XXX, 21a.
38 Shuo-wln chieh-tzii under the character pei J| or cowrie.
84 Shih ching, X, 5a, note. *5 I ching, under the Hsiin ^ divinational diagram.
88 Shih ching, X, 5a.
that many p'Sng of cowries.37 Since the amount of the gift is very
large, it is not likely that the cowries were ornamental objects. In the
Li chi (Book of Rules), another Confucian classic, it is advised that if
an inferior wants to give gold, jade, or "money cowries" to his lord
when the latter is about to go on a trip, it is proper for him to say that
he wishes to present some "horse fare" (traveling fare) to his lord's
attendants.38 The word "money" in the phrase "money cowries" is
huo, which, when used in the Chou literature to denote a gift, may
mean gold, jade, silk, furs or any other valuable. Since in this case
gold and jade, which are also huo for gift, have been specifically
mentioned, the character in the present text can only mean "money"
modifying "cowries."
The use of cowrie shells as money is also corroborated by archaeo-
logical finds. In recent years, large numbers of cowries have been
discovered in the graves of the Chou period. The conditions in which
they were discovered point to the fact that they were money. In a
tomb uncovered in 1923 at Hsin-cheng in central Honan, 317 cowrie
shells were found.39 The excavation was not performed by trained
archaeologists, and therefore exact information is not given; but
according to Kuan Pao-ch'ien, these cowrie shells were found in one
tomb. They were not deposited at the place where the coffin lay, but
in and around a large bronze tripod and a square bronze tsSng vessel
at the southern end of the grave.40 Judging from the large number of
bronze vessels found, the tomb must have contained the bones of a
member of the high nobility. Since cowries occurred in such quantity
to preclude their use as magical objects, and because of their disposi-
tion at a distance from the body, Kuan Pao-ch'ien was led to con-
clude, and rightly so, that these cowries functioned as mortuary gifts,
money to be used by the dead.41
*' Ibid, note. 38 Li-chi chu-shu 1871, XXXV, 3a.
M Chin Yfin-o ||jf jgj fj|, Hsin-cheng ch'u-t'u ku-ch'i Cu-chih hsu-pien (A supple-
mentary illustrated catalogue of the ancient objects unearthed in Hsin-cheng),
1923, 8b.
40 Kuan Pao-ch'ien [J^ $i ^, Hsin-cheng ku-ch'i fu-k'ao (Studies with illustrations
of the ancient objects unearthed in Hsin-cheng), 194o, XI, 2oa 2ob. 41 Ibid.
64
From the spring of 1932 to December, 1933, about a hundred tombs
of the Chou period were found in Chun County in northern Honan,
about forty miles southeast of Yin-hsii. From some of them 3472
cowrie shells were recovered. These cowries, "mostly" deposited
around the burial vessels, were strung together.42 According to Kuo
Pao-chiin, the archaeologist, these were tombs of members of the
ruling house of Wei, ranging in date from its first ancestor, K'ang-shu,
who was enfeoffed in 1113 B. C. (traditional date), to Duke Ch'6ng
(634589 B. C.).43 The earliest datable bronze vessel, a tsun, is said
to have been made by Duke Wu (812758 B. C.).44 Since their
disposition is like that of the shells in the Hsin-cheng tomb (namely,
in or around the burial vessels at a distance from the corpse), we are
inclined to regard them also as money, and the money for the dead is
an imitation of that for the living.
If all this evidence should fail to convince our readers that cowries
were used as money during the Chou period, we offer one more piece
which should be sufficient to rid them of any doubt. This is an
inscription on a bronze tsun vessel. It reads:
Lord of Chii, Yuan, had this precious vessel made. He
used fourteen p*eng of cowries.45
The inscription is probably of early Chou origin.46 No record can be
more definite. Since cowrie shells were used as money by the Chou
42 Kuo Pao-chiin ijfl ^ "Chiin Hsien Hsin-ts'un ts'an-mu chih ch'ing-li," T'ien-
yeh k'ao-ku Pao-kao, I (1936), 193 4.
** Kuo Pao-chiin, op. cit., 200.
44 Sun Hai-po Jf, Chiin-hsien i-ch' i (The bronze vessels recovered in Chiin
County), 1937, 13a14b-
45 Wu Shih-fen ^ ^ ^ (17961856), Chun-hu-lu chin-wSn (A collection of the
ancient inscriptions: the bronze inscriptions), 1895, XXII, 3a. While this scholar
reads the combined characters as "fourteen," other epigraphers read it as "thirteen."
Kuo Mo-jo regards "Chii Po" (Lord of Chii) as the tzX (style) of the person who made
the vessel. He reads "Yuan" as "Huan," which, he thinks, is the name of the person.
(Chin-wSn ts'ung-k'ao, 1933, 106b107a).
44 Wu K'ai-shSng holds this opinion. Chi-chin wen lu, II, 20a.
people and since such usage is recorded on the above cited vessel, a
natural inference is that the cowries mentioned as rewards and gifts
on other bronze vessels may also be considered as money.
So much for the monetary nature of cowrie shells used by the Chou
people as recorded in their bronze inscriptions. Are the cowrie shell
grants recorded in the inscriptions of the Shang dynasty of the same
nature? Our answer is affirmative. These are the reasons. First, a
comparative study of the bronze inscriptions of both the Shang and
the Chou periods in which the grants of cowrie shells are recorded and
of which examples have been quoted above reveals an unmistakable
similarity between the two in the way the cowries were granted, both
in the formulation of the statements of the grants and in their
economic implications. Since the cowrie shells in the Chou inscriptions
are money, those recorded in the Shang inscriptions of similar nature
must be the same.
Secondly, we know that King Wu, conqueror of Shang and founder
of Chou, already made grants of money, as evidenced by the inscrip-
tion on a chih wine vessel which records the courtier Tan as the
recipient of such a gift.47 In view of the fact that the Chou people
were rather backward economically, it does not seem likely that the
founder of this dynasty should have initiated such an advanced
institution as money. Therefore, the use of cowrie shells as money
must have originated in the Shang period.
As we have stated before, the Shang people had already engaged in
trade and carried their business to distant regions. Under those cir-
cumstances, their use of money was not only natural but probably
inevitable. Thus we arrive at the conclusion that the Shang people
used money (of which cowrie shells were one form), and that the
cowrie shells discovered in the Shang remains must have been money
or material to be used as money.48
47 Kuo Mo-jo, Liang Chou chin-wen-tz'u ta-hsi k'ao-shih, 2b.
48 The cowrie shells discovered in the Shang remains are said to be of two types( ?).
One type has its dorsal side ground flat while the other has a hole instead. It is not
known whether the grinding of their dorsal side has any relation with their use as
J Monograph 113
This conclusion does not, of course, exclude the possibility that the
Shang people also used cowries for other purposes. It is almost certain
that they served also as ornamental and magical objects, and it is as
such that they acquired value, which led to their use as money. Most
likely their function as ornamental and magical objects continued long
after other more satisfactory media replaced them as currency.
2. THE SPECIES OF THE COWRIES AND HOW THE ANCIENT
CHINESE OBTAINED THEM
Although cowrie shells have been discovered by the thousands in
Shang remains and Chou tombs, detailed descriptions of them are
regrettingly lacking. Some of the shells discovered between 1928 and
1932 in Yin-hsu are described by Li Chi, the archaeologist, as "salt-
water-shells." Tung Tso-pin, who also took part in the excavations,
has informed the author that some of the cowrie shells found in the
Yin or Shang ruins have their dorsal side ground flat and that others
have been holed only. The Japanese scholar Nishimura Shinji reports
that he possesses a cowrie shell which was originally deposited in a
bronze lei vessel discovered in Yin-hsu. He identifies his shell as of
the species Cypraea moneta. It is 22 mm. in length and 17 mm. in
width. Each of the outer labia on the front has twelve horizontal
nicks. The color of the outside surface seems to have been a lustrous
light yellow. However, most of the enamel part has been worn away.
It has a large hole on its dorsal side, which, as he says, is probably due
to the shell having been ground down to a flattish oval shape.51
The collection of the Museum of The American Numismatic Society
has twenty-four specimens of cowrie shells (cf. Plate I, 13). Of
them twenty are from the collection of Henry A. Ramsden, and four
money or ornamental objects, though Prof. Tung Tso-pin has voiced the opinion that
those with their dorsal sides ground flat were used as money. All the cowrie shells
recovered from the Chou tombs seem to have been ground flat.
49 An-yang fa-chiieh pao-kao, IV (1933), 375.
60 Shinji Nishimura, "Ancient Chinese Coinage and Its Origin," Canton, I (1939),
No. 4, p. 26. 51 ibid.
ire from that of John Reilly, Jr. They are of the species of Cypraea
moneta and Cypraea annulus. The Cypraea moneta has a purple top
on the dorsal side, and the Cypraea annulus has a yellow ring around
the top. The species of those whose dorsal sides have been ground flat
or broken off can be identified by a comparison of their ventral sides.
Three of the four specimens in the collection of Mr. Reilly have been
badly decomposed, their enamel having disappeared altogether. Their
dorsal sides are ground flat. The inside of the shells is filled with aged
earth, a sign of long burial under ground. In size they average
20 mm. in length and 15 mm. in width.
According to Ramsden his twenty specimens formed part of a find
discovered in the neighborhood of Chang-t6-fu, Honan, May, 1913.52
Chang-t6-fu is the modern An-yang, where in Yin-hsii, or the "ruins
of Yin (Shang)," the bronzes and oracle bones of that dynasty were
dug up. If the report is correct, Ramsden's specimens may have come
from the same ancient site. These specimens (cf. Plate I, 1, 3) have
been described and illustrated in Ramsden's article, "The Cowry
Currency of Ancient China," published in the Numismatic and Phila-
telic Journal of Japan in 1913. They are of various sizes. The largest
measures 3o.5 mm. in length, with thirteen horizontal nicks on the
right and twelve on the left of the ventral side. The smallest measures
12 mm. in length with eleven horizontal nicks on the right and twelve
on the left of its ventral side. Six of them have their dorsal side ground
flat. Fourteen others have one or two apertures. The holes on three
are so large that it appears as though the shells had been ground down
to that point. All are discolored, and the surfaces of most of them
are decomposed.
As is generally known, both Cypraea moneta and Cypraea annulus
grow in large numbers in the Indian Ocean and some parts of the
South Seas. Neither species is found in the China seas. In a letter to
the author, Dr. William Ingram, an expert on mollusks, says that the
places nearest to China where cowrie shells are reported to have been
u "The Cowry Currency of Ancient China," The Numismatic and Philatelic Journal of
Japan, II (1913), l&3-
found are the Japan seas in the Japanese Islands, Formosa, the
Hong Kong area, the Cochin coast, the Philippines, and certain areas
on the Malay Peninsula. He adds that they are also reported to have
been found on the China coast, but this is not confirmed. Dr. John
C. Armstrong of the American Museum of Natural History mentioned
to the author the area around the Tizard Banks, the Ryukyus and
Hakodate in Japan as the habitat of the cowries which is nearest to
China, observing that he was skeptical about reports on other places
because they were not made by scientists. Even if reports on these
doubtful localities were reliable, the number of cowrie shells growing
at them cannot have been large.
Some of the cowrie shells found in the Shang and the Chou remains
may have come from any of the places mentioned above. Some may
have been brought from as far as the coast of the Indian Ocean and
the islands off the Indian Peninsula. A passage in the later edition of
the Bamboo Annals (Chin-fen chu-shu-chi-nien) states that in the
first year of King Li of Chou (877842 B. C. in the traditional
chronology) the state of Ch'u in the present Yangtze valley sent
cowries to the Chou court as tribute. Although the passage is found
only in the later edition, there is reason to believe that the record is
reliable.53 Similar payments of which we have no record must have
been made in other years.
63 In the inscription on a p'an vessel made by Hsi-chia (Liang Chou chin-wln-tz'i
ta-hsi k'ao-shih, 143b) and another on a kuei vessel made by Shih Yuan (op. cit.), the
Chou king asserts that natives in the Huai River region who were his subjects offered
him ^. The character, made up of the character po 3 for "white" and pei J| for
"cowrie," is understood by Kuo Mo-jo as the original form of the character pit yftj
(spade coin or cloth) (op. cit., 144a and 148b). But this suggestion is untenable. Since
the character is composed of the character for "white" and the character for "cowrie,"
there is reason to understand it as signifying "white cowrie." The character
might have been coined to differentiate white cowries from cowries (or shells other
than cowries) of variegated colors. Both Cypraea moneta and Cypraea annulus which
have been discovered in the remains of the Shang and the Chou periods are predom-
inantly white. If our suggestion is satisfactory, then "White cowries" must have
been a specified tribute offered by the Huai people to the Chou court.
In the inscription on the kuei vessel made by the head of the Huai state (op. cit.,
147a) it is stated that the chief of a certain conquered state came to the Chou king to
Next to tribute, war booty was probably the main source of cowries
for the court of Chou. A number of bronze vessel inscriptions refer to
"capture of cowries,"54 an event which must have been of some
importance to be commemorated by the casting of a bronze vessel.
While there is no mention of the exact amounts of such loot, it may
be assumed that it was considerable in quantity.
Besides these sources of cowries a third can be reasonably assumed,
ordinary exchange with the people who possessed, or had access to,
them and the amount so acquired by the Chinese may have been
considerable.
3. IMITATIONS OF COWRIE SHELLS
Various materials have been used in making imitations of cowrie
shells. Lo Chen-yii has reported the discovery of bones carved in the
form of cowries in Tz'ii-chou (present day Tz'u County), southern
Hopeh, not far from An-yang.5S According to Hamada Kosaku, Lo
had in his possession forty such specimens found in Hsin-an County,
western Honan, and in T'eng County, southern Shantung, twenty
from each place.56 The American Numismatic Society has thirty
cowrie imitations in its collection, some of which, according to
offer |. Composed of po fe and pei J| (cowrie) the character has been correctly
identified by Kuo Mo-jo and other epigraphers with the character for "white cowries"
discussed above (op. cit., 144a). It is interesting to note that the state which offered ||
as tribute was also situated in the south (in the middle Yangtze River valley). It was
from the south that cowrie shells reached the Chou people.
The practice of exacting cowries from the southern states as tribute seems to have
lasted for a long time. As late as 179 B. C. the Southern Ytieh state in present Kuang-
tung province is recorded to have offered them as tribute to the imperial court of Han
(Han shu, XCV, 28b).
"For examples see Kuo Mo-jo, Liang Chou chin-wSn-t z'uta-hsi k'ao-shih, 25a and 28a.
65 Yung-lu jih-cha (Coole392), photostated., 1oa, and Yin-hsii ku-ch'i-wu t'u-lu (An
illustrated catalogue of objects discovered in Yin-hsii), 1916, the first of the com-
ments attac hed at the end of the catalogue.
s" "Shina kodai no gaika nitsuite" (Regarding the cowrie money in ancient China),
ToyoGakuhdyjiffi |^ ^J, II (1912), 264273.
Ramsden, belong to finds made at Tsinan, capital of Shantung
province, and Chang-t6-fu, the present-day An-yang.57 Ramsden
gives Ying-yang in central Honan below the Yellow River as another
source for some of the pseudo-cowries in this collection.58 Nishimura
Shinji and Okutaira Masahiro also report the discovery of such bone
carvings at Yin-hsu.B9 Both the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities
in Stockholm and Mr. H. E. Gibson possess collections of imitation
cowries whose provenance is unknown.60
According to Lo Chen-yu, a stone substitute of a cowrie shell has
been found in Yin-hsu.61 A number of stone cowrie imitations are
said by Cheng Chia-hsiang62 to have been found in Ho-chien, central
Hopeh, and also probably K'ai-feng, eastern Honan. Gibson reports
that he had a specimen made of "black stone."63 In the collection of
The American Numismatic Society there are three fine stone speci-
mens.
A substitute made of another kind of shell, probably from fresh
water, is said to have been discovered in Yin-hsu, An-yang.63* The
existence of cowrie imitations of such material is reported by Nishi-
mura and Gibson.64 Yin-hsu is also said to have yielded imitations
made of "white marble,"65 which may be identical with some of the
stone imitations reported by other numismatists.
Cowrie imitations in bronze are comparatively rare; The American
Numismatic Society has six specimens and the Museum of Far
Eastern Antiquities has a few.66 They are reported to have been found
67 Ramsden, "Cowry Substitutes Used as Currency in Ancient China," The Numis-
matic and Philatelic Journal of Japan, III (1914), 17. 86 Ibid.
69 Shinji Nishimura, "Ancient Chinese Coinage and its Origin," Canton, I (1939), 4, p. 26.
60 J. G. Andersson, Children of the Yellow Earth, 1934, 323. Gibson, "The Use of
Cowries as Money during the Shang and Chou Periods," Jour. N. C. B. Royal Asiat.
Soc, LXXI (194o), 33 45, Plate C. el Yung-lu jih-cha, 1oa.
62 "Shih-pei erh p'in" (Two specimens of stone imitation of cowries), Ch'iian-pi (The
Chinese Numismatics Bi-monthly), No. 8, 35.
68 Gibson, Ibid. ,3* Yin-hsu ku-ch'i-wu t'u-lu, illustration no. 21.
64 Nishimura, ibid, and Gibson, ibid. "Nishimura, op. cit., 27.
* Andersson, ibid.
at Yin-hsii (An-yang, Honan), Tz'u-chou (Southern Hopeh), Cheng-
chou (southern Honan), and K'ai-feng (central Honan).67
Cheng Chia-hsiang mentions jade imitations on which he gives no
particulars.68 Nishimura mentions imitations of' 'semi-precious stone,"
clay and iron, apparently excavated in Yin-hsii.69 It seems miraculous,
of course, that such small objects of iron can have survived three
thousand years in the soil. Gibson reports that he possessed imitations
made of "a sort of quartz" and of ivory,70 but does not state their
provenance. Articles by Nishimura and Gibson are illustrated with
imitations of "mother-of-pearl," "quartz," "semi-precious stones,"
"ivory," and "shell."
Of all the reported materials from which imitations of cowries have
been made, it is only those of bone, stone, and bronze for which we
can supply exact descriptions. The thirty bone imitations at the
American Numismatic Society (cf. Plate I, 47), originally in the
Ramsden Collection, were described by H. A. Ramsden in his article
"Cowrie Substitutes Used as Currency in Ancient China."70* These
may be divided roughly into three groups as follows:
1. Generally large and thick, the largest being 26 mm.
in length. Somewhat lozenge-shaped. Convex surface.
Roughly carved. One hole, either at center or close to
one end. Horizontal nicks along ventral groove (sixteen
being the largest number) reaching as far as edge of
surface. Reverse side, unpolished. Color, dark green.
2. Average 19 mm. in length. Two holes symmetrically
placed on reverse side. No horizontal nicks along
ventral groove. Reverse, flat and polished. Colors,
yellow and greenish gray.
"For Yin-hsii and Tz'u-chou see Yung-lu jih-cha, 1oa, and Yin-hsii ku-ch'i-wu t'u-lu,
first comment attached at the end of the work. For Cheng-chou and K'ai-feng see
Cheng Chia-hsiang, Chiian-pi, No. 8, 35. See also Okutaira, Toa senshi, II, 77b.
68 Cheng Chia-hsiang, Chiian-pi, No. 8, 35.
68 Nishimura, ibid. Gibson, op. cit., Plate C.
70a The Numismatic and Philatelic Journal of Japan, III (1914), 17.
3. Size about same as second group, largest being
22.5 mm. and smallest 17 mm. in length, but better
carved and finished, and more realistic in imitation
of a real shell. Oval in shape. Convex surface. With
one exception, reverse is flat and polished. Edges
along ventral groove curve slightly in resemblance of
real shell. Horizontal nicks along ventral groove are
short and resemble those of a genuine shell. Two
round holes on reverse side. Colors range from yel-
lowish white to brown, and from dark green to choco-
late; white ones have patches of fresh green, possibly
caused by contact with bronze vessels in which they
may have been deposited.
Belonging to the third group of bone imitations are two found in a
lei vessel which was unearthed at Yin-hsu according to Nishimura.
His detailed observations on them are as follows:
One is nearly symmetrical and forms an oval shape with pointed
ends. Either edge of the deep groove in the center is marked with
thirteen horizontal nicks. The top side is convex and brown, but the
reverse side is flat and smooth and somewhat lighter in color. The
holes at either end together with the central groove probably served
to string the shell to other things. The other imitation is nearly
the same as the first, though a little longer and more slender. Its
lower part is narrower than the upper part. The central groove,
which is marked with oblique nicks on both edges, is also wider at
the upper part. The color is light brown on the reverse side, and the
pale greenish tincture at the base of the right side is probably due
to a saturation of bronze rust. There are two holes in the back.
The latter is on the whole nearer to the real cowrie shell, as it is
23 mm. long, 17 mm. wide and 6 mm. high, while the former is
21 mm., 18 mm. and 5 mm. respectively.71
71 Nishimura, op. cit. 26. His statement that one substitute is nearer to the real cowrie
shell than the others because it is 23 mm. long is not correct. The size of the real shells
yaries considerably. In the collection of The American Museum of Natural History the
Certain cowrie imitations discovered in Peng County in southern
Shantung and described by Hamada Kosaku72 also belong to the
third group, characterized as they are by a realistic resemblance to
real shells. Other specimens reported by the same scholar as discov-
ered at Hsin-an in western Honan are roughly carved and have only
one hole in the back. Because of the hole they may be considered as
belonging to the third group of our classification also.
Summarizing the above descriptions we may outline the character-
istic features of the three groups of the bone imitations of cowries as
follows:
1. Roughly carved, somewhat lozenge-shaped, reverse
not worked, one hole, large size.
2. Also roughly made, nearly oval-shaped, no horizontal
nicks along the ventral groove, two holes, reverse
flat and polished, medium size.
3. Finely and more artistically and realistically carved,
polished on both sides, oval-shaped, two holes, smal-
ler than Type One.
This general classification, however, is not intended to convey the
impression that specimens within one group are the same in every
aspect. As a matter of fact no two specimens have been found exactly
alike in every detail. We group them together on the ground that
their minor variations are comparatively insignificant as against the
main features they share in common.
The three stone imitations at The American Numismatic Society,
all of which are finely carved, measure 25 by 17.5 mm. (Plate I, 8),
22 by 16 mm., and 23 by 17 mm. All are oval in shape with one end
slightly narrower than the other as with the bone imitations of the
third type. The surfaces are carved and polished, while the reverses
are flat. The ventral groove of each runs across the whole surface,
largest specimen of the Cypraea moneta measures 43 mm. long, and the largest of the
C. annulus measures 29 mm. long.
72 Hamada, Toyo Gakuho, II (1912), 264273.
with curved edges resembling those on a real shell. The incised nicks
along the groove are horizontal or nearly so. There are two holes on
the reverse side positioned at the tip of either end. In color, they are
gray with a strong green tinge.
Cheng Chia-hsiang has published illustrations of two stone imita-
tions in his possession, which differ greatly in workmanship. One
appears to be finely carved, resembling very much the re'al shell, like
the specimens at The American Numismatic Society, while the other
is lozenge-shaped, without the central groove, and bears little re-
semblance to a cowrie shell.73 Thus we find that stone imitations vary
considerably in workmanship.
The American Numismatic Society has six bronze imitations, some
of which were originally in the collection of H. A. Ramsden and have
already been described by that numismatist.74 All six are oval in
shape. Excepting on one specimen (Plate II, 1), one end is slightly
narrower than the other (as with the bone and stone imitations). They
are made from thin bronze plate, convex on their top side and concave
on the bottom. Again with only one exception (Plate II, 1) all have
a central groove which, unlike those on bone and stone imitations,
does not reach the ends. One piece (Plate I, 9) lacks horizontal nicks
along the groove, while on two others (cf. Plate I, 1o) the nicks are
distinct. Two pieces (Plate II, 2, 3) show gilt on their top surfaces.
The sixth specimen differs from the others: It is thicker, lacks the
central groove and horizontal nicks, but it has the two holes, one at
either end. The six pieces measure 24.5 by 16 mm., 24 by 16 mm.,
24 by 15 mm., 28 by 17 mm., 23 by 16 mm., and 25 by 18 mm.
Without a single exception, numismatists and historians who have
written about the various imitations of cowries agree that they were
used as money in ancient China, as real cowrie shells had been. They
believed that the substitutes resulted from a shortage in supply of the
real shells. As plausible as this opinion seems, it fails to take into
account one very important factor, the wide difference in value of
73 Cheng Chia-hsiang, Ch'iian-pi, No. 8, 35.
74 Ramsden, The Numismatic and Philetelic Journal of Japan, III (1914), 16.
the materials from which the substitutes were made. Further, even
among substitutes made of the same material there is a considerable
range in quality of workmanship.
Let us consider bone substitutes, as an example. With the sole ex-
ception of Ramsden, who calls them "horn substitutes," all numis-
matists regard them made of bone, but of bone of unknown origin.
Mr. A. G. Goodwin of the American Museum of Natural History in
New York excludes the possibility that they are made of horn, be-
cause the structure of animal horn is not as hard and fine as that of
our bone specimens. He was doubtful they were of a special kind of
bone, for to distinguish one kind of bone from another when cut into
such small pieces is practically impossible, especially for the average
public which would have used them. In the opinion of Dr. Nils Nelson,
also on the Natural History Museum staff, the colors of the bone
imitations may not be original. More likely, they are the result of
chemical reaction set up by contact with other material when buried
underground. The green color was obviously produced by contact
with bronze vessels.
We are thus faced with a question not raised heretofore. If the
material of these imitations is ordinary bone, they could have been
carved in great quantity without difficulty, and obviously they could
not have been accepted as equal in value to the real imported shells.
This would hold true in greater degree for imitations of such an
inferior material as stone. It seems more likely that bone and stone
substitutes for cowries were used either as burial money, asornaments,
or as magic objects by those who could not afford the real shells.
If substitutes had been used as money, they could not all have been
in circulation simultaneously with real shells, for they could not have
been regarded as equivalent to them. Adding to bone and stone
substitutes those made of mother-of-pearl, jade and quartz, the situa-
tion is more complex still. In fact, it is so complex, that it is incon-
ceivable they were all used as money, unless we assume that during
the Shang and early Chou period there existed a complicated mone-
tary system in which the real cowrie and each variety of its substitutes
had specific comparative values and definite rates of exchange. Such
a condition, however, postulates a highly centralized governmental
authority with full power both to issue and rigidly control money.
Whether the courts of Shang and Chou had such power is a question.
It was probably on account of these difficulties that Lo Ch6n-yu
advanced the idea that substitutes were money of different times!
According to him, the shell substitutes made probably of mother-of-
pearl appeared first, and the substitutes made of bone and copper, the
latter being the forerunner of the so-called / pi ch'ien or "Ant nose
money," followed successively.75 However, his chronological order
does not include the substitutes made of other materials, and he is
silent on the point whether the appearance of a new substitute means
the replacement of the old. Like other numismatists, Lo Chen-yii also
overlooked the problem of the relationship of the various imitations
to the real shells, which remained in use throughout the entire period
in which imitations were made. Lo's opinion is no more than a hypo-
thesis which may prove untenable in the future. However, one of his
points is worth noting, that the copper cowrie substitute is the fore-
runner of the so-called Ant Nose Money.
4. THE I PI CH'IEN (ANT NOSE MONEY)
Plate II, 46
The / Pi ChHen (ant nose money), also known as Kuei-lien chHen
(ghost face money) or Kuei-fou ch'ien (ghost head money), seems to
be true metallic coinage.76 Inclusion of it in the present section on
non-metallic currencies is warranted only by the fact that this type of
coin is the last of the imitations of the cowrie shell.
Ant nose money was never mentioned by Chinese historians until
certain specimens discovered during the Sung dynasty came to the
76 The first of comments appended in Yin-hsii ku-ch'i-wu t'u-lu.
"Ever since their discovery in the 12th century these small bronze objects, generally
known today as "ant nose money," have been regarded as money by numismatists
and historians. Although this assumption lacks confirmation in the literary sources
and corroboration by evidence other than the objects themselves, it appears plausible
notice of numismatists of that time. Its resemblance to the cowrie
shell was recognized by Li Tso-hsien" in 1874, and this point, spread
by Lo Chdn-yu, became accepted by practically all numismatists. It
was Hung Tsun, author of Ch'uan chih (Coin Catalogue), who, in his
introductory section, first considered it to. be real coinage. We learn
from him that the term I pi Mien had become a popular designation
for this money as early as the twelfth century.
The original meaning of the term, / pi ch'ien, is not known exactly.
Ma Ang regards it as signifying "ant and nose money," not as "ant-
nose money" as understood by many. It is his opinion that "ant"
comes from the pictoral impression of the legend -| which looks like
an ant and which appears on one group. "Nose" comes from that part
of the legend ^ which looks like a human nose and which appears
on another group.78 So far, this is the best interpretation, and may
well be true. However, neither of these two terms was the original
nomenclature, nor, strictly speaking, are they designations for this
type of money.
The term "ghost face money" is not difficult to explain. The legend
jf, mentioned above, appearing on an oval convex bronze piece, has a
strong likeness to a caricature of the human face of a kind that often
strikes the Chinese as a representation of a being of the other world.
The term "ghost head money" can be explained in the same manner.
Since Hung Tsun's time, more varieties have been discovered.
and acceptable. Kuei Fu g^ (173618o5), a famous philologist, disagreed. He
read the legend on one group of this type of money as hun-tien-shui (discussed below,
p. 78), and from this reading he inferred that these objects were buried to pacify
water (quotations from him are found in the Encyclopedia of Old Coins, II, 19a 19b).
As we have pointed out, his reading of the legend is not acceptable, and therefore his
suggestion concerning the function of these objects, inferred from the reading, must be
discarded. Reading the legend on another group of this type of money as ssii jjfjfc,
meaning "a grave" or "to dig a grave," Ch'u Shang-ling arrives at the conclusion that
they were used in ancient times to be buried with the dead to ward off ants (Chi chin
so-chien lu, Coole, 9, XVI, 6b.). However, both his decipherment of the legend on the
objects and his explanation of their function are untenable.
"Li Tso-hsien, Hsu ch'uan shuo, ed. by Pao K'ang (Coole, 2o2), 1874, 8b.
78 Huo pu wSn-tzii Wao (Coole, 222), 1924, 2nd reprint, IV, 2ob.
78
Some bear the legend chiin fa, some hsing ft, some chin f"( and some
-ft, this last being undecipherable. Ch'u Shang-ling quotes Liu Shih-
lu, a noted numismatist, as having reported a seventh variety whose
legend reads t'ao P^l,79 of which we have seen neither an actual
specimen nor an illustration.
Of the six known varieties, the legends of three are easily recog-
nizable. They are mentioned above as chiin, hsing and chin, meaning
in modern nomenclature "lord," "go," and "metal" respectively. The
decipherment of ttf as "t* VC (shih-huo) meaning "ten huo" is unac-
ceptable, because the character supposed to be huo does not agree
with the forms of this character in other coin inscriptions or in the
inscriptions on bronzes of the Chou period, when these coins are said
to have circulated.
For the legends of and \ various decipherments have been
suggested. Numismatists have read the first one as chin # (name of a
state), or k'u 91 (weep), or tang-pan-liang Is W (equal to half
ounce), or hun-tien-shui # HI 7K (to pacify water), or pei Jl
(cowrie), or chi % (small). For the second legend there are the
suggestions of ssu (a grave), tang-kuo-liu-chu 1b & 7^ ^ (each
equal to sixchu), yu-t'u-chih-pen ^ i 3l ^ (the basis for possessing the
land), and lo-i-chu & ($}.) (one chu of the city of Lo). It is not
necessary to repeat the reasons for which these decipherments have
been made. It seems equally unnecessary to dwell on the reasons why
they are unsound. We may state, in short, that none of them are
epigraphically or philologically sound. Of all of these readings, chin
for and "one chu of Lo" for -| are regarded as the best. Judging
from the way the inscriptions on the knife, the spade, and the Yiian-
chin coins are made, seems to be a mint name or a serial character.
This lends weight to its decipherment as chin. But this decipherment
not only meets difficulties in ancient epigraphy, but also does not
agree with the fact that this type of money has never been discovered
in the territory of the state with this name. Nor is there a town or
"Chi chin so-chien lu, XVI, 6b. Also quoted by Kao Huan-wen ^ (Encyclo-
pedia of Old Coins, II, 19a) and Lo Chen-yii (Yung-lu jih-cha, 10a).
Cowries and their Imitations
79
city with the name which is nearby places where they have been
found.
The reading "one chu of Lo" does seem convincing, but epigraphi-
cally such a reading is unpermissible. What is supposed to be the
lower component part {k'ou meaning "mouth") in the character lo is
actually the outline of the hole of the coin. Even if it were a part of
the character, it could not be read as the character for "mouth."
"Mouth" in this form is not found in inscriptions on coins or bronzes
of the Chou period.
The main features of this type of money have been described by
Ramsden,80 whose collection forms part of the collection at The
American Numismatic Society. The Society has 121 specimens, all of
which are of bronze, though some of them have been so oxidized that
they appear to be of some kind of stone. They are oval in shape, their
observes being convex and reverses flat. All have a hole at one end,
though on some the hole does not go completely through. The tip
with the hole is slightly narrower, reminiscent of the physical appear-
ance of the cowrie shell. The weights in grams of fifteen specimens in
fairly good preservation are as follows: 3.03, 2.60, 2.62, 3.04,; 2.70
3-15. 3-o5. 2.81,1.78,1.42,1.40,1.98, 4.30,4.42, 3.72.
The provenance of ant nose money is widely spread. The best known
finds are those made at the Ch'i-ssu-li village in Ku-shih County in
southeastern Honan.81 Ch'u Shang-ling reports that in 1783 several
thousands were unearthed during the digging of a canal in Shih-ku-
t'an in Chiang-ning (modern Nanking).82 Liu Yen-t'ing is quoted as
80 "Ant's Nose Money," The Numismatic and Philatelic Journal of Japan, III (1914),
139140, 165166.
81 This is said by a few numismatists to have been recorded in the Ku-shih hsien-chih
(Local gazetteer of Ku-shih County). See Encyclopaedia of Old Coins, II, 19a and 19b.
Chu Feng ^ ^JJ, author of the Ku-chin tai-wSn hsu-lu (Coole 255), has also made a
statement to the same effect (Encyclopaedia of Old Coins, II, 18b). We have examined
the 1786 and 1942 editions of the gazetteer and failed to find the record. As Chinese
local gazetteers vary from one edition to another, it is quite possible that the discovery
of the Ant Nose Money in Ku-shih is recorded in other editions and not in the two
consulted. 82 ch'u shang-ling, Chi chin so-chien lu, XVI, 6a -6b.
8o Early Chinese Coinage
saying that ant nose money was also found in Ch'ang-an (modern
Sian) in Shensi.83 Ch'in Pao-tsan records that some were found in a
bronze chileh vessel unearthed outside of the city wall of Suchou
(Pung-shan being its modern official name) in northern Kiangsu.84
Ma Ang states that some have been seen in Szechuan.85 Kao Huan-
wen reports that thousands of them were discovered during railway
construction in Honan.86 Since his book was published in 19o8, the
railway must have been the Peiping-Hankow line which cuts through
the central part of Honan Province in a north-south direction. How-
ever, the exact location of the site is not known. The most recent
discovery reported was made in 1936 in Shou-chou, officially Shou
County, in central Anhui Province. It consisted of about one hundred
and twenty or thirty pieces stuck together in an almost unbreakable
mass. A few pieces which were successfully broken off are reported
to bear the legend 5f -87
A study of their provenance reveals an interesting point, that,
except for their discovery in Ch'ang-an and Szechuan, the reports of
which are based on hearsay and consequently doubtful, ant nose
money has been found at places well within the territory of the state
of Ch'u of the Chan-kuo period (4o3221 B. C.). Ku-shih is situated
in the central area of the old state, and Shou-chou, then called Shou-
ch'un, was its capital from 241 to 223 B. C. Suchou is the "eastern"
part and Chiang-ning was in the "southern" part of the state. This
suggests the possibility that ant nose money may have been a cur-
rency of the state of Ch'u.88
88 Hu K'un j^ ]||, Ch'ang-an huo-ku pien (A catalogue of old objects obtained in
Ch'ang-an), prefaced 1914, Preface.
84 Ch'in Pao-tsan |f ^ $, I-hsia lu (Coole 226), 19o3, III, Part 2, 2a2b.
86 Ma Ang, Huo pu wen-tzii k'ao. 86 Encyclopaedia of Old Coins, II, 19a.
87 Hamada Kosaku ^ |JJ ^ ^, Kokogaku kenkyu, Tokyo, 194o, 429433.
88 Even if the reports of the discovery of ant nose money in Ch'ang-an and Szechuan,
which were outside of the old state of Ch'u, were reliable, they would not necessarily
alter this assumption. The area of Ch'ang-an during the latter part of the Chou period
was in the territory of the state of Ch'in, which bordered on Ch'u on its southeast, and
had close relations with the latter. Szechuan, called Pa and Shu at that time, before it
The attribution of this money to the state of Ch'u has been suggest-
ed previously, though the suggestion was not based on a complete
study of its provenance. Chu Feng apparently reports the first dis-
covery of "ant nose money" in Ku-shih, and he seems also to have
first advanced the opinion that it was issued by King Chuang (613
591 B. C.) of the Ch'u state.89 A popular belief recorded in the Ku-
shih County Gazette says that the money was made by Sun Shu-ao,
King Chuang's chief minister.90 Both of these assertions originated
from a statement in the Shih-chi to the effect that King Chuang re-
garded the money in circulation as too "light" and attempted to coin
"big ones" to replace the "small (light) ones." This monetary reform
aroused resentment among his people. On the advice of Sun Shu-ao,
his minister, the king abandoned his reform and allowed the "small
ones" to continue to circulate.91 Chu Feng and the numismatists who
follow his opinion obviously hold that the "ant nose money" must be
the "small" coins referred to in the above story. There is no way,
however, to prove that this identification is correct. Even if it were,
the money could not have been issued by King Chuang or Sun Shu-ao,
because, as the Shih-chi text shows, at the time when King Chuang
became the king and Sun Shu-ao his minister, the "small ones" were
already in circulation.
The money is not recorded in literary sources. The style of their
legends, such as the chin and the chiin, suggests the possibility of
their being late in date. The discovery of the money together with
the round coin of the late Chan-kuo period, as reported by Ch'in Pao-
tsan, tends to confirm this possibility. According to Ch'in Pao-tsan92
was conquered by Ch'in in 316 B. C. seems to have been under the domination of
Ch'u. In this case, too, close relationship between these two areas can be assumed.
Therefore, discovery of money of Ch'u in these two areas is not a matter of impossibility.
81 Chu Feng, Ku-chin tai-wen hsii hi, quoted in Encyclopaedia of Old Coins II, 18b.
50 See Encyclopaedia of Old Coins II, 19a. Terrien de Lacouperie follows this inter-
pretation. See his "The Metallic Cowries of Ancient China," Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society, N. S. XX (1888), 428 439.
81 Shih-chi, CXIX, 1b.
** Ch'in Pao-tsan, op. cit., Ill, Part 2, 2a 2b and VIII, Part 1, 1a 2b.
6 Monograph 113
sometime toward the close of the nineteenth century, a bronze chikh
vessel was unearthed outside of the south city wall of Suchou. A
round coin and several specimens of "ant nose money" were found in
the vessel. The round coin has a square central hole and no rim on its
outer circumference, and in illustration measures 28 mm. in diameter.
It bears a legend which reads chung shih-erh chu or "Weight, twelve
chu," chu being the smallest unit of weight in the coinage of the time.
This coin belongs to the very last type of round coin of the third
century B. C. and is the direct forerunner of the Pan-liang coin of
Ch'in issued after Ch'in unified China in 221 B. C. "Twelve chu" and
"pan-liang" (1 liang equal to 24 chu) were different expressions com-
mon at that time for the same weight. Since the "ant nose money"
was found together with this round coin, it seems to have been in
circulation as late as the late third century B. C. The weight of the
"twelve chu coin" is about n grams, a weight derived from that of
the Pan-liang coin of Ch'in. Judging from the fact that in early
coinage money was still largely a commodity rather than a token, and
weight was still a criterion for its value, the light-weight "ant nose
money" must have been an auxiliary currency to supplement the
round coin in business transactions.
To summarize our observations we may say that the "ant nose
money" seems to have been a currency of the state of Ch'u. The date of
its first appearance is unknown, but it was likely still in circulation
in the late third century B. C. In all probability it was an auxiliary
metal currency supplementing the Yiian-chin of that state.93 During
the Chan-kuo period the territory of Ch'u expanded greatly to the
north and northeast, annexing much of the territory where the spade
coin, and the round coin which succeeded the spade, were the main
currency. The conquest of this territory by Ch'u was, by natural
assumption, followed by the introduction of the Ch'u money. Hence
the discovery "of the "ant nose money" together with non-Ch'u
money (i. e., the round coin) in an originally non-Ch'u territory (con-
83 For the Yiian-chin coins of Ch'u see Chapter VI.
quered by Ch'u in 261 B. C.). In the newly incorporated territory the
money must have been used as an auxiliary currency, as it had been
in its home domain.
5. PENG, THE MEASURE OF COWRIES
The unit for measuring quantities of cowrie shells as money was the
feng flfl whenever a unit was given. The only exceptions are in the
inscriptions on an oracle bone cited above (p. 59) and on a Shang bronze
vessel,94 which record grants of "one hundred" and "six hundred" in
one case and "two hundred" in another, as well as one Chou bronze
inscription in which the cowries are reckoned by the lieh.95 The lieh is a
monetary unit which will be discussed later (see pp. 2o7211).
In inscriptions on oracle bones, the pictograph of the character
feng is written AorA.On both Shang and Chou bronzes the latter
form prevails with only minor variations in a few cases. The first
form of the pictograph resembles a string of cowrie shells bent at the
middle; it may well have derived from a necklace or other article of
adornment which was made up of cowrie shells. It is presumed that
when cowries came to be used as money, the unit in which they were
reckoned as a medium of exchange was based on the original form in
which they were used as ornaments.
Of the two forms of the character, f\ is probably the original. The
difference between the two must have been caused by the fact that
inscriptions on oracle bones are incised. When making an incision, a
straight line is much easier to execute than a curved one. Hitherto
scholars have held that the character p'eng resembles two strings of
cowries, hence the English rendering of the term as "double string"
by Western scholars.96 The character can be viewed as composed of
"Wu Ta-ch'eng ^ fc $j(, K'S-chai chi-ku-lu (A collection of the ancient inscriptions
of the K>e-chai), 1896, VII, 4.
95 Kno Mo-jo, Liang Chou chin-wln-tz'ii ta-hsi k'ao-shih, 1935, I, 6ob.
M Such as Creel (Birth of China, 92) and Gibson ("Cowries as Money during the Shang
and Chou Periods," Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,
LXXI (194o), 4o). Dr. R. S. Britton renders p'eng as "rope" as in the English
expression, a "rope" of pearls. {Fifty Shang Inscriptions, 194o, 15).
6*
two strings, but a more realistic hypothesis is that the "double string"
is a single string curved at the middle with its pendent ends equal in
length and with each end bearing an equal number of cowries.
In a purely imaginative interpretation, H. E. Gibson traces the
origin of the character to the way cowrie shells were supposed to have
been carried during the Shang and Chou periods. As reconstructed by
him, they were strung on two cords each having ten shells. The two
cords of cowries were then attached to the two ends of a stick held by
hand in the middle.97 This reconstructed picture of the way cowries
were carried appears rather unrealistic; and it is obviously based on
a notion derived from the later form of the character p'eng rather than
from the original.
Earlier than Gibson, L. Wieger made the statement that "The
cowries, current money of old China, are offered strung up, often in
great quantities, as much as a man can carry with a pole."98 Hence
his rendering of p'eng as "man-load."99 Although H. F. Bowker holds
that Wieger's views should not be ignored,100 we feel they are worth
little serious consideration.
The use of the p'eng, rather than numbers, to measure cowries,
strongly supports the theory that they were used as money during the
Shang period. It is entirely unlikely that a set number of pieces should
have become stipulated for such an ornament as a necklace. On the
other hand, a real need to measure exact numbers of cowries would
be present when they were being used as currency.
There are controversial opinions on the number of cowries constitut-
ing a p'eng. Commenting on a Chou ode which recounts a gift of one
hundred p'eng of cowries, Cheng Hsuan (1272oo A. D.) renders the
number as five.101 Wang Kuo-wei rejects this number as inacceptable
and on the basis of other literary evidence concludes that one p'eng
"Gibson, Jour. N. C. B. Royal Asiat. Soc, LXXI (194o), Plate VI.
M L. Wieger, Chinese Characters, their Origin, Etymology, History, Classification ani
Signification, 2nd print, 1927, 365. M Op. cit., 377.
100 H. F. Bowker, "Cowries as Money," The Coin Collector's Journal, X (1943), 92-
101 Shih ching, X, 5a, note.
was made up of ten cowries, five on each string (correctly, on each end
of the string). He regards Ch6ng Hsiian's number of five as being the
amount on one end of the string, not the total number on both ends
which constitute a complete p'eng.102 Kuo Mo-jo holds approximately
the same opinion. He differs from Wang Kuo-wei only on the number
in a p'eng when cowries were originally used as ornaments. At that
time, he contends, one p'eng may have been made up of two, three or
five. But he is inclined to accept Wang Kuo-wei's number of ten for
the p'eng as the unit of cowrie shells after they had been used as
money.103 On the whole, Kuo Mo-jo's suggestion is very plausible. The
ping as a form of the cowrie necklace or the like must be distinguished
from the p'eng as the unit of the cowrie money. As Kuo Mo-jo has
pointed out, in the former case a definite number in a p'eng is not
essential, while in the latter case it is mandatory.
So far the discussion of the p'eng as the monetary unit of cowrie
shells has overlooked one point which may be of some importance;
that is, the standard size or weight of the ten pieces which made up the
unit. Creel is of the opinion that, "These little shells are very much
alike and there is every indication that one of them had the same
value as another."104 With this assertion he declares, "A string of
cowries, containing a fixed number, was a string of cowries."105 How-
ever, as we have already noted, the cowries excavated in China now
in the possession of The American Numismatic Society vary in size.
Those recovered from the Chou tombs in Hsin-ch6ng, as reported by
Chin Yun-o, are also of different sizes. "The largest are more than one
inch (Chinese) long, while the smallest are less than one inch."106
Further, "big cowries" (ta pet) are mentioned in one bronze inscrip-
m Wang Kuo-wei 3E H3 & (l8771Q27)> Kuan-t'ang chi-lin, in Wang-chung-chHao-
kung i-shu, III, 17b18a.
103 Kuo Mo-jo, Chia-ku.wen-tziiyen-chiu (Studies of the oracle bone inscriptions), 1931,
I, section 1o, "Shih P'Sng."
104 Creel, Birth of China, 92. 106 Ibid.
106 Chin Yiin-o J|Jf |& fj|, Hsin-chSng ch'u-t'u ku-ch'i t'u-chih hsii-pien (A supple-
mentary illustrated catalogue of the ancient wares unearthed in Hsin-cheng), 1923,
illustration and note on cowries.
tion.107 The American Museum of Natural History in New York City
has in its collection a large number of the Cypraea moneta and C.
annulus to which species the money cowries of ancient China belong.
The largest of the former species is 43 mm. in length, and of the latter
species 29 mm. The smallest specimens in both cases are less than
16 mm. It seems naive to assume that the ancient Chinese had
regarded the cowrie shells of different sizes as of equal value. In
9 A. D. when the reformist emperor Wang Mang formulated his
monetary system, which was intentionally modelled on the Chou
tradition as he understood it, he proclaimed cowrie shells to be money
too. His shell money was of four classes according to their size. The
larger the size, the larger the value. The first class was o.48 chHh or
foot (11o mm.) long and over, the second class was o.36 (82.8 mm.)
and over, the third class was o.24 (55.2 mm.) and over, and the fourth
class was o.12 (27.6 mm.). Those shorter than o.o6 (13.8 mm.) were
not to be taken as money. In terms of the copper cash in circulation
at the time, the values of the four classes of the cowrie shells were 216,
5o, 3o, and 1o respectively.108 How much the WangMang system does
reflect the old Chou traditions it is hard to say. But we may safely
assume that during the Shang and the Chou periods one feng of large
cowries must have been worth more than one pêng of the smaller
ones. The value of cowries as money presumably originated in their
value as ornamental objects. As such the larger ones certainly are
more attractive to the eye, and, if any magical effect was ascribed to
them, the larger shells must have been deemed more powerful.
As to the actual values of cowries during the Shang and Chou times
we have no information except for the cost of the tsun vessel made
by Yuan, Lord of Chii. As noted above, the making of the vessel cost
the noble fourteen p'eng of cowries. From the style of the expression
of the inscription on the vessel, part of which reads, "Used ten p'Sng
and four p'eng of cowries," Wu K'ai-sheng regards it as of an early
origin, similar to that on the known Shang bronzes. If it had been
107 Yu Hsing-wu, op. cit. Ill, Part 1, 5a.
"8 Pan Ku $| gf| (32 -92), Han shu, XXIV, Part 2, 12b -13a.
later in origin, the part of the inscription quoted above would have
been written as "Used ten and four p'eng of cowries."109 If his judg-
ment is correct, as we think it probably is, the vessel may be one of
late Shang or early Chou.
Unfortunately, the present whereabouts of the vessel is not known.
This deprives us of an important source of information from which
we might have learned the approximate value of the cowries in
Chinese antiquity. In his recent work, The Bronzes of Shang and Chou,
Jung Keng lists six tsun for the Shang period and two for early Chou.
They vary in size, ornamentation and probably also craftmanship.
The largest is 1.21 Chinese feet high while the smallest is only o.55.110
Although the exact value of cowries cannot be known, a general
idea of their worth may be gathered from an examination of the
bronze inscriptions in which grants of them are recorded. It is a well-
known fact that no grant larger than ten p'Sng is recorded in the
inscriptions of the preserved Shang bronzes. The situation during the
first 12o years of the Chou period is the same. Only from King Mu
(trad. 1oo1952 B. C.) on, larger grants appear. The smallness of the
amount of the grants is an indication of the rarity and dearness of
cowrie shells at the time. In the inscription of the kuei vessel made by
Ling during the reign of King Wu,m the founder of Chou as a dynasty,
Ling was granted ten p'eng of cowries together with "ten families of
ch'en (subjects) and one hundred li (slaves)." The grant of such a
small amount as ten p'eng together with the grant of a large number
of "subjects" and "slaves" indicates also the high value of the shells.
The inscription on the tsun vessel made by Ch'ien during the reign of
King Ch'gng,112 son of King Wu, records that Ch'ien was granted five
p'eng of cowries on the occasion when he had a fief bestowed upon
109 Wu K'ai-sheng ^ |g] ^, Chi-chin wSn In (A collection of bronze inscriptions with
comments), prefaced 1932, II, 2oa.
110 Jung Keng, Shang Chou i-ch'i t'ung-k'ao (The Bronzes of Shang and Chou), Pei-
ping, 1941, I, 429-431.
111 According to Kuo Mo-jo, Liang Chou chin-wn-tz"k ta-hii k'ao-shih, I, 3 b.
112 According to Kuo Mo-jo, op. cit., I, 15 b.
him. The inscription on a kuei vessel made by Su during the reign of
the same king113 records that Su was exempted from further military
service and granted "cowries" for his contribution in the campaign
against the Eastern Barbarians. However, the number of p>eng in the
grant is not specified. Another minister who was exempted from
military service is recorded in the inscription on a ting made by
Keng-ying during the reign of King K'ang (trad. 1o781o53 B.C.).114
It is also recorded that in addition to that great favor Keng-ying was
granted ten p'eng of cowries. Considering the circumstances under
which the grants were made and the fact that the grants, however
small in amount, were rewards to highly placed personages who had
performed meritorious deeds, five or ten p'eng of cowries must have
been something which could match the dignity of both the benefactors
and the beneficiaries. Since the cowrie shells were still of considerable
value even during early Chou, the generals who captured them in their
military campaigns thought the event significant enough to cast
bronze vessels in commemoration of the feat.115
In the course of time, the Chinese empire of the Chou period ex-
tended its borders further to the south and the southeast. This brought
the Chou people closer to the areas where cowries were produced and
to the sea coasts whence they were obtained. As a result their import
and their supplies of the shells increased. This may account for the
grants of cowries in larger amounts of thirty, fifty and one hundred
p'eng as recorded in inscriptions of Chou bronzes from the tenth
century on. The increase in the amount of reward as the result in the
increase in supplies foreshadowed the gradual decrease in the value of
the shells. The trend of decrease in value was likely to have continued.
Therefore, at the beginning of our era, or in 9 A. D. to be specific, the
official value for a shell of the size of, or smaller than, 13.8 mm. in
length was worth only three of the "Small Coins" then in circulation.
One of the size of, or larger than, 11o mm. in length was worth no
113 According to Kuo Mo-jo, op. cit., I, 23a24a.
114 According to Kuo Mo-jo, op. cit., I, 43b.
116 For a few examples see Kuo Mo-jo, op. cit., I, 25a and 28a.
more than 1o8.116 Four well preserved specimens of the "Small Coins"
chosen, from the collection of The American Numismatic Society
measure 15 mm. in diameter and 1.5 mm. in thickness. Their weights
range from 1.34 to o.98 grams. The comparison of the size and
weight of the "Small Coins" with the official value of the cowrie shell
will give an idea of the worth of the shells in 9 A. D.
" Pan Ku, ibid.
IV. THE SPADE COINAGE
I. THE ORIGIN OF SPADE COINAGE
The earliest Chinese coins recorded in ancient literature of which
specimens are preserved are the ftu Û (spade) and the too 7J (knife).1
The general belief is that the shape of the pu coin is derived from that
of an ancient agricultural tool, which had probably already been in
use as a medium of exchange.
Discoveries are known of agricultural implements of a shape
similar to that of the pu coin. Kuroda Kanichi reports the discovery
of a bronze agricultural tool (Plate II, 7), hereafter designated as
Tool Kuroda, in Cheng-chou, Honan.2 He calls it a "bronze fao," but
identifies it with the chHen. Obviously he regards chHen and fao as
two names for the same tool. The Tool Kuroda has a socket which
extends onto the blade a third of its total length. A ridge runs down
the middle of the lower part of the socket to the center of the blade.
The upper part or the shoulders of the blade is narrow and rounded
while its foot or cutting edge is broad and angular. Kuroda specifi-
cally notes that the cutting edge of the blade shows traces of having
been used (in weeding or digging).3 Converted into millimeters the
measurements he gives for the tool are: length, 181.8; width of blade,
9o.9; and thickness, 3.636. It weighs 97 Japanese ryo, or 363.75 grams.
Kuroda further observes that it is 21.21 mm. longer than the largest
spade coins illustrated in Ku ch'uan hut*
In the collection of The American Numismatic Society there is an
ancient Chinese farming tool (Plate III), hereafter designated as
1 Yiian-chin or "metal plate," the money of the state of Ch'u during the Chou
dynasty, is not recorded in historical literature. For discussion of Yiian-chin, see
pp. 180186.
a Kuroda Kanichi i& |J] jji , "Shudainokinzokukaheinitsuite," (Coole JM-1o,o.),
Kokogaku zasshi jif-fe ^ $ f, XVI (1926), 138. * Op. cit. 139. 4 Ibid.
9o
The Spade Coinage 91
Tool ANS. It is of bronze and is entirely covered with an aged patina.
It also has a socket obviously to accommodate a wooden handle. Like
that of Tool Kuroda the socket extends onto the blade and reaches as
far as a third of its length. A vertical ridge runs in the center connect-
ing the socket and the blade. Judging from the fact that the ridge
starts where the hole of the socket ends, the ridge must have been
made for reinforcing the handle. Like the Tool Kuroda, ours also has
a hole through the socket, which is triangular in shape and completely
pierces it. As suggested by Mr. William L. Clark, Curator of Mediaeval
and Modern Coins at The American Numismatic Society, this hole
may have been prepared for the insertion of a metal wedge, a wooden
pin, a thread, or leather strap to secure the wooden handle in the
socket.
On the whole the tool appears rectangular. Its shoulders are square
and thick, while its cutting edge is much thinner and somewhat
rounded in shape. This must have been the result of long use, which
is indicated by the fact that one side of the cutting edge has been
"worn off much more than the other. The measurements of the tool in
millimeters are as follows: length, 123; shoulder width, 84; foot width,
85; thickness of shoulder, 3.5; thickness at foot, o.5.
Nishimura Shinji4* has illustrated two farming tools, which, he
says, were "excavated in China." One of these is similar in shape to
Tool Kuroda, the other (Plate II, 8) hereafter designated as Tool
Nishimura, which is longer, has slightly raised shoulders and a
curved cutting edge which is slightly concave. The details of its
surface are not clear in the reproduction. There appears to be a
socket, though the outlines of that part of the blade are blurred. In
all probability its structural features may be the same as those of
Tool Kuroda and Tool ANS. Unfortunately, Nishimura does not
furnish informative details, nor does he give measurements. In shape
it differs markedly from both Tool Kuroda and Tool ANS in that its
shoulders are raised and its cutting edge is concave. Although it
41 Nishimura Shinji, "Ancient Chinese Coinage and its Origin," Canton, Vol. I,
<1939) 34-
probably performed the same function as the other tools, it must be
a variety from another locality and for that reason, might have a
different or local name.
A comparison of the early types of the spade coins with these two
types of the ancient agricultural tools reveals a striking resemblance
between the money and the implement. The Ku ch'iian hui has a few
wood block illustrations from drawings of the early spade coins, which
are supposedly reproduced in original size. In volume yuan, pp. 12a
and 13a13b, there are two specimens (we shall designate them as
specimens A and B respectively) which are not inscribed, a sign of
early origin. As illustrated, both have a socket, which, like that on the
tool, extends onto the blade and reaches about a third of the blade's
length. The width of the shoulders is slightly narrower than that of
the foot. The following are their measurements:
Specimen A
Specimen B
Total length
158 mm.
135 mm.
Shoulder width
79
71-5
Foot width
93
84
Socket above shoulder 33
31
Specimen A resembles very much the "prototype spade coin"
which was reported in the possession of the Imperial Museum of
Japan and is illustrated by Irita Seizo in his article dealing with the
origin of the shapes of spade and knife coins.5 (A reproduction of the
illustration is found on Plate V, 1). The design of this "prototype
spade coin" resembles the features of the ancient tool in every detail.
Its measurements, converted into millimeters are: total length,
16o.59; shoulder width, 83.931; foot width, 98.475. Its socket (handle)
is short, a feature in which it strongly resembles Specimen A. It differs
from the latter only in the fact that the edges of the two sides of the
blade curve inward and flare out slightly at the bottom.
5 Irita SeizO ^ [JJ |j|[ 5> "Tofu no keishiki to sono kigen" (Coole, JM-1o,k.), Koko-
gaku zasshi, XV (1925), 4o2412.
The American Numismatic Society has an early bronze spade coin
{Plate IV), which is in perfect condition save for three small holes
which no doubt were incidentally perforated later. Its socket (hollow
handle) is short like the one in the Imperial Museum of Japan. The
length of the socket on the blade is extraordinarily long, reaching the
center of the blade. Its shoulders, which are not round like those of
Tool Kuroda, slant at the ends. Its foot (cutting edge) has two
pointed tips, which constitute its unique feature. Otherwise, it looks
like the other specimens described above. Its measurements are:
Total length
11o mm.
Shoulder width
6o
Foot width
64
Socket above shoulder
2o
Weight
1o5.1 grams.
The specimens recorded in the Ku ch'uan hui, especially Specimen
A, may not have been made as coins. Considering their shape and
their large size it is not impossible that they may have been made as
tools. However, as the demarcation line between the tool and the coin
which gradually developed from it is naturally obscure, any categorical
definition as to their specific functions without actual examination
of the objects is inadvisable. The specimen in The American
Numismatic Society does not present these difficulties. The smallness
of its body and the two extra pointed tips at its foot exclude the prac-
ticability of its use in the fields. There appears no doubt that it is
one of the early, or prototype, spade coins.
As time went on, further changes in design and the size of this type
of early Chinese coins occurred. Their size became smaller and smaller,
and their body thinner and thinner (see Plates VIIX for examples).
Although they retain the socket, it no longer projects onto the blade
but ends at the shoulders of the blade. The portion of the socket
above the blade is short, whereas that of the coins is comparatively
much longer and appears more like a handle. While the blade of the
tool is thicker at its shoulders and thinner at its cutting edge (foot),
the blade of the coins is of the same thinness throughout. Thus, we
see that the spade coins lost all of the functional features of the
original spade.
Though the spade coins have functionally deviated from the
original tool to a marked degree, their design faithfully preserves the
appearance of the tool. All the hollow-handle spade coins bear three
vertical lines on both sides. The central line is an imitation of the
reinforcing ridge, and the two lines on its sides are reminiscent of the
two edges of the extension of the socket into the blade.
This same observation holds true for the flat-shoulder-flat-foot
hollow-handle spades (H. H. Spade II) as well as the raised-shoulder-
pointed-foot hollow-handle spades (H. H. Spade I), both of which are
early coins. The first type seems to be a direct descendant of the
farming tools represented by Tool Kuroda and Tool ANS, while the
second appears to be that of the tools represented by Tool Nishimura.
Thus we may conclude that the pu (spade) coin of ancient China
developed out of an agricultural tool from which its shape and design
are derived.
Now we must try to explain why the coin was called pu. Since the
coin designated as pu developed from an agricultural tool, it is
natural to assume that pu must have been the name of this tool. Pu,
however, is not found as a name for an agricultural tool in the lit-
erature of the Chou period. Apart from being a name for a money the
term pu is used regularly to denote a textile. As has been admirably
explained by Wu Ch'eng-shih, a famous scholar in Chinese classics,
this textile, a material for everday clothing, was made from the fibre
of the kS plant and hemp.6 There is no reason whatsoever for pu as the
name of fibre cloth to have become by semantic transfer the name
for money.
Although we do not find pu as the name for an agricultural tool in
the historical records, we do have the character po M used in this
sense. In the Ch'en-kung ode preserved in the Shih ching (Book of
Odes) peasants are instructed to "prepare chHen and po" for their
6 Wu Ch'eng-shih & ^ /{, Pu po ming wu, 193o, la 3a.
work in the field.7 According to Hsu Shen of the first century A. D.
"field tools" or "farming tools" were among the meanings for both
the characters ch'ien and po in his day.8 His explanations are cor-
roborated by Ch6ng Hsuan's (1272oo) comments on the ode re-
ferred to above. Specifically Cheng Hsiian identifies po with lu fif,
a tool for weeding. In the Liang-ssii ode, which is also found in the
Shih ching, po is used to signify a weeding tool.9 As the implements
which we have discussed above seem to be well suited for weeding we
may justifiably identify po with the tool from which the pu coin
developed. But why was the coin not called po rather than pu which
is a different character? In this, as in many other instances in Chi-
nese philology, we may find the answer by resorting to one of the
basic principles of ancient Chinese linguistics: characters of the same
sound can be used interchangeably.
Etymologically speaking, the character po M being signic-phonetic
(the radical ^ for metal is its signic and '& or iff is its phonetic) is of
late origin. Its early or original form is "$! (pronounced fu today). The
form of 1$ as it appears in the bronze inscriptions of the Shang and
the Chou periods is reminiscent of the picture of the agricultural tool
we have described.10 When later the character po was formed, "ST
became its phonetic, and consequently its basic component part.
Because "i (&) has 3 (-) as its basic (phonetic) element and con-
sequently is pronounced the same as the latter, 1$ could be replaced
by 5. Thus we find that in the inscriptions on the early bronzes "Sf is
actually used as a substitute for 3.u For the same reason, in the
inscription of the Ch'u-kung Po, W is written 1se ,12 with 5 substitut-
ing for # or f. As we know, % (-Y) is also the phonetic of the char-
'Shih ching (Mao Shih), XIX, 6b.
8 Po means also the ornamental carvings on the horizontal stick at the top of the bell.
Ch'ien means also money. Tuan-shih shuo-wen-chieh-tzii chu, 19o8, XIV, 3a and 4b.
8 Shih ching, XIX, 15a.
10 For the forms of the character in bronze inscriptions, see Jung Keng, Chin wen pien.
Ill, 37b. u So states Jung Keng, loc. cit.
n Kuo Mo-jo, Liang Chou chin-wln-tz'it ta-hsi t'u-lu, 1934, J77-
96
acter pu ), the name of the spade coin as found in literature. The
result is that pu could be used for 1$ the original form of the character
po, the name of the agricultural tool. Even at a much later time, in the
literature of the Han period, "S and fli are still used interchangeably.
which is another form for 1$, in the Shi-chi is replaced by ^fU in the
Han shu.13 The name for door decoration is written 3i "tlr and also
*S "t.14 Here the "hand" (*) radical in ffii and the "metal" (&)
radical in are auxiliary component parts and are of little or no
importance. Since pu M was used for (fll), it could and must have
been used for po M. As far as we can see, this is probably the way in
which pu came to be a substitute for po, which was the name of an
agricultural tool and must have been also the name of the coin that
developed from such a tool.
It must be noted, however, that in the ode quoted above, ch'ien is
mentioned along with po. There is no doubt that ch'ien was also a
farming tool, which Cheng Hsiian in his comment on that ode iden-
tifies with t'ao ife. Etymologically speaking, fao is also a signic-
phonetic character, and therefore is late in origin. The character has
the same basic structural part (jHi) and the same sound as the char-
acter i-fi, signifying "clam" or "clam shell." In ancient China, the
clam shell was also called ch'en or chin In remote antiquity the
Chinese are said to have "ground clam shells (ch'en) with which they
weeded."15 For this reason both the character lu HP, meaning a
"'weeding tool" or "to weed," and the character nung H, meaning
"farming" or "to farm," have ch'in as their fundamental component
part.16 Thus the farming tool must have been also a tool for weeding.
As the name of a weeding tool fao is found in many passages
13 Shih-chi, CXVII, 16a and Han shu, LVII, Part 1, 9b.
14 Hsu Shen states that is the Jflj "||" attached to the door. (Tuan-shih shuo-wen
chieh-tzu chu, XIV, Part 1, 7a). The T'ung-su wSn states that the decoration
of the door is called fjjj ^ (T'ai-p'ing yu-lan, 1818, Pai ed., CXXCVIII, 4b). The
latter term is also found in Han shu, 1644, XI, 5a.
ls Huai-nan-tzti, XIII, lb.
18 For a fuller discussion of this problem see Kuo Mo-jo. Chia-ku wSn-tzU yen-chiu,
1931, II, 25a26a.
The Spade Coinage
97
in the literature of the Chou period.17 Since t'ao is identified with
cWien by Cheng Hsiian, the latter is to be understood also as the name
of a weeding tool.
What is perplexing is the fact that in the literature of or concerning
the Chou period Mien, like pu (po), is also found to be a designation
of certain money.18 As far as the coins (which are preserved by tens
of thousands) show, the money referred to are the spades. Thus we
find both pu (po) and ch'ien as appellations for spade coins.
How do we explain this seemingly confusing situation? In order to
clarify the confusion in terminology, we must come back once again
to the tools and the two different types of hollow-handle spade coins
described above. In the description of the farming tools we have shown
two different types. One type, represented by Tool Kuroda and Tool
ANS, has either slanted or square shoulders and a flat foot (cutting
edge). The other, represented by Tool Nishimura, has raised shoulders
and a concave foot. The existence of the two different shapes of tools is
paralleled by the existence of two different shaped hollow-handle
spade coins which were developed from these tools. One type of the
hollow-handle spade coins (designated as H. H. Spade I in the follow-
ing text) is marked by raised and pointed shoulders and pointed feet
(see Plate VI), and the other (designated as H. H. Spade II) is
characterized by flat or square shoulders and flat or mildly curved
feet (see Plates VIIIX). There is no indication or possibility that
one type was a variety of the other. These two differently shaped
early spade coins must have been local varieties developed from two
differently shaped tools. This point is confirmed by the discovery of
the ancient tools described above, whose characteristic features can
still be seen in the designs of the coins. One type of tool must have
been called ch'ien from which the spade coin designated as ch'ien
17 Practically all statements regarding the t'ao in Chou literature have been collected
by Kuei Fu ^ ^ in his comments on the character in Shuo-wen chieh-tzii i-cheng,
1870, XLV, 14a 14b.
18 Chou shu jg] ^ quoted in the T'ai-pHng yii-lan, CCMXXXV, lb; Kuo-yii, III, 10b;
Han-fei-tzu, 1875, XI, 9a; Lii-shih ch'un-ch'iu, 1875, XV, 3b; Shih-chi, III, 10b.
7 Monograph 113
developed, and the other must have been called po (pu) from which
the spade coin designated as pu developed. Only by such an under-
standing of the monetary terms, can we comprehend the statement
of Ssu-ma Ch'ien that ancient Chinese coins, as far as the spades
are concerned, "were either the ch'ien or the pu."19
To determine which type was the po (pu) and which the chHen is
difficult. There is, however, indirect evidence which may be of some
aid in solving the problem: the names and forms of the musical bells
of the Chou period. The bells which are preserved are of two types
which when viewed from the side appear in the shapes 1 and 0.
They are designated as chung M and po if respectively.20 The muscial
bell po may have been so called because of its resemblance to the
farming tool po.
The distinctive features of the two types of spades attracted the
attention of Ch'en Chieh-ch'i, a noted numismatist of the last century
who remarked that the spades with a flat foot are called po and that
those with a pointed (or, in his words, "not flat") foot are called
ch'ienP- He also refers to the shape of the po bell as evidence. If
Ch'en Chieh-ch'i's observation is correct, then Tool Nishimura, from
which the raised-shoulder-pointed-foot spades appear to have deve-
loped, must have been called chHen, and Tool Kuroda and Tool ANS,
from which the flat-shoulder-square-foot spades appear to have been
developed, must have been called po. It is significant that when the
19 Shih-chi, XXX, 21a.
20 Both "Pang Lan and Kuo Mo-jo hold the opposite opinion. What we call po they
call chung, and what we call chung they call po (see T'ang Lan, "Ku yueh-ch'i hsiao-
chi," Yenching Hsueh-pao ^Bjj J^ ^ ^ No. 14 (1933), 8283; and Kuo Mo-jo,
Liang-Chou chin-wen-tz'& ta-hsi t'u-lu, '"Pu shuo," 4b5a). Actually the appellations
of the music bells has been a problem of uncertainty for many centuries. This un-
certainty seems to have grown out of the confusion with which the terms were used
when some of the late bells were cast. At this time the people appeared to have for-
gotten the original distinction between the two types of bells as implied in their two
designations, chung and po, and some named the bells indiscriminately. This is
probably the reason which led Jung Keng to the conclusion that there are no differ-
ences between the po and the chung (Shang Chou i-chH t'ung k'ao, I, 495).
21 Quoted by Pao K'ang, Kuan-ku-M ts'ung-kao san-pien (Coole 299), 1876, Part 1,6a.
term chHen had become an exclusive name for money, the agricul-
tural tool which probably was originally called chHen was designated
solely as fao. At the same time the term pu, which was originally a
borrowed character for po, a tool, became a special term for the spade
coin. All indications point to the fact that because of the growing
importance of the tool-money and because of the increasing deviation
in their design from the original tools, there seemed to have been a
tacit practice among the ancient Chinese to give these money types
exclusive appellations. Thus ch'ien and pu became the conventional
terms for the tool-money, and fao and po for the tools.22 In one case
the tool was given a completely different name, and in the other the
money appropriated the borrowed term, pu. In a way this termi-
nological evolution for the spade coin illustrates the early history of
Chinese coinage.23
One more point can be noted in connection with the terms ch'ien
and po. At the end of the Chou period, chHen seems to have been used
22 Po as an agricultural tool still appears several times in the K'ao-kung chi, the last
section of the present text of the Chou li, which is most likely a work of the Chan-kuo
period.
23 There are two other explanations of the origin of the monetary term pu, which,
however unconvincing, must be noted. One theory, advanced by two Japanese
scholars, is that the term pu evolved from the name of the ancient Chinese ax, which
is chin %% according to Kuroda Kanichi (Kuroda, Kokogaku zasshi, XVI (1926), 141)
and fu ' according to Tanaka Keibun quoted by Nishimura Shinji (Canton, Vol. I,
30). The reason Tanaka identifies pu with fu is that fu has a "common origin" with
po III, from which the pu coin developed. Nishimura's quotation of Tanaka's ex-
planation may not have been sufficiently adequate. As it is, we cannot understand
why Tanaka should approach the problem indirectly through fu to po and not
directly as we have. What caused Kuroda to trace the origin of the term pu to chin is
that the character chin appears in the legend on Old Spade coins (those coined after
the hollow-handled spades). The difficulty with Kuroda's explanation is that philolo-
gically speaking pu has nothing to do with chin (ax), and he does not seem to have
found it necessary to offer an explanation.
The other theory advanced by Cheng Chia-hsiang, a Chinese numismatist, in his
article on the origin and evolution of monetary terms (Ch'uan-pi, No. 22, 6 9), is that
the spade coin was named pu (which term he understands as cloth) because the royal
treasury of Chou had collected cloth as its revenue. He concedes, however, that his
interpretation has no bearing on the original name of the coin.
1oo Early Chinese Coinage
in a much broader sense than pu. While pu designates only the spade
coin, ch'ien appears to denote money of all types, including the spade.
On account of this, when the round coins appeared in the third
century B. C. they were also called ch'ien, but never pu. Today,
ch'ien is still being used to mean money in general.24
2. THE DATE OF THE COINAGE
The dating of the beginning of Chinese coinage is one of the most
controversial problems in Chinese numismatics. Ssii-ma Ch'ien (145
86 (?) B. C.) places its appearance as early as the legendary Yii and
** Related to the problems of early monetary terms is another controversial subject
which deserves a few lines of mention, that is, which term is earlier, ch'ien |j or
ch'iian fc. The latter term means a fountain or a spring. As early as 9 A. D. the
emperor of the Hsin dynasty, Wang Mang, had borrowed it and used it in the sense of
money, and had had it cast in the legends on both his "Small Coin" and the "Big
Coin," but the term had lost its literal usage with the end of his reign. Elder Chinese
numismatists who seem to relish anything uncustomary (the term ch'ien has been
used as the general term for money ever since the Chou time) prefer ch'iian to ch'ien
as the name for old coins. Therefore, for the titles of coin catalogues we have
Ch'iian chih, Ku ch'iian hui etc. But the novelty devised by Wang Mang has produced
a belief in the mind of many that as a monetary term ch'iian might be older than
ch'ien. Many Chinese numismatists, led by Li Tso-hsien, cherish this idea. A few others
do not, and hence the endless debate, which lasts until today. Readers interested in
this dispute can find information on it in the various works on Chinese coins, especially
in the Ch'iian-pi (Chinese Numismatics, Nos. 4, 21, and 22). It is unnecessary to
repeat the argument here. In our opinion the term ch'ien is earlier than ch'iian. The
latter was first used by Wang Mang. Ch'ien was the name of an old farming tool from
which the spade coin developed. It is only natural that the spades, at least one group
of them or those in one particular region, were so called. It is true that the character
ch'iian meaning money appears in the text of the Chou li, and this has been taken as a
proof for its early origin. But, as Ting Fu-pao has pointed out, the character ch'iian in
the Chou li, is a later revision made during Wang Mang's time (Chinese Numismatics,
No. 4, p. 27), as in an older edition of the work which was seen by Cheng Chung (first
century A. D.), the earliest known commentator of the Chou li, ch'ien is found in lieu
of ch'iian. The reason Wang Mang adopted ch'iian for ch'ien was his dislike for the
character chin (metal) which is the component part of ch'ien and liu l], the name of
the ruling house which he usurped. Technically, ch'iian and ch'ien sound similar in
their pronounciation (Liang Ch'i-ch'ao fjj ^ j|g (1873 1929) called attention to this
many years ago in his article "Chung-kuo ku-tai pi-ts'aik'ao," Yin-ping-shih wen-chi
1916, XX, 7o), and this made it possible to substitute easily the former for the latter.
the semi-legendary Hsia dynasties.25 Some Sung scholars attributed
the spade coinage to even more remote pre-historical figures. Though
modern numismatists and historians are more realistic, their opinions
diverge considerably. Our own immediate concern is with the dating
of the spades. Of the various theories advanced concerning them, the
following may be regarded as representative.
1. Hsia and Shang dynasties (ending 1122 B. C., traditional date).
Among the modern numismatists Lacouperie appears to be of this
opinion.26 Though he does not categorically commit himself to such
an early date for Chinese coinage, one gets this impression from his
introductory remarks on spade coinage. As a specimen of the spade
coinage of this period he gives a hollow-handle spade with raised or
pointed shoulders and pointed foot.
2. Western Chou (1122771 B. C.).
Numismatists and historians who subscribe to this opinion are
many. Cheng Chia-hsiang may be taken as their representative.27 He
arrives at this date from three considerations. First, the Western
Chou had already had a "fully developed governmental organization."
"Because of the necessity to collect pecuniary fines and taxes, copper
money was made." Secondly, the epigraphical style of the coin
legends on the spades is that of the so-called "great seal character,"
which is the style of script of the Western Chou period. Thirdly, the
money which was used during the Western Chou period was the ch'iian
which were the spade and the knife coins.
3. End of the Ch'un-ch'iu period (77o481 B. C.).
Ojima Sukema may be regarded as the exponent of this theory.28
25 Shih-chi, Pa-na ed., XXX, 2ob.
!6 See his Catalogue of Chinese Coins, London, 1892, 1.
"Cheng Chia-hsiang ^ ^ ^g, "Shang-ku huo-pi t'ui-chiu" (An investigation into
the monetary systems of ancient China), Ch'iian-pi (Chinese Numismatics Bi-monthly),
No. 3, pp. 26 28.
88 Ojima Sukema /J-. |^ j J^, "Keizai-jo yori mitaru Sh5sho no shokukei,"
Shinagaku jj ${$ Jp I (1921), 42o436, and "Shunshu jidai to kahei keizai," op.
"'-,539545,626-641.
His basic arguments are: (1) that the historical records of or con-
cerning the Western Chou and the Ch'un-ch'iu period show that a
natural economy prevailed at that time; (2) that literary sources
show that a money economy did not develop until the Chan-kuo
period (4o3221 B. C.). The literary sources he used are Tso chuan,
Kuo yii and Chan-kuo ts'e. Though Kuo yii contains a story that
King Ching of Chou made "big coins" in 524 B. C., he doubts its
authenticity.
4. The Chan-kuo period (4o3221 B. C.).
The scholar who holds this opinion isLiChien-nung. In his article
dealing with the development of the monetary system before Ch'in
(2212o7 B. C.)29 he observes that as late as the Ch'un-ch'iu period
the Chinese still practiced a barter economy or "exchange in kind."
Therefore he states that spades and knives became circulating
currency after the commencement of the Chan-kuo period. The
historical materials which he used were those used by Ojima. He
also rejects the story of the casting of "big coins" by King Ching
as unhistorical.
The faulty logic of some of Cheng Chia-hsiang's arguments and
his error in interpreting the meaning of ch'iian are obvious.30 It
may be mentioned in passing, however, that he is the only one of
the above four who made use of any evidence from the coins them-
selves. Whereas Lacouperie used one coin specimen to illustrate his
point, that specimen, being late in date, had no actual bearing on
his theory. He and the others based their conclusions entirely on
literary evidence.
Basically, the ancient historical literature of China is political in
nature and is generally terse in form; it contains little regarding
29 LiChien-nung ^ $1] J|, "HsienCh'in huo-pi chih-tu yen-chin k'ao" (A study of the
development of the monetary systems of the pre-Ch'in period), She-hui k'o-hsiieh
chi-k'an fifc "H" Jfa J|i ^ flj (Social Science Quarterly, National Wu-han University),
III (1933), 4Sl 59- *0 Li Chien-nung, 5o1.
contemporary economic life. It has not been completely preserved;
what we have of it today is in fact only a small part. Therefore, any
insistence on the non-existence of things unmentioned in such a
limited amount of annalistic records is bound to be untenable, and,
in many cases, untrue. For example, the Ch'u state of the Chou
period was never reported as having money of its own. Today,
however, we have Yiian-chin money which has been unearthed in
central China.
In their use of the literary sources, the scholars have, moreover,
failed to observe the rudimentary principle of first examining the
nature of the data. Li Chien-nung states that he selected about
eighty passages from the Tso chuan which refer to "forms of pro-
perty" in none of which is there mention of either spade or knife
coins.31 According to Li, twenty of these passages concern bribery,
twenty-nine awards and gifts, nine offers in expectation of favors
asked for, nine seizure of one noble's property by another, and seven
wealth in general. Significantly, however, Li Chien-nung fails to
note either the status of the men who are involved in the events or
the nature of the events related in his passages. We may say briefly
that the objects which he calls "forms of property" are limited to
those which could be exchanged among the nobles as presents and
the possession of which alone was regarded at the time as respected
symbols of wealth. Thus the usual objects of the grants of the king
to the feudal lords and the presents exchanged among the latter are
jade, silk and silk embroidery, carriages and horses, slaves, gold.
When the wealth of a noble is mentioned, it is expressed in terms
of the number of horses and carriages he used in his equippage. How
much money was in his treasury and how much grain in his granary
were matters of secondary importance. The objects which one noble
lord tried to seize from his rivals in war were territory, crops, weap-
ons, war horses, and sacrificial bronze vessels the symbol of
the authority of a state. Jade has been mentioned as trophy, but
it is always an important or famous piece, the possession of which
31 Li Chien-nung, 499 5oo.
has been too often a cause of conflict. Even as late as the Han time
the imperial grants which were given actually in copper cash were
usually expressed in terms of gold. To give money as a present is
still frowned upon by the Chinese. Any suggestion that the objects
offered as gifts in an aristocratic society are the only "forms of prop-
erty" and thereupon that money does not exist is largely due to an
inadequate understanding of the social and psychological aspects of
the property valued by the nobility.
The Tso chuan, moreover, which is relied upon by both Ojima and
Li Chien-nung as their authority for the denial of the existence of
money during the Ch'un-ch'iu period is not completely devoid of
the mention of the spade coin. A passage in the Tso chuan32 relates
that in 517 B. C. the prince of Lu, Duke Chao, was forced to flee to
Ch'i by three noble families who competed with him for power. In
the next year, 516 B. C., Duke Ching of Ch'i tried to return Duke
Chao to his state and instructed his minister Tzii-yu, who was to
carry out the plan, not to accept bribery from the nobles of Lu lest
the plan be sabotaged. Two officials from one of the three families
which expelled Duke Chao promised Kao I, an assistant to Tzu-yu,
generous political and property compensations if he could bribe and
dissuade his superior from carrying out the order. Kao I showed the
silk embroidery which he received from the emissaries of the noble
family of Lu to Tzii-yu, and he desired to have it. Then Kao I said
to Tzii-yu, "To buy this the Lu people pay one pu (spade coin) for
one hundred bolts," indicating that the noble families of Lu could
procure with ease (at a very low price) large quantities of the silk
embroidery to be offered to Tzii-yu if he should help them realize
their wishes. Kao Ps statement in quotation marks is a verbal trans-
lation of the Chinese text, and the only acceptable one possible
from the grammatical construction of the sentences and the meaning
32 Tso chuan, LU, 1b2a. Legge, Chinese Classics, 1872,V, Part II, 712, 716. Instead
of "Tzu-yu" -J- 3j(i| and "Kao I" j^ |j^ the Shih-chi has "Tzu-chiang" ^f- %fy and
"Kao He jj|j j| respectively (XXXIII, 19a). The differences are probably due
to copyist's mistakes, but which versions are correct is not known.
implied therein. While Hui Tung (16971758) and Hung Liang-chi
(174618o9), both of whom are famous scholars in the field of
Chinese classics and history and have studied the Tso chuan in
particular, agree with our interpretation,33 Shen Ch'in-han (1775
1831) finds it objectionable on the ground that the price for the silk
embroidery is too low.34 He offers an interpretation in which the
character pu means tsu (accumulation, pile). In the end this inter-
pretation agrees with the one advanced by Tu Yu (222284), wno
understands pu as meaning ch'en (to display, to exhibit).35 In his
translation James Legge renders the passage thus, "the people of
Loo (Lu) had bought such silk, made up in 1ooo pieces."36 This
constitutes a third interpretation. But his translation does not agree
with the Chinese text. Tu Yu and Shen Ch'in-han's explanation is
unnatural and incongruous with the idea which the author tries to
convey. The objection of Sh6n Ch'in-han to our interpretation
would have some validity were it not for the fact that the question
of price is not important. Understandably, Kao I's statement must
have been grossly exaggerated in his eagerness to convince his su-
perior that bribes could be provided easily and in large quantities.37
In the text, "to buy (mai)" is the action, and "the spade coin (pu)"
is the means with which the action of buying is consumated. The
idea is clearly expressed. It is difficult to understand how Li Chien-
ming, and for that matter, Ojima too, missed the passage.
If they have missed the mention of pu money in the Tso chuan,
they should not have overlooked that in the Li chi, a Chinese classic.
There pu money is mentioned in two passages as funeral gifts. These
passages are found in the T'an-kung chapter which is an authentic his-
33 Hui Tung Ig |jji (16971758), Ch'un-ch'iu-tso-chuan pu-chu, Huang-ch'ing ching-
chiai (Hsueh-hai-t'ang) ed., CCCLVIII, 2b; Hung Liang-chi Jfc ^ ^f (174618o9).
Ch'un-ch'iu-tso-chuan ku, Ssii-pu pei-yao ed., XVIII, ga.
34 Shen Ch'in-han ^ ^fc $^ (1775^31), Ch'un-ch'iu-tso-shih-chuan pu-chu, Ts'ung-
shu chi-ch'ng ed., X, 197. 35 Tso chuan, LII, 2a. 38 Legge, ibid.
37 The numerals "hundred (po)" and "one (i)" in the text may be incorrect substitutes-
for "five (wu)" and "ten (shih)," as in the old script the latter two could be mistaken
for the former two. In either case the price would be considerably reduced.
torical record for the Ch'un-ch'iu period. In both cases the author-
itative Han commentator Cheng Hsiian (1272oo) specifically
notes that pu was money.38 Judging from their failure to use these
important historical data, we can but draw the conclusion that
Ojima and Li Chien-nung have not exhausted the very source of
information on which they have relied in their studies.
As a matter of fact the spade (pu) as money appeared in a much
earlier record. The record is the ode of Mang in the Shih ching. In
this ode a girl sings of her suitor
A simple-looking lad you were,
Carrying pu (spades) to exchange for silk.
But you came not so to purchase silk;
You came to make proposals to me.39
In date this ode cannot be later than the sixth century B. C. The
character pu in this ode is given by both Cheng Chung and Cheng
Hsiian of the Han dynasty as meaning pi (money).40 But some
modern scholars, for reasons not specified, have disregarded these
early commentaries and interpreted it as meaning "cloth." In their
translations of the ode James Legge, Author Waley, and Bernard
Karlgren express the same unwarranted opinion.41 Ojima and Li
Chien-nung subscribe to this explanation, and use it to prove their
thesis that at the time the ode was composed there existed an economy
of "exchange in kind."
In the discussion above we have demonstrated that the term pu
was used as a common noun for cloth or textile; it denotes, however,
only the cloth made of grass fibre such as the kS plant and hemp.
{See p. 94). Such cloth is inferior in quality and coarse in work-
manship. If it is used as a denominative meaning a kind of textile
as expressed in the term tsui pu (felt), it also implies an ordinary
material. If the love-seeking boy who pretends to be a merchant
M Li chi, 1871, VIII, la and 16b.
3> Shih ching {Mao shih), III, 11b -12a. Ibid.
-41 Legge, Chinese Classics, 1871, IV, 97; Waley, Book of Songs, London, 1937, 96;
JCarlgen, "Book of Odes," BMFEA, No. 16 (1944), 19o.
had brought cloth with him to exchange for silk, he could not have
"carried it in his arms in front of his chest" as the verb pao implies.
It would be not only cumbersome but also inconvenient to carry
the large amount necessary to purchase a much finer and more
treasured textile, silk. But if we follow the commentary of the Han
scholars who were closer to the old tradition than modern scholars
and understand the term pu as meaning spade coins, then there is
no difficulty in understanding the verb pao.
According to Lo Chen-yii, an astute collector of archaeological ob-
jects and ancient coins, some of the unearthed hollow-handle spade
coins which he saw were fastened together at their handles with a
cord.42 Kuo Pao-chun reports to the author that the hollow-handle
spades which he discovered in the Chou tombs in Chi County, Honan,
were also fastened together, though the number in a bundle varies.
In actual use, the spades might have been kept together in the same
manner. In a story recorded in the Han-fei-tzu, a woman in the state
of Wei, where the ode of Mang originated, is said to have plead with
Heaven that she be granted "one hundred bundles (shu) of spades
{pu)."i3 This story implies not only that spade coins were bound
together in actual use but also that there were a definite number in
each bundle.
The modern scholars' unwarranted disregard for early commen-
taries and their misunderstanding of pu in these particular cases as
meaning "cloth" is further illustrated by their explanation of a
passage in the Mo-tzu. In this passage Mo Ti (48o39o (?) B. C.),
a philosopher, is quoted as saying, "The gentlemen (shih) of today
in making available their personal services take even less care than
the merchants in putting to employment i pu (one spade)".44 The
meaning of the phrase i pu is so clear that no other interpretation
is possible. However, unfamiliar with the ancient Chinese coinage
and doggedly believing that the people of late Chou still used cloth
as a medium of exchange, some modern scholars read pu in this passage
42 Lo Chen-yii, Yung-lu jih-cha (Coole, 392), 17a17b.
43 Han-fei-tzu, 1875, X, 4b. ** Mo-tzii, Ssii-pu pei-yao ed., XII, 3a.
also as meaning "cloth." Equivocation may be tolerated in a direct
quotation in Chinese of this passage, but in translating it into a
foreign language such as English, one must be specific. Facing this
difficult situation Yi-pao Mei interpolates the original text rather
than seek for a correct interpretation; in his translation of the
passage, he has inserted the word "bale" between the two characters
of the phrase * pu, and rendered it as "one bale of cloth."45
Taking the ode of Mang as our authority, we may say that, as
far as literary information on the spade goes, the coin must have
become an ordinary medium of exchange before the sixth century
B. C. or earlier. But this date is not to be taken as the date of the
commencement of the spade coinage which in all probability must
have been much earlier.
In his statement on the early history of Chinese coinage Ssu-ma
Ch'ien (14586? B. C.), China's earliest great historian, says,
"With the opening of exchange between farmers, artisans and mer-
chants, there came into use money of tortoise shells, cowrie shells,
gold, the chHen spade, the knives, and the pu spade. This has been
so from remote antiquity."46 A statement such as this is too general
to be of any use for numismatists. In his historical account of the
Chinese monetary system Pan Ku excludes the Hsia and the Shang
periods for lack of information, and starts with the Chou dynasty.47
He fails also to give any specific date. Since the Chou period covers
some eight hundred years, it is too long a period to be spoken of in
general terms. Stories such as those concerning Yii of the Hsia
dynasties and T'ang of the Shang dynasty, who are said to have
coined money in the second millenium B. C., lack historical authen-
ticity and consequently must be discarded.
In the absence of literary information we must resort to archae-
ology which, unfortunately, for the reasons we have stated in the
introduction, offers little help. The only spade coins which were
scientifically recovered are those found by Kuo Pao-chiin (See Plate
46 Yi-pao Mei, The Ethical and Political Works of Motze, London, 1929, 225.
"Han shu, XXIV, Part 2, 1a.
VII, 1). He dated the tombs in which these spades were discovered
as of about 27o B.C. However, as Mr. Kuo points out, the spades
found are apparently mortuary money especially made for the pur-
pose of burial. They are extraordinarily thin, small and without
legend (monetary spades of the same small size are of late origin and
always bear a legend). As mortuary money they were not necessarily
modelled in shape and design on contemporary money. More likely
they represented a money of days long past like the paper horse-shoe
silver burnt by modern Chinese on sacrificial occasions which imi-
tates silver ingots long out of circulation.
Of the many thousand bronze inscriptions of the Chou period,
we find three have the character pu. In one, the Shou-kung Tsun
inscription, it appears as the component part of the term tsui pu,
a felt made of animal hair. In the other two it appears as an inde-
pendent term and may mean spade coins. One of these is found in
duplicate on the body and cover of a yu vessel made by Yiian.48
The other is found on a tsun vessel also made by Yiian.49 With its
first line lost the rest of the inscription varies only slightly in wording
from the inscription on the yu vessel. There is no doubt that both
the yu and the tsun vessels and the inscriptions thereon were made
by the same Yiian as memorials for the same event. The inscription
on the yu vessel reads:
In the nineteenth year, the King was in Han. Wang
Chiang (the queen) ordered Scribe Yiian to pacify
the ruler of the I (barbarians). The ruler of the
I presented to Yiian cowries and pu as a gift. To
show his gratitude to Wang Chiang's favor he (Yiian)
made this precious vessel in honor of his father Kuei.50
48 Fang Chiin-i "jj ^ ^, Chui-i-chai i-ch'i k'uan-shih k'ao-shih (Studies of the
inscriptions on the bronze vessels of the Chui-i-chai), Photostated, XII, 9b.
411 Huang Chun ^r fit, Tsun-ku-chai so-chien chi-chin fu-lu (Tsun-ku-chai illustrated
catalogue of the bronzes), 1936, I, 36a.
40 We follow the transcription of Kuo Mo-jo, Liang Chou chin-wen-tz' ii ta-hsi k'ao-shih,
I, 14a.
no Early Chinese Coinage
Yii Hsing-wu, so far as we know, is the only epigraphical scholar
who has commented on the character pu, and he lists two meanings
for it, pH po or "bolt of silk" and pi or "money."51 In Chou literature
pu is susceptible to two explanations, cloth or spade coin, depending
on the context. As a term for cloth it denotes the coarse cloth made
of kS and hemp only. As late as the Han time it still denotes a cloth
made of i62 which is hemp fibre.53 Furthermore, in Chou bronze in-
scriptions the silk fabrics granted by the king or by a noble to his
inferior are either called ssii (silk) or po (silk fabrics)54 and nowhere
are they called pu. We may, therefore, reject the interpretation
of pu as meaning silk fabric.
Can we then regard the character pu in this inscription as sig-
nifying fibre cloth? This seems also unlikely. The inscription states
clearly that the donor of the cowries and the pu is a ruler of a state
even though the state is of a non-Chou origin55 The recipient of the
presents is a Scribe {tso ts'e), who, as one in charge of composing and
transmitting royal decrees, was an important official of the court
of Chou. It seems rather improbable that the presents offered by a
state's ruler to a high minister of the court of Chou would consist of
ordinary fibre cloth. If it had been a special kind of cloth, worthy
of conveying special respect and deserving special consideration, it
would have been recorded by its special name. There seems to be no
satisfactory interpretation other than the explanation that pu in
this inscription means spade money. A present consisting of spades
and cowrie shells, which were also money at the beginning of the
61 Yii Hsing-wu ^f- i^ 3^, Shuang-chien-ch'ih chi-chin wSn-hsiian (Shuang-chien-ch'ih
selection of the bronze inscriptions), 1933, III, Part 3, 1oa.
62 Shuo-wen chieh-tzu, VII, Part 2. 53 Ibid.
54 For examples see the inscriptions of the T'ung Kuei and the Shou-kung Tsun in the
Liang Chou chin-wen-tz' u ta-hsi k'ao-shih, II, 87b and 92b.
56 J was the general designation of the Chou people for the Shang people and the
peoples who lived in the eastern part of ancient China. See Fu Ssu-nien ^ Jjf ip
"I Hsia tung hsi shuo," Ch'ing-chu Ts'ai Yiian-p'ei hsien-sheng liu-shih-wu-sm lun-
wen-chi (Studies presented to Ts'ai Yuan-p'ei on his sixty-fifth birthday), Peiping,
1935, 1o931134-
The Spade Coinage in
Chou period, makes sense. Furthermore, pu as a monetary desig-
nation for spades is borne out not only by the literary records but
also by the legend on the Fen spades. The two known specimens of
these are illustrated in Okutaira, IV, 52 b, and in Fang Jo's Yiieh-
yii ku-huo tsa-yung (reproduced on Plate XV, 2). Their legend reads
Fenpu ox"Pu of Fen." Pwhere can refer to nothing else than thespade.
The date for this inscription or the vessel on which it is inscribed
has been suggested by Wu Ch'i-ch'ang as the nineteenth year of King
Chao,56 the fifth king of Chou if we should regard King Wen as the
titular founder of the dynasty. As Kuo Mo-jo has pointed out, the
facts implied in the inscription, especially the name Chiang of the
queen, do not permit such a date. Therefore he suggests the "nine-
teenth year" recorded in the inscription is that of the Chou as a
dynasty (see below).
As students of ancient Chinese history all know, the chronology of
early Chou, that is before 841 B. C., is very uncertain, and in fact
has been a controversial topic ever since the Han time. The problem
is too complicated even to touch upon here. Prof. Tung Tso-pin
lists fifteen different authorities on the subject, who hold eight
different opinions.57 He himself is of the opinion that the Chou
period officially begins with the following year after King Wu suc-
ceeded his father King Wen as the ruler of Chou in 1122 B. C. and
actually begins with the year after King Wu conquered the Shang
dynasty, which took place in 1111 B. C.68 In the main he follows
the traditional date. Dr. R. S. Britton told the author that as far
as the records of the moon eclipses on the oracle bone inscriptions
of the Wu-ting period go, Tung's date is untenable. He regards
as more probable that the beginning of Chou was around 1o27 B. C.,
which date has been suggested by Lei Hai-tsung and B. Karlgren
who base their opinion on the chronological record in the original
s* Wu Ch'i-ch'ang ^j| j ||, Chin-wen li-shuo shu-cheng (A study of the chronology of
the bronze inscriptions), 1936, II, 3oa.
"Tung Tso-pin =fg f ff, Yin li p'u (Calendar of Yin), 1945, Part I, IV, 12a.
68 Tung Tso-pin, op. cit., 22b.
Bamboo Annals (Chu-shu chi-nien) and other relevant historical
data.59 For our present purpose we may follow the traditional date
of 1122 B. Q. as the beginning of the Chou period with the under-
standing that the correct date may be a century later.
In his study of the bronze inscription quoted above Kuo Mo-jo
follows Wang Kuo-wei's chronology.60 Wang Kuo-wei has proved
that the recording of the chronology of the early years of Chou is
not according to the reigns of the kings as is the case later. The
recording of the year goes on with one serial number starting with
King Wen's reign until the seventh year of the reign of King Ch'eng,
the third king of Chou. In his opinion King Wen ruled seven years
and was succeeded by King Wu who conquered Shang in the eleventh
year of Chou or the fourth year of his own reign. King Wu was suc-
ceeded by King Ch'eng, whose reign officially begins in the fourteenth
year. So calculated, the "nineteenth year" mentioned in the in-
scription falls in the sixth year of King Ch'eng's reign, which cor-
responds to the conventional date mo B. C.
The presentation of a gift of cowries and spades by the ruler of
the I people to Yuan, the royal scribe, appears to have taken place
either in Han or in its neighborhood. Kuo Mo-jo identifies Han
with the original territory of Han Cho or Cho of Han, and located
it within the boundaries of the present county of Wei in eastern
Shantung.61 Both his identification and the location of the place
* Lei Hai-tsung jg jg ^, "Yin Chou nien-tai k'ao," WSn-che chi-kan ^t f2f jffc flj
(Wu-han University), II (1931 2), 1 14. B. Karlgen, "Some Weapons and Tools of
the Yin Dynasty," BMFEA, No. 17 (1945), 12o.
*0 Wang Kuo-wei, "Chou k'ai-kuo nien-piao" (The chronology at the beginning of the
Chou dynasty), Kuan-fang pieh-chi pu-i, in Wang-chung-ch'iao-kung i-shu, 4a 8b.
61 Kuo Mo-jo, op. cit., 14a and 16a. The possibility that spade coins were used at a very
early date in the general area around modern Wei county is evidenced by the existence
of a Prototype Spade coin and several Hollow-handle Spades cast by the city or mint
of I <" (Plate X, 1). This I is identical with the I <?> city which cast the round coins
of four denominations at the end of the Chou period. The lower component part of the
latter I is a later addition, the presence of which does not bring about any change in
the meaning of the character. The I which cast the round coins has been located in
present I-tu county whose county seat is about thirty miles west of that of Wei
are plausible, when we take into consideration the fact that by
"I" the Chou people referred to all people in the eastern part of
ancient China who were either Shang or their subjects. After the
third year of King Ch'eng, the Chou court started a large scale
military campaign against such eastern states as Yen and Po-ku,
which were either of Shang people or their vassals. These states
were located in present Shantung. The campaign, which lasted
three years, resulted in the subjugation of those states. It is possible
that at the end of the victorious campaign King Ch'eng was brought
to the newly conquered territories to establish the Chou authority.
This may serve to explain the statement "the king was in Han."
If all these interpretations are correct, the inscription has con-
siderable importance in the dating of the spade coinage. For, if
during the reign of the third king of Chou, which by the conventional
chronology is in the last years of the 12 th century, or, at latest, in
the last years of the 11th century, spade money had been offered
as a gift, the beginning of the coinage must have been somewhat
earlier. This would lend credit to the hypothesis that spade coinage
was a Shang invention.
In this connection we may introduce some records to the effect
that the last Shang king had stored spade money at the Lu-t'ai,
his treasury. The Chou shu (Book of Chou) states that when King
Wu conquered Shang he took out and distributed among the peopel
"the chHen (spade coins) of the Lu-t'ai" and "the grain of the Chii-
ch'iao (a granary)" of the Shang king.62 Ssii-ma Ch'ien relates that
Ti-Hsin, the last king of Shang "overtaxed [his people] to increase
[the storage of] the ch'ien at the Lu-t'ai."63 The distribution of ch'ien
from the royal treasury of the Shang by King Wu of Chou is also
county in eastern Shantung. Some time after Chou conquered or subjugated this
general area, it abandoned the spade coinage and adopted the knife coinage the
origin of which took place probably in a state further to the east (see p. 156).
Quoted in the T'ai-p'ing yii-lan, photostat of the Sung edition in the SsH-pu ts'ung-
k'an ed. CCMXXXV, 1b.
> Shih-chi, III, 1ob.
8 Monograph 115
ii4
recorded in several other old literary sources.64 As has been explained
before, ch'ien is but another type of spade money or another name
for it. Historians have been duly cautious in not giving full credit
to these statements, but, in view of the record of spade coins in the
early Chou bronze inscription, they may well contain historical truth.
At this juncture we may recall that in the section dealing with
the early history of trade in ancient China, we have noted that the
Shang period may have witnessed considerable commercial activ-
ities. Under these circumstances, the coinage of a metallic money
is not at all beyond possibility. However, we must repeat that our
suggestion of the possible early Chou or late Shang origin of the
spade coinage depends largely upon our interpretation of the char-
acter pu in the inscriptions on Yiian's vessels. We must safeguard
ourselves against any definite conclusion based on a single piece
of evidence, which may some day prove unacceptable.
3. THE VARIOUS TYPES OF SPADES AND THEIR CHRONOLOGY
Attempts have been made in the past by a few to trace the evo-
lution of the various types of spade coins.65 Their observations,
however, have been too superficial to be of much value. Since scien-
tific reports on discoveries of spade coins are lacking, a reconstruction
of the evolution of their designs remains largely conjectural. We
proceed with the conviction that the later the design of the coin,
the less its resemblance to the original tool; and that the later the
coin, the smaller its size and the lighter its weight. The gradual
reduction in size and weight of coinage is a phenomenon common
to the historical coinages of many peoples, and Chinese coinages
could hardly have deviated from this law.
64 In Shih-chi, XXXII, 3a3b, Lii-shih ch'un-ch'iu, XV, 3b. In Shih-chi, IV, 12a and
Shang shu (chapter of Wu-ch'eng, present text), III, 13a, the character ch'ien is
replaced by ts'ai J$ meaning property, in general.
66 For the opinions of these scholars see Irito Seizo, Kokogaku zasshi, XV (1925), 402
412; Tsukamoto Yasushi ^ "Shina Kosen keijo no kigen ni tsuite,"
Kokogaku zasshi, XV (1925), 491-499; Kuroda Kanichi, Kokogaku zasshi, XVI (1926),
138, and "Shudai kohei ko," Kokogaku zasshi, XVII (1927), 670677; Okutaira, op.
cit. I, 7a and II, 84b; Cheng Chia-hsiang, "Shang-ku huo-pi t'ui-chiu," Ch'uan-pi
(Chinese Numismatics), No. 4 (1941), p. 3031 and 3233; and No. 5 (1941), p. 2224.
A number of spade coins bear no legend, but many more do.
Judging from their design and weight, we may say in general that
those without legends are older, and that those with legends are
later. Among the spades with legends, those having a numeral or a
character from the "heavenly stems" (numbering ten in all) or the
"earthly branches" (numbering twelve in all) as their mark, or
"serial mark," are earlier than those which have the name of a mint
and, as frequently, the name of the monetary unit and its denomination.
Epigraphical style can be resorted to as a means to determine the
approximate time of the coin, but this is feasible only in the few
cases in which the stylistic distinctions can be established.
It would be very helpful if we knew the dates of establishment
of the towns which cast spades for which specimens are known.
Of the many mints which appear in the legends only those of Tung
Chou (Eastern Chou) and one of An-yang can be dated. The deter-
mination of the dates of their establishment contributes much to
the dating of the coins of these two cities, and the dates of their
coins corroborate our hypothetical premises for the reconstruction
of the evolutionary stages of the spade coinage.
There are some mint towns, for which the date of their estab-
lishment or of their coinage is unknown, whose geographical location
reveals the approximate time when they cast the spades which bear
their names. Hsiang-p'ing in southern Manchuria and Lin on the
Yellow River in Shansi are towns of this kind. A study of their
coinage, which will be dealt with when the Late Spade is treated,
also helps confirm our chronology.
The traditional classification of the spades which has been followed
until recently by all numismatists has been based on their shapes
with such terms as "hollow-handle spade" or "spade money," "point-
ed-foot spade," "square-foot spade," and "round-foot spade." Cheng
Chia-hsiang and Okutaira appear to have found this classification
inadequate. Therefore, in their works they have included the shape
of the coin's shoulders as an additional criterion for classification.
Thus they formulated such terms as "pointed-(or raised) shoulder-
pointed-foot spade" and so on. Basically, however, they still follow
Ii6 Early Chinese Coinage
the old method. Some Western numismatists have given certain
spades a specific name such as "weight money." In this case again,
the primary consideration is the coin's shape.
To numismatists who are historically minded, the traditional classi-
fication is inadequate and should be revised. In the present study we
propose a classification according to the coin's chronology. Thus
we may divide the spades into four major groups: the Prototype
Spade, the Hollow-handle Spade, the Old Spade, and the Late Spade.
Within each group we may further divide the coins according to
their design. This aims not only at differentiating fine distinctions
within a major group and their possible chronological sequence but
also at investigating the regional character of a particular type. For
instance, in the group of the Hollow-handle Spades there are two
types differing radically in design. Although these two types appear
to have been in circulation at the same time, their different designs
suggest that they circulated in different areas. This is confirmed by
the location of their mints as will be pointed out later.
However, some words of caution must be added. First, the coin
specimens preserved and reported today may not represent every
shape or every variety of coin that has existed, though we believe
that they represent the majority. It is on the basis of preserved
varieties that this study is made. Secondly, though money itself
has an inherent tendency toward uniformity in design, local varieties
and local discrepancies in the time of adoption of a new design must
be regarded as inevitable. This is especially true in a period, such as
that of Chou China, when customs in general and political and
economic institutions in particular vary from area to area. The
following presentation will be better evaluated and understood
with these considerations in mind.
A. Prototype Spade
Specimens of this group of spades are illustrated on Plates
IVV. Their characteristic feature is a faithful resemblance to the ori-
ginal farming tool. Some of the coins are very large; some are a little
smaller. Some possess all the practical features of the tool; some preserve
them less. The criterion for their classification as one group is that their
socket is like the tool's socket and extends onto the blade with the
reinforcing ridge at the lower end of the socket remaining unchanged.
Most of the coins of this group bear no legend, though a few do.
Judging from their size and design, the ones with a legend appear
to be little later than the ones without. The paleographic style of
the legend is the same as that of the early Chou bronze inscriptions.
The specimen in the collection of the American Numismatic
Society is the smallest of all the specimens of the group known to
us. It weighs 1o5.1o grams.
B. Hollow-handle Spade
Belonging to this group are two distinctively different types. One
type (Plates VI and VII, 1) has pointed shoulders and pointed feet.
Hereafter it will be designated as H. H. Spade I. The other type
(Plates VII, 2; VIIIX) has flat shoulders and mildly curved feet.
Hereafter it will be designated as H. H. Spade II. The differences
in their design are so marked and their affiliation to the original
tool is equally so close that it does not seem to be possible that one
type is a variation or a later development of another. As has been
mentioned before, they seem to be two varieties of spade coinage
developed from two differently shaped spade tools. The existence
of these differently shaped tools is evidenced by the actual specimens
excavated in China and by the fact that there were two different names,
ch'ien and pu, for spade money in the Chou literature. (Seepp. 9o93).
As implied in the term which we have chosen to designate this
group of spades, their characteristic feature is the hollow handle
which is found on each of them. The difference between the hollow
handle of this group and the socket of the Prototype Spade, and
for that matter also of the original tool, lies in the fact that the
handle stops at the coin's shoulders and does not extend onto the blade.
Their further deviation from the shape of the tool marks their lateness
in origin and serves as a convenient criterion for their classification.
This group has the design of three parallel vertical lines on both
obverse and reverse. The central line, which is shorter than the side
lines, resembles the reinforcing ridge in the center of the tool, and the
two side lines are the vestiges of the sides of the socket on the blade.
Most of the coins of this group bear an inscription, though quite a
few do not. This is another evidence that they are later than the
Prototype Spade but earlier than the spades which always have a
legend. The legend may be a numeral, a character from the ten
"heavenly stems" or the twelve "earthly branches," or the name
of a town or city, which is likely to be the mint. As far as we know,
among the hollow-handle spades which have been reported, those of Mi
(Plate X, 2) are the first ones in which the legend has the monetary
unit chin in addition to the mint name. On the whole the paleographic
style of the legend of the Hollow-handle Spade appears to be the same as
that of the Prototype Spade, namely, the "great seal character" style.
It is to be noted, however, that among the Hollow-handle Spades
there are still a third and a fourth type, both of which seem to be
later in origin than the two types described above. In design, the third
type (Plates XIXII, hereafter to be designated as H. H. Spade
III) differs radically from H. H. Spade I and slightly from H. H.
Spade II. Their principal distinctive feature is the fact that the
three lines on their obverse and reverse are not parallel, but starting
from the point where the handle joins the blade, the outer two lines
diverge towards the tips of the feet. The Hollow-handle Spades
of Tung-Chou (Eastern Chou), Lu-shih, Wu, Wu-an are commonly
seen representatives of this type.
However, the designs of this third type are not homogeneous in all
details. While the shoulders of the Eastern Chou spades are flat,
those of the other three mints are slanting." While the outer of the
three lines on these spades start from the center at the top of the
blade and diverge to the tips of the feet, the three lines on the spades
of other mints, such as "An -hsiang," run parallel and are symetri-
cally placed. But their common features in design, size, and weight
are such that a treatment of them as one type is warranted. All
The Spade Coinage
119
indications are that this type, i. e., H. H. Spade III, is probably a
later development of H. H. Spade II. The insufficiency in the number
of preserved specimens prevent us from any definite conclusions
on this point.
The fourth group (Plate XIII, 12, hereafter designated as
H. H. Spade IV) are very few in number. The Encyclopedia of
Old Coins contains illustrations of two specimens (Nos. 6o8 and 813),
which are the only ones known to us. The authenticity of No. 813
seems reliable; it was in the possession of Fang Jo, an astute collector,
who made and published a rubbing of the coin. Both specimens
are small in size. Their blades are somewhat square in shape, plain
on both sides, with no design whatsoever. Both the shoulders and
the feet are flat. The date of their origin does not seem to be earlier
than H. H. Spade III.
The following chart will summarize the descriptions of the four
types of the Hollow-handle Spade:
I
II
III
IV
Handle
Stops at the
Stops at the
Stops at the
Stops at the
(socket)
shoulders
shoulders
shoulders
shoulders
Shoulders
Pointed
Flat
Flat, slanting
Flat
Foot or feet
Two pointed
Foot mildly
Foot mildly
Flat foot
feet
curved
curved
Width of
Equal
Equal
Foot slightly
Equal
shoulders
broader
and foot
Designs
Three parallel
Three parallel
Central line
None
vertical lines
vertical lines
vertical, side-
on both sides
on both sides
lines diverg-
ing to tips
offeet
Size
Large
Large
Small
Very small
Legend
Numeral, in-
dependent
character,
mint name
Numeral, in-
dependent
character,
mint name
Mint name
Mint name
The period in which the Hollow-handle Spades circulated appears
to have been considerable. Together with the Prototype Spades
they covered the greater part of the time span of the entire spade
coinage. An evidence of this is found in the Hollow-handle Spades
bearing the name "Eastern Chou."
Eastern Chou was a feudatory which was established in the last
year of King K'ao (426 B. C.) or in the first year of King Wei-lieh
(425 B. C.).66 Thus the coins bearing the name of the feudatory
must have been cast about 425 B. C. or shortly thereafter. At this
time all feudal princes and the minor nobility had availed themselves
of the privilege of coinage (see below, p. 224). There is additional
evidence for a late date for the Eastern Chou spades. First, their
legend does not consist merely of a numeral or "serial mark" but
includes also the name of the mint. Secondly, the three lines in
their design are not parallel as on H. H. Spade II (which resembles
the features of the original tool) but diverge toward the tips of the
feet. This deviation indicates a late appearance. Thirdly, the Eastern
Chou spade is one of the smallest of the Hollow-handle Spades. The
measurements of the rubbing of Fang Jo's specimen67 are: total
length, 7o mm.; shoulder width, 35 mm.; foot width, 37 mm.;
blade length, 4o mm.
The largest specimen of the H. H. Spade II in the collection of
the American Numismatic Society measures correspondingly 102,
53, 53, and 61 mm. This specimen is the older one not only because
Shih-chi, IV, 32b33a; Edouard Chavannes, Les Mimoires Historiques de Se-ma
Ts'ien, Paris, 1895, 3oo 3o1. Many historians have mistaken the eighth year of King
Hsien of Chou (367 6 B.C.) for the year of the creation of the Eastern Chou feudatory.
Their mistake is caused by a misunderstanding of a passage in Shih-chi, XLIII, 17b,
where it is recorded that the states of Han and Chao divided Chou into two parts, in
the eighth year of King Hsien. This event refers to the separation of the royal domain
of Chou into two areas under their separate influence, and it does not refer to the
creation of the Eastern Chou feudatory. As far as we know, Lu Tsu-ch'ien J jjj[] j|
(11371181) seems to be the only historian in the past who did not make this mistake
(see his Ta shih chi, in the Chin-hua ts'ung-shu, I, 13b).
7 Yiieh-yii ku-huo tsa-yung (Coole, 29o), the first specimen. Reproduced on Plati
XII, 3.
of its larger size but also because its legend consists solely of a numeral
pa (eight). The Eastern Chou is considerably smaller in size and thus
must be later, for the smaller a coin is, the later it is in date.68
C. The Old Spade
The outstanding characteristics of this group of spades are the
absence of the hollow-handle (socket), which are present in the two
previous groups, and the split of the foot into two square feet. The
representative specimens of this group are the spades of An-i (Plates
XIV, 45; XV, 1), Liang (Plate XIV, 1-3), Chin-yang (Plate
XIII, 35), etc. They are called "weight money" by Western
numismatists. They still have a handle, but it is no longer hollow;
it is flat and solid. Changes have taken place in the shape of the
shoulders: some of them are round, and some are angular. Except
for the "regular" spades of Liang, the spades of this group all have
two feet which are uniformly square. Some of the spades have a
central vertical line on the obverse and some do not. In the latter case
the space is completely occupied by the legend. The reverse of some
of them is plain, and some have a character, which represents an
abbreviation of the mint name in the obverse legend or indicates
the nature of the money, such as ch'ung (token).
The appearance of the Old Spade was accompanied by an in-
crease in number of denominations. The monetary unit of the spade
is the chin. The old spades of An-i and Chin-yang are each made up
of three different denominational sizes: two chin, one chin and half
chin. For the spades of other mints which are preserved today, we
88 In Shan-chai chi-chin hi (Coole 346), Ch'tian lit, I, 54b55a, Liu T'i-chih g|] | ^,
the author reproduces a picture made from the rubbing of an extraordinarily large
hollow-handle spade in his possession of the type of H. H. Spade III. In length it
measures 164 mm., the width at its shoulders is 1o2 (including the two protruding
points; actually only 88), the width at its foot is 1o2. So far this is the largest
specimen reported of the late hollow-handle spade. Its legend reads "Lu-shih Nieh-
chin" (dark metal money of Lu-shih). We have no way to determine its authenticity.
If genuine, it would provide additional and important information on the monetary
system of the day.
have only the two chin denomination (such as that of Ch'ui), or of
the one chin and the half chin denominations (such as those of Yii), or
of the one chin (such as that of Yuan), or of just the half chin (such
as that of Lu-shih). Since, in both shape and design, the coinages of
these mints belong to the same group as those of An-i and Chin-
yang their complete denominational system must also have been the
same. Otherwise the specification of "two chin," or "one chin" or
"half chin" alone would be meaningless. The lack of all three denom-
inations for these mints must be due to incompleteness in their
preservation.
Mention must be made of the coinage of the Old Spade period
in Liang. Besides its regular Old Spades of the type of An-i and
Chin-yang, the mint cast also two special series of spades. One is
designated as cheng or "standard," and the other is designated as
ch'ung or "token" (Plate XV, 35; XVI, 1).The shape and design
of the "token" spades of Liang are exactly the same as those of its
regular Old Spade and the Old Spades of other mints. Its "standard"
spades vary slightly in shape, but their basic features are similar to
the common features of the Old Spade. Both series seem to have been
issued for interstate commerce. (See further discussion, pp. 137143.)
As has been indicated, the legend of the Old Spade is made up 0
three items: the name of the mint, the monetary unit, and its denom-
ination whenever the specification of the denomination is neces
sary. Only the old spade of Ffin (Plate XV, 2) varies from the rule
Its legend is fen pu, with fen being the mint name and pu the desig
nation of the money. This is the first and the only case in which the
monetary designation pu is found on a spade coin.
There is no positive evidence with which the date of the Old
Spade can be determined. That it is later than the Hollow-handle
Spade is unmistakable. Except for its general form, we do not find
any of the significant features which mark the Hollow-handle
Spade and which are reminiscent of the characteristics of the tool.
As wiU be discussed below, the "Regular" and the "Token" spades
of Liang (also known as Wei) appear to have been issued when
Liang, at the peak of its power, dominated Chou China. This period
is roughly between 425 B. C. and 344 B. C. and may well be the
time when the Old Spade was in circulation.
Judging from its shape and design the Old Spade seems to have
developed out of H. H. Spade II and III. The shape of their shoul-
ders and feet which is, as a rule, flat and angular or square are similar.
H. H. Spade I with its sharply pointed shoulders and pointed feet
does not appear to be its predecessor.
At this point one may question what happened to the coinage
of H. H. Spade I while H. H. Spade II and III developed into the
Old Spade. It would seem that the shape of H. H. Spade I continued
to be the shape of the coinage in the region where it had been current
while H. H. Spade II and III were under further evolution in design.
Its size, however, must have been reduced and its weight diminished
to meet changing circumstances. Insufficient information prevents
us from forming a definite conclusion.
D. The Late Spade
The great majority of the spade coins preserved today belong
to this group. They occupy the bulk of any collection, private or
public, of Chou coins. According to shape and design they may be
divided into four types:
Late Spade IPointed shoulders and pointed feet
(Plates XVIII-XX; XXI, 1-6).
Late Spade IISquare shoulders and square feet
(Plates XXI, 7; XXII-XXIV).
Late Spade III Round shoulders and round feet
(Plates XXV; XXVI, 1-2).
Late Spade IVRound shoulders and round feet with three
holes (Plates XXVI, 3; XXVII).
A glance at the coins will convince us that Late Spade I developed
out of H. H. Spade I, which have pointed shoulders and pointed
feet. Late Spade II descended from the line of the Old Spade of
which the predecessor is H. H. Spade II. The origin of the shape
of Late Spade III is more difficult to decide. It appears very much
to have developed out of the shape of the "Regular" spade of Liang,
(Plate XV, 3), both of which belong to the Old Spade (earlier
than Late Spade III) and have a round handle, round shoulders
and round feet. It might have been an imitation of Late Spade
IV which was the design of the official currency of the state of
Ch'in and will be discussed presently.
For each of the types there are two sizes. The large-sized spec-
imens in the collection of the American Numismatic Society weigh
approximately twice the smaller ones. Some small-sized specimens
of Late Spade I and II have specification of their denomination
in their legend, which appears either on the obverse together with
the mint name or on their reverse (for examples see Plates XVIII,
2; XXII, 1). This is always the character pan for "half." The denom-
ination of the larger size, which weighs twice as much as the small,
must then be "one," referring to the monetary unit of the spade,
the chin. Both the large and small-sized coins of Late Spade IV
bear their denominational designations on the reverse (for examples
see Plates XXVI, 3; XXVII). The denomination al designation of
the large spade is liang (Chinese ounce), and of the small is "twelve
chu" (chu being a very small unit of weight). Since at this time one
liang was made up of twenty-four chu, the smaller coin is a "half"
of the larger. Although different in size, the large and the small
coins of each type have the same design. The characteristics of
the types are shown in the chart on the opposite page.
An interesting phenomenon of the Late Spades is their lack of
complete uniformity in design. Let us take the coins of Ta-yin as an
example (Plates XVIII, 1; XIX, 3). The spades of this mint are
of the type of L. S. I, but a few have square shoulders instead of
the predominating pointed shoulders. A few others have square
shoulders and square feet. These exceptional shapes are obviously
The Spade Coinage
125
Obverse
L.S.I
L. S. II
L. S.Ill
L. S. IV
Handle
Square; two ver-
tical lines converg-
ing on lower end
Square, one ver-
tical line
Round,
plain
Round, a
hole
Shoulders
Raised & pointed
Square
Round
Round
Body
One vertical line in
center, legend
Vertical line on
handle continuing
down through cen-
ter, legend
Plain leg-
end
Plain leg-
end
Feet
Pointed
Square
Round
Round, a
hole on each
Legend
Mint name or com-
bined with the de-
nomination
Mint name
Mint name
Mint name
Reverse
L.S.I
L. S. II
L. S. Ill
L. S. IV
Handle
Square, one ver-
Square, one ver-
Round, plain
Round, a
tical central line
tical central line
hole, a nu-
meral (ser-
ial mark ?)
Shoulders
Raised & pointed
Flat and square
Round
Round
Body
Two parallel ver-
Central line on
Two lines
Denomina-
tical lines on the
handle continuing
starting
tional spec-
sides
down through body,
two side lines
starting from end
of handle and di-
verging towards
tips of feet
from end of
handle and
diverging
towards
tips of feet
ification
Feet
Pointed
Square
Round
Round, hole
on each foot
Numeral
Most have a nu-
Few have a nu-
A numeral
A numeral
mark or
meral in center or
meral, placed the
in center
on handle
denomina-
on side
same way, some
and a de-
tion
have a denomina-
tion
nomination-
al specifica-
tion on body
influenced by the shape of L. S. II. Although the forms of their
shoulders and feet have changed, other features, however, remain.
Adoption by a mint of an alien coin type was one cause of the
lack of uniformity in design. This is illustrated in the coinage of
Chin-yang (Plate XXI, 1,3). During the period of the Old Spade,
Chin-yang cast the spade with square feet. There is every reason
to expect that in the days of the Late Spade the mint would have
cast Late Spade II, which developed from the Old Spade. Instead
it cast the type of Late Spade I. Some other mints changed the
shapes of their coinage once or twice within the same period. Thus
we find Chung-tu cast both L. S. I and II. Towns such as Lin cast
three types of the Late Spade.
The reasons for these changes in design may have been technical,
economic, or political. During the Chan-kuo period in which the Late
Spade circulated, the economic relations between different areas
had become much closer. Active inter-regional trade leads naturally
to constant exchange and assimilation of local customs and institu-
tions. Coinage was likely to have been affected by this process of
general cultural assimilation or borrowing. The replacemant of one
type of coinage by another, or the borrowing by one mint of the
type of coinage of another, may have been a result of the superior
economic influence of the latter.
Changes in coin type for political reasons may be detected in the
coinage of An-yang. The An-yang spades in question belong to Type
IV (Plate XXVII, 2). Spades of this type uniformly bear the
monetary unit liang on the large size and its half (twelve chu) on
the small. This type of the Late Spade differs in its monetary unit
from the other three types, for which the unit is the chin. Since it
has a special unit, it must have been a spade coinage of a special
area, which was most likely the territory of the state of Ch'in. The
round coin of Ch'in which was issued after Ch'in unified ancient
China and unified the monetary system is designated liang. The
identification of the same monetary unit on coinages of consecutive
periods indicates that they circulated in the same area.
To be sure, students of Chinese history will find three towns by the
name of An-yang during the Chou period. One is mentioned by Li
Hsien and others in their notes to a passage in the Hou Han shu
(Book of Later Han) and is located by them in present southeastern
Shantung.69 A second, which was a town in the old Tai state in
present northern Shansi, is recorded in the Shih-chi.70 A third is also
recorded in the Shih-chi, where it is stated that in 257/6 B.C., "After
the Ch'in armies conquered Ning-hsin-chung, it was renamed
An-yang."71 This An-yang was located southwest of the present
city of like name in present northern Honan.
The first An-yang was located in the knife coinage area and
cannot be the town which minted the spades. While both the second
and the third are possibilities, we believe that the An-yang which
cast the spades with round shoulders, round feet and three holes
is the third An-yang, created by Ch'in in 257 B. C. We are led to
this assumption by the fact that mints of this type of spade which
have been deciphered and located were all situated close to the
original territory of Ch'in. They are towns which were probably
the first annexed by Ch'in in the course of its eastward expansion.
It was probably after their conquest that Ch'in imposed on them
its official coin type of round shoulders, round feet, with three holes.
Did Ch'in have an official type of spade coinage? The indica-
tions are that it did. In Shih-chi, VI, 5oa, it is stated that in the
second year of King Hui-wen (336/5 B. C.) the Ch'in "For the first
time hsing money." In XV, 21a, in the chronological table for the
Chan-kuo period it is stated under the same year, "The Son of
Heaven (the Chou king) congratulated (Ch'in) for hsing money."
Literally, hsing means "to put into usage or circulation." Scholars
who argue for the late origin of metallic money in China have stressed
these records beyond their proper limits. Their amplification of the
significance of these data to be indicative also of other regions of
ancient China is highly questionable, for we know that the spade
* Hou-Han shu, 1643, XXCII, Part 2, 2b. Shih-chi, XLIII, 27b -28a.
71 V, 34a.
coinage had begun as early as the early Chou. At that time the
territory of Ch'in was the center of the Chou royal domain. The
discovery of the hollow-handle spades in the area72 is an indisputable
proof. It may be possible that the Ch'in people, who came from
the west with a comparatively backward economic tradition, had
discouraged the use of metallic money, but how far this held true
of the actual situation is a question. The "putting into circulation
the money" in Ch'in in 336 B. C. appears to be more like the estab-
lishment of an official currency with the implication of a state
monopoly in coinage. This might have been the policy which heralded
the unification and state monopoly of coinage on a national scale
in 221 B. C. after Ch'in conquered the whole country. Judging
from all the indications, this official type of currency seems to be
that with round shoulders, round feet, with three holes. The estab-
lishment of an official type of currency was possible in a state which
was as centralized as Ch'in was in 336 B. C. If this assumption and
the assumption that the spade money of Ch'in was the Late Spade
IV is correct, we may say the commencement of this particular
type of Late Spade III was in 336 B. C.
The date for the Late Spade can also be gauged from the coinage of
Lin of Type III, which mint had also cast Types I and II. In and
before the fifth century B. C. the area in which Lin of a later date was
located was still occupied by the Ti people, not by the Chinese.
According to King Wu-ling of Chao (325299 B. C.) to which Lin
belonged, Lin was conquered and annexed by one of his ancestors.73
This event must have taken place after the Chao state was officially
created in 4o3 and before King Wu-ling became the ruler of the
state in 325 B. C.74 That is to say that Lin as a mint of the Late
Spade came into being only after 4o3 B. C. The commencement of
its coinage may well be in the fourth century. In other words, the
appearance of the Late Spade III of Lin cannot be earlier than
4oo B. C.
72 Lo Chen-yii, Yung-lu jih-cha na. 3 Shih-chi, XLIII, 21a.
'* According to Shih-chi, XLIII, 19a, Ch'in seized Lin from the state of Chao in 328 B. C.
As we know, between the termination of the spade coinage and
the unification of the Chinese monetary system in 221 B. C. there
was a period in which the round coin was the currency. In view of
the fact that the round coins which are preserved or discovered
are exceedingly few in comparison with the Late Spades, it seems
that the period of the round coinage of Chou was very short. If we
give twenty or thirty years for the period, we will have the year
25o B.C. as the approximate date for the end of the spade coinage.
Thus, on the basis of all evidence available we get the following
chronological order for the spade coinage:
Prototype Spade End of 12th or 11th century B. C.
Hollow-handle Spade ca. 4oo B. C.
Old Spade 4oo34o B. C.
Late Spade 34o25o B. C.
This chronology reveals that the later the type of coin appeared,
the shorter the period in which it was in circulation, and the faster
it was replaced by newer types. The change of the types, or in other
words, the adoption of new types, is accompanied by gradual re-
duction in size and weight and by the tendency to adopt more
convenient forms of money.
4. THE REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE SPADES
Both the provenance of the spades and the locations of their
mints demonstrate that the spades were a coinage of a special region
in ancient China.
In 1942 Cheng Chia-hsiang published a prefatory article to a study
of inscriptions on ancient Chinese coins, in which he says that he has
collected 244 different characters appearing on spade coins alone.75
Judging from the average inscription on spade coins, at least eighty
per cent of these, or about 195, must be names of mint towns. Many of
the names of the mint towns, however, consist of two characters, and
75 Cheng Chia-hsiang, "Ku huo wen-tzu hui-pien tzu-hsu" (Preface to a collection of
inscription characters on old coins), Ch'iian-pi, No. u, (1942), 42.
9 Monograph 113
these mint names account for two thirds of the total. Thus the actual
number of mint names would be no more than 14o. We have
ourselves collected 147 names of mint towns on spade coins in the
collection at the American Numismatic Society, supplemented in
some cases by those in coin catalogues published before 1939. Because
of the difficulties mentioned in the introduction, not all of these
names have been satisfactorily deciphered or located. The following
table contains the names and locations of eighty-seven mint towns. The
name of the mint is given in the first column of the table. In the
second column is noted the name of the state to which the mint
belonged or in which it was located during the Ch'un-ch'iu period
(77o481 B. C.). In the third column is found the name of the state
or names of states to which the mint belonged during, or in greater
part of, the Chan-kuo period (4o3221 B. C.). In cases where the
name of a mint is found to be that of more than one town with
simultaneous existence in one state or in different states, and the
identification with a particular town is thus impossible, all the pos-
sibilities will be found noted in the table. (Table see p. 131-135)
The eighty-seven mint towns included in the above table should
prove a sufficient number to show the geographical distribution of
the towns which minted spade coins. In the Ch'un-ch'iu period,
these mints were located in the royal domain of Chou and in
the states of Yen, Chin, Cheng, Sung, Lu, Wei and other minor
states. None was located in the states on the Shantung Peninsula
(notably Ch'i, An-yang, etc), or in the present Hupeh Province, the
original territory of the state of Ch'u.
The regional character of the distribution of the spade coins is
further corroborated by their provenance. Hollow-handle Spades
of various descriptions are reported to have been discovered in
"Chung-chou" (Honan Province) by Li Tso-hsien, Pao K'ang, Ch'u
Shang-ling and Ch'in Pao-tsan, in "Pien-chung" (Kai-feng) by Li
Tso-hsien, in "Ts6-chou" (Chin-ch'eng in S. E. Shansi) by Pao K'ang,
in "Lo" or "Lo-chung" (area around Lo-yang in N. Honan) by Fang
Jo, in Meng-chin (N. Honan) by Ch'u Shang-ling, in "Kuan-chung"
The Spade Coinage
131
Location,
770-481 B.C.
Location,
403-221 B.C.
Modern
location
Type of Spade cast by
the mint
Mint
An-i g,
Chin
Liang (Wei)
S. W. Shansi
O. S. (Old Spade)
An-yang
Chin?
Chao
N. Shansi
L. S. (Late Spade) 11
m
Wei?
Ch'in (since
N.Honan
L. S. Ill
257 B. C.)
An-yin
Pro Chao
N. Shansi
O. S.
&
Ch'ang-tzu
Chin
Chao, Han
S. E. Shansi
L. S. II
Cheng
Cheng
Han
C. Honan
L. S. II
Ch'eng
Lu
Ch'i (since
W. Shantung
H. H. S. (Hollow-
4o8?)
handle Spade) II
Chai-yang
Liang
N. Honan
L. S. II
*
Ch'i
Chin
Chao
N. Shansi
H. H. S. II; L. S. II
US
Chih
Chin
Liang
S.W. Shansi
H. H. S. II
Chih
Chin
Chao?
S. Shansi
O. S.; L. S. II
& OSES)
Chin-yang
Chin
Liang
S. W. Shansi
O. S.
KB
Chao
C. Shansi
L. S. I
Ching
Cheng
Han
N. Honan
0. S.
Cho
Yen
Yen
N. Hopeh
L. S. II
Chou
SI
Chou
E. Shensi
H. H. S. II
m
Chou
N. Honan
Chu
Chu
Ch'u
S.W. Shan-
H. H. S. II
tung
Han &
E. Honan
L. S. II
Liang (361)
Ch'ui
Sung
Liang
E. Honan
H.H.S.II;O.S.; L.S.II
Chung-tu
Chin
Chao
C. Shansi
L. S. II
9*
132
Location,
770-481 B.C.
Location,
403-221 B.C.
Modern
location
the mint
Mint
Chung-yang
Chin
Chao or Li-
S. W. Shansi
L. S. II
* Si
ang
Fen
Chin
Chao or Li-
S. Shansi
O. S.; L. S. I
ang
Feng
Chou or
Ch'in or
E. Shensi or
L. S. II
m
Sung
Sung &
N. Kiangsu
Ch'u
Han-tan
Chin
Chao
S. Hopeh
H. H. S. I; L. S.I
Hao
Ch'in
Ch'in
C. Shensi
Hou
Chin
Han or Li-
N. Honan
H. H. S. II
S (fig)
ang
Huo (as al-
Chin
Chao
S. Hopeh
ternative of
U Ha)
Chin or
Chao or
S. Shansi or
L. S. I
Huo
^ (*)
Chou
Han
C. Honan
Hsi-tu
Chin?
Chao
C. Shansi
L. S. II
is as
Hsia-pi-yang
Han?
C. Honan
L. S. Ill
Hsiang
Chou or
Liang or
N.W. Honan
H. H. S. II
fa
Cheng?
Liang?
E. Honan
Hsiang-p'ing
Yen
Yen
S. Liao-ning
L. S. II
Hsiang-yuan
Chin
Liang
S. E. Shansi
L. S. II
Hsin (5)
All in spade
L. S. II
coin area
Hsin-ch'Sng
All in spade
L. S. I; L. S. II
if as (7)
coin area
Jang-yin
Chin
Han?
S. E. Shansi
L. S. II
JS&
Kao-tu
Chin or
Liang or
N. Honan
L. S. II
Cheng
Han
N. W. Honan
Location,
770-481B. C.
Location,
403-221 B.C.
Modern
location
the mint
Mint
Ke
N. W. Shan-
H. H. S. II
pa
tung
Kuai
Kuai
Han
N. W. Honan
L. S. I; L. S. II
mn)
& Chin
Kung
Wei
Liang
N. Honan
O. S.
&
Kuo
Sung
Ch'u
E. Honan
Lai
Sung
Ch'u
E. Honan
Li-shih
Chao
W. Shansi
L. S. II; L. S. Ill
Liang
Liang
N. E. Honan
O. S.; L. S. II
m
Lin
Chao
W. Shansi
L. S. I; L. S. II; L. S.
Ill
Liu
g
Sung
Ch'u
N. Kiangsu
H. H. S. II
IS
Lu
Chin
Han
S. E. Shansi
L. S. II
)
Lu-shih
Han
W. Honan
H. H. S. Ill; O. S.;
O. S. II
Lu-yang
Ch'u
C. Honan
H. H. S. Ill; O. S.
4& PEL
f i
Lil
Chin
Chao
S. Shansi
H. H. S. I
g
Mi
Lu
S. W. Shan-
H. H. S. II
(*?)
tung
Nieh
Chin
Liang
S. E. Shansi
O. S.; L. S. II
Ning
Liang
N. Honan
O. S.
m
Pei-ch'iu
Ch'i
N. W. Shan-
L. S. II
tung
Pei-ch'u
Chin
Liang
S. W. Shansi
L. S. II
Pei-tzu
Chin
Chao
S. Chansi
L. S. I
Pi-yin
Han
C. Honan
O. S. (?)
IS
134
Mint
Location,
770-481 B.C.
Location,
403221 B.C.
Modern
location
the mint
P'i-shih
'Chin
Liang
S. W. Shansi
L. S. I
P'ing-chou
Liang
C. Shansi
L. S. II
1
P'ing-yang
Wei or
Liang? or
N. Honan or
L. S. II
Chin or
Han (or
S. W. Shan-
Chao or
si or
Lu
Liang) or
S. W. Shan-
tung
P'ing-yin
Chou
N. Honan
L. S. II
P'ing-yiian
Chin
Chao
N. W. Shan-
L. S. II
tung
Po
Sung
Ch'u?
E. Honan
H. H. S. II
P'u-pan
Chin
Liang
S. W. Shansi
O. S.
P'u-tzfl
Chin
Liang
W. Shansi
L. S. II
Shan-yang
Liang
N. Honan
O. S.
Shang-ch'iu
Sung
Sung?
E. Honan
L. S. II
MS.
Shang-pi-
Han?
C. Honan
L. S. Ill
yang
Sung
Sung
Sung
E. Honan
H. H. S. II
Ta-yin
Liang or
N. W. Honan
L. S. I; L. S. II
*m
Han
Tu
Chou
Ch'in
W. Shensi
H. H. S. II
tfc()
Tu-yang
Chou
Ch'in
W. Shensi
L. S. II
TJun-liu
Chin
Han
S. W. Shansi
L. S. II
fc (*)
The Spade Coinage
135
Location,
770-481 B.C.
Location,
403-221 B.C.
Modern
location
the mint
Mint
Tung-chou
Tung-chou
N. Honan
H. H. S. Ill
Mm
T'ung-t'i
Chin
Liang?
S. Shansi
L. S. II
Tzii-shih
Chin
Chao
C. Shansi
L. S. I; L. S. II
Wen-yang
Lu
Lu
C. Shantung
L. S. II
Wu
Cheng or
Han or
N.W. Honan
L. S. II
41$
or
Chin
Chao
C. Shansi
Wu
Liang,
E. Shensi
H. H. S. Ill
Ch'in
(after 396)
Wu-an
Chin
Chao
N. Honan
H. H. S. Ill; L. S. II
Wu-p'ing
Chin
Chao
N. Honan
L. S. II
g
Yang
%
Han
N.W. Honan
H. H. S. II; L. S. I
Yang-ch'eng
Han
N. Honan
L. S. II
Yang-i
Chin
Chao
C. Shansi
L. S. II
Yang-j en
Cheng
Han
C. Honan
L. S. II
IS! A
Yin-chin
Chin
Liang,
E. Shensi
O. S.
Ch'in (af-
ter 332)
Yii
Chin?
Han?
N.W. Honan
H.H. S. II
Yii
Chin
Liang
S. W. Shansi
h. H. S. II; O. S.
(since
665
Yu-yang
B. C.)
Yuan
Yen
Yen
N. Hopeh
L. S. II
Liang
S.W. Shansi
O. s.
136
(C. Shensi) by Lo Chen-yii.76 The old Spades of An-i are reported
to have been discovered in "Chin-chung" (Shansi), and the various
Late Spades are said to have been recovered in "Chin-chung"
(Shansi) and "Shan-yu" (Shansi), in "Chi-hsing" (Hopeh) or Chih-li
(Hopeh) by most of the numismatists mentioned above.77 The most
recent discovery of a number of H. H. Spade I in the Chou tombs
by Kuo Pao-chtin was made in Chi county, northern Honan. In the
Ch'un-ch'iu period, these areas were the territories of the royal domain
of Chou and of the states of Chin, Ch'in, Yen, Wei, Cheng and Sung,
in all of which mint towns of spade coins were located.78
If we examine further the locations of the mints of the various
types of the spades, we will find that within this extensive area,
certain types of spades are found to be local varieties of particular
regions. H. H. Spade I and Late Spade I, which developed out of the
former, appear to be a type of the region between the Yellow and the
Fen Rivers in what is now southern Hopeh and central Shansi.
78 See Li Tso-Hsien, Ku ch'iian hui (Coole, No. 266), Part I, X, 1b; Li Tso-hsien and
Pao K'ang, Hsii ch'iian hui (Coole, No. 199), Part I, II, 7b; Ch'u Shang-ling, Chi-chin
so-chxen lu (Coole, No. 9), "fan-li" (Rules for the compilation) and II, 8a8b; Pao
K'ang, Kuan-ku-ke ch'iian-shuo (Coole, No. 296), 1a; Pao K'ang ed., Hsii ch'iian-shuo
(Coole, No. 202), 4a; Fang Jo, Yueh-yii ku-huo tsa-yung (Coole, No. 290), under the
"Han-yang" hollow-handle spade; Lo Chen-yii, Yung-lu jih-cha (Coole, No. 392),
1934, photostat ed., 10b; Cheng Chia-hsiang, "Shang-ku huo-pi t'ui-chiu" (Re-
searches in ancient coins), Ch'iian-pi, No. 9 (1941), 23.
"See NiMo, Ku-chin ch'ien liieh (Coole, No. 245), II, l1b. Ch'u Shang-ling, op. cit., I,
4a, 14b, 16a, 16b, 18a; II, 4b; Li Tso-hsien, op. cit., Preface III, 12b; Kuan-ku-ke
ch'iian-shuo, 1b; Hsii ch'iian-shuo, 1b; Pao K'ang, Kuan-ku-ke ts'ung-k'ao, III (Coole,
No. 299), 7b; Ch'iian-pi, No. 5 (1941), 23.
78 A nineteenth century collector named Chin Hsi-ch'ang reports that during the
reign of Emperor Ch'ien-lung (17361795)" several tens to a hundred" of hollow-
handle spades bearing legends of "Wu" and "Lu-shih" were unearthed in mountains
of Yu-hang in Chekiang Province (Ch'ing-yiin-kuan shou-ts'ang ku-ch'uan shu-cki,
Coole, 1o1, IX, 4b5b). The locations of Wu and Lu-shih are indicated in the table.
Yu-hang is in northern Chekiang near the sea coast. During the Ch'un-ch'iu period it
was in the territory of Yiieh. It is not known how old the remains were in which the
coins were discovered, therefore it is difficult to determine when those spades were
brought there. They may have been brought at the time when they were still in
circulation in the interior of apcient China.
The Sfade Coinage 137
H. H. Spade II was the type along the Wei River, in central Shensi,
the Yellow River in Honan and the Chi River in southwestern
Shantung. H. H. Spade III was the type in the region of present
western Honan, and Late Spade IV was the type of the state of
Ch'in of the late Chan-kuo period, the territory of which corres-
ponded to present western Shansi, western Honan and Shensi.
Some of the towns originally belonging to Sung, Lu and other
states were annexed by Ch'u during the Chan-kuo period, and some
originally belonging to Lu and Chin were annexed by Ch'i. Both
Ch'i and Ch'u had their own special coinages, the knife and Yuan
Chin respectively. Coins show that change of political domination
did not bring about abolition of the previous coinage and the ex-
clusive adoption of that of their new overlords by these towns. It
is true, of course, that a gradual change to wider circulation of the
conquerors' currency took place.
Although a specific type of coin, as the spade or knife, was regional
in the location of its mints and principal circulation, it must be
understood that inevitable trade between the various areas would
cause limited amounts of currency to be used in outside areas.
5. SPECIAL OLD SPADES OF LIANG
(Plates XV, 3-5; XVI, 1)
The term, "Special Old Spades," like other terms used to classify
spade coins, is given purely for convenience's sake. With it we refer
to a large group of spades of Liang which differ from its regular
series of Old Spades. Both groups appear to have circulated at the
same time. The legends on the special group are the longest found
on any spade coins, whatever their type, and their content is also
unusual. Inasmuch as the group differs from others substantially
in monetary significance, they deserve special discussion.
These spades may be divided into four types, The legends of two of
the types are made up of six characters, while the legends of the
other two have seven and eight respectively. The six-character and
the seven-character legends are not very difficult to read, but the
eight-character legend has been, to use Lacouperie's words, "a
stumbling block" to numismatists. To be sure, quite a few different
readings for it have been suggested,79 but each of them is based on
unacceptable conjecture. It is to Tung Yu-ch'eng (17911821) and
Kuo Mo-jo (1892) that we must give credit for its correct reading.80
The four legends are as follows:
a. Liang cheng shang chin tang lieh %k IE f*J -& g if& or "Liang
standard superior money equal to one lieh." Plate XV, 3.
b. Liang pan shang erh chin tang lieh 3s 1*1 # H" # or
"Liang superior money, half (unit), two equal to one lieh."
Plate XV, 4.
c. Liang ch'ung chin chin tang lieh = 3t SJf 4k % # or "Liang
money to be used as one chin and equal to one lieh." Plate
XV, 5-
d. Liang ch'ung chin wu tang lieh shih erh ^feJtiUJLgiQ'Y
or "Liang money to be used as five chin and equal to twelve
lieh." Plate XVI, 1.
The weights of the specimens in the cabinet of the Museum of the
American Numismatic Society are shown in the following chart:
78 For the various readings of the legend see Ku ch'ien ta-tz' ii-tien, VIII, 2oa21b;
Ch'iian-pi, No. 24, p. 11; No. 25, p. 2; No. 26, p. 8.
80 The article of Tung Yu-ch'eng jg jffc jjjg is quoted in the Ku ch'ien' ta-tz" ii-tien,
XII, 496a. Kuo Mo-jo's reading is in Liang Chou chin-wen-tz'& ta-hsi k'ao-shih, 13b.
It must be noted that both scholars arrived at the reading by calculating the weight
of the spade with this legend, but the method used by Tung Yu-ch'eng is wrong, be-
cause he mistakenly understood the chin Jj (monetary unit of the spade) as exactly
identical with the later weight measure chin /{-, which is made up of sixteen Hang.
Actually, during the Chou period the chin as a monetary unit weighed approximately
as much as the liang. Therefore his reading is just accidentally correct.
The Spade Coinage
139
Type
Average Weight
Weight of
Heaviest
Specimen
Weight of
Lightest
Specimen
a
12.61 (average of 17 specimens)
16.oo
1O.8o
b
approximately half that of c81
c
d
15-o5
7.21
28.o2
17.4o
Liang, the first character in each of the legends, is the name of
the mint or issuing city or authority, as are the first characters or
initial combinations of characters in the legends of all coins of the
Chou period.
Cheng, the second character in the legend of a) means "regular"
and "standard." Some numismatists understand it as meaning
"whole" or "a whole one," as against the "half" in the legend b).82
This, however, does not seem to be a plausible explanation.
Pan, the second character in legend b) means "half," a denom-
inational term used for all types of spades except the Hollow-
handles. It must be used here in reference to the denomination of
one of the other three types of the Special Old Spades of Liang.
Since coins of legends c) and d) are of one group distinguished by
the monetary designation "ch'ung" in their legends and are different
from type b), the type with which type b) with the "half" denomina-
tion is related must be type a), the full "unit" spade of Liang.
The size of the spade of the "half" denomination is much smaller
than that of the "unit" spade (see Plate XV, 34) with legend a)
and legend b). According to Kuo Mo-jo, the weight of the spade
with legend b) is approximately half of the spade with legend c).
81 The weight of type b) is according to Kuo Mo-jo, who seems to have weighed a
specimen of this type.
88 Cheng Chia-hsiang, for example, holds this opinion; see Ch'iian-pi, No. 25, p. 9.
As shown in the above chart, the spade with legend c) weighs ap-
proximately the same as the spade with legend a). Therefore, the
weight of the spade of type b) must be about half the weight of
the spade of type a). In other words, the spade of type a) represents
the coin of a whole unit, while the spade of type b) represents that
of a half unit.
As specified in their legends, the monetary unit of the spades with
legends c) and d) is the chin. Since the spades with legends a) and b)
belong to the same group, the monetary unit of the latter must be
the chin. The average weight of the spade with legend a) shown in
the above chart is roughly the same as the weight of ordinary Old
Spade of one chin denomination, about 13 grams.
The reading of the second character in legends c) and d) as ch'ung
has been accepted by most numismatists and some epigraphers.83
The primary meaning of the character ch'ung is "to fill up," from
which the meaning of "to be used as" or "to be reckoned as" is
later derived. In the case of the spade with legend d), whose weight
does not correspond to its denomination, ch'ung actually signifies
what we mean by the word "token." It is most likely that, though
specified as of one chin denomination, the ch'ung spade with legend
c) weighed less than the spade of the "standard" type of the same
denomination.
The last character in all of the legends is lieh, which has been er-
roneously identified and read as yuan by most numismatists. This
will be further explained on pp. 2o7211.
Anyone who reads the legends of the Special Old Spades of Liang
cannot help being impressed and fascinated by the phrases "stand-
ard superior money," "money to be used as" and their equations
to or exchange rate with the lieh. These expressions or specifications
are not found either in the legends of any other Old Spades or of the
83 Other decipherments for the character are ch'i -^ meaning "uncommon" or
"special" (Fang Jo, op. cit., see above, note 76; decipherment found under the
illustration of a specimen of the Special Old Spade of Liang), hsin ^jpf meaning "new"
(Ch'iian-pi, No. 25, p. 2) and k'ua % meaning "big" {op. cit., No. 26, p. 8). Tentatively
we suggest hsiian j meaning "dark."
spades of other types. Their unique nature leads us to believe that
the Special Old Spades of Liang were cast to cope with new and
special monetary situations.
Let us examine the history of Liang to see whether we may find
the special conditions which may have called forth the type. In the
early years of the Chan-kuo period in which Old Spades appeared
there were three places bearing the name "Liang." One, designated
either as "Liang" or "Shao Liang" (Small Liang), was located on
the west bank of the Yellow River in the central part of eastern
Shensi. Another, designated as "Nan Liang" (Southern Liang), was
located south of the Ju River in central Honan and appeared to
have been annexed by the state of Han about 376 B. C. Both towns
were situated in an area far from the economic and political center
of China of that day, and both were economically rather insignificant.
Neither seems to have been the one which established the new and
complex coinage under discussion.
The third city with the name of Liang was Ta Liang or "Great
Liang," capital of a state which was located on the eastern plain of
ancient China close to the "Cross-road," and on the Great Canal
waterway system connecting the Yellow River valley and the valleys
of the Huai and the Yangtze Rivers. It was strategically situated in
the state of Liang, also known as Wei (to be distinguished from the
Wei state whose name is written differently though pronounced
the same, and which was created many centuries earlier). In 362 B.C.
the state abandoned its old capital of An-i in the west, moved to
Great Liang, which was made its new capital.84 Before 34o B. C., the
year Liang yielded to the state of Ch'in all its land and towns west
of the Yellow River at its southern bend, the territory of Liang was
extensive and well placed, cutting across the central part of ancient
China and connecting Ch'in in the west (modern Shensi) and Ch'i
u This date (362 B. C.) about a quarter of a century earlier than the traditional date,
is arrived at from a statement in the old edition of the Bamboo Annals (See Ch'ien Mu,
Hsien-Ch'in chu-tzu hsi-nien k'ao-pien, 135 142). Because its capital from this year
on was Ta Liang, the state was thereupon called Liang.
in the east (Shantung Peninsula). In the north it had possession of
the old Chung-shan state in central Hopeh, and in the south it may
have penetrated deep into the valley of the Huai River. In other
words, the territory of the state occupied horizontally the central
part of Chou China in the Chan-kuo period. In this stratigically
situated territory traversed the Yellow River, the Fen River, the
Chang River, the Southern Chi River, and the canal system of the
Great Canal. All of these were important waterways in ancient
China and constituted a communication system to and from all
directions.
Upon such a promising natural potentiality were exerted the
efforts of a wise administration. The early history of the state is
filled with laudatory stories about the administrative activities of
the best statesmen of the age. During the reigns of Marquis Wen
(425397 B. C.), Marquis Wu (396371 B. C.) and King Hui (370
319 B. C.) the state underwent fundamental reforms in both its
politics and economy. It abandoned the traditional aristocratic
rule by blood, and redistributed the land (at least in part of the
state), aiming at bettering the life of the peasants. Ways and means
were worked out to promote production in agriculture, and promotion
of commerce had been encouraged. As a result, as Prof. Ch'ien Mu
has rightly pointed out, the state acheived a sort of hegemony to
be emulated by other feudatories over a period of some eighty years
from 425 to 344 B. C.85 It was during this Old Spade period that
the "Special Old Spades of Liang" were in circulation. Indications are
that Liang cast these special spades in addition to its ordinary Old
Spades, after the state moved its capital to Great Liang in 362 B. C.
At this time commerce in China was expanding. With their state
the most powerful at the time, situated in a key economic area
through which merchandise to and from all parts of China must
traverse, the rulers of Liang may have found it necessary and ad-
vantageous to issue special coins to facilitate the business transactions
85 Ch'ien Mu, op. cit., 126 and the section of tables, pp. 9o 91.
between their merchants and those of other regions. This motivation
is clearly manifested in the fact that every one of the Special Old
Spades was given not only a denomination in terms of the local
monetary unit chin, but also a denominational equivalence in terms
of the lieh. The lieh seems to have been the weight unit of the early
spade coinage and remained to be such in some parts of the spade
area after Old Spades had made their appearance. The ever present
specification of the equation between the chin and the lieh on these
Special Old Spades indicates that they were cast as a sort of inter-
regional currency between the area where the chin was the monetary
unit and the area which used the lieh.
V. THE KNIFE COINAGE
1. ITS ORIGIN AND DATE
The problem of the origin of the knife coinage is much simpler than
that of the spade. The character for tao, the name of the knife
coinage, is the same as for the instrument from which it developed.
In shape, the coin faithfully resembles the original implement, and
there is no possibility whatsoever for the coin to be taken as an imita-
tion of any other object.
In one of the first excavations in Yin-hsu, the last capital of the
Shang dynasty, a bronze knife was recovered (Plate XXVIII, 1).1 Its
main features are identical with those of the early knife coin. Its body
is slightly bent as is the Early Knife, and at the end of its handle
there is a ring, which is also found on the coin. Its measurements,
made from Li Chi's illustration, are 22o mm. in length and 25 mm.
in width. Later two other bronze knives of the same shape were
discovered at the same site.2 One of them had a richly decorated
handle on which the ring was replaced with a "horse's head." It is
288 mm. long and 38 mm. wide at its broadest point. The other
knife was plain, 228 mm. in length and 36 in width, with the usual
ring at the end of its handle. Different from the earlier one, the
handles of these two are slit from end to end. The purpose for which
the groove was made is not known.
1 Illustrated as No. 6 on the plate with Li Chi's afc gJJ article "Yin-hsu t'ung-ch'i
wu-chung chi-ch'i hsiang-kuan chih wen-t'i" (Five bronze objects discovered in Yin-
hsu and the problems in regard to them), Ch'ing-chu Ts'ai Yiian-p'ei hsien-shSng liu-
shih-wu-sui lun-wen-chi, 1933, Par* I> 73 1o4. The author's comment on the knife is
on pp. 9o91.
* Shih Chang-ju ^ ||J $g "Yin-hsii tsui-chin chih chung-yao fa-hsien" (Most re-
cent and important finds in Yin-hsii), Chung-kuo k'ao-ku hsiieh poo, II (1947), 1 81,
fig. 16, 6 and Plate XI, 4.
144
The Knife Coinage 145
The American Numismatic Society has in its collection a knife
(Plate XXVIII, 2) which is said to have been discovered in Wei
Hsien (Wei County) in eastern Shantung. It was badly oxidized
through the ages, and in appearance gives the impression of being
very old. Like the others described above, it has also a mildly bent
body, but, unlike them, its blade is much narrower, being only 12 mm.
at its broadest point, which is always the part of the blade which
joins the handle. Its length is 22o mm. The ring at the lower end of
the handle is exceedingly large. The handle which appears round in
shape has a few parallel grooves, with four long ones running from
end to end. Those grooves were obviously made to give the user a
firm hold. This design on the tool reminds us of the two parallel
lines on the handle of almost all of the knife coins, early or late. The
two-line design on the handle of the coins certainly is in imitation
of these grooves on the actual tool. Though this knife may not
be the very type from which the first knife coins developed, it cer-
tainly suggests the features of the knife in general. The coincidence
of the grooves on the tool and the raised two-line design on the
coins becomes more significant when we consider that the reported
location where the knife was discovered is in the area where the
Early Knife coinage circulated.
Some numismatists believe that the knife after which the coin was
modelled was a household implement, and some contend that it was
a weapon. Li Chi regards it as the hsiieh mentioned in the K'ao-
kung chi3 which is now incorporated in the text of the Chou li. The
ancient Chinese hsiieh was something functionally like a whittling
knife used to cut off thin slices from a piece of wood or bamboo.
The shape of the knife specimens described above suggests such a
functional use. In the Chou li it is stated that the length of the
hsiieh is one chHh (foot) and the width is one tenth. The longest of
the foot measures of the Chou period which have been discovered
and reported is 225 mm., and the shortest is 219 mm. The measure-
3 Li Chi, op. cit. 91. The passage in the Chou li to which he refers is in XL, 6b.
io Monograph 113
ments of the knives mentioned above correspond fairly well to
those for the hsiieh recorded in the Chou It. This is additional sup-
port for Li Chi's identification with the hsiieh.
Which type of the knife coins preserved today is the "early knife?"
This is still a topic of controversy. In our opinion the early knife
coins are the large knives of Ch'i, Chi-mo, An-yang and T'an (Plates
XXIXXXXVIII, 1), which is also the opinion generally held by
most numismatists, save for Okutaira Masahiro and Cheng Chia-
hsiang.
Cheng Chia-hsiang contends that the earliest knife coins are the
"sharp-pointed knives."4 So also does Okutaira,5 though he is silent
on the reasons for his belief. Cheng Chia-hsiang expresses the follow-
ing reasons for his contention: 1) Sharp-pointed Knives have a (thin)
blade (in other words, they resemble more nearly the actual tool);
2) their legend is not a mint name; 3) the style of their inscriptions is
mostly that of the "great seal character," while that of the large
knives of Ch'i and the other three states is mostly in the style of the
"small seal character."6
To his first point we may counter that not only is the blade of the
Sharp-pointed Knives thin, but every part of them is thin. In fact,
their handle ring is so thin and flat that, contrary to Chang's sup-
position, it only remotely resembles that of the original tool. The
thinness and fragile appearance of the knives suggest rather that
they are late in origin. Concerning the style of inscription, Cheng
Chia-hsiang's argument is not borne out by facts. Comparison of
the inscriptions on the Sharp-pointed Knives and on the large
knives of Ch'i and the other three states does not show marked
differences in style. There are also archaic pictograms in the in-
scriptions of the large knives. Furthermore, it is his opinion that
the Sharp-pointed Knives lasted a long time and remained in
circulation as late as the Chan-kuo period.7 In other words, they
* This term is used by Lacouperie. 5 Okutaira, Toa senshi, II, 79b.
6 Cheng Chia-hsiang, "Shang-ku huo-pi t'ui-chiu," (A study of the ancient Chinese
coins), Ch'iian-pi, No. 4, pp. 31 and 34. 'Ch'iian-pi, No. 5, p. 24.
are not only anterior to the Ch'i knives, but also contemporary with
and posterior to the latter for certain periods. It is difficult to see
how Chgng Chia-hsiang could reconcile the late date of these knives
with their supposedly more archaic style of inscription. The fact is
that the stylistic distinction alleged by him does not exist.
Of the three reasons expressed by Cheng Chia-hsiang the second
is the most plausible, but here too he failed to make his argument
convincing. Of the many hundred Sharp-pointed Knives preserved
today only one specimen, that of Lin, or possibly two (if that of
Liao reported by him be included), bears a mint name. Yet Cheng
Chia-hsiang has admitted that as late as the Chan-kuo period, or
the end of the Chou dynasty, Sharp-pointed Knives continued in
circulation. Many of the Sharp-pointed Knives in circulation then
must be without inscription of the mint name. This fact demonstrates
clearly that the inscription of mint name alone, or rather the ab-
sence of mint name as the coin's legend, cannot be sufficient evi-
dence for determination of its date. Among the Small Knives of
the third century B. C. the great majority have no legend what-
soever. Can we say that those uninscribed late knives were earlier
than the inscribed Ch'i knives? What makes one most skeptical
about Cheng Chia-hsiang's alleged early origin of the Sharp-pointed
Knives is the unbelievably long duration in circulation which he
ascribes to them. Cheng Chia-hsiang contends that they originated
at the beginning of the Chou dynasty and lasted into the end of the
period, covering about eight centuries. This would require that in
such a long period no noticeable changes occurred to the coins with
regard to their shape, length or weight, while in immediately ad-
jacent areas the spade coin was undergoing constant change in those
respects.
We believe that the knife coinage like the spade coinage had under-
gone many and marked changes from its beginning to its end, and
we also believe that the Sharp-pointed Knives were considerably late
in origin. In addition to their small size and low weight, the evidence
in support of our belief is: First, Sharp-pointed Knives are reported
to have been discovered together with Ming knives8 which, as admitted
by all, were coins of the Chan-kuo period and consequently late in
origin; secondly, the town of Lin had cast this type of knife.9 Lin
was not established before 43o B. C. (see above p. 128). Since the
Lin sharp-pointed knife is typical in every respect, the Sharp-pointed
type of knife coinage could not have begun much earlier than this date.
The evidence for an earlier date for the large knives of Ch'i is to
be found in their legend, which reads ChH tsao-pang ch'ang fa-huo
W 35 #tf H & it or "Everlasting legal money of Ch'i at the estab-
lishment of the State" (Plate XXIX).10 Here the phrase tsao-pang
(establishment of the state) is the point of crucial importance.
When was the state of Ch'i established? The answer varies with
different numismatists. Some of them, and many historians too,
follow the traditional account of the history of Ch'i and believe that
it was established as a feudatory state after Lii Wang, popularly
known as T'ai-kung Wang, the most important assistant of King
8 Reported by Li Tso-hsien who states that during the Tao-kuang period (1821 1861)
a hoard of Sharp-pointed knives and Ming knives were discovered in the area around
the imperial capital which is now Peking (Hsii ch'iian shuo, lb). The total number in
the hoard is not known, but all of them were procured by Li Pao-t'ai. Subsequently
Li sold the ordinary specimens and retained the "unusual ones." Many years later
when Li Pao-t'ai offered them to Li Tso-hsien, the remaining part still numbered
"more than two hundred specimens."
9 For an illustration of the Sharp-pointed knife of Lin see Plate XLI, 3.
10 The reading of the legend varies with different numismatists. The various readings
are found in Ku ch'iian ta-tz'H-tien, VII, 51a 52b. The reading we follow is the most
satisfactory not only from the point of view of epigraphy and philology but also from
the idiomatic usage of the phrases of tsao-pang and fa-huo. Tsao-pang meaning
"establishment or creation of a state or new state" is found in the Chiin-shih chapter
of the Shang-shu, (X, 2b). Fa-huo is not found in the literary sources, but the phrase
fa-ch'ien which means practically the same is found in a memorial presented to
Emperor Wen by Chia I (2o1 169 B. C), Han shu, XXIV, Part 2, 3a.
In connection with the early knives of Ch'i, mention must be made of the knives
with a legend of nine characters. Examples of so-called "nine-character knives of
Ch'i" are in Lacouperie's Catalogue of Chinese Coins (pp. 223 226). Lacouperie reads
their legends as of nine, ten and eleven characters, and formulated thereupon his
theory of "monetary unions." Actually none of these specimens is genuine: some of
them are fabrications while others are genuine pieces with altered legends.
Wen and King Wu of Chou, was enfeoffed with Ying-ch'iu in the
territory of Ch'i after King Wu conquered the Shang dynasty in
1122 B. C. (conventional date).
Other numismatists are skeptical about such an early date for the
coins although they still believe in the traditional date of 1122 B. C.
for the enfeudation of Lti Wang by King Wu. To reconcile the con-
flict between their belief of the late origin of the knife coins of Ch'i
and that of the traditional origin of the state, they advance a dif-
ferent interpretation of the phrase tsao-pang, establishment of the
state. They argue that the phrase does not refer to the first creation
of Ch'i in the twelfth century but to the hegemony the state attained
during the reign of Duke Huan (685643 B. C.). They then naturally
assume that the tsao-pang knives were cast in the seventh century.
Of this interpretation Cheng Chia-hsiang is the exponent.11
Some other numismatists find the explanation of this school
untenable, for the reason that, though Duke Huan achieved hege-
mony over other feudal states and even the royal court, he did not
"establish" a new state. However, they share the conviction that
the Ch'i large knives were late in origin. Happily, they find an event
in the history of the state of Ch'i which could be interpreted in their
favor, the usurpation of Ch'i of the house of Chiang (family name
of Lii Wang and his descendants) by the house of T'ien in 386 B. C.12
The T'ien were a powerful noble family in the state of Ch'i from
the thirties of the fifth century on. In 391 B. C. T'ien Ho expelled
Duke K'ang of Ch'i to an island off the Shantung Peninsula. In
386 B. C. he established himself as the ruler of the state. In the
opinion of these numismatists, the usurpation of Ch'i of Chiang by
the T'ien is the "establishment of the state" referred to by the
legend of the tsao-pang knives. The numismatist who strongly ad-
vocates this theory is Okutaira Masahiro.13
11 Cheng Chia-hsiang, "Shang-ku huo-pi t'ui-chiu," Ch'iian-pi, No. 4, p. 34.
12 This date, as well as all the other dates here of the Chan-kuo period in the western
calendar, is given by Ch'ien Mu, Hsien-Ch'in chu-tzii hsi-nien k'ao-pien, General
TabIe 2. is Okutaira, Toa senshi, VI, 2b.
Most numismatists follow the first of the three hypotheses, few
the second, and still fewer follow the third. After examining all
relevant facts, however, we find none of the three satisfactory.
The third theory advocated by Okutaira does not fit into the
chronology of ancient Chinese coinage. The large size, heavy weight,
and the archaic epigraphical style of the coin legends preclude the
possibility of the Ch'i large knives being coins of the fourth century.
Though the power of the state of Ch'i had been transferred from one
family to another, a new state was not created. In its institutions,
legally, politically and economically, the old Ch'i continued in every
respect. Even the very name of Ch'i was still kept by the usurper.
The second interpretation as advocated by Cheng Chia-hsiang has
similar weaknesses. Duke Huan inherited the Ch'i created by his
forefathers. Though he expanded the territory of the state and
made it powerful, he did not establish a new one. For Duke Huan
to have regarded the Ch'i during his reign as his own new creation
would have run counter to the old Chinese political and ethical
philosophy that the state was sacred property handed down by their
ancestors to a ruler as a household was to an ordinary man. Accord-
ing to this philosophy the very existence of posterity was a favor
from the ancestors and the survival of the state depended on their
protection. Posterity owned nothing and created nothing, though
posterity could glorify the state by aggrandization.
On the whole we agree with the first interpretation that the knife
coins of Ch'i were cast when the state was first established, but we
disagree with the traditional date of the state's establishment.
King Wu did not grant the territory of Ch'i to Lii Wang as his fief.
He could not, for during his reign the territory which later came to be
known as Ch'i had not been conquered by Chou and was still in the
hands of the Shang people or their vassals. This has been proved by
Prof. Fu Ssii-nien.14 Prof. Fu also contends that the very name of
14 Fu Ssu-nien, "Ta-tung Hsiao-tung shuo," Li-shih yii-yen yen-chiu-shuo chi-k'an
(Bulletin of the National Research Institute of History and Philology), II (1930),
1o56.
the supposed recipient, Lii Wang or Wang of Lti, suggests that the
original fief of Wang was Lii and not Ch'i. Even Wang's son still
bore this name, Lii.16 As we know, in ancient China after a noble was
granted a fief or appointed to an office he was thereafter generally
called by the name of the fief or that of his office. Therefore the Lii
of Wang whose original family name was Chiang was undoubtedly
the name of his fief or his main fief (see below). Lii as a feudatory
in the early days of Chou was located west of present Nan-yang in
Honan.
However, it is an undeniable historical fact that Ch'i was a state
of Lii Wang's descendents. In the Ku-ming chapter of the Shang-shu,
Lii Chi, Lii Wang's son or one of his sons, is already called by the
title of "Ch'i Hou" or "Marquis of Ch'i" in 1o79 B. C. There is no
doubt that at this time the territory of Ch'i had been granted to
Lii Chi. This is thirty-two years after that district was conquered
by Chou, probably in 1111 B. C., according to the traditional date.
The first recipient of the Ch'i fief might have been Lii Wang him-
self, for in the early historical literature he is depicted as a man who
had lived for a considerable length of time. Ssii-ma Ch'ien records
that he lived for "more than one hundred years."16 The old text of
the Bamboo Annals states that he died in the sixth year of King
K'ang, which falls in 1o73 B. C. in the traditional chronology.17
If the latter record is reliable, it is possible that Lii Wang was the
recipient of the fief.
Does the possible grant of Ch'i to Lii Wang mean the establishment
of Ch'i as a feudal state? It may or may not. A passage in the T'an-
kung chapter of the Li chi states that "Since T'ai-kung (Wang)
was enfeoffed with Ying-ch'iu (as his fief) down to the fifth generation
his descendants always returned their dead to Chou for burial."18
This statement makes it clear that as late as the fifth generation
16 See the Ku-ming chapter of the Shang-shu and Tso chuan, XLV, 19a.
11 Shih-chi, XXXII, 4a.
17 Wang Kuo-wei, Ku-pSn chu-shu chi-nien chi-chiao, Wang-chung-ch'iao-kung i-shu
rf-i Va. is Li Chi Ch shu, VII, 1a.
Ch'i was not regarded as their home by the very noble beneficiaries.
Our impression is that after the area of Ch'i was conquered by Chou
in m1 B. C. it might have been given to Lii Wang as an additional
fief if he had lived that long, or to his son Lii Chi as his fief, with
his father's original fief, Lii, retained in the hands of other members
of the noble family. If the recipient was Lii Wang, there is no reason
to believe that he had resided there. As indicated in a passage in
the Ku-ming chapter of the Shang-shu, even his son Lii Chi, who
bore the official title of "Marquis of Ch'i," stayed at the Chou court
and served as an important minister. If the recipient was Lii Chi,
he was an absentee feudal lord. In neither case does Ch'i seem to
have been established as a state, though the noble family might
have received revenues from their fief.
It was the tradition of the Chou that the establishment of a feuda-
tory must be accompanied with the completion of the following
steps: 1) investiture including the casting of memorial bronzes;
2) the construction of the she, altar for the god of the earth and
symbol of the existence of the state; 3) the erection of the ancestral
temple of the ruling family; and 4) the construction of a walled
capital. The completion of these requirements could be prolonged
for some time. Since down to the fifth generation the nobles of
Ch'i still sent their dead back to Chou for burial, there is more reason
to- doubt than to believe that Ch'i had been established as a feudal
state before the fifth generation of the noble house.
This conjecture fits into Ssu-ma Ch'ien's account of the early hist-
ory of Ch'i in Shih-chi, XXXII. During the first five generations the
history of the noble family of Ch'i was full of internal feuds. Duke
Hsien was the first to establish his capital at Lin-tzu, which re-
mained such until its conquest by Ch'in in 221 B. C. Taking Lii
Wang as the first ancestor, Duke Hsien was the fifth generation in
Ch'i pedigree. It is quite possible that Duke Hsien may have been
the one who "established" the Ch'i state, and who, if our foregoing
hypothesis be correct, cast the tsao-pang knives of Ch'i. Duke Hsien
ruled Ch'i during the reign of King I of Chou, which corresponds
to 894879 B. C. according to the traditional date. This assumption,
while reasonable, cannot, however, be substantiated otherwise. There-
fore, we may tentatively conclude that the tsao-pang knives of Ch'i
may be as early as around 1o79 B. C. and as late as the first half
of the ninth century.
Is the tsao-pang knife, the earliest of all Ch'i knives, also the
earliest of the knife coinage ? This is another question which deserves
serious consideration. In addition to those of Ch'i, there are also
the large knives of Chi-mo, An-yang and Pan (Plates XXXIV
XXXVIII, 1.) Chi-mo, An-yang and T'an were all old states on
the Shantung Peninsula in ancient China. Because they were later
annexed by Ch'i, the general impression is that they had belonged
to Ch'i from the beginning. In fact, though, Ch'i was a small state
before 685 B. C. with its eastern border only about a dozen miles
from its capital, Lin-tzii.19 Chi-mo was situated on the tip of the
Shantung Peninsula with a number of minor states between it and
Ch'i. It is not certain whether Chi-mo was conquered by Ch'i be-
fore 522 B. C.20 T'an remained an autonomous state until 684 B. C.
when it was subjugated by Ch'i.21 As late as 412 B. C., An-yang was
still a state that rivaled Ch'i.22
These three states, together with a number of others also on the
Shantung Peninsula, were derogatorily designated by the Shang
people as I Fang or "Barbarian States" and by the Chou people as
Tung I or "Eastern Barbarians." The contrary seems to be true,
for the people of these eastern states seem to have had a civilization
18 In the Kuo yu it is stated that during the early years of Duke Huan eastern Ch'i
bordered on the town of Hsieh of the state of Chi (VI, 9a).
20 Speaking to Duke Ching of Ch'i in 522 B. C, Yen Ying states that the eastern
boundary of Ch'i reached the Ku and Yu Rivers (Tso chuan, XLIX, 7a). The old Ku
and Yu Rivers are probably the present Big Ku and Small Ku Rivers which are in the
region where the capital of the ancient Chi-mo state was located. It is not known,
however, whether the state had been conquered by Ch'i at this time.
n This is based on an entry in the Ch'un-ch'iu, a history of the state of Lu (Tso chuan,
VIII, 12b). Legge, Chinese Classics, V, 1, p. 85. Chuang Kung 1oth year.
22 Shih-chi, XV, nb. The Western date is given by Ch'ien Mu, ibid.
which could match that of the Shang and the Chou peoples, if indeed
not superior to that of the latter for some time. They were powerful
enemies of Shang and remained such of Chou during the first two
hundred and fifty years of its history. The wars which Ti Hsin, last
king of Shang, waged against them caused the fall of the dynasty.
The three-year military campaign which the Duke of Chou conducted
against them resulted in the subjugation of only the limited area
of Ch'i and Lu (the original names of the territories being Po-ku and
Yen, two of the eastern Shang states which are also regarded as
"Eastern Barbarians" by the Chous). The states east of Ch'i and Lu
remained powerful and hostile as ever.
Unfortunately, information concerning the institutions and cus-
toms of these peoples is lacking in all of the literary sources, and
except for the site of Ch'eng-tzu-yai (east of Tsinan) no archaeo-
logical work has been done in their area. Fragmentary evidence
indicates that these people had a different culture from the Chou
and, for that matter, the Shang people. Confucius' statement about
the barbarian customs of having hair hanging down loosely and
buttoning the breast of the coat on the left side seems to refer to
customs of these peoples.23 When he expressed his wishes to go and
live among the Nine I or the "nine barbarian peoples," "some one"
voiced disapproval.24 Since they had a different general cultural
pattern, they might have had different economic institutions. Their
special knife coinage was one of these.
The Eastern Barbarian states of Chi-mo, An-yang and T'an were
not conquered by Ch'i until after the beginning of the seventh
century. They had, however, already cast large knives of the type
of Ch'i for at least two centuries, and there are indications that the
Ch'i knife might have been borrowed from one of them.
Which state among these was the first to adopt knife coinage? It
is impossible to say; some state for which no specimens have been dis-
covered or preserved may very well have been the first. There is an
indication that the Chi-mo knife was earlier than the Ch'i knife in
*3 Lun-yii, XIV, 5b. ** Lun-yii, XIV, 5a.
the way in which the phrase of "establishment of the state" is written.
On the Ch'i knife, the term is found in the obverse legend, and it
reads tsao pang #15. On the Chi-mo knife, the term is found to
be the inscription on the reverse, and reads k'ai feng left M. With
tsao (literally meaning "to make") and k'ai (meaning "to open,"
"to create") each meaning the same in their use to convey the idea
of establishment of a state,25 the only difference is that in one case
the character pang is used and in the other feng. It has long been
known that originally these two characters were completely synony-
mous, being two forms of the same character. The discoverer of
the etymological history of the two characters is Wang Kuo-wei,
who traces their origin to the practice of planting trees along the
borders of a territory to mark boundaries. Of the two, pang is un-
doubtedly later than feng, for while feng in its original form is a
pictogram symbolizing two standing trees, pang is signic-phonetic
with its signic being the component part i eL for "town" or "city."
As a rule signic-phonetic characters are later than pictograms.26
The late origin of pang can be determined not only by epigraphical
26 The phrase tsao-pang meaning "creation or establishment of state" is found in the
Chiin-shih chapter of Shang-shu (X, 2b). The character k'ai in the inscription k'ai-
feng used in the same sense as tsao in tsao-pang is found in the phrase k'ai-kuo ^ ||B
in the I or I ching as it is popularly called (I, 13b). The characters pang and fSng have
the same root (the tree sign) and must have had the same meaning, as Wang Kuo-wei
has pointed out ("San-shih-p'an k'ao-shih," in Wang-chung-ch'iao-kung i-shu, third
series). They meant the "boundary" marked by trees, then "boundaries of a state,"
and eventually "the state" itself. Since they had the same meaning, they must have
been pronounced the same. As discovered by Ch'ien Ta-hsin, the ancient Chinese had
no "light" labial sound, therefore feng must have been pronounced something like
ping. Ping and pang are but variations resulted from a slight change in pronuncia-
tion. In identifying feng with pang Wang Kuo-wei did not use the inscriptions on the
Chi-mo and Ch'i knife coins. If he had, his work would have been much easier and
more direct.
26 In the inscription on the reverse of an early Chi-mo knife (see Plate XXXIV) the
character feng is written i composed of one large and one small tree signs on a line.
This seems to be the original form of the character. In a later form of the character the
small tree sign evolved into the form of a cross with the branches of the small tree sign
straightened into a horizontal stroke. Hence the forms of shou (hand) and ts'un (inch)
for this part of the character in the "small seal characters."
156
analysis but also by the inscriptions in which it appears. Pang
appears in the inscription of an-pang on the reverse of some of the
early Chi-mo knives. The inscription means "making the State
secure" or "consolidation of the state." By implication, the phrase
refers to an action which is later than what is implied in the phrase
k'ai-fing, which, as has been said above, means "creation or estab-
lishment of the state." On account of this the knives which bear
the inscription of k'ai-fing must be earlier than the knives which
bear the inscription of an-pang. Hence feng is earlier than pang.
Since the earliest knives of Ch'i have the character pang instead
of feng, they most likely were later than the earliest Chi-mo knives
which have feng in their inscriptions. This assumption seems to be
confirmed by the fact that at the end of the eleventh or the tenth
century B. C., that is, before Ch'i cast its knives, the coinage of the
area around Ch'i seemed to be the spade. Among the Prototype
and the Hollow-handle Spades there are some specimens of which
the legend is "I" (Plate V, 2) basically the same as it appears on the
round coins of I. I as the mint town of the round coins has been
correctly located in the present I-tu County, southeast of Lin-tzu,
ancient capital of Ch'i. The mint town which cast the round coins
may be the same one which cast the spades. We may say then that
before Ch'i adopted the knife coinage, the area in which the state
was located had used the spade as currency. It appears that after
Ch'i was established, or some time later, it adopted the coinage of its
eastern neighbor or neighbors. As far as the preserved knife coins show,
the Chi-mo knife seems to be the one on which Ch'i modelled its own.
With regard to the date of the "establishment" of the Chi-mo
state and the commencement of its coinage, there is no information
whatsoever. It is hoped that in the future Chinese scholars will fill
in the missing pages in the history of the eastern states of ancient
China by extensive archaeological explorations. At the moment we
have to be satisfied with the simple observation that knife coinage
is certainly of eastern origin and that the state of Ch'i which has so
widely been associated with it may not be its inventor.
The Knife Coinage
157
2. THE EARLY KNIVES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION
By Early Knives we mean the large knives of Chi-mo, Ch'i, An-
yang and T'an (Plates XXIXXXXVIII, 1), which in our opinion
are the earliest of all of the knife coins preserved today. Except
for the smaller Chi-mo knives which obviously were a later devel-
opment and for which there are no counterparts from other mints,
the physical appearance of the knives of all four states is practically
the same. They all have a mildly bent body with the top end of the
blade protruding and forming a tip. All have a handle decorated with
two parallel lines reaching both ends of the handle. At the lower end
of the handle is attached a ring, which is uniformly round. On the
obverse, the blade is entirely occupied by the legend. Around both
the blade and the handle are raised borders, with those around the
blade especially high and thick; the raised border along the cutting
edge of the blade is a little thinner than that on its back. In these,
however, two groups of the Ch'i knives vary a little: Their raised
borders are of the same width and the same height all over the
knife's body and at the back the raised border is not cut at the junc-
ture of the handle and the blade.
On the reverse of the knife's blade there is always an inscription,
of either one or two characters. These characters or combinations
of characters are generally regarded as "serial marks." Above the
inscription is the uniform design of three horizontal and parallel
lines. This design has often been mistakenly read by the Western
numismatists as the character san for "three." Between this design
and the inscription there is always the mark which appears some-
times in the form of a point and sometimes in the form of a cross. It is
the latter form which some Western numismatists take to mean "ten."
On the reverse the handle has the same design as on the obverse:
two parallel lines reaching both of its ends. On the handle as well
as the blade a slightly raised line forms the borders. They are lower
and thinner than those on the obverse side of the blade and handle.
According to their legends, the Early Knives of the mints or states
above mentioned may be divided into smaller groups. In the case
of the Ch'i knives there are four such groups. They are as follows:
Group
Legend
Translation
Plate
A
ChH tsao-pang ch'ang
Everlasting legal
XXIX
ja-huo # m n &
money of Ch'i at the
it
establishment of the
state
B
ChH ja-huo && it
Legal money of Ch'i
XXXI
C
ChH chih ja-huo '& 3L
Legal money of Ch'i
XXXII
D
ChH chih huoît
Money of Ch'i
XXXII
The legend of Group A can be shortened by dropping the character
fa for "legal." The American Numismatic Society has a rare speci-
men, the legend of which is in this shortened form (Plate XXX),
The knives of Groups B and C are very common, but Groups A
and D are comparatively rare. Since the pieces of Group A are
specified to be money cast at the "creation or establishment of the
state," they must be the earliest of them all.
The coins of all four groups are of approximately the same size.
While we presume that difference in size may indicate difference in
weight, the variation is so slight and the degree of oxidization to
which the coins have been subjected is so uncertain that it is unwar-
ranted to make a definite statement to that effect. In design the
four groups of Ch'i knives are the same except for a distinctive
characteristic which may serve to regroup them into two types.
Discovery of it must be credited to Cheng Chia-hsiang.27 In Groups
C and D the broad raised border at the edge extends only around the
blade and does not continue around the handle as it does on the
other two groups.
The large knives of Chi-mo may be divided into two groups ac-
cording to their legend and size. The first type is larger and bears the
legend of Chi-mo chih ja-huo JJP H . ft VC meaning "Legal money
of Chi-mo" (Plates XXXIV-XXXV) while the second is smaUer and
' ChSng Chia-hsiang, "Shang-ku huo-pi t'ui-chiu," CWuan-pi, No. 4, p. 34.
bears the legend of Chi-mo fa-huo SP g & ft with the same meaning
(Plate XXXVI).*8
The first or the larger group of Chi-mo knives share the usual
designs common to all the early knives. They bear on their reverse
two interesting inscriptions: k'ai-feng fM it, (Plate XXXTV) and an-
pangRt $, (Plate XXXV), meaning "creation (or establishment) of
the state" and "consolidation of the state" respectively. They imply
that the knives with the k'ai-feng inscription must be issues at the
creation of the state of Chi-mo and that the knives with the an-pang
inscription must be issues after the creation of the state, but, as
far as their physical appearance (judged from the limited number
preserved today) goes, there do not seem to be any marked differ-
ences between them.
Marked differences, however, do exist between the first and second
groups of Chi-mo knives. Since we have found that the larger knives
of Chi-mo are either the first issues or issues shortly after, the Smaller
group must have been cast at a later date. A comparison of the two
groups reveals that differences exist between them not only in size
but also in weight. A specimen belonging to the first group chosen
at random from the collection of the American Numismatic Society
measures 181 mm. long and weighs 73.65 grams. The heaviest
specimen of the second group in the same collection measures 15o mm.
long and weighs 5o.1o grams. In addition to weight, differences in
the designs of the two groups, especially on the reverse, are also
conspicuous. The reverse of the large knives (the first group) of Chi-mo
has the common design of all the large knives already described, but
the reverse of the small knives (the second group) is plain. The border
line on the blade of the second group appears incomplete: sometimes it
appears on the cutting edge and sometimes on the back of the blade.
In weight, in size, as well as in design, the Chi-mo knife coinage had
degenerated considerably in the stage of the second group.
28 In the West, Ramsden was the first numismatist whose attention was aroused by
the small series of the Chi-mo knives. See his article," TsiMoh Knife Coin Small
Series," American Journal of Numismatics, XLIV (191o), 158 163 with illustrations.
So far as the specimens preserved are concerned, the An-yang
large knives are much simpler. All of them bear the same legend
on their obverse. It reads An-yang chihfa-huo %f&.&fc (Legal
money of An-yang; see Plate XXXVII), though the inscriptions on
their reverse vary as in the case of the knives of Ch'i and Chi-mo.
Their size is approximately the same. The American Numismatic
Society has eleven specimens in its collection. The average width
at the top of the blade is 3o mm. and their length varies bet-
ween 186 mm. and 163 mm. This observation is in agreement with
specimens illustrated in coin catalogues. The Ku chHen ta-tz'u-tien
has an illustration (no. 1o34) of a smaller specimen, which has a
width of 27 mm. and a lenght of 155 mm., considerably shorter and
narrower than the average.
However incomplete the preservation of the early knives of Ch'i,
Chi-mo and An-yang, that of Pan is most deplorable. Of this mint or
state there is only one specimen preserved. This specimen is not
even a whole one: only the upper part of the blade is preserved
(Plate XXXVIII, 1). This fragment of the large knife of Pan was
in the possession of Fang Jo whose rubbing of the coin is found in
his work entitled Yueh-yii ku-huo tsa-yang. In form the upper part
of the Pan knife is in agreement with the knives of the other three
states: Ch'i, Chi-mo and An-yang, but on the reverse of its blade
there are only two horizontal lines instead of three as found on the
reverse of the blade of the knives of other states. Only two characters
are preserved of the legend on its obverse. The first one is T'an,
the name of an old state which was located east of modern Tsinan
and conquered by Ch'i in 684 B.C. The second character is only par-
tially preserved, but preserved enough to be recognized as the
character pang, meaning "state," as it is found in the legends of the
tsao-pang of the Ch'i knives and the an-pang of the Chi-mo knives.
The designation of Pan as a pang or state is another unequivocal
evidence that the large knife of T'an and those of other states
of the same type were issues before 684 B. C. when T'an was still
a state.
Pan, Ch'i, Chi-mo, and An-yang were all states of ancient China
located in the same general area. The capital of Ch'i, Lin-tzii was lo-
cated approximately on the site of the modern city of the same name
in northeastern Shantung. Chi-mo was located in the area north of
the Chiao-chou Bay on which the port of Tsingtao is situated. The
exact location of An-yang is not certain, but that it was between
Ch'i and another old state named Chii on the southeastern coast
of the Shantung Peninsula seems almost beyond question. So, the
early knives are all coins of states on the Shantung Peninsula.
This regional character of the early knives is further corroborated
by their provenance. Ch'i knives have been discovered in Ch'ang-
yang (present Lai-yang), Ch'ing-chun (i. e., I-tu), Chang-ch'iu,
Teng-chou (present P'eng-lai), Lai-chou (present Yeh), Lai-yang
and Chu-ch'eng.29 The Chi-mo knives were found in the northeastern
and eastern sections of the present Chi-mo,30 and the An-yang
knives around Tsinan, in Lai-yang and east of the countyseat of
modern Chi-mo.31 In the excavations of the site of Ch'eng-tzu-yai
the handle of an Early Knife coin of the large type was discovered.3*
Ch'eng-tzu-yai was the old capital of T'an.33 All these places are
located east of longitude H70E and between latitudes 36N, and
38N, the very district in which the mints of the coins were situated.34
Apart from the coins themselves several moulds of Early Knives
of Ch'i have been found in recent years. Lo Chen-yii records with
"Ch'u Shang-ling, op. cit., Ill, lb; III, 19b; last chapter, 6b, note; Wang Hsi-ch'i,
Ck'iian-huo hui-k'ao (Coole 126), photostat ed., II, lb.
"Ch'u Shang-ling, op. cit., last chapter 6b, note.
51 Ch'u Shang-ling, op. cit., Ill, 15a15b.
12 CVeng-tzH-yai, 1929, 89, and Plate LII, No. 9. s8 Op. cit., 96 97.
34 Lo Chen-yii reports that Ch'i knives were also found in Honan (Yung-lu jih-cha
12a), but fails to furnish details. In a letter to the author Prof. William C. White also
states that he acquired some large knives in Honan, but whether these knives were
discovered there is not known. Even if Lo's report is reliable, it does not alter our
conclusion that knives were currency of the ancient Shantung Peninsula. The Ch'i
knives might have been carried beyond its borders by Ch'i merchants and they might
have been accepted, to some extent, by the people of the areas adjacent to Ch'i.
11 Monograph 113
illustrations two of bronze and two of clay.35 All these have been
discovered in the territory of the ancient Ch'i state.36
To summarize, on the evidence of both their legends and of their
provenance, the Early Knives of Ch'i, Chi-mo, An-yang and Pan
are found to have been currencies of the region of the present-day
Shantung Peninsula. It is significant that no type of coins other
than knives have been discovered in this area.36*
3. THE LATE KNIVES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION
A. The Sharp-pointed Knives
Under the general class of "Late Knives," which appeared after the
"Early Knives," we have included three varieties: the "Sharp-
pointed Knives" (Plates XXXVIII, 2; XXXIX-XLI), the "Ming
knives,, (Plates XLII-XLVI; XLVII, 1), and the "Small Knives"
(Plates XLVIII, 3; XLIX-L).
The Sharp-pointed Knives are called chien-shou tao or "pointed-
headed knives" by Chinese numismatists because the end of their
blade looks sharper and more pointed than the other types. Knives
of this type have a mildly curved body like that of Early Knives.
Some curve a little more, and some a little less. Some are slightly
broader and some slightly narrower. Though it is not possible to
find two specimens exactly alike in every detail, their common
features are such that they can be treated as one group.
Compared with the Early Knives, Sharp-pointed Knives are
small, thin and fragile. They are also much simpler in design. Most of
S6 Ku ch'i-wu fan fu-lu (Coole 232), II, 3b 5b.
86 Yung-lu jih-cha, 21b; Wang Hsien-t'ang 3llK^!f> Lin-tzH fSng-ni wln-tzi
hsii, Tsinan, 1936, 5a.
*** It should be noted that there are a few small square coins which bear the mint
name of "Lin-tzu," which was the capital city of the state of Ch'i during the Chou
period. These coins have in the past been regarded by some numismatists as of Chou
origin, but there is no proof for this dating. Because the epigraphical style of the
legend shows a post-Han origin, the dating to the Chou period has been discarded by
leading present-day numismatists. For a discussion of these and of other coins of the
same type see Okutaira, Toa senshi, VIII, 6oa 62a.
them bear a legend which usually is of one character only. Among
the 91 specimens in the collection of the American Numismatic
Society, 27 specimens have no legend. Of the 241 specimens illus-
trated in the Ku ch'tian hui only 3 are without a legend. The
characters of the various legends are usually the same as those
found on the reverses of Early Knives. Some are numerals, some
are from the "heavenly stems," some are from the "earthly bran-
ches," and some are other characters. While the reasons for their
choice is still unknown, these characters are generally regarded as
"serial marks." Ch6ng Chia-hsiang claims that some of them are
chu-yii or "auspicious words." 37 In examining the 91 specimens
in the collection of the American Numismatic Society, we found
that those with the same character are of similar size and appearance,
which may be taken to indicate that the characters are "serial
marks" of one mint or identifying marks of different mints.
Among the Sharp-pointed Knives, there are only two specimens
which have mint names as their legends, those of Lin and Liao.38
The specimen inscribed with "Lin" is illustrated in the Ku Mien
ta-tz'u-tien, as no. 1232 (Plate XLI, 3). That inscribed with Liao,
or "Liao huo" (money of Liao) to give it in full, is reported by
Cheng Chia-hsiang.39 Lin was a town in the state of Chao during
the Chan-kuo period, and Liao was a town in the northwestern part
of the state of Ch'i.
Except for the legend, both sides of the blade of these knives are
plain. Their handle is decorated with two parallel raised lines from
end to end on both obverse and reverse. At the lower end of the
"Cheng Chia-hsiang, "Shang-ku huo-pi t'ui-chiu," Ch'iian-pi, No. 4, p. 33.
38 Some of the single character "serial marks" may possibly be mint names, but can-
not as yet be so identified. Cheng Chia-hsiang says the inscriptions of "yang" (char-
acter for positive element" in opposition to yin, "passive element") and "chung"
(meaning "inside," "middle") are abbreviations for "Kao-yang" and "Chung-jen,"
names of two towns ("Kuan-wai ch'u-t'u chien-shou-tao t'o-pen hsu-yen," Ch'iian-pi,
No. 1o, p. 26). He offers no proof for his claim, and we find no evidence to believe it.
"Cheng Chia-hsiang, ibid. According to him, the legend reads "Liao huo" 5Pp *(,
and he suggests that the first character is an earlier form of Jjjp, which is acceptable.
handle is the ring. The ring and the handle are as thin and fragile
as the blade and only remotely resemble either those of the real tool
or those of the Early Knives.
Recently Cheng Chia-hsiang and Yii Yen reported discoveries of
another type of Sharp-pointed Knives.40 For the sake of convenience
we designate these newly recovered knives as Sharp-pointed Knife II.
According to Cheng Chia-hsiang, the characteristics of Type II are
that its blade is comparatively shorter and that the sharp point of
its blade is especially long.41 Yii Yen gives a similar description of
those which he has seen.42 Cheng Chia-hsiang further reports that
the handle of Type II is decorated with only one line instead of the
two which appear on Type I,43 while Yii Yen makes no mention of
this. As to other particulars such as the characters used as legends,
Type II does not differ from Type I except for slight variation in
the epigraphical style.44
According to the numismatists who provide us with the above
information, specimens of Sharp-pointed Knife II were unearthed
in Ch'eng-t6 45 and Chang-yiian.46 Ch'eng-t6, located in southwestern
Jehol, is the capital of the province. Chang-yiian (i. e., Chang-chia-
k'ou), known in the West as Kalgan, is the capital of Chahar and
located in the southern part of the province. Both places are not far
from central Hopeh which has been reported as the provenance of
the Sharp-pointed Knife I.47 During the latter part of the Chou
period, central Hopeh appeared to have belonged partially to Yen
and partially to Chao. The areas around Ch'eng-te and Kalgan
were adjacent to the territory of the Yen state and might have been
under its control if not actually belonging to it.
40 Cheng Chia-hsiang, ibid; and Yii Yen, -^jj- |, "Liao-tung jui-feng tao k'ao-shih,"
Ch'uan-pi, No. 24, pp. 1 3., 41 Cheng Chia-hsiang, ibid.
"YU Yen, ibid. ** Cheng Chia-hsiang, ibid.
44 According to both Cheng Chia-hsiang (ibid.) and Yii Yen (ibid).
46 Cheng Chia-hsiang, ibid. 4* Yii Yen, op. cit., Ch'uan-pi, No. 25, p. 7, note.
47 Li Tso-hsien is one of those who so report. For his reports see Ku ch'uan hui, hSng,
IX, 1a lb and Hsu ch'iian shuo, 1b.
Neither Cheng Chia-hsiang nor Yu Yen, who report the finds of
Type II, illustrate any specimens.48 Therefore, we have no way of
ascertaining the accuracy of their observations. The American
Numismatic Society has in its collection six specimens with points
especially sharp and long. While in this respect they resemble Type
II as reported by these numismatists, they differ from them in
another: their handle has the design of two raised lines as found on
Type I. Whether these six specimens are variants of Type II or
constitute a third group cannot be determined at the present time.
The above may be summarized as follows:
1. Sharp-pointed Knives are of two types: Type I and Type II.
2. The blade of Type II is shorter than that of Type I but its
point is much longer. Its handle is decorated with one raised
line instead of two.
3. Type I was minted either by towns in the state of Chao such as
Lin or by towns neighboring Chao such as Liao, or were dis-
covered in the northeastern part of Chao or the adjacent areas.
It appears to be predominantly of Chao origin.
4. Type II was unearthed in the areas which were adjacent to Yen
or subjected to it. It appears to be a type of the region of Yen.
The size of Type I varies, though the great majority are similar.
The Ku ctfien ta-tz'ii-tien contains an illustration of a specimen
(no. 1173; see Plate XXXVIII, 2) which is 168 mm. long and 21 mm.
wide, not much smaller than the large Early Knives and even longer
than the small type of the Chi-mo knives. No. 1174 is similarly large,
157 mm. and 21 mm. respectively. The American Numismatic
Society has four very small specimens. They measure 135, 134, 128,
and 124 mm. in length respectively. They are as small as the Small
Knives, the latest type of the late knives.
48 According to the article by Cheng Chia-hsiang quoted above, he has compiled a
catalogue of Sharp-pointed Knives discovered in Ch'eng-te, which, however has not
been published.
B. The Ming Knives
The Ming knives are the most numerous and well-known of all
Late Knives. They are so designated because they bear the character
"Ming"49 on their obverse. The character ming is made up of the
signs for the sun and the moon and signified "bright," which is the
usual meaning of the character. As a legend on knife coins it has
puzzled many, and remains a subject of controversy. The point of
dispute is whether "Ming" is the name of the mint. If it is, where was
its location? If it is not the name of a mint, what is its meaning?
Up until very recently most, if not all, numismatists regarded
"Ming" as the name of a town or mint. This opinion is supported
by the way in which the legends of Early Knives and the spades are
composed. We know that those legends are at least in part mint
names.
Where then was the mint ? Ch'u Shang-ling regards "Ming" as an
abbreviation of "P'ing-ming."50 "P'ing-ming" as the name of a
city is found in the geographical section of the Han shu, referring
to a city located in present northeastern Hopeh, which in ancient
China belonged to the state of Yen. Ch'u Shang-ling asserts a place
of this name might have existed during the Chan-kuo period. Thus
he attributes the Ming Knives to the mint of "P'ing-ming" in the
Yen state.51
Ma Ang disagrees with Ch'u's attribution. While also reading the
legend "Ming" and regarding it as a geographical name, he contends
that it is the name of a city in the state of Chao during the Chan-kuo
period.52 To support his argument he quotes a passage from the
Shih-chi to the effect that in 264 B. C. Ch'in conquered two cities
of Chao, one of which is indirectly identified with Hsin-ming-i or
"New Ming City." It is his opinion that originally the city was
49 The same character has been read as chii "f, chao ^ and meng g by other numis-
matists, but such readings have been proven to be unfounded. See Cheng Chia-hsiang,
"Ming tao chih yen-chiu" (A study of Ming knives), Ch'iian-pi, No. 1, pp. 29 36.
60 Ch'u Shang-ling, Chi-chin shuo-chien-lu, 1827, IV, 1b.
61 Ibid. "Ma Ang, Huo pu wSn-tzii k'ao, 1842, II, 7a 7b.
called "Ming-i" or "Ming City" and that after its conquest by Ch'in,
the victor added the character "hsin" for "new" to it. Thus Ma Ang
attributes the origin of these knives to a town in the state of Chao.
Ma Ang's identification is more plausible than Ch'u Shang-ling's,
for in abbreviating the names of cities or towns, it is always the first
character that was retained, unless it is an adjective such as "old,"
and "new," "east" and "west," etc. The abbreviation of "P'ing-
ming" into "Ming" contradicts this general practice of the ancients,
as p'ing in "P'ing-ming" is not an adjective that could be omitted.
In an article published in 194o, Cheng Chia-hsiang challenges the
interpretation of "Ming" as a mint name. He offers two arguments
against it. First, the provenance of the knives bearing the legend
of "Ming" is very widely spread, and they were found in places which
were "several thousand li" from Chao where Ma Ang supposed they
were cast. Secondly, some of the Ming knives preserved today have
on their reverse legends such as Ch'i huo (Ch'i money) and Ch'i
huo kung-chin (Ch'i money . ..) (See Plate XLVI, 2). Such speci-
fications of another place name on their reverse side contradict the
idea that "Ming" is a mint name.53 It is his opinion that "Ming"
is the "general designation of the knives of Yen," adopted because,
as he alleges, the character ming implies "abundance of wealth."54
This opinion, however, cannot be confirmed.
Judging from their shape and reverse inscriptions, the Ming
Knives are of three different types. Type I is angularly bent at the
juncture of the blade and the handle and is inscribed with a serial
mark on the back (see Plates XLIII, 12; XLIV, 1); Type II has
a mildly curved body and a serial mark on the reverse (see Plates
XLIV,2;XLV, 12; XLVI, 1); and Type III has a similarly shaped
body but a geographical name on the reverse such as "Ch'i" (Plate
XLVI, 2 and "Ch'&ig-po" Plate XLVII, 1). The serial marks on the
reverse of Type I and II are the characters tso for left, yu for right,
53 Cheng Chia-hsiang, "Ming tao chih yen-chiu," Ch'iian-pi, No. 1, pp. 3o 31.
H Cheng Chia-hsiang, op. cit., p. 34.
wax... for "outside...,"55 and $.K On many pieces the serial marks
appear alone, but more frequently are accompanied by another charac-
ter or a numeral. Thus, for example, there are "Left one," "Left
thirty," etc. Hence the common classification of the Ming Knives into
"left series" and "right series". This, however, does not mean that
Ming Knives of Type I and Type II bear no other reverse inscriptions
than these serial marks.
Apart from the difference in shape (curved or angularly bent)
and reverse inscriptions (serial mark or geographical name), the style
of the legend "Ming" varies with different types. Three forms of
the character are found: (1) flatfish "Sf, (2) round 3$), and (3)
angular %?. Forms 1 and 2 are the styles found on Type I and Type
II, and form 3 is that found on Type III.
Many thousands of Ming Knives have been discovered in various
parts of northeastern China and even in places beyond its borders.
The finds sometimes contain a few pieces; sometimes they are hoards
of large quantities. Ch'u Shang-ling reports that "in the ruined walls
and abandoned wells of Ho-chien and I-chou they were frequently
found, and many times by the thousands."57 Both I-chou (present I)
and Ho-chien were located in central Hopeh Province. The ex-
cavations by an archaeological mission led by Professor Ma Heng
in 192o in I County uncovered "very many [Ming] knives."58 Kuan
Po-i discovered more than one hundred pieces in I-chou (present
I County, to be distinguished from the one mentioned above) in
southern Manchuria.59 An unspecified number were discovered in
65 "..." indicates a character which is not decipherable. Liu Hsin-yuan reads it as lu
for "furnace" (op. cit.), Cheng Chia-hsiang (op. cit., p. 35) and Okutaira {pp. cit.,
V, 55b 56a) follow him.
56 This character is also undecipherable. Because there are the serial marks of "left,"
"right," "outside...," Cheng Chia-hsiang regards the character as nei meaning
"inside" (ibid). But this decipherment is absolutely impossible from the point of view
of epigraphy. In the inscriptions on the bronze vessels of the Chou period the character
nei for "inside" is never written in this form.
67 Ch'u Shang-ling, op. cit., Ill, 15a15b.
68 Fu Chen-lun, "Yen hsia-tu fa-chueh pao-kao," Kuo-hsiieh chi-k'an (jig 4|| 5gz Îj,
III (1932), 175182.
68 Kuan Po-i, I-chou mSng-tao p'u (Coole, No. 224), 1921, preface.
the remains of Old Han-tan in southern Hopeh.60 Discoveries in
Jehol and on the Liao-tung Peninsula are reported by Japanese
archaeologists.61 Between 1912 and 1936 at least six finds were made
in Heian Tao of northern Korea. Some of these were large hoards,
of which one, found in bundles of five or six in a wooden box, consist-
ed of more than 4,ooo pieces.62 They are reported to have been
discovered in southern Korea, Japan, and the Ryukyus,63 but the
conditions under which they were found in these districts are not clear.
A study of provenance in relation to the different types reveals
several interesting points. The table on page 17o shows the local
distribution of the different types.
During the later part of the Chou period, northern Hopeh and
southern Manchuria were territories of the Yen state with the area
of Jehol neighboring on its north and northern Korea on its east.
Southern Hopeh and Shansi were roughly the territories of Chao,
and northwestern, northern and eastern Shantung were those of
Ch'i. Bearing this in mind we easily come to the conclusion that
Type I and Type II were types in circulation in the region of Yen and
adjacent areas, and Type III seems to belong to Chao and Ch'i.
Cheng Chia-hsiang is the numismatist who for the first time system-
atically worked out the local distinctions of the Ming knife coinage.64
60 Komai Kazuchika ]|fij -$- |r Jfp, "Kahoku-sho ni okeru iseki chSsa," Kokogaku
zasshi, XXXI (1941), 395 396.
61 Their reports are scattered in the volumes of the Archaeologia Orientalis, series A,
edited by the Toa KOkogaku Kwai (Far Eastern Archeological Society) in Japan.
Volume one, P'i-tzii-wo, 1929, contains statements on earlier discoveries (62) and a
map showing their locations (Fig. 4o, opp. p. 74). Later discoveries are found in other
volumes. A summarized account of the finds has been given by Fujita Ryosaku Jj| gj
^ ^ in his article, "Ch5sen hakken no meit5-sen to sono iseki" in the Shigaku
Ronso, (42 57), vol. 7 of the Keijo Teikoku Daigaku Bungaku-kwai Ronsan, 1938.
62 For the discoveries in northern Korea see Fujita Ryosaku, op. cit., 5 41.
M Goto Shuichi ^ jjg| ^p reports the discovery of both Ming knives and An-yang
late spades inMihara 3l j. in Japan (Nihon Kokogaku, 1936,6th ed. 246). The dis-
covery of the Ming Knife in K5shin JJ ^ in southern Korea and in Nawa gj$ |[| on
the Liu-ch'iu (Ryukyus) Islands is mentioned in P'i-tzii-wo, 62 and Fig. 4o).
64 "Ming-tao chih yen-chiu," Ch'uan-pi, No. 1, pp. 33 34.
170
Type
Shape
Style of the
Legend Ming
Reverse
Inscription
Distribution
I
angularly
bent
flatfish and
round
"Left,"
"Right,"
"Outside...",
and other
characters
Hopeh, Jehol,
Southern Man-
churia, North-
ern Korea
II
mildly
curved
flatfish and
round
same
same
III
mildly
curved
angular
a geographical
name with
monetary
designation
legends indi-
cate Shantung,
southern Hopeh
and Shansi as
area of minting
Special mention must be made of the late knives of T'an and the
Pan type. Illustrations of these are on Plates XLVII, 2; XLVM,
12, reproduced from illustrations of nos. 1192, 1193 and 1194 in
the Ku chHen ta-tz'u-tien. These knives are exactly of the same shape
of Type III of Ming Knives. Uncertain of their relation to other
types of Late Knives, Chinese numismatists usually designate
them vaguely in their coin catalogues as one of "Lieh-kuo tao" or
"Knives of the various states."
According to Feng Yun-p'&ig, compiler of the Chin shih so in
which these knives were first recorded, this group was unearthed
in the neighborhood of Hsiang-yii-ts'un (Fragrant-valley village)
in modern Po-shan in eastern Shantung.65 The find, which consisted
of "several hundred pieces," was obviously a hoard. This was the
first discovery of these knives, and no later discoveries have been
reported. Their illustrations, made from rubbings, do not show a
legend on the obverse; but Fang Jo, who possessed several speci-
mens, asserts that the legend is "Ming" as it appears on the Ming
5 Feng Yiln-p'eng, $g St g| Chin shih so (Coole, 94), Chin-so, Section on old coins.
knife inscribed on the reverse with Ch'i huo (Type III).66 On
their reverses, all bear an inscription of three characters. The speci-
mens shown on Plates XLVII, 2 and XLVIII, 2 both have a
numeral, shih (ten) and sa (thirty) respectively, at the end of the
three-character legend. The inscriptions of these two specimens
have been read by "some one" as chu chHu ch'ang67 and that of the
specimen shown in Plate XLVIII, 1 is read by Ma Ang as mat
ch'en wu.6a Epigraphically, the reading chu chHu ch'ang is absolutely
impossible. While Ma Ang's decipherment of ch'en wu appears
justifiable, his decipherment of the first character as mai is prob-
lematical. Fang Jo suggests that the first character of the inscript-
ions of the specimens on Plates XLVII, 2 and XLVIII, 2 is T'ant
a variant form of the T'an which is the first character in the
legend of the fragmentary T'an knife previously discussed. He
even goes so far as to claim that the first character in the inscription
of Plate XLVIII, 1 to be a variant of the same character.69 Because
he reads the character T'an, he comes to the conclusion that
these knives were issues of the town (or district) by this name.70
Although his treatment of the first characters of all the three varied
inscriptions does not seem to be warranted, his reading of first
characters of two of the inscriptions as T'an is plausible, as also
is his suggestion that these knives are currencies of a town or dis-
trict by this name. His suggestion is strengthened by the fact that
these knives were unearthed in Po-shan, a modern county which was
adjacent to the capital of the ancient T'an71 and which might have
been well within the area under T'an jurisdiction.
The interesting point is that these knives are of the same shape
and size as the Ming Knives inscribed with Ch'i huo (money
66 Quoted in the Ku ch'ien ta-tz'H-tien, VIII, 67a67b.
"Quoted by Feng Yun-p'eng, ibid.
88 Ma Ang, Huo pu wen-tzuk'ao, I, 21b22a.
69 Quoted in the Ku ch'ien ta-tz'u-tien, VIII, 67b. *> Ibid.
71 For the location of the ancient city of T'an see Tung Tso-pin, "Ch'eng-tzii-yai yii
Lung-shan-chen," Ch'eng-tzii-yai, 1934, 997-
of Ch'i) on reverse, and, like the knives of Ch'i, those of T'an bear
the geographical or mint specification on the reverse. Even if "Ming"
does not appear on their obverse, as on the Ming Knives of Ch'i,
we can be fairly sure that in all other respects the knives of these
two places are closely related, just as are the geographical locations
of the two mints or districts.
C. The Small Knives
Plates XLVIII, 3; L, 25
As implied in the name, chosen for the sake of convenience, the
knife coins belonging to this group are very small and very thin;
they are even smaller and thinner than Sharp-pointed Knives.
Different from other groups of knives, these have the appearance
of being straight which is the reason Chinese numismatists call them
"small straight knives." Many of them bear a legend on the obverse
side of their blade, but many more do not. The handle on the ob-
verse side is decorated with two parallel lines from end to end except
for the group inscribed with "Ch'eng-po" which has only one line.
The reverse side of both their blade and handle are plain. The raised
border lines which are conspicuous on Early Knives, retained partly
on Sharp-pointed Knives, can still be seen on this group of coins.
The "serial marks" and the "numerals" which are found on both
the Early and Sharp-pointed Knives disappear completely.
The legend is always the name of a city. The names of five cities
or towns have been found: Han-tan "H* ft (i. e., fflJ fP Plate XLVIII,
3);Po9 (Plate XLIX,3); Ch'eng-po & 6 (Plate XLIX, 4), Lin
f5J| (i. e., ffl Plate L, 5); and Chin-yang W M (S) (Plate L, 24)
sometimes abbreviated as Chin. The American Numismatic So-
ciety has 42 Han-tan knives, 59 Po knives and 3 Ch'eng-po
knives. An illustration of one specimen of Lin is in the Ku chHen
ta-tz}ii-tien (no. 1231 in Vol. VII). Those of Chin-yang and Chin are
found in the Yueh-yii ku-huo tsa-yang and the Toa senshi (V, 69a).
Actually the small knife of Lin appears a little more curved than
the others, but because it is small and shows the tendency of being
straight, we have included it in this general category.
Chin-yang and Han-tan were capitals of the state of Chao at dif-
ferent times, and were located in central Shansi and southern Hopeh
respectively. Lin, a town of Chao, was situated on the eastern bank
of the Yellow River in western Shansi. Po and Ch'6ng-po cannot
be located, but they appear to be towns of the Chao state also.
The knives of Chin-yang (also abbreviated as Chin) and Po also
have the character huo ) (i. e. (fc) in their legends in addition to
their mint name (Plate L, 24). As has been indicated, huo is the
monetary designation of the knife coinage. One Chin-yang specimen
has the inscription hsin-huo & ($f) ) (new huo or money) instead
of huo alone (see Plate L, 4). It must have been so specified to
distinguish the issue from earlier ones.
D. Date of the Late Knives
Like other questions of chronology in Chinese coinage, the dating
of the Late Knives is fraught with difficulty. Again, we are handi-
capped by lack of literary information and reliable archaeological
reports on coin discoveries. Except for the Late Knives of Lin, we
shall have to make use, as best we can, of any indication, however
indefinite, we can gather from the coins themselves.
As has been mentioned, some numismatists hold the opinion that
the Ming Knives were a coinage of Yen. Therefore they propose
that the Ming Knives which are inscribed ChH on their reverses
were issued by Yen for circulation in the Ch'i area.72 Their reasoning
runs as follows: During the Chan-kuo period (4o3221 B. C.) Ch'i
and Yen waged many wars against one another, with Ch'i being
usually the victor. In 284 B. C. Yen launched a large scale expedition
against Ch'i and occupied the whole state except for the cities of
Chi-mo and Qui on its eastern and southern borders (before this
date Ch'i had annexed the ancient states of Chi-mo and Chu). Yen
n See for example, Cheng Chia-hsiang's article on Ming Knives in Ch'iian-pi, No. 1, p. 36.
had Ch'i under the control of its armies for some five years, from
284 to 279 B. C. Because of this fact Chinese numismatists hold the
opinion that the Ming Knives with the inscription of "ChH huo"
(Ch'i money) on the reverse must be the occupation issues cast by
Yen during the period of its control of Ch'i. This explanation would
make us believe that the "ChH huo" Ming Knives were coins of the
beginning of the third century B. C.
While this interpretation is possible, it is equally possible that
the Ming Knives of Ch'i may have been issues of the central or local
authorities, or even individuals of the state, having no relations
with Yen. As has been discussed before, "Ming," the legend, does
not seem to be a mint name; it appears to be a common designation
of a large group of Late Knives cast and circulated in the great part
of ancient China along the lower stretches of the Yellow River. It
could have been equally possible that the legend was first adopted
by the Ch'i people, with the Ming Knives of the Yen region as a
later development. The shape and the design of the Ch'i Ming Knife,
both of which show closer affiliations with the Early Knives of Ch'i
and other states on the Shantung Peninsula, support our assumption.
Of the same shape, design and size is the specimen of the Ming
Knife of Ch'eng-po illustrated in the Ku chHen ta-tz'u-tien (IV, no.
1o65). This knife, likewise, differs from the smaller Ming Knives
discovered in the Yen areas. Naturally it was not a piece of Yen
currency. If the interpretation advanced by Chinese numismatists
explains the origin of the Ming Knife of Ch'i, it cannot be used to
explain the origin of the Ch'eng-po knife.
The Ming Knife inscribed with "ChH huo" was later, and much later,
than the Early Knives. This is beyond any question. The adoption
of the legend of "Ming" on the obverse, the inscription of the state
name on the reverse, and the smallness of its size (143 mm. long
compared with the Early Knife's average length of 17o) are the
undeniable evidences. Although, we cannot assign a definite date
to the casting of knives of this type, we may not be far from the
truth if we regard it as around the beginning of the Chan-kuo period.
With regard to the problem of the date of the Late Knives, the
Sharp-pointed Knife of Lin offers a more satisfactory solution. As
has been discussed before, Lin was seized by the ancestors of the
ruling house of the state of Chao from the barbarian Ti people not
earlier than 43o B. C. Therefore, its coinage cannot be earlier than
this date. This opinion, of course, presupposes the non-existence
of metallic coinage among the Ti people, who are said to have been
itinerant cattle-breeders. We may assume then that the Sharp-
pointed Knife of Lin was a coinage around 4oo B. C. or later.
As we know, Lin has two types of knife coins, the Sharp-pointed
Knife and the Small Knife. The Small Knife of Lin is obviously
later than the Sharp-pointed Knife, but earlier than its round coin.
The appearance of the round coinage in ancient China was close
to the end of the Chou period about 25o B. C. (see section on round
coins). If we could tentatively assign the date of 3oo B. C. to the
Small Knife of Lin, we may further narrow down the date for its
Sharp-pointed Knife to between 4oo and 3oo. However, whatever
its date, the Lin Sharp-pointed Knife cannot be taken as the begin-
ning of this type of the knife coinage. The reason is that Lin, being
a town newly conquered from a non-Chinese people or newly estab-
lished in the northwestern border region of ancient China, could
not have been the seat of a new coinage; in other words, its Sharp-
pointed Knife must have been an adoption of a coinage which al-
ready had been in circulation in the interior of China. Therefore
we may not be far from the facts to say that the commencement of
the Sharp-pointed Knife may go back to the fifth century or earlier.
Finally, it may be worthwhile to point out that, in our opinion,
Sharp-pointed Knives seem to be a local variety of the Late Knife
coinage, contemporary with the Ming Knives, particularly those
of Type III inscribed with "Ch'i huo" and "Ch'eng-po huo." There
are three reasons. First, the Sharp-pointed Knives have never been
reported to have been discovered in Shantung where the Ming Knife
III and the Pan Late Knife (which is of the same design save for the
legend and similar size as Ming Knife III) circulated; secondly,
mints such as Lin, which cast the Sharp-pointed Knife and the
Small Knife are not found to have cast the Ming Knife; thirdly,
Li Tso-hsien reports that a hoard composed of Ming Knives and
Sharp-pointed Knives was discovered in the neighborhood of the
imperial capital of Peking in the Tao-kuang period, as has been
mentioned before. Some of the specimens from the hoard which
he later obtained must have been illustrated in the Sharp-pointed
Knife section of his coin catalogue, although he does not specify
any particular specimens as such.
E. Expansion of the Knife Coinage
In dealing with the Early Knives we found that the knife was
exclusively a coinage of the states on the ancient Shantung Penin-
sula. How, then, did it happen that a later date, say from the fifth
century on, the Late Knife coinage came to be the coinage not only
of the Shantung Peninsula, specifically of the state of Ch'i, but
also of the regions of Chao and Yen? In answering this question
we will find that at about the end of the Ch'un-ch'iu period (481 B. C.)
the knife coinage of Ch'i had spread beyond its borders and penetrated
areas where the spade had been the sole type of metallic currency.
The states of Chao and Yen were to the west and northwest of the
borders of Ch'i. One of the Chao cities which adopted the knife
coinage was Han-tan located southwest of its present county seat
namesake in southern Hopeh close to the border of Ch'i. From
386 B. C. onwards it was the capital of the Chao state and was
one of the few important cities mentioned by Ssu-ma Ch'ien in
his historical account of the development of trade and industry.
It was an iron producing center and a trading center for the handi-
craft products of that region, especially for the area to its north.
Among the preserved coins of Han-tan there are Type I of Hollow-
handle Spade recorded by Li Tso-hsien,73 Type I of the Late Spade
78 Ku Milan hui, yuan XIV, 7b8a. In a previous publication ("Distribution of
Coin Types in Ancient China," Museum Notes, III, 131 15o) we have used a specimen
The Knife Coinage vjj
(Plate XX, 4) and the Small Knives (Plate XLVT.II, 3). As the
latest Hollow-handle Spade, such as that of the Eastern Chou
dates no later than 4oo B. C. and the date of the Hollow-handle
Spade of Han-tan may go back to the early years of the Chou
period, and as the Small Knife, the latest of all knife coinages,
cannot be earlier than 4oo B. C., it is evident that Han-tan had been
issuing spade coins as its currency at an early date, and its Small
Knife coinage was obviously a later adoption.
The reason for the adoption of knife coinage by cities of Chao cannot
be stated with certainty. Probably it was caused by the expanding
economic and military power of Ch'i where, ever since the establish-
ment of that state, knife coins had circulated exclusively. By the
beginning of the fifth century, Ch'i seems to have conquered and
annexed practically all the states to its east, Pan in 684 and Lai
and Pang in 567 and extended its borders into the very heart of
Chi-mo before 522. It thus monopolized the fishing industry and the
production of salt from the sea, and stimulated production in fields
of handicrafts, such as silk. As trade in these commodities developed,
"both people and wealth came to it," to use Ssu-ma Ch'ien's words.74
"They (people) came carrying their children on their backs and con-
verged on it like the spokes of a wheel." "As a result, Ch'i provided
the world with hats, sashes, clothes and slippers. The people between
the sea and Mount Pai (in central Shantung) came hand in hand
to pay their homage."75 The state of Ch'i remained "wealthy and
powerful through the reigns of King Wei (35732o B. C.) and King
Hsiian (2192o1 B. C.)."76 At the time of King Hsiian, Lin-tzu,
the capital of the state, became perhaps the richest and the most
prosperous city in the world then known to the Chinese. The traffic
on the roads to Lin-tzu was so crowded that, in the words of Su
recorded in Okutaira, op. cit., II, 112a for illustration of the Hollow-handle Spade of
Han-tan. The choice of that specimen was for technical reasons. Okutaira's decipher-
ment of the legend on that specimen as "Han-tan," may not be correct, therefore we
have decided to use here the specimen recorded in the Ku ch'iian hui.
Shih-chi, CXXIX, 2b. Ibid. ' Ibid.
12 Monograph 113
Ch'in (d. 317 B. C.), the wheels of carriages bumped on each other,
and the shoulders of the people rubbed one another. This developed
commerce was the reason why the year's revenue from the taxes
on the market which Duke Huan bestowed upon Kuan Chung made
the minister richer than the prince of a state. Therefore, in 288 B. C.
only Ch'i could compete with the all powerful state of Ch'in, and
its ruler assumed the title of Ti (Emperor) to match the ruler of Ch'in
who had adopted the same title. It is only natural that the power
of Ch'i exerted great economic influence on its neighbor and caused
Chao to cast knife coins so as to facilitate trade with Ch'i. Like Han-
tan, other cities and towns in the state of Chao must have also
adopted the knife coinage. Two of these, Chin-yang and Lin, have
been discussed before. Unfortunately, knife coins of other Chao
towns, if they existed, have not come down to us.
What has been said of Chao applies also to Yen; only in this case
a more intimate relationship is witnessed by many events, some of
which are wars. The early relations between Yen and Ch'i are not re-
corded. During the period of the hegemony of Ch'i, Yen was under
its friendly influence. On behalf of Yen, Duke Huan repelled the
invasions of the Ku-chu people from the northwest. On Duke Huan's
return the ruler of Yen escorted him with great respect across the
border of his own state into Ch'i. In later years the peaceful domina-
tion of Yen by Ch'i gave place to wars, the first one of which on a large
scale seems to have started in 536 B. C. when the prince of Ch'i
attacked Yen. During the Chan-kuo period Ch'i and Yen were in
constant struggle with each other. In 333 B. C. Ch'i armies fell upon
Yen and conquered ten cities of the latter; in 314 B. C. Ch'i again
attacked, caused the death of its king and the heir-apparent, and
brought the state under Ch'i's control. Ironically enough, wars, in
spite of their destructiveness, are sometimes carriers of civilization
and agents of further economic development. In addition to the
commercial contact between the two states, which must have been
frequent and close at the time, struggles either diplomatic or military
may have contributed much to the adoption by one of the coinage
of another. In this case again, the state which exerted the greater
strength was Ch'i.
Such may be the conditions under which the knife coinage of Ch'i
spread into Chao and Yen, and became a dominant currency in what
is now known as the whole of north China, southern Manchuria
and even northern Korea. We use the word "dominant" advisedly,
because the towns of Chao and Yen, both originally in the spade
area, did not abandon their old coinage after adopting the knives
for trading purposes. Chin-yang and Lin may be cited as examples
of mints for which Late Spades and Late Knives exist, both dating
in the fourth and third centuries. When later the round coinage
made its appearance in the old spade area towards the end of the
Chan-kuo period, the monetary unit was still the chin of the spade
coinage and not the huo which was the monetary designation of the
knife and the monetary unit of the round coinage on the old knife
area.
VI. THE "YUAN CHIN" OF CH'U
Plate LI, 15
We have found that the knife was originally a coinage of states on
the Shantung peninsula and that the spade was the same for the
royal domain of Chou and the states of Chin, Cheng, Wei, Sung, Lu
and other minor feudatories. During the Chan-kuo period, knife
coinage was adopted by Chao and Yen for use alongside their original
coinage of spades. There was one large area, the state of Ch'u,1 in
which neither knife nor spade coinage circulated. Some scholars,
among them Lo Chen-yii, believe that Ch'u, being a state of southern
barbarian origin, had no coinage of its own.2
During the period of the Sung dynasty, however, small flat pieces
of gold bearing stamp-like marks were found within the Chin area.
Their discovery was first reported by Shen Kuo (1o3o1o94), who
states that they were found in considerable numbers on the slopes
of the Pa-kung Hills, in the Huai River and in the valley streams of
Shou-chou (present Shou County in central Anhui Province).3 The
popular explanation first made of these pieces was that they were
the so-called "medicine gold" of the Taoist king of Huai-nan, named
Liu An (d. 122 B. C.), of the Han period.4 He is said to have attempted
to extract a potion for longevity from gold. This traditional ex-
planation prevailed until 1878 when Fang Chiin-i, a noted epi-
1 Originally Ch'u was a small state above the Yangtze River in Hupeh Province. In
the course of time it expanded constantly at the expense of its northern and eastern
neighbors until during the Ch'un-ch'iu period its territory roughly covered the entire
province. During the Chan-kuo period its boundaries expanded to Kiangsu in the
east, southern Shantung in the northeast, and central Honan in the north.
2 Yung-lu jih-cha, 17a.
8 Sh6n K'uo tfc fi Meng-hsi pi-t'an, Ssii-pu pei-yao ed., second series, XXI, 4a-4b.
4 Ibid.
180
The "Yuan-Chin" of Ch'u 181
graphical scholar, on deciphering their inscriptions concluded that
they were money of Ch'u.5
The inscriptions are the so-called "stamps." They are of three
varities: Yin yuan US S (Yuan of Yin), Ch'en Yuan E JE
(Yuan of Ch'en) and, as some numismatists assert, Shou-ch'un H #.
Yuan was a unit of weight as well as a monetary designation or unit
in ancient China. As a monetary unit in literary sources it first
appears in the Lu-hsing chapter of Shang-shu. It is as a monetary unit
or designation that it must have been used on the "Yuan Chin."
The presence in the "stamps" of the names of Ying and Ch'en,
cities of the kingdom of Ch'u, led Fang Chiin-i to the conclusion
that these gold pieces were the official currency of that state. Ying,
an ancient city located north of the county seat of modern Chiang-
ling in southern Hupeh on the Yangtze River, was an early capital
of the state of Ch' u.Ch'en, the modern county seat of Huai-yang
in eastern Honan, became the capital of Ch'u in 278 B. C. Fang's
attribution is confirmed by the fact that the majority of finds of
"Yuan Chin" have been made in the area around Shou-ch'un, the
state's last capital. Shou-ch'un, a city located in the present Shou
County in central Anhui, was the capital of Ch'u from 242 B. C. to
223 B. C. when Ch'u was conquered by Ch'in.
The original name of this money is not known. Up to the present,
Chinese numismatists have not found a completely satisfactory
appellation for it. Popularly, it has been called yin-tzU-chin f=P ? &
(stamped gold), ping-chin Wt 4fe (gold plate) and chin-ping 4fc Wf
(gold plate).6 Fang Chiin-i identifies it with the ping-chin if ^
mentioned in the Erh-ya, Because the Erh-ya states that "Ping-
chin is called pan $fi." and the character pan might be written as fifc,
he further identifies the money with the chin-pan -sk fflL mentioned
in the Chou li? In this work it is said when the lii sacrifice was offered
5 Fang Chiin-i "jj ^ ^, Chui-i-chai i-ch'i k'uan-shih k'ao-shih photostat ed., 1935,
28a29a.
6 See Shen K'uo, ibid., and Lo Chen-yii, Chin ni shih hsieh, 1917, note at the end of the
work- 'Fang Chiin-i, op. cit., 29a.
to the "God on High," the Chih-chin (keeper of gold) presented his
chin-pan. Chin-pan here may be rendered as "gold plate."
We hesitate to accept Fang's identification for the following reasons.
First, there is no proof for the identification except the similarities
between the popular names of this money and the,terms found in the
Erh-ya and the Chou li. Secondly, even if the Chou li statement is
reliable, it is rather inconceivable that the "Son of Heaven," or the
"Heavenly King" as the king of Chou was also called, should offer the
"God on High" money of one of his vassal- states. Thirdly, in all
probability the chin-pan recorded in the Chou li was gold bullion cast
in the form of plates like some of the silver ingots of the Pang period.
Some Chinese historians8 have accepted Fang Chiin-i's suggestion
though Chinese numismatists have not followed it. Numismatists
such as Lo Po-chao and Wang Yin-chia call the Ch'u money yuan
chin, or "yuan money."9 The popular name, ping-chin or chin-ping,
both of which may be rendered "gold plate" or "metal plate" may
be more practical, but scientifically the apellation yuan-chin seems
preferable. Needless to say, it cannot be considered to be the original
name of the currency at the time of its use.
Most of the yuan chin of Ch'u unearthed to date are of gold. Those
reported by Sh&n K'uo, Fang Chiin-i and Lo Chen-yu are all of this
precious metal.10 Wang Yin-chia reports in 1943 that a man named
Kung, a native of Ho-fei, Anhui, "gathered more than thirty pieces,"11
all of which seem to be of the same metal judging from the name he
gives for them, chin yuan or "gold yuan." In his work, Heng-chai
chin shih shih hsiao-lu, Huang Chun illustrates a specimen which
is said to be of copper and another which is noted as of lead.12 Shang
8 Such as Shang Ch'eng-tsu $j ^ fl and Ch'en Meng-chia (See the preface and
PP- 53a54a of Ch'ang-sha ku-wu wen-chien chi by Shang Ch'eng-tso, 1939).
9 Wu Ta-ch'eng, Ch'iian-heng tu Hang shih-yen k'ao, 1915, 63b and 66a.
10 Lo Po-chao g| fg gg, "Ying yuan chin," Ch'iian-pi, No. 17, pp. 19 2o.
11 Wang Yin-chia ^ gg ^ "Ho-fei Kung-shih ts'ang chin-yuan t'o-ts'e pa," Ch'iian-
pi, No. 19, p. 23.
12 Huang Chun || ^, Heng-chai chin-shih-shih hsiao-lu, 1935, 15a 17b.
The "Yuan-Chin" of Ch'u 183
Ch'eng-tso mentions a silver piece with the "stamp" of Ying yuan
in the possession of Ts'ai Chi-hsiang.13
Clay imitations of the yuan-chin have been discovered in Ch'ang-
sha, Hunan, in the Ch'u tombs of the Chan-kuo period. In his work,
Ch'ang-sha ku-wu wen-chien chi, Shang Ch'eng-tso reports that many
clay imitations have been found, and that he himself has seen a few.
One piece, with sixteen "stamps," measures 65 mm. long, 64 mm.
wide, and 5 mm. thick. Like the original, each "stamp" contains
two characters which read Ying yuan in reverse. The other pieces
are broken, bearing the same "stamp." All of them are of "yellow
earth," to make them, as Shang Ch'eng-tso explains, resemble the
real gold pieces. As he has also pointed out, they were made for use
as funeral money (53a-54a). Ch'en Meng-chia declares that the
Ch'ang-sha tombs of Ch'u probably belong to the reign of King Huai
(328299 B. C.), before the state moved its capital to Ch'e*n in
278 B. C. And that is reason, so he says, why in those tombs only
the imitations of the yuan chin of Ying were discovered (See Ch'en's
preface to Shang's work).
We have no way of determining the authenticity of the copper
and the lead specimens. Even if they are genuine, we are still ig-
norant whether they were actually used as money. Shang Ch'eng-
tso asserts that they are funeral money made for those who could
not afford to use the real gold currency for burial purposes.14 This
may or may not be true. If copper and lead pieces were funeral
money, the same cannot be said of the silver specimen (if it is genuine)
reported by him. While it is not entirely impossible that Ch'u had
a multi-metallic currency, it is interesting that the specimens of the
Ch'u money preserved today are chiefly of gold.
According to the literary sources of the Chou period, gold was used
as a medium of exchange in all of ancient China. But the yuan
chin of Ch'u are the only specimens in the form of a currency that
have come down to us. If other regions used gold at all, it must
have been in bulk form as bullion. That Ch'u used gold as currency
18 Shang Ch'eng-tso, op. cit., note to the preface by Ch'en Meng-chia. u Ibid.
seems natural, as from remote antiquity the area south of the Chiang
(Yangtze River) was known as a source of gold supply. In the Shih
ching the metal which the Huai barbarians offered to Lu as tribute
is called nan-chin,16 which term can be interpreted as meaning "gold
from the south." In the Yii-kung, a chapter in the present text of
the Shang-shu, and the Shih-chi the metal is called huang chin or
"yellow metal."16 The Kuan-tzii states that the chin, i. e., huang-
chin, was produced in the regions of the Ju and the Han Rivers,17
both in the territory of Ch'u. Inscriptions of four Chou bronzes
record the capture of chin in the military campaigns against the
"Southern Huai Barbarians," the K'uai and the Ching (i. e. Ch'u).18
It is not impossible that this metal was gold.
The yuan chin vary in size. The smallest bears one stamp-like
mark which contains the name of its mint and its monetary desig-
nation, yuan. One such piece may be regarded as a unit. Larger
pieces bear two or more identical stamps and are thus to be con-
sidered as multiples. There are known so far pieces of two, six, four-
teen and sixteen units.19 Shen K'uo reports one gold piece with
"more than twenty stamps."20 LoPo-chao may be correct in his opinion
that the larger pieces, in actual use, were broken into different-
sized denominations as desired.21 However, there is one point against
his suggestion, the fact that, as far as available information shows,
no two units have been found of the same weight. Fang Chiin-i
weighed five specimens all of which are one-stamp pieces. The
following are their weights.22
]B XX, 4b. I8 Shang-shu, Ssu-pu pei-yao ed., Ill, 3a and Shih-chi, CXXIX, 1b.
17 Kuan-tzii, XXIII, 2a and 3a.
18 Wu Shih-fen ^ j ^ Chiin-ku-lu chin-wen, 1895, II, Part 3, 84a and Kuo Mo-jo,
Liang-chou chin-wen-tz'u ta-hsi k'ao-shih, 28, 54, and 146.
18 The "two unit" piece is reported by Lo Chen-yii (Chin ni shih hsieh, I, 1a) and the
"six unit" and "forteen unit" by Fang Chun-i (op. cit., XXIX, 32a).
20 Shen K'uo, ibid. (See above, note 3).
21 Lo Po-chao, ibid, (see above, note 1o).
22 Fang Chiin-i, op. cit. (see above, note 5), XXIX, 28a31b.
The "Yuan-Chin" of Ch'u
185
Conversion
into grams
Stamp
Condition
WejgAtf
Ying yuan
complete
o.47 liang
17-531
>
o.3
11.19
>
>
o.4 +
14.22 +
small piece
>>
broken off on
top
o.22
8.2o6
>
>>
o.4-
14.22
The fact that the yuan-chin of one "stamp" or one denomination
varies in weight need not necessarily negate Lo Po-chao's suggestion,
for it would be well-nigh impossible to break from a large piece
small ones of uniform weight or size.
The monetary unit yuan appears also to have undergone con-
siderable reduction in weight in the course of many centuries. Wu
Ta-ch'eng states that he measured one yuan chin with the legend of
Ying yuan, which is said to have been discovered in Feng-t'ai
County in northern Anhui. Its weight is 1.96 liang in the local scale
of Hunan,23 his native province. According to the weight of the one-
liang silver dollar of Kashgar struck in the Hunan scale by Tso
Tsung-t'ang,24 a general and statesman from Hunan at the end of the
Manchu dynasty, 1.96 liang is 73.155 grams. This is incomparably
heavier than any of the pieces weighed by Fang Chiin-i, and the size
of its illustration given by Wu is also much larger. If this specimen
is genuine, then it must be an early issue because of its heavy weight;
for it is only natural to assume that coins of heavier weight are
earlier than those of lighter weight.
However, the information about the yuan-chin is so scanty that it
is advisable to restrain speculation. At the moment we may have
to satisfy ourselves with this superficial observation that the yuan-
chin were a money of the Ch'u state, that yuan in the legend appears
48 Wu Ta-ch'eng, op. cit. (see above, note 9), 66a.
24 The information is kindly furnished by Mr. Richard D. Kenney of The American
Numismatic Society.
to be both a monetary designation and a monetary unit, and that
the weight of the money might have decreased some time after the
coinage was established.
When was the coinage established? Here we face the same diffi-
culties we have faced in considering the origins of other coinages.
The reason is obvious; there is simply no information. Above we
have found that Ying and Ch'en in the legends of the yuan-chin
were capitals of the state of Ch'u at different times, and that as
capital of Ch'u, Ying was much earlier than Ch'en. Thus by finding
the date at which Ying became the capital of Ch'u we may be able
to set the earliest limit for the coinage of the yuan-chin.
In early Chinese historical literature there are two different state-
ments on the date of the establishment of Ying as Ch'u's capital.
The Shih-pen is quoted to have recorded it as during King Wu's
(74o69o B. C.) time,25 and Ssu-ma Ch'ien and Pan Ku report that
it was during King Wen's (689677 B. C.) reign.26 In any case the
date cannot be earlier than 74o B. C., and this then, may well be
taken as the earliest possible date for the appearance of the yuan-
chin.
The date of establishment of Ch'en as the capital may serve as
the clue to how long the yuan-chin coinage was in circulation. It
is, of course, the assumption that the Ch'en in the legend of "Ch'en
yuan" was the Ch'en which became the capital of Ch'u in 278 B. C.27
Ch'en remained the capital probably until 242 B. C., when it was
superseded by Shou-ch'un. While the date of the abandonment of
Ch'en as the capital of Ch'u cannot be taken as the terminal date
for the use of yuan-chin in Ch'u it does indicate that as late as 243
B. C. the yuan-chin was still in circulation.
25 Quoted by Ku Tung-kao, op. cit., VII, 4, la.
2 Shih-chi, XL, 5b; Han shu, XXVIII, Part 1, 14a.
27 There is the possibility of course that the Ch'en yuan money may have appeared
before Ch'en became the capital of Ch'u, because Ch'en was an old city, at least as old
as the Chou dynasty.
VII. THE ROUND COINAGE
Plates LI, 6-8; LII-LV
The round coin, the last type to appear in the Chou period, circu-
lated in both the spade and the knife areas. With its appearance
China entered the period of monetary unification which heralded the
unification in political organization accomplished in 221 B. C.
Round coins of the Chou period had a regional individuality
similar to that manifested in the coinages before, namely, the spade
in the west and the knife in the east. While there is a plain reverse
on all the round coins, major differences occur in their monetary
units and the shape of their central holes. In the west the monetary
unit is either the chin or the liang, both of which are units of
spades of two districts within that area. The central hole is round
with some later issues having a square hole. In the east, the monetary
unit is the huo, which is the exclusive monetary designation found
on the knives. The shape of the central hole is square. So far, not
a single specimen in the knife area has been reported with a round
central hole. With these local characteristics in mind, reconstruction
of the round coinages of the Chou period will be easier.
I. THE ROUND COINS OF THE KNIFE AREA
Plates LI-LII
In the knife area, the round coins preserved today are those with
the legends of "I Huo" ft (one huo), "Ming Huo" $ ft (Ming huo),
and "I Huo" IS ft (huo of I). Of the three inscriptions the last
is the most important in determining whether or not these round
coins are of the knife area.
A. Round coins of I (Plate LI, 69). These coins are of various
sizes with correspondingly different denominations. All of them
187
have a square central hole and a plain reverse. Except for some of
the one-unit coins, found in the collection of The American Numis-
matic Society, all have rims around both the central hole and
the outer circumference.
The legend on the coins is made up of the monetary unit huo and
its denomination, and the mint name I 'a* (IS in modern script).
In the past the character for the mint name has been read as pao %
by most numismatists, as p'eng-pei Hfl M by Ts'ai Yun,1 and as yen $$
by Ma Ang ;2 but all of these readings have been proved incorrect.3
The reading as pao is based on the result of a superficial resem-
blance of the character for the mint name I to the character iorpao,
and of an inference from a statement made by Pan Ku (3290).
In the Han shu (History of Han) Pan Ku says that the "big coin"
cast by King Ching of Chou in 524 B. C. was inscribed pao huo*
Because of this reference and the resemblance between the i and pao
characters, numismatists have readily believed that the coin inscribed
with / Huo was the Chou coin inscribed with pao huo. This
belief was first expressed by Hung Tsun and is still cherished by
some contemporary numismatists, among them the noted Ch&ig
Chia-hsiang.
Pan Ku's statement was rejected by Wei Chao (third century) as
"not factual,"5 and proved beyond any doubt as false by Ts'ai
Yun and Sun Tjang (184819o8), both historians and epigraphers
with considerable knowledge of coins. Sun I-jang points out that
the character i, mistakenly read by numismatists as pao, is struc-
turally completely different from the latter character as it appears
in the inscriptions on Chou bronzes.6 Considering the various forms
of the character i in the Chou wen, the Shou-wen chieh-tzii and
1 Ts'ai Yun, P'i-fan, II, 1oa 1ob. a Ma Ang, Huo pu wen-tzu k'ao, II, 21b.
3 See Sun I-jang ^ gg "Chou ta-ch'iian pao-huo k'ao," Chou-ch'ung shu-lin, 1916,
VII, 34a34b, and also Okutaira, Toa senshi, VI, 29b31b.
1 Han shu, XXIV, Part 2,1b. 8 Kuo-yii, III, 1 1a, note.
Sun I-jang, ibid. For the various forms of the character pao in the inscriptions of the
Chou bronzes see Jung Keng, Chin wen pien, VII, 22a 25a.
The Round Coinage 189
the Han shu, he concludes that the character on the coin must be
the old form of i &, pronounced the same.7 By old form he means the
original form of the character without the component pei M (cowry)
as it appears in the legend on some of the Hollow-handle Spades.8
The component pei is a later addition, which does not alter the mean-
ing of the character.9
I as a geographical name is not found in Chou literature, but Ting
Fu-pao found a county of Han by this name in the geographical
section of the Han shu.10 The county seat, I, was located northwest
of the county seat of present Shou-kuang in northeastern Shantung.
Most likely the town existed during the Chou period in the territory
of the state of Ch'i. Thus I is found to be a town in Ch'i during the
Chan-kuo period.
The belief that I was in the territory of Ch'i has been previously
expressed by Liu Hsin-yiian, whose conclusion is based on the pro-
venance of the moulds of the coins of I and on a pottery jar with
the stamp "i"u which was found in Wei County, southeast of the
ancient town of I.12 Moulds of the I coins of the "four huo" and "six
huo" denominations are reported by Li Tso-hsien to have been
found "on the coast of the eastern sea" (meaning the Shantung
Peninsula).13 Weng Shu-p'ei reports another mould of the "six huo'
denomination to have been discovered in Chiao-chou in the eastern
part of the Shantung peninsula.14 An I coin of "one huo" denomination
'Sun I-jang, ibid. 8 See Plate V, 2.
9 Though Sun I-jang presents the arguments for the reading of pei as i in a most
elaborate and convincing manner, he was not the first to suggest it. Ch'u Shang-ling
records (at the beginning of the nineteenth century) that a scholar named Ho Meng-
hua suggested that the character be read as i-pei ^ J| (Chi-chin shuo-chien-lu, I, 2a).
He thus found the basic component of the character to be . Later, Liu Hsin-yiian
deciphered the character as Jg (Ch'i-ku-shih chi-chin wSn shu, XX, 4a), but he
failed to see that jj is a later form of i ^.
10 Ku Mien ta-tz'd-tien, XII, 476b477a. I as a county during the Han time is
recorded in Han shu, XXVIII, Part 1, under Pei-hai Chun.
11 Liu Hsin-yiian, op. tit., XX 4a. 1 2 Ibid.
11 Hsu ch'uan shuo, 6b. 14 Ku ch'ien ta-tz'u-tien, XII, 472b473a.
is reported by Li Tso-hsien to have been found in the same place
with the moulds.15
Thus, study of the legends, the provenance, and moulds of the coins
lead us to the conclusion that the round coins inscribed with the
mint name of I were not coins of Chou but coins of a town in Ch'i by
the name of I.
The coins of I are of four denominations one, two, four, and six.
The smallest denomination is inscribed "/ Huo" or "(One) huo of
I" Plate LI,6). The two-huo denomination (Plate LI, 8) is inscribed
with "I Erh Huo" or "Two huo of I." The four-Awo denomination
(Plate LI, 7) is inscribed with "I SsA Huo" or "Four huo of I." And
the six-huo denomination (Plate LI,9) is inscribed with "ILiuHuo"
or "Six huo of I." Coins of one-, four- and six- huo denominations are
common. The two-Awo denomination is known to us only from a
rare specimen in the collection of The American Numismatic Society.
With this specimen we are able to complete the series of I coins and
their denominational system which may be the same as the system
of other mints in the knife area.
B. "Ming" round coins (Plates LI, 1o11; LII, 12). These
coins differ from the coins of Ino specimen of the coins preserved
today has rims, but they both have square central holes and plain
reverses.
Specimens of these coins are generally seen with the legend "Ming
Huo" } ^ (Plate LI, 1o). The character "Ming" (on the right
side in the legend) is the same one found on thousands of Ming
knives, and it must have the same meaning. The character "huo"
(on the left side) has been variously read as yiieh for "moon,"16
for "town or city,"17 hsi for "evening,"18 and tao for "knife."19
16 Hsii eh'iian shuo, 6b. M Hung Tsun, Ch'iian chih, XII, 5a.
17 Ch'in Pao-tsan records this reading as advanced by "some one" (I-hsia lu, III,
Part 2, 12a).
18 Ma Ang (Huo pu wen-tzii k'ao, III, 47a) and Liu Hsin-yiian (ChH-ku-shih chi-chin
wSn shu, XX, 4b) offer this reading.
19 Suggested by Li Tso-hsien (Ku ch'iian hui, IV,Part 1, 2a) and followed by many
numismatists.
However, a close examination will reveal that the character written
) with the short stroke straight and not connected with the longer
and curved stroke, as it appears on some specimens, is the left part
of the original complete character huo î, which, as a monetary
designation, appears as the last character on all legends of the
Early Knives. It is the abbreviated form of the latter. In the same
short form huo appears in the legends on some of the Small Knives
and in the legend of the "One Huo" coins (see below). This abbre-
viated character appearing in the legends of the Small Knives and
the "One Huo" coins has never been misread, it is rather strange
that it should have been misread on the "Ming" coins.
On some "Ming" coins the character huo is written "5, for example,
(Plate LII, 1) with the shorter stroke curved and connected with the
longer one. This obviously was caused by the symmetrical and ar-
tistic instinct of the designer or mouldmaker, who, by curving the
shorter stroke to match the curved form of the upper part of
the character "Ming" achieved an harmonious pattern in the whole
legend. This style over a lengthy span of time had acquired some-
thing of the nature of a conventional design.
Like the coins of I, "Ming" coins appear to have consisted of
various denominations and consequently various sizes as indicated
by the existence of the coin specimen inscribed with the legend,
Ming Ssii or "Ming four" (Plate LII, 2). Here again the monetary
unit may be the huo; i. e., "Ming four" means "Ming, four huo."
The measurements of the picture of the specimen, which is made
from a rubbing, is 29 mm. in diameter, almost the same as that
of the iour-huo coin of I which is 3o mm. in diameter. This suggests
the possibility that the "Ming" coins might also have two-huo and
six-huo denominations.
In 1928 in the excavation of the Mu-yang-ch'eng site on the Liao-
tung Peninsula in southern Manchuria, three "Ming" round coins
were discovered, together with fourteen broken pieces of "Ming"
knives at the same spot and on the same level.20 This is indisputable
20 Mu-yang-ch'Sng (Archaeologia Orientalis, series A, Vol. II), 1931, 1819, PI. XIX.
evidence that "Ming" round coins were in circulation where "Ming"
knives had been and still were during the last years of theChou period.
C. "One Huo" round coins (Plate LII, 3). This group has the
square central hole characteristic of the coins of the knife area, rims,
and plain reverse. They bear no mint name: their legend contains
only the denomination, / Huo or "one huo."21
In the remains of Kao-li-chai on the Liaotung Peninsula, twenty-
three "One Huo" specimens were unearthed. Some of these were
found together with "Ming" knives in trench D.22 Two specimens
were discovered in the remains of Mu-yang-ch'eng also on the Liao-
tung Peninsula. They were found on the same spot with "Ming"
knives and "Ming" round coins.23 Evidently all were currencies
which had circulated in the same area.
Since the coins are inscribed "One Huo," there must have been
coins of other denominations; otherwise, the specification of "one
huo" would be meaningless. What the complete denominational system
of this group of coins actually was is a matter that may be gauged
from that of I coins, and cannot be said with absolute certainty.
From the above descriptions of individual groups we make the
following general observations: (1) all of the round coins hitherto
described have the same monetary unit 'huo, which had been an
Exclusive monetary designation of the knife coinage; (2) all have a
square central hole; (3) both the location of the mint and the pro-
venance of the moulds and the coins of I are in the old territory of
Ch'i, the original area of knife coinage; (4) both the "Ming" round
coins and the "One Huo" round coins have been discovered together
with "Ming" knives in the area where the knife had become the
dominant currency during the last years of the Chou period. We
can conclude therefore that these coins belong to one general category,
which is to be regarded as the round coinage of the knife area.
21 Japanese archaeologists still read the contracted character huo as too (knife). See
P'i-tzii-wo, 63 and Mu-yang-ch'eng, 18 19.
22 P'i-tzii-wo, 63, and Table II, Stratigraphical Table of the Relics Found at Kao-li-chai.
28 Mu-yang-ch'eng, 18 -19.
2. ROUND COINS OF THE SPADE AREA
Their variations in design and differences in monetary units
permit us to divide the round coins of the spade area into several
groups. Except for our last group (E), which are coins of the state
of Ch'in, the order of arrangement of the various groups also re-
presents the sequence of their appearance so far as we can judge.
A. Coins with a round central hole and without a rim.
These coins constitute the bulk of the round coinage from the
spade area during the Chou period. They were minted by eleven
cities and feudatories as listed in the following table:
Mint
Modem
Location
Monetary
Unit
Plate Reference
An-hsiang (?)
Not given
LII.4
Ch'ang-yiian
S. Hopeh
Chin
LII,5
Chi-yin
S. W. Shantung
Not given
LII.7; LIII, 1
mm
Chin (-yang)
C. Shansi
a
LIII, 2
W()
Kung
N. Honan
>t
LIII, 3-5
Lin
W. C. Shansi
it
LIII, 6. LIV, 1
n
Tung-Chou
MM
N. Honan
tt
LIV,3-4
Yin-p'ing (?)
tt
Yii
S. W. Shansi
Chin
LV, 1
Yiian
S. W. Shansi
Not given
LV, 2
13 Monograph 113
The decipherment of "An-hsiang" is still uncertain, as is also
"Yin-p'ing." Fang Jo who possessed the specimen with the latter
legend reads it as "Wu-P'ing."24 The specimen with the legend "Chin
(-yang)" was also in the possession of Fang Jo, who states that there
are traces of another character below "Chin" covered with heavy
rust.25 The reason we suggest "yang" as the second character is that
Chin-yang, one of the most important mints for which spades and
knives have been preserved, is the only known mint name beginning
with "chin."
The coins in this group are of two sizes. Since the large coins of
Ch'ang-yiian and Yu are inscribed "one chin" or "chin" and are
obviously of one chin denomination, the large coins of similar size
from other mints in the same area must also be based on the same
monetary unit and be of the same denomination, even though they are
not so inscribed. A small coin of Chi-yin (Plate LIII,1) in the
Museum of The American Numismatic Society weighs 4.65 grams,
approximately half of the larger coin of the same mint which weighs
1o.2o grams. Originally it may have weighed just half of the latter.
Therefore, it and the smaller sized coins of other mints must be a
half chin in denomination.
B. Coins with round central hole but with rims.
Of this type, coins are preserved for the following mints:
Mint Modern Location Plate Reference
Chi-yin Pro. S. W. Shantung LII, 8
m m
Hsi-Chou N. Honan
ffi m
Li-shih W. C. Shansi
Lin W. C. Shansi LIV, 1
m
24 Fang Jo, Yiieh-yii ku-huo tsa-yung. See his explanation under the illustration.
26 Fang Jo, op. cit. See note under illustration.
Except for Hsi-Chou, the other three mints have been listed in the
table showing the distribution of mints of the spades; they were
mints of the spade area. Hsi-Chou which was located in northern
Honan just west of the royal capital of Chou was also in the spade
area. Lin round coins without rims are found in our Group A; those
with rims in the present group (B) we believe to be the later of the
two issues.
C. Coins with square central hole but without rims.
Of this type of coin only one of Chou has been reported.28 The
legend on this piece reads Chou Huo Wi it or "Huo of Chou." At
the time the coin was cast, the royal domain of Chou had been reduced
to a small area in the central part of present northern Honan, where
its capital, Lo-i, was located. Lo-i had been in the center of the spade
area. The square central hole of the coin was most likely a later
adoption from the design of the round coinage of the knife area.
The influence of the knife area coinage upon this type of coins is
also evidenced by its use of the monetary unit huo.
D. Coins with square central hole and rims.
Of this group only the coins of Chou (Plate LIV, 4) have been pre-
served. The design of these coins shows further influence of the coin
design of the knife area in the east upon the coins of the spade area
in the west, since both the square central hole and the rims are
marked characteristics of the round coins of the knife area and are
not found on the early issues of the round coins of the spade area.
E. Round coins of the state of Ch'in with their weights: as listed
on page 196.
This group of coins, showing a strong Ch'in influence, is a special
category in the round coinage of the spade area. In the study of the
Late Spades, we found a group which was currency of the state of
Ch'in. Their monetary unit was the liang, a weight unit composed
28 This rare specimen is reported by Ch'in Pao-tsan (I-hsia lu, III, ying 1a2b, 15 ab.).
He states that the coin was deposited in a bronze chiieh vessel together with some
"Ant Nose Money," which was dug up outside of the southern wall of the city of
Hsu-chou (Suchow).
'3*
196
Legend
Design
Round central
hole with rim
Plate Reference
LV,3
Square central
hole without rim
Round central
hole with rims
Round central
hole with rims
LV. 4
LV, 6
(Weight, twelve
chu)
of 24 chu. The appearance of that monetary unit on this group of
round coins implies that these coins were developed from Ch'in
spades. Shensi, the home territory of Ch'in, is their reported pro-
venance,27 and this adds much weight to the assumption. The speci-
men inscribed with the legend "Weight, twelve chu," which equals
a half Hang, must have been the immediate forerunner of the Pan-
liang (half Hang) coin of imperial Ch'in, which was the first Ch'in
coinage issued after ancient China was conquered and unified in
221 B. C. Like this coin, the imperial Pan-liang coin of Ch'in also
has a square central hole.
Unlike other coins of the spade area they do not bear mint names.
This is exceedingly interesting and significant, and is most likely
a reflection of the political structure of Ch'in at the time these coins
were cast. The history of the state of Ch'in shows that after the
latter part of the fourth century B. C. Ch'in was a centralized state.
27 Ch'iian-pi, No. 2, 44.
In 336 B. C. coinage was made a state prerogative, and thereupon
the special form of spade with three holes was cast. At the beginning
of this innovation the old tradition persisted, and the unified spade
coinage of Ch'in still bore the names of local mints, which were very
likely the mints which cast them under a central supervision. With
the appearance of the round coinage, the king's monopoly on coinage
seems to have been tightened further, with minting probably con-
centrated at the capital. The centralization of minting at the capital
or under the sole power of the king meant the abolition of local
minting privileges. This is probably the reason for the absence of
local mint names in the legend of the coins. As a matter of fact,
the centralization of minting would make the very specification
of mint unnecessary. The absence of mint name on the universal
Pan-liang coin of imperial Ch'in serves as a good example.
Besides the various types of the round coins described and dis-
cussed above, there is one more type (Plate LV, 5,7 )which should
be mentioned. These coins have a round central hole, some with
and some without rims. All of them bear the same legend, "Pan
yuan" 3s H or "Half, round." The second character of the legend,
yuan, though slightly varied, is structurally identical with the yuan
character as it appears in the inscriptions on the Chou bronzes.
Philologically speaking, the character is the same as HI, is pronounced
the same and means "round" or "something round."28 In the legend
the character obviously refers to the shape of the currency as distin-
guished from the previous currency, the spade. The designation
of the round coins as yuan partially substantiates Pan Ku's statement
that the Chou had yuan-fa,29 HI fe, "round system" or "round
coinage." It serves also to repudiate the much repeated statement
that the entire Chou coinage was the yuan-fa. Since a specimen has
28 |g] is equivalent to [g meaning "round." See Wu Tseng-ch'i's ^ -g- jjjg explanation
quoted in Shuo-wen-chieh-tzii ku-lin (compiled by Ting Fu-pao), 2719 ab.
28 Han shu, XXIV, Part 2, 1a. Pan Ku's statement that the yuan-fa was created by
T'ai-kung, i. e., Lu Wang, is untrue, because Lu Wang lived at the beginning of the
Chou period whereas round coinage did not appear before the third century, about
eight hundred years later,
been discovered in Shensi, the territory of the state of Ch'in, Ch&ig
Chia-hsiang suggests that this type of coin was of Ch'in origin.30 This
explanation is plausible, and the coins might have been experimental
issues before the Pan-liang.
3. DATE OF THE ROUND COINAGE
So far as we know, no numismatist has attempted to date the origin
of this special coinage. Practically all numismatists, though, regard
the various round coins described above as currency of the last
century or centuries of the Chou period. Cheng Chia-hsiang and
Ting Fu-pao take exception to this, however, in regard to the
round coins of I31 and "Ming" coins which they hold are of late
Ch'in or Han origin.
Cheng Chia-hsiang believes that these coins were modelled after
the imperial Pan-liang coin of Ch'in and were cast at the end of that
dynasty.32 His argument for their late origin is that all have a square
central hole which, he says, was a creation of imperial Ch'in (not
Ch'in State). Therefore, they must be later than the Pan-liang, the
first coinage of the imperial dynasty. He further argues that the
size of the "Ming" and I coins is small and that their shape re-
sembles the Ssii-chu coin of Emperor Wen of Han (179157 B. C.).33
Ting Fu-pao speaks of the I coins only, and his argument is not
based on the square central hole or the size, but on the rims around
the hole and the outer circumference. It is his opinion that the rims
were a post-Chou design. For this reason, he alleges that the coins of I
which have such rims are as late as the reign of Emperor Wu of Han.34
The reason, as we see it from his writings, is that the name of the city I
first appears in an historical record concerning Emperor Wu's reign.35
80 Ch'iian-pi, No. 2, 44.
81 Cheng Chia-hsiang still follows the old and erroneous reading of the character "i"
as "pao" (Ku ch'ien ta-tz'u-tien, X, 2o7b, and Ch'uan-pi, No. 21, 32 38).
s2 Ku ch'ien ta-tz'H-tien, X, 2o7b2o8a.
83 Op. cit., X, 2o7b 2o8a. Op. cit., 477a.
85 In Han shu, XV, Part 1, 14a. It is recorded that in 128 B. C. Emperor Wu made
a member of the imperial house the Marquis of I-tu. I-tu is identified with I.
Those who have read our descriptions of the round coins of the
Chou period will detect the faults in their reasoning. Let us take up
their arguments one by one and see if they are well founded.
First, the square central hole. Cheng Chia-hsiang's explanation
that the square central hole was a creation of imperial Ch'in contra-
dicts the facts. Both the Chou coin and the "Twelve chu" coin of
the Ch'in state had square central holes (see Groups C and E), and
the states of Chou and Ch'in existed before the establishment of the
imperial dynasty of Ch'in.
Second, the size. On this point Cheng Chia-hsiang again goes
against the facts. The size of the coins of the Chou period, whether
with a round central hole or with a square central hole, varies with
the denomination. The average diameter of the largest denomination
(six huo) of the coins of I (with a square central hole) in the collection
of The American Numismatic Society is 35 mm. It is almost as large
as the Chi-yin coin (with round central hole) of the one chin denom-
ination (39 mm.) and larger than the Chi-yin coin of the half chin
denomination (31 mm.). Although slightly smaller in size, the I coin
of the six huo denomination weighs as much as the Chi-yin coin of
one chin (about 1o grams). The one chin coin of Yii with a round
central hole has a larger diameter (41 mm.), but it is thinner and
weighs less (8.22 grams). In neither size nor weight do we find notice-
able difference between the coins with a round central hole (which
Ch6ng Chia-hsiang regards as a distinction of coins of the Chou
period) and the coins with a square central hole (which he regards as
an imperial Ch'in creation).
Third, the rims. The argument that rims are of late origin is even
less tenable. As far back as the fifth century some Old Spades already
had a rim. This was pointed out a century and half ago by Ts'ai
Yiin in his repudiation of the late origin of the rim.36 While the round
coins of I have rims on their obverses only, these spades have rims
on both sides. If the rim theory were at all tenable, the round coins of
M Ts'ai Yun, P'i-fan, IV, 3b,
I must have been older than the Old Spades. Furthermore, not all
the I coins which Ting Fu-pao regards as of Han origin because of
their rims actually have rims. The American Numismatic Society
has ten I coins of the one huo denomination, and five of them have
no rims. Rims are not exclusive features of I coins; they also appear
on the round coins of Western Chou, Eastern Chou, Lin, Li-shih
and some Ch'in (feudatory Ch'in) coins with weight specifications.
Ting Fu-pao does not seem to have regarded these coins as of Han
origin, and, as a matter of fact, no one can deny that they were coins
of the Chou period.
The assertion that the I coins resemble the shape of a later coin
is secondary, and as an argument is too weak to be dealt with. In
short, the contention of late origin for the "Ming" and I coins, as
advanced by Cheng and Ting, is largely due to their preconceived
idea that coins with a square central hole or with rims must be later
than the Pan-liang coin of imperial Ch'in. This preconception seems
to have prevented their paying attention to facts to the contrary.
The truth is that these coins, like the other coins described above,
were all coins of the Chou period.
Pan Ku, a Han historian, states that the round coinage (yuan-fa)
was created by T'ai-kung37 or Lii Wang as he is called in this paper.
This is absolutely impossible. T'ai-kung lived at the beginning of the
Chou dynasty. According to the old text of the Bamboo Annals, he
died in the sixth year of King K'ang, which is 1o73 B. C. in the
traditional chronology. The round coinage, judging from all in-
dications available, was a currency of much later origin. The earlj
date of T'ai-kung and the late origin of the round coin disproves
beyond any doubt Pan Ku's statement.
In his work, Old Tombs of Lo-yang, W. C. White mentions th<
recovery of a Tung-Chou (Eastern Chou) coin in one of the tombs al
Chin-tsun, Honan,38 which is dated in the sixth century accordinf
"Han shu, XXIV, Part 2, 1a.
?8 White, Tombs of Old Lo-yang, p. 48, PI. XLV, 118,
to him 39 and in the fourth century according to Kuo Mo-jo.40 Upon
further inquiry we found that Prof. White relied on a dealer's word
for the coin's provenance.41 Dealers' information on provenance is
not always reliable, however.
As the literary record and the archaeological report are of no avail,
we must once again search for indications regarding their origin from
the coins themselves.
In the previous studies on the spade and the knife coinages we have
reached the conclusion that the late types of the two coinages lasted
well into the third century B. C. As the round coins were a coinage
which succeeded the knife and the spade, their date could not have
been earlier than this century. In view of the fact that the round
coins of the Chou period preserved today are exceedingly few42 even
fewer than the ancient Hollow-handle Spades the number cast at
that time must have been very small, or the period of their circulation
must have been short. Although we cannot say exactly when the
round coinage or coinages of Chou began, we are fairly sure of the
date it ended. It is a well-known historical fact, related by Ssu-ma
Ch'ien, that the round coinages of the Chou period were abolished
by the first emperor of Ch'in upon his unification of the monetary
system in 221 B. C.43 Since the duration of the round coinages of
39 Op. cit., 4o. Date based on an inscription on a Piao-ch'iang bell which was recovered
from one of the tombs. Actually the date has bearing only on that particular tomb in
which it was deposited.
40 Liang-Chou chin-wSn-tz1'H ta-hsi k'ao-shih, III, 234aff. Kuo bases his date on the
same inscription.
41 In a letter to the writer Professor White states, "I have no reason to doubt that it
(the Eastern Chou coin-Wang) came from Old Loyang, for it reached me in Kaifeng
with a quantity of material from the Chin-tsun tombs, and I was informed by Mr. Lin
Shih-an, the well known dealer in Kaifeng, that he heard there were others of these
coins which his buyers did not obtain. This was the only coin that I could accept as
probably from Old Loyang."
42 This is shown by both the limited number of mints of which coins are preserved and
by the limited number of coins preserved for each mint. The majority of these mints
have no more than one or two specimens.
48 The official abolition of a coinage may not correspond to the actual and complete
.withdrawal of coin from circulation, especially in the border regions, for obvious
Chou might have been short, we may tentatively date their begin-
ning as around 25o B. C.
4. SOME HISTORICAL EXPLANATION
In the above description an interesting historical phenomenon has
come to light. It is the continuation of the influence of the coinage
of the knife area in the east upon that of the spade area in the west.
The expansion of the knife coinage of the ancient Shantung Penin-
sula, predominantly the state of Ch'i during the Chan-kuo period,
and its penetration into the neighboring states of Chao and Yen, has
been discussed in Chapter V. As we see them, the reasons the towns
and cities of Chao and Yen adopted the eastern knife coinage were
largely economic. During the period of the round coinage, the eastern
influence seems to have persisted. The evidences are the gradual
adoption of the square central hole, and the monetary unit huo in
the western round coinage or coinages. As has been pointed out
above, the square central hole was a characteristic feature of the
round coin in the old knife area, and huo was an exclusive monetary
designation of the knife and the special monetary unit of the round
coin in the area where the knife had been the currency or the dominant
currency. In the beginning the characteristics of the round coins
in the spade area adjacent to the knife area or in the area into which
knife coinage had penetrated44 were the round central hole and the
special monetary unit chin. Coins with these characteristics were cast
reasons. In the excavation of the site of Kao-Ii-chai "One Huo" round coins were dis-
covered together with "Ming" knives and Late Spades of Hsiang-p'ing in Trench D
(P'i-tzti-wo, Table II). In the excavation of the site of Mu-yang-ch'eng, "Ming Huo"
and "One Huo" round coins were found together with the earlier "Ming" Knives and
the late coinages of imperial Ch'in (Pan-Hang coins), Han (Wu-chu coins) and Hsin
(Ta-ch'iian-wu-shih coin) on the same level at the same location (Mu-yang-ch'Sng,
18 2o). Both sites are on the Liaotung Peninsula in southern Manchuria which was
a border region during the latter part of Chou and the dynasties of Ch'in, Han and
Hsin.
44 For reasons of simplification the coins of the state of Ch'in are excluded from the
discussion.
by the mints of Chou and Ch'in which were in the area where the
knife never seems to have been cast; yet among the coins of this
group there are preserved some of Chou and Ch'in which have a
square central hole (see Groups D and E). Taking all these indications
into consideration, we must say that the square central hole of the
round coins of the old spade area was an imitation of a feature on the
eastern coinage of the old knife area.
The adoption of eastern monetary features by the west is further
demonstrated by the appearance of the monetary unit huo in the
legend of the Chou round coin (see Group C on p. 195). The legend
of the coin reads "Chou Huo" or "Huo of Chou", the same expression
as the legends of the "Ming" coins and the coins of I of the knife
area.45
The co-existence of two different coinages in the east the knife
and in the west the spade46 and the constant influence exerted by
the eastern coinage upon that of the west help to explain many of
the events which took place in China's early history. Students of
Chinese history are familiar with the division of China into the south
and the north, and with the economic and political parts played by
the two great regions, but this phenomenon did not exist in ancient
China. With the Ch'u area in the south less developed culturally and
economically, ancient China was constituted of two areas, the east and
the west. The center of the west was around the middle of the Yellow
River, and the center of the east was on the Shantung Peninsula.
The early political history of China was predominantly a struggle bet-
ween the peoples of the east and west. The Shang people, who origi-
nated in the east, conquered and replaced the Hsia people in the west
in the first part of the second millennium B. C. A few centuries
later the Chou people, who came from the west, conquered and
"Besides the "Chou Huo" coin, Ch'in Pao-tsan reports also the existence of a round
coin with the legend of "Chi Huo" or "Huo of Chi" (I-hsia lu, III, Part 2, ying 14a).
He reads the character huo as , the second character of the twelve "heavenly stems."
* For the reasons mentioned in the text below we exclude the state of Ch'u in the
south and its yuan-chin coinage.
204
replaced the Shang at the end of the twelfth or the eleventh century.
The division between the east and west in ancient China and the
struggles between the peoples of these two areas have been admirably
expounded by Prof. Fu Ssii-nien in his essay "I Hsia tung hsi shuo."47
The study of ancient Chinese coinages further confirms his analysis
and reveals, in addition, that in economic life the east seems to have
always maintained the leading role.
The construction of Lo-i in present central northern Honan as the
"eastern capital" of Chou has been stated and believed to be a pure
political and military measure to control the vanquished Shang. The
action, however, may have also been motivated by the desire to
approximate the wealth of the east. The economic intentions are
clearly manifested in the actions of Chao and Liang in moving their
capitals to Han-tan and Ta-liang, both on the "Cross-road" to the
approaches to eastern resources. Both the Ch'in and Han dynasties
relied on the east for much of their supplies, and the city of Lin-
tzu in the east about 127 B. C. seems to have been the only city
which had a "prosperous and rich" population of 1oo,oo0 households,
yielded a market tax of 1,0oo (Han catties of) gold, and was "greater
than Ch'ang-an,"48 the imperial capital of Han.
All indications point to the fact that the east of ancient China
had greater economic resources than the west, and for that reason
exerted much influence over the latter. With this fact in mind, we
can easily understand why the coinage, of the east was imitated
in the west and not vice versa.
Was the eastern or the knife area the first to adopt the round shape
in coinage? This seems to be a logical hypothesis in view of what has
been said above, but that part of the spade area which had adopted
the knife as one of its currencies under the strong influence of the
east used the chin of the spade, not the huo of the knife for the mone-
tary unit of its round coins. Therefore the west appears to be the first
area to introduce round coinage. However, these are pure conjec-
47 Ch'ing-chu Ts'ai Yiian-p'ei hsien-sheng liu-shih-wu-sui lun-wen chi, 1935, io93
1134. 48 Han shu, XXXVIII, 7b.
tures. Any answer of this question, as well as many other questions
regarding the coinages of Chinese antiquity, will have to depend
upon future archaeological investigations.
Several general assumptions have been made regarding the origin of
the shape. One suggestion has it that the shape was derived from
the ring at the end of the handle of the knife coin, while another
contends that it was an imitation of the pi or jade disc, which was a
religious object symbolizing Heaven. Whereas we do not think that
it is profitable to dwell on pure conjectures, we deem it necessary
to point out the fact that at the time when the round coin was about
to appear the ring of the handle of the knife coins had degenerated
to such an extent that it had become very small and in some cases
had actually disappeared. In our opinion, there is no reason to
believe that the round coin was modelled after the ring in the handle
of the knife coins.
VIH. MONETARY DESIGNATIONS AND MONETARY UNITS
Inasmuch as monetary units and designations are essential features
of the coinages of ancient China, they have already been mentioned in
connection with the discussion of the various coinages. It remains to
investigate their origin and development as monetary units, and the
changes in their weights and denominational systems in the course
of many centuries. As the yuan, the monetary designation and unit
of the money of the state of Ch'u, has been discussed fully in the
section on the yuan-chin, we will here treat only the lieh, the chin,
the huo and the liang.
1. THE LIEH
The origin of the lieh # is uncertain.1 In the legends on spade
coins and in the inscriptions of the Chou bronzes the character is
written t. It appears to be an ideograph signifying a hand holding
something which another hand approachs to take. The hand may
be holding a single object, as Kuo Mo-jo understands it,2 or the
character may be the symbol for a handful of objects, as we are in-
clined to think. The ideograph implies the transfer of the objects
from one hand to another, or from one person to another. In other
1 The character lieh ^j>, ^J ($ in modern script) has been mistakenly identified
with the character yuan &, ^ (i 'n modern script) by many scholars including the
author. The mistake originated with Hsu Shen, who in his famous dictionary (pre-
sented to the throne in A. D. 1oo) first suggests the identification (Tuan-shih Shuo-
wen-chieh-tzu chu, XIV, 4a. The signific chin for "metal" of both the characters yuan
and lieh as it appears in the dictionary is a later addition and does not change the
meanings of the two characters). Tai Chen (1723 1777) is the first who pointed out
the mistake and Kuo Mo-jo confirms his opinion by further epigraphical evidence
(Liang Chou chin-wln-tz'it ta-hsi k'ao-shih, 13a). The difference between the characters
lieh and yuan is very clear as they appear in the legends of the Special Old Spades
of Liang and those of the yuan-chin of Ch'u. 1 qj, c^ j l d
2o6
Monetary Designations and Units 207
words, it seems to denote a transaction, such as an exchange of
commodities. The handful may be of grain, for grain, being the
essential food of the ancient Chinese, is likely to have been the first
commodity used in a specific quantity to represent a certain value
in measuring the values of other commodities. Traditions strongly
maintain that the ancient Chinese used the shu (millet), seeds in certain
numbers to define the smallest units in their measures of weight,
length and capacity. It is possible that at a later date, when ex-
change of commodities increased both in frequency and in kind,
the handful of grain no longer constituted a convenient medium
of exchange. As the quantity necessary to express a certain value
for any object is best determined by weight, the original value-unit
may have developed into a weight-unit. But as the value of different
objects varies with their availability and the amount of labor spent
in their production, the lieh, as a weight-unit derived from a value-
unit, must vary too. As a result there must have been lieh of different
weights, as was still true during the Han dynasty.
It is needless to say that this interpretation of the origin of the
lieh is purely conjectural. Whatever its origin, the lieh as a weight
unit must have had a long history. To say the least, as evidence
shows, it must have been in existence during the Shang dynasty. In
the inscription of the Shih-lu Tripod, Shih-lu was fined three hundred
"old" lieh of an object the name of which cannot be deciphered.3
Kuo Mo-jo dates this inscription to King Chang's reign.4 Since
Ch'6ng became king in 1115 B. C., only seven years after Shang was
conquered by his father, the actual founder of the Chou dynasty,
the "old" lieh, as Kuo Mo-jo has rightly suggested, must have been
the lieh of the Shang period.5
In bronze inscriptions of the early part of the Chou period lieh
is found to be a weight unit to measure objects of a pecuniary nature
such as cowrie shells and chin 4fc. The character chin which in
ancient times generally meant "metal" may here refer to copper, as
8 Kuo Mo-jo, op. cit., 26a. * Ibid. 6 Op. cit., 26b.
2o8 Early Chinese Coinage
Kuo Mo-jo understands it,6 and may refer to a money in metal form.
As a designation of metallic money, chin is found in the literature of
the Chou period and in the legends on the Special Old Spades of
Liang (see p. 138). If it here means metallic money, then the lieh
in terms of which money is measured must have been a monetary
unit; in other words, the weight unit lieh must have been adopted
as a weight standard in minting. This, however, is more hypothetical
than certain.
The lieh as a weight unit for measuring metallic money occurs
with certainty in Chou bronze inscriptions dated from the time of
King Mu (1oo1 947 B. C.) down, where it is used in conjunction
with the character (,'&,%&). All in all, seven inscriptions have been
preserved in which the two characters occur together, the lieh evi-
dently serving as a measure for a certain amount of the other article.
In one of them there is recorded a proposal to purchase five "slaves"
with one hundred lieh of the article6 The other six are all concerned
with appointment to high ranking offices. In them the appointee
is always commanded by the king "to take (or to receive)" so many
lieh of the article in remuneration.7 The numbers range from five
to thirty. The name of the object is very difficult to decipher. Al-
though no less than six different suggestions have been made,8 none
of them can be regarded as satisfactory. Judging from the contexts
of these inscriptions, the object can be nothing but a kind of money.
This is also the interpretation of Kuo Mo-jo and Wu K'ai-sh6ng.9
(It is most unfortunate that we do not know the reading of the name
of the money, for if we did, we certainly would be better informed
of the monetary system of the time.) Since lieh is used to measure
Op. cit., 96b 97b.
'For those inscriptions see op. cit., 57a, 118a, 119b, 133a, 134b135b, and 150b.
8 Five suggestions are mentioned in Chang Chih-kang's ij|| ^ JUft Mao-kung ting chiao-
shih. They are fu Jj (to give or to collect), pei J| (cowrie), i jg (to give), chai ^
(credit, loan), and kuei or k'ui gjjjf (to give a pecuniary gift). Wu K'ai-sheng (Chi-chin
wSn lu, 1933, I) 4a) and Kuo Mo-jo (Shih p'i-p'an shu, 1945, 49) read it as huo J|
(money). See above note.
the money, it must be either a monetary unit or a weight unit applied
to this coinage.
As a monetary unit for coinage lieh is also found in the legends of
the Special Old Spades of Liang which have been described (pp. 13off).
As pointed out above, when the type of spade reckoned in terms of
chin was in circulation, there must have been another coinage whose
weight was based on the lieh, for we have such expressions as "equal
to one lieh" and "equal to twelve lieh." We do not know exactly
to what kind of money the lieh of these expressions referred. Since
at the time of the Old Spades of Liang there were three types of coin
in circulation the knife, the spade and the yuan-chin lieh
as a monetary unit must have applied to one of these. We know that
huo and yuan applied to the knife and the yuan-chin respectively.
Possibly the lieh was used as a unit for the spade alongside the chin
or in certain areas instead of the chin. This hypothesis is plausible
in view of the fact that the use of chin did not come with the beginning
of spade coinage, but many centuries later, when the coinage had
developed to its latest stage of hollow handles. The original unit for
the spade may well have been the lieh preceding the adoption of the
chin. It is assumed that adoption of chin was slow and gradual,
and that chin came to be adopted in some areas, while other areas
continued to reckon their spades in lieh. Such a circumstance would
explain why the state of Liang specified on its own spades (based on
the chin) their exchange rate with spades of other mints which were
based on the lieh. Again, it is not impossible that the monetary appel-
lation recorded on the bronzes discussed above was the official name
for the spade whose value was measured by the lieh. Then, for some
reason or other, this official name came into disuse and was replaced
by the popular terms ch'ien and po (pu).
There are no contemporary records which supply information on
the exact weight of the lieh. What literary evidence we have is all of
Han date, which may or may not represent the situation of the Chou
period. According to our information, three different lieh are known:
one equal to 11 13/25 chu (which is about a half liang); the second
14 Monograph 115
equal to 6 2/3 liang; and the third equal to 6 liang.10The second and
third are so close that they may be considered two versions of the
same standard measure. So we may consider that there were two kinds
of lieh of entirely different weight. The discrepancy between them
is so great that Kuo Mo-jo was led to believe that the heavier lieh
represented the "old" lieh of Shang.11 On another occasion, he expres-
sed an opinion that it constituted the weight measure for commo-
dities, while the lighter lieh was the weight unit for money.12
How heavy was the lieh as a monetary unit? On this question the
Special Old Spades of Liang may provide us some information, for
each of these spades bears an equation between its denomination
in terms of the chin and its denomination in terms of the lieh. Both
the spade with legend a) and the spade with legend c) equated to one
lieh, and the spade with legend d) is specified as equal to twelve
lieh. The weights of Type a), the "standard" spades of Liang with
1 chin equal to 1 lieh, in the Museum of the American Numismatic
Society are as follows: 1o.85, 11-52, 12.55, 12-o5, 16.oo, 13.15, 1340,
14.91,13.72 grams.
Here we see that so far as Type a) of the Special Old Spades of
Liang are concerned, the weight of the lieh, as equal to the chin, is
16 grams in the heaviest specimen. This weight cannot be regarded
as the original weight of the lieh as the weight of no coin which has
been buried underground for two thousand years and more, and
subjected to oxidization, would be precisely the original.
The official ratio between the chin and the lieh may have been
artificial because of reasons unknown to us. But even if it were so and
there were some difference between the weight of the lieh and the
chin, the difference could not have been too large, for any compulsory
equation of two monetary units of greatly different weight would
defeat the very purpose for which the equation was made that is,
to facilitate the trade between the areas where these two different
units were used.
10 Liang Chou chin-wSn-tz'6 ta-hsi k'ao-shih, 12a 12b.
II P- *-, 26b. 11 Ch'ii Yuan yen-chiu, 1946, 88.
Both Type c) and Type d) of the Special Old Spades of Liang
which are specified "to be used as" are believed to have been "token"
money. Compared to Type c) the reduction in weight of the chin and,
for that matter the lieh, of Type d) is more striking. The weights
of seven pieces of this type are as follows: 26.18 28.o2, 17.4o,
19.5o, 25.1o, 23.54 25.o5 grams.
2. THE CHIN
The character chin lfc (iff in modern script) which appears in
the legends of spades of various types has often been interpreted by
numismatists as representing two characters chin, huo & {fc (i. e.,
metal money) or chin chin ^ n (i. e., one catty of metal). The
separation of the character into two parts is wholly unwarranted,
and the suggested readings are untenable.13 A recent suggestion to
read it as ch'ien i is equally ill-founded.14 The reading of the char-
acter as chin was first advanced by Liu Shih-lu,15 and is generally
accepted today. But the interpretation of its meaning varies with
different numismatists. The reason for varying interpretation is that
the character does not occur in the literature of the Chou period
except for the Chuang-tzu, where it is used to signify an implement
having no relation to money.16 Hsu Shen (first century A. D.), the
first scholar to comment on the character, renders its meaning as
chi-tuan M W that is "To cut or sever evenly or regularly,"17 an
la For criticisms of these unacceptable readings see Cheng Chia-hsiang, "Ku pu chin
tzu chih yen-chiu" (Astudy of the character chin in the legends of the ancient spades),
Ch'iian-pi, No. 22, 3.
14 The reading of ch'ien is suggested by Ch'en T'ieh-ch'ing and quoted by Chang
Chung-po in his article, "Tsai shuo chin pin ta Ch'en chiin T'ieh-ch'ing," Ch'iian-pi,
No. 18,67.
16 Lin Shih-lu, Yii Hsia shu-chin shih-wen (Coole, no. 385).
16 Ssii-pu pei-yao ed., IV, 17a.
17 Tuan-shih shuo-wen-chieh-tzu chu, XIV, Part 1, 8b. The translation of Hsu Shen's
comment is according to the interpretation of Tuan Yii-ts'ai, the most authoritative
commentator of Hsu Shen's work.
explanation which also fails to show any connection between the
character and the spade money. Believing Hsu Shin's opinion too
authoritative to cast aside, numismatists could only fabricate an
interpretation for the character by emphasizing one of the ideas im-
plied in his comments, or distort his words. Liu Shih-lu's interpreta-
tion of the chin as a monetary designation for the spade is based on
the hypothesis that the coins were cast in pairs and had to be severed
after they were taken out of the molds.18 This agrees with Hsu
Shin's explanation of chin as "to sever." The character chi, in Hsu
Shen's comment on chi-tuan, led Wang Lien-sheng to the conclusion
that chin means "tally."19 Ch6ng Chia-hsiang further stretches the
meaning of the character chi in the sense of "tally" to signify a
"medium" for "equalizing or standardizing market prices," and
thus infers that this word refers to money. He asserts that this is
the reason that its equivalent chin became the designation for a kind
of money, that is, the spade.20
The interpretations are too elaborate and distorted to be convinc-
ing. In the following we shall attempt an explanation which, we
hope, may be more natural and logical. In the absence of any historical
data relevant to the chin as a monetary unit, we shall base our
interpretation on the structure of the character.
The basic component part of our character $f is Jx, pronounced
also chin. There is no doubt whatsoever that etymologically the
former developed from the latter. Though ever since the time of im-
perial Ch'in (2212o7 B. C.) fv is generally used as the term for a
measure of weight equal to sixteen liang (Chinese ounces), this usage
seems to have been lacking in the Chou period.21 Originally the
18 Liu Shih-lu, op. cit., 1a 1b.
i" Wang Lien-sheng's 3 J|)| ^ article has been reproduced in its entirety in the Ku
ch'ien ta-tz'u-tien, VIII, 21a.
J0 "Ku pu chin tzu chih yen-chiu, 2," Ch'iian-pi, No. 24, 1o.
11 In the literature of the Chou period the character is always, as far as we know,
mentioned together with money in the sense of a monetary unit. When so used, it is
the abbreviated form of the monetary unit chin.
character meant "ax," or, to use Hsu Shin's words, "the ax for cut-
ting wood."22 It is our belief that the character ft, which is derived
from Jx denoting ax, may have been used at the beginning to denote
the same implement.
Our assumption is supported by evidence from the texts of the
Kuan-tzu and the Chuang-tzu.23 The two passages are analogous in
structure and meaning. In the Kuan-tzu it is said that the carpenter
needs to have a chin Jx and a chu (saw). The similar sentence in the
Chuang-tzu gives the tools of the carpenter as chin /? and chii.2*
Thus the character It is used to the exclusion of &ft in one text, and
vice versa in the other. According to Lu Te-ming (d. ca. 63o), in an
early copy of the Chuang-tzu not accessible to us, the character Iff
was replaced by the character Jx .25 This is indisputable evidence of
the interchangeability of the two characters. Hence Chu Ch'i-f6ng
has good reason to maintain that Jx and f S are but the simple and
the complex form of the same character, possessing the same pro-
nounciation and consequently the same meaning.26 They both
refer to the same tool, the ax. The comment of Hsu Shen, that &%
is the equivalent of "to cut or sever evenly or regularly," simply
refers to the action of the tool.
How did it happen then that the name of the ax came to be used
as a monetary unit? The only possible explanation is that at the
time when the ax first came to be used as a monetary unit, one
spade coin could buy one ax. Since the ax was a universal tool,
indispensable to every household in ancient China where the forests
were far more extensive than today, the most obvious reason is,
that it was employed as an article to measure the exchange value
of a spade coin of a certain weight. For some unexplained reason
only the people in the spade area used this device.
Since it was an exclusive monetary unit of the spade coin, the
spade coin could of course be so designated. Thus instead of saying
22 Tuan-shih shuo-wSn-chieh-tzii chu, XIV, Part 1, 8b.
23 Kuan-tzH, XXII, 3b. 24 Chuang-tzH, IV, 17a.
25 Note to Chuang-tzii, ibid. 2e Chu Ch'i-feng ^ jj|E HL Tz'H-t'ung, 1934,1752.
how many spades of certain chin denominations, the people might
say how many chin of the spade, or simply how many chin. In
the literature of the late Chou period, such as the Chan-kuo ts'e
and other contemporary works, we frequently meet with the mone-
tary expressions of "so many chin &." and "chin 4t of so many
chin Jv". The character chin & in both expressions is not to be
understood as meaning "metal" or "gold" as generally it has been;
it means a money or a specific money, as it is used in the legends of
the Special Old Spades of Liang. The character chin Jv is used as a
monetary unit, and not to be confused with the weight measure chin of
post-Chou origin (usually rendered as "catty"); it is the abbreviated
form of the chin f ft under discussion. Thus the two expressions should
be understood as meaning "so many of the money" and "the money of
so many chin." The "money" is the spade.27 In the first expression
the monetary unit is omitted. "So many the money" actually means
"so many money units," the unit of course being the chin.
Though eventually it appears to have become the universal mone-
tary unit of the spade coinage and the round coinage in the spade
area, the chin seems not to have been the original monetary unit
of the spade. The original monetary unit or weight unit of the spade
was probably the lieh. The first appearance of the chin as the mone-
tary unit of the spade is in the legends of the Hollow-handle Spades
of Mi (Plate X, 2) and of "San-ch'uan" (Plate XI, 2). According
to our proposed chronology of the spade coinage, these Hollow-
handle Spades, being late in shape and design, were the last types of
the Hollow-handle Spade as a whole and were in circulation in the
seventh and sixth centuries B. C. The adoption of the chin as a mone-
tary unit for the spade may not have been much earlier than this date.
The date of the seventh and sixth centuries is significant. The
Hollow-handle Spade which is designated as the chin or is specified
as of one chin (ax) denomination is small and light, weighing,
as in the case of a specimen in the Museum of the American Numis-
matic Society, no more than 37.3 grams. But the actual ax must
17 Later, round coins replaced spades.
be much heavier and larger in order to be practical for cutting
purposes. Therefore, the actual tool and the coin equivalent to the
value of one ax must have been manufactured of different metals.
Since the coin is of bronze, the tool no doubt must have been made
of iron. Although the beginning of the use of iron in China is still
being debated, we gather from literary sources that the metal was
common by the middle of the seventh century B. C.28 The Kuan-
tzH records that in Kuan Chung's time (d. 645 B. C.) iron was used
for making needles and knives for women, ploughshares and weeding
spades for farmers, and axes and saws for the cartwright.29 The use
of iron tools is also confirmed by a passage in the Kuo yii which cred-
its Kuan Chung with saying that the wo-chin (bad metal) is to serve
for making farming tools.30 The so-called "bad metal" (or "inferior
metal") must be iron. At the time of Mencius iron tools were so
general that he speaks of farm implements of iron as a matter of
course.31 It is very possible that the popularity of iron implements
was such that the value of the currency was expressed in terms of
a particular variety, no doubt the most widely used, of these tools.
The denominational system of the monetary unit chin varied with
different types of the spades. The Hollow-handle Spades were of
only one size, and, therefore, one denomination, one chin. With the
appearance of the Old Spades its denominations were multiplied.
Besides the one chin denomination, there were the two and the half
chin denominations. The Late Spades, except those of the state of
Ch'in which had a different monetary unit, had only two sizes and
consequently two denominations, the one and the half. All these
have been described previously. We have mentioned, too, that not
all of the spades have in their legends the name of the monetary
unit and its denominations. The omission from the legend of the
name of the monetary unit and its denomination, or of the name
28 For a short discussion see Kuo Mo-jo, Shih p'i-p'an shu, 5o52. The author bases
his information on a passage from the Kuan-tzu, which we have quoted before, and a
passage from the Kuo-yii. *9 Kuan-tzii, XXII, 3b.
30 Kuo-yii, VI, 8b. J1 MSng-tziichu-shu, Ssii-pu pei-yao ed., V, Part 2, lb.
of the monetary unit alone, is found in cases in which the omission
would not cause confusion. Otherwise not only the name of the
monetary unit but also the denomination is specified. The time
of the Old Spade was still close to the beginning of the adoption
of the chin as the monetary unit. The system was still new. Therefore,
in the legend of every one of the spades preserved today both the
monetary unit and its denomination are carefully designated. But
the situation with the Late Spade was different. By the time this
type of spade appeared, many years had passed. The monetary unit
had become customary, and for this reason it could be omitted from
the legend and it usually was. Because the Late Spades were of only
two denominations differing markedly in size, the specification of
their denomination was rendered equally unnecessary, though the
denomination of many half chin spades was still designated.
The weighing of various specimens in the museum of the American
Numismatic Society yielded some interesting points which are de-
monstrated in the on page 217.
The table shows, first, the weight of the chin in any one period is
roughly the same, irrespective of the mint. Secondly, the weight of
a spade corresponds to its denomination. Thirdly, in the course of
about three hundred years the weight of the chin became gradually
but consistently reduced from 37.3 grams to about 1o.
However, a word needs to be said about the spades of Kuo. Ac-
cording to their shape and design these belong to the Late Spade type.
Yet in weight they are heavier than the Late Spades from other
mints. The half chin spade of Kuo weighs as much as the one chin
spade from other mints, and even equals in weight some of the Old
Spades which bear the same denomination. We do not know the
economic and political reasons for this difference in weight. However,
one thing to be noted about these specimens is the superior quality
of the alloy. The spades of Kuo listed in the chart show no sign of
oxidization or patination. Their color is dark brown and their con-
dition excellent. If their greater weight is due to this reason alone,
it might be closer to the norm of the half chin denomination.
Monetary Designations and Units
217
Unit Mint Weight
(chin) (grams)
Hollow-handle, Spade, Ca. 500 B. C.
1 "San-ch'uan" 37-30
Old Spades, Ca. 400ca. 340 B. C.
2 An-i 25.10, 25.61, 30.00, 27.00, 24.50, 24.90, 27.70,
26.50, 27.00, 26.00, 19.00, 24.60, 21.25, 27-40
26.00, 23.10, 24.10, 28.30, 22.40, 23.70, 24.60,
25.30, 26.60, 28.60, 28.60, 29.85, 29.75, I7-50
20.20, 26.40, 24.70, 29.30, 24.10, 26.30, 25.60,
24.35, 22.20, 24.00, 20.90, 24.85, 24.80
Liang 30.50
Chin-yang 26.65, 20.08
1 An-i 14.00, 15.40, 13.75, 14.25, 14.07, 13.62, 12.56,
13.59, 16.24, 11-oo, 14-40. l3-52, n.50, 12.70,
12.15, I2-25, 12.70
Liang 13.95, 14.50, 14.55
Ching 14.62, 18.25
Ya 13.95, 12.70, 16.65, 13.15
P'u-pan 14.05
Chin-yang 14.62
Yuan 11.61
? 14.90
V, An-i 6.57
Liang 13.05, 7.35, 7.92, 7.06
Kung 8.63
Lu-shih 8.48
Late Spades, Ca. 370ca. 250 B. C.
1 Han-tan n.87, 10.95, lZ-T5, 11.20, 11.22, 11.17, 12.60
Tzu-shih 13.17
Ta-yin 12.52
V, Tzu-shih 5.30, 4.69, 5.10, 5.45, 4.10, 5.50
Ta-yin 4-6o, 4.78, 5.00, 4.60
Kuo 1466, 11.46, 12.86, 14.66, 13.30, 13.00
Round Co1ns, Ca. 250221 B. C.
I Ch'ang-yiian 9.55
Yu 8.22
Chi-yin 10.20
"An-hsiang" 9.20, 7.80
Yuan 9.72, 8.54, 10.15, 8.80, 9.45, 8.15, 10.00
Kung 940, 10.10, 9.80, 9.90, 9.20, 9.71, 8.84
Vi Chi-yin 4.65
3. THE HUO
The primary meaning of the word huo vt. (tfc hua in modern script
and pronunciation), the monetary designation of the knife, is "to
change." From its primary meaning it appears to have derived one
of its secondary meanings, "to exchange in trade," as it is used in
the often quoted line from the Shang-shu, mao-ch'ien yu-wu huo ku,
"to exchange and transfer surplus and want through trade."32 Since
money is the object which consummates exchange in trade, there
is every reason to believe that huo as a monetary designation and
later as a monetary unit must have come from the huo as a descrip-
tive word for the action "to trade." In other words, huo, originally
meaning "to exchange in trade," gradually became the name of
the medium with which trade was consummated.
Though it had been used in the legends of the first knife coins of
.Chi-mo and Ch'i, )i is not the original form of the character; its
original form is (,33 In ancient Chinese script, characters often
could be reversed without affecting the meaning. Therefore, ) can
be reversed as *. This latter form appears in the legends of "Ming"
and "One Huo" round coins as their monetary unit.
Judging from the inscriptions or legends of the knife coins of all
types, huo seemed to have been merely the monetary designation
of the knife when and where it was in circulation. It is possible that,
being the monetary designation of a particular currency, huo might
have been also used as the monetary unit. As a definite monetary
unit, huo came into being only when the round coinage made its
appearance in the original knife area and the other areas where the
knife had also become a currency. Thus in the coinage of I there are
the one, the two, the four and six denominations based on the huo.
The denominational system of the round coins of other mints in both
32 Shang shu, II, 8a. Legge, Chinese Classics, III, 1, p. 78. We have followed Miyazaki
Ichisada's 'g? Jfjf "jjj jgT suggestion in reading the last character in the sentence as ku
.(to trade) instead of chit (to stay) ("Ko no kigen ni tsuite," Toyoshi kenkyti. j|f ffi
W^g,V (194o), 252-3).
33 Tuan-shih shuo-wen-chieh-tzii chu, VIII, Part 1, lb. In some inscriptions on the
knife coins we do find huo written in the original simple form.
Monetary Designations and Units
219
the old and new knife areas, being also multiple, might have been
the same as that of I.
To find the weight of the huo as a monetary unit and the relations
between the various denominations, a few specimens preserved in
good condition were selected from the collection of the American
Numismatic Society and weighed. The results are in the following
table:
Type of
Coins
"Ming"
"One Huo"
Denomination
Weight
Design
(unit: huo)
(grams)
one
2-35
No rims
215
j>
f1
1.15
With rims
IJ
1.10
11
11
1-35
11
two
5-52
11
four
6.00
1>
II
5-45
11
l
5-77
11
6.15
11
six
9.40
11
Is
7.40
11
If
905
11
II
930
11
one
2.95
No rims
4&5
11
3-75
1>
11
3-35
11
one
2.60
With rims
11
2-57
1J
11
2.47
11
1
1-37
11
An analysis of the facts shown in the table reveals several interest-
ing points:
1. The weight of the huo varies with the type of coins. Within the
same type the weight is found to vary with design.
2. As shown by "Ming" coins and the coins of I, the weight of
the huo of the coins without rims is heavier than those with rims.
Since we can reasonably assume that coins without rims are earlier
than those with rims, the weight of the huo at the beginning of the
round coinage in the knife area seems heavier than that of the later
issues. The size of the earlier issues is also larger.
3. In the case of the rimmed coins of I the increase in denomination
corresponds roughly to the increase in weight.
4. The specimen of the two-huo denomination of I (Plate lv, 2}
stands out as an exception; its weight is almost as great as that
of the four huo specimens of the same mint. This specimen, dark red
in color (without patina, and in excellent condition of preservation)
appears to have been subjected to much less or no oxidization. Its
weight (5. 52) may well approximate the original. If this is the case,
as we believe it is, the original weight of the huo when the rimmed
coins of I were cast was at least 2.76 grams.
5. The weight of the huo of this two huo coin of I is roughly the
same as the weight of three rimmed "One huo" coins (2.6o, 2.57,
2.47) which are also preserved in excellent condition. This further
confirms the approximation of the weight of the huo of the two
huo coin of I to the original weight of the huo of the time.
6. The weight of the huo as 2.76 grams or slightly more derived
from the weight of the two huo coin of I is very close to that of the
rimless one huo coins of the same mint (2.35 and 2.15). But since these
specimens are badly oxidized, their original weight must have been
larger. From this we may infer that at an earlier date when I issued
the rimless coins the weight of the huo of the coinage of I must
have been more than 2.76 grams, which weight is derived from its
two huo coin with rims a design which was later in origin. In
view of this the weight of the one huo denomination of "Ming"
coins may well represent the original weight of the huo at the
beginning of the round coinage in the knife area, for these coins are
rimless and are most likely of early date.
7. Granting possible regional discrepancies, the weight of the
monetary unit huo in the days of the round coinage appears to have
been roughly the same. The rapid reduction in its weight shown in
the table is certainly a reflection of the chaotic economic and political
condition in the last years of the Chou period, when war was the
order of the day and the local powers which cast the coins were on
the verge of extinction.
4. THE LIANG
The word liang f& or W (M in modern script) meant, and generally
still does, "two." Therefore, in Chinese antiquity, two units of any
thing which together were considered as one larger unit was called liang.
Thus, two rolls of silk fabric was called one liang of silk. Two "Fives"
(wu) of soldiers made a military unit which was also called liang.
Because the carriage and wagon each had two wheels, the unit in
counting carriages and wagons was also liang. It is only natural, then,
to assume that the liang as a weight or monetary unit must be a
larger unit based on two smaller ones.
In ancient times the Chinese, like many other peoples, used seeds
of grain to measure weight. The grain which the Chinese used was
shu (millet). One yiieh, a standard musical tube, contained 1,2oo
such seeds, which weighed twelve chu,3* written ^ (3fc) or J& (^) in
the legends' of the spades and round coins of the feudatory of Ch'in.
"Twelve chu" was the smaller of the two denominations of the spade
coinage of Ch'in instituted by, as we believe, King Hui-wen in 336
B. C. The larger denomination was one liang, which is the denomi-
national specification appearing on the reverse of all of the Ch'in
spades of the larger size. As we know that at the time one liang was
composed of twenty-four chu, the denomination of the liang was
made up of two "twelve chu" units. The larger spade weighed
twice as much as the smaller, and in denomination it should
literally have been called "two twelve-cAw. "But "two twelve-chu"
cannot be regarded as a convenient terminology. Therefore, follow-
34 Han shu, XXI, Part 1, 7b.
222
ing the customary practice, the unit of double twelve chu was
designated as liang. It is our belief that the liang as a weight unit
weighing twenty-four chu must have come from the liang as a
monetary unit composed of two "twelve chu."35
Only a very limited number of the Ch'in (as a feudatory) coins have
been reported. With the exception of Lacouperie, the numismatists
who report them do not give their weight. The Museum of the Ame-
rican Numismatic Society has in its collection two Ch'in spades and
two Ch'in round coins. Their weights and other particulars are as
follows:
Type of
Mint
Denomination
Weight
Coins
in grams
Late Spade
An-yang
12 chu
9o3
Hsia-pi-yang
1o-53
Round Coin
1 liang and
8.76 (worn a
13 chu
little)
1 liang and
9.41
14 chu
85 In his historical account of the origin of liang as a measure of weight, Pan Ku, author
of the Han shu, states that "one yiieh contained 12oo shu (seeds), weighing twelve chu.
By doubling this the liang was made." He states this as a matter of fact and does not
point out the reason why the Hang was made by doubling the weight of "twelve chu."
Why not triple it ? The investigation of the spade coinage of Ch'in and its denomina-
tional system offered us the first opportunity to discover the origin of the liang as a
weight unit. It grew out of the liang as a monetary unit. In this connection it is inter-
esting to note that the early sub-unit of the Hang (i. e.,the chu) was later also changed
because of another monetary reason. The new sub-unit which replaced the old chu is
the ch'ien 'g* (literarily coin) which remains in use today. The substitution of ch'ien
for chu took place in the seventh century A. D. when ten ch'ien (coins) used at the
time weighed exactly one Hang. Thereafter one Hang was always equated with ten
ch'ien, and the equation of "twenty-four chu" was abandoned. Hence today everyone
knows "ten ch'ien make up one liang." But the origin of the expression has been
completely forgotten and known only to numismatists. Ts'ai Yun is the one who
should be given the credit for the discovery (P'i-t'an, I, 9b). Developed out of a
monetary unit also is probably the weight unit chin (catty), with the monetary unit
chin of the spade being its origin. A discussion of this question will involve much space
and must be postponed to another occasion.
Lacouperie reports a round coin of 1 liang and 14 chu denomination
as weighing 171 grains36 or 11.o8 grams.
A glance at the above table shows the common phenomenon of
reduction in weight in the coinage of Ch'in. In spite of its power and
prestige at the end of the Chou period, its round coins, although of
a denomination triple that of the two listed spades, about equal
them in weight. Thus the monetary unit liang in the days of the
round coinage was in weight only a third of what it was in the days
of the Late' Spade.
The literary sources of the Chou period contain no information
whatsoever concerning the condition of the public finances of the
contending states during the later part of Chou. The coinages con-
stitute the only source of information on this question. Financially,
wars had benefited neither the aggressor nor the attacked. They
depleted the treasuries and caused inflation and reduction in weight
in the coinages of both the victor (Ch'in) and the vanquished (Ch'i,
Yen, Han, Chao, Liang).
Regarding this point it is worthwhile to mention that after con-
quering the whole of ancient China and establishing himself as the
sole ruler of China in 221 B. C., the First Emperor (Shih-huang-ti) of
Ch'in immediately put his coinage on a sound basis and cast the.
Pan-Hang (i. e., twelve chu) coin and ordered its weight to correspond
to its denomination.37 Many Pan-liang coins are preserved today;
their average weight is about 1o grams, the same weight as the
"twelve chu" (i. e., pa.n-liang or hali-liang) of the state coinage of
Ch'in when this was established in the fourth century B. C.
,6 Catalogue of Chinese Coins, 321.
37 Shih-chi, XXX, 21a, and Han shu, XXIV, Part 2, 2a.
IX. THE RIGHT OF COINAGE IN CHINESE ANTIQUITY
Because our knowledge of the political and economic institutions of
the Shang period is so fragmentary we have no evidence, either
direct or indirect, on coinage rights before the Chou period. A similar
lack of information exists for some of the states known to have cast
coins in the Chou period, namely Chi-mo, An-yang and T'an, which
were outside the Chou kingdom until the latter part of the seventh
century.
Direct information on coinage rights in the Chou kingdom itself is
scanty. A passage in the Kuo yu states that in 524 B. C. King Ching
of Chou cast "big coins." The Chou royalty, as would be expected,
possessed the right to cast coins, but whether the princes below the
king, the nobility below the princes, the heads of tributary states
subject to Chou, and the common people at the bottom of the social
hierarchy, had the same right, we do not know. It is true that a
passage in the Shih-chi records that King Chuang (613591 B. C.)
of Ch'u cast "big" coins to replace "the small" ones which fact
indicates that the head of a vassal state had the right of coinage.
It is not certain, however, that the record is reliable. Even if it is
Teliable, we are still not certain how far we can generalize in this
case because Ch'u, being an old state subject to Chou, was different
from the feudatories which were created anew by Chou. In the
absence of direct and reliable information, we shall have to investigate
the problem of the right of coinage in general from indirect sources.
As it can be assumed, the right of coinage in Chou China was bound
up with the feudalism which, in our opinion, was the prevailing
feature of the political organization of the period. The question is to
what extent were power and privileges granted to the princes and
the lesser nobility under the Chinese form of enfeudation, and to
224
The Right of Coinage 225
what extent was autonomy permitted to the subject states. Here it
is not necessary to enter into detailed discussion of the structure
of the political feudalism in ancient China, to refute incorrect ex-
planations or to defend our own interpretations. For the present
purpose, a general description will suffice.
In the first part of the Chou period, the Chou kingdom was made up
of the royal domain, the principalities which were fiefs of royal rela-
tives and meritorious ministers, and the tributary states which had
submitted to the Chou after it conquered the Shang.1 The case of the
tributary states being comparatively simple, let us first look at the
powers and privileges of their princes. By bestowing land upon them,
the king made them virtually owners of the land and of the people
within its boundaries, as he was owner of the kingdom through grant
from Heaven. The princes apparently had full power of disposition
over both the land and the people. They could parcel out their land
and grant it to their relatives and subordinates as fiefs with only a
1 In all the writings about the political organizations of Chou no distinction has ever
been made between these two catagories of subject states of Chou. They have always
been treated as the same and lumped together under the general appellation, Chu hou
*" f^^ S9 or t^le sta-tes * *ê hou." Hou, which termhas been unsatisfactorily
rendered as "Marquis," originally meant "military scout" or "military outpost." It
finally became the designation for the king's man who received the authority to rule
and guard a frontier region for the purpose of protecting the Chou royalty. The region
was granted to him as his fief from which he was to exact whatever he needed. In
theory, his fief was the property of the king who alone had final authority over it, but
in practice the hou kept it as his own possession and handed it down to his children. In
the fief, which is generally called "principality" in the text, the governmental organi-
zation was modelled in smaller scale on the organization of the Chou royal court.
Hence the identity of official titles of the royal court and the principality. The persons
who received a principality were either relatives of the royal house or meritorious
assistants of the king. As inferiors to the king they were never called wang ^f (king)
before the fourth century B. C.
The tributary states were old states which submitted to Chou voluntarily or by
compulsion short of force. Their original political organization was retained, and so
was also the title of their rulers, wang. Hsu |& in modern northern Kiangsu and
Anhui, Wu & in southern Kiangsu, and Ch'u <* in Hupeh were the most famous of
them. Strictly speaking, the head of a tributary state was not regarded as a hou of
Chou; nor was he so called. Usually he called himself wang (king), though the Chou
authority called him po fj (chief) or fang po ~}j f| (chief of a state).
15 Monograph 113
nominal sanction by the king. They exacted labor service and sub-
jected their people to various demands. They kept a standing army
commensurate with the size of their fief, and possessed complete
authority in judicial administration. If the words of Kuan Chung
are to believed, a large feudatory, such as Ch'i appears to have been
granted the power to launch military campaigns against feudatories
and tributary states should the latter disobey the wishes of the king
or fail to fulfill their obligations.2
With regard to the king, the princes were obliged only to pay peri-
odical visits to the royal court, offer annual tribute, and render mili-
tary assistance in case of war. At the beginning of the dynasty the
king seems to have set up some sort of inspectorate known as chien
in certain of the feudatories in order to watch over the conduct of
the princes, but these particular princes were all descendants of the
conquered Shang and therefore were exceptions. The general super-
vision which the king imposed upon the princes through royal ap-
pointment or sanction of their officials of the "ministerial rank"
(chHng) gradually lost its significance and became a mere formality
by the end of the eighth century.3
Of course, not all the feudatories were of the same magnitude and
status. The princes under Chou are said to have been grouped ac-
2 Tso chuan, XII, 6a.
3 In the Wang chih or "Royal Regulations," which was written in the first half of the
second century B. C. and is contained in the present text of the Li chi, it is stated that
the Son of Heaven, i. e., the King of Chou appointed all three officials of "ministerial
rank" (ch'ing) of the large principality, two of the three of the second-rate principality,
and neither of the two of the smallest principality. This reported regulation, which is
partially confirmed, appears to be a supervisory measure by the king over the large
feudatories. It is so interpreted by the Han scholars who prepared the document just
referred. But whether the Han scholars' statement on the "Royal Regulations"
entirely corresponds to the fact and whether the supervisory measure was effective
are both uncertain. Even if so, the measure did not remain effective for long. For as
early as 7o9 B. C. the Chou king had already become merely a titular authority in the
matter of the appointment of the ministers of the large principality. In this year
Duke Wu of Ch'u-wo (i.e., Duke Wu of Chin) promised Juan Kung-tzu to recommend
him to the Chou king and have him appointed as the first minister for the state of
Chin (Kuo yw.VII, la).
cording to the "Five Ranks" and their states given status accord-
ingly, a system which may not have functioned as systematically as
later historians would have us believe,4 but it appears certain that
gradations in the status of feudatories did exist. Three classes of
princes are mentioned in bronze inscriptions,5 and also in the chapter
"K'ang kao" of the Shang-shu* However, no matter whether their
territory was large or small, whether their rank was high or low, the
princes were all granted the same basic privileges, which, though
varying in degree, were essentially identical.7
As to the tributary states, of which the most famous ones were
Hsu, Ch'u and Wu, their relationship to the king of Chou was more
loose. The chien inspectorate system is not known to have extended
to them. Nor did the king appoint their high ministers. As a matter
of fact, the rulers of these tributary states also entitled themselves
wang (king), the same title used by the Chou sovereign. It appears
that, at. least in name, the sovereign of Chou and the rulers of tri-
butary states were all heads of states; they were all "kings."8 Inas-
much as their relationship to the Chou king was loose, their obligation
to him must have been smaller, and consequently their autonomous
power must have been greater.
What has been said about the prince in relation to the king may, in
a minor degree, hold true of the relations between the prince and the
4 For critical studies of the systematization of the so-called "Five Ranks" see Fu Ssii-
nien, "Lun so-wei wu-teng-chiieh," Chung-yang-yen-chiu-yuan li-shih-yii-yen-yen-
chiu-so chi-k'an, II (193o), 11o129, and Kuo Mo-jo, Chung-kuo ku-tai sM-hui yen-
chiu, 193o, 3rd ed., 3o5 31o.
5 They are the hou $c, the tien -jaj and the nan Jl| as mentioned in the bronze inscrip-
tion of the "Ling i" (Kuo Mo-jo, Liang Chou chin-wen-tz' u ta-hsi k'ao-shih, 5b).
6 Shang shu, VIII, la.
'Such as the governmental organization and military forces. A principality of the
first class is said to have three officials of the "ministerial rank" and a principality of
the second class only two. A principality of the first class maintained three standing
armies (chiin), while a principality of the second class could keep only two.
8 Some of the tributary states forfeited the title of wang (king) and satisfied them-
selves with the title of po after they had entered a closer relationship with the Chou
king.
lesser nobility whom he enfeoffed. These lesser nobles in the prin-
cipalities were the prince's governmental functionaries. In return
for their services the leading officials were granted fiefs consisting
of sizable areas of land including one or more cities or towns. The
inferior ones were given smaller fiefs in terms of a number of i, which
was a local administrative unit. These fief holders in turn delegated
their authority to their underlings who had the same obligations to
them as the fief holders had to their patron, the prince. They may
reasonably be assumed to have been entitled to privileges similar to
those of the princes, only on a smaller scale.
Marked changes in the relations between the royal court and the
principalities and the tributary states began with the Ch'un-ch'iu
period (77o481 B. C.), after King Yu was killed by the invading
Ch'iian-jung barbarians and the armies of two rebel feudatories in
771 B. C. In the following year the new king, King P'ing, abandoned
the old capital of Tsung Chou in modern central Shensi and moved to
Ch'eng Chou or Lo-i in modern central Honan. This event caused the
royal court of Chou to lose a great part of its domain in the west and
an immeasurable amount of power and prestige. During some five
hundred thirty years which followed, the royal power of Chou was
on a steady decline.
In 7o7 B. C. the state of Chng, bordering the royal domain on
the south, rebelled against the Chou king, and in a battle the king
was wounded by a Cheng general. After that, the Heavenly King
suffered disgrace upon disgrace. The principalities assumed complete
independance, ignoring their obligations. During the two hundred
forty-two years from 722 to 481 B. C. the princes of the state of Lu
had only two audiences (ch'ao) with the Chou king and visited (ju)
the royal capital only once; while, on the other hand, they paid
eleven courtesy calls on the state of Ch'i and twenty on the state of
Ch'in. To the seven visits by the envoys of the king the princes of
Lu returned only four through their emissaries.9 With the reduction
of its ceremonial obligations Lu stopped also its material obligations
See Ku Tung-kao, Ch'un-chHu ta-shih piao, XVII, 1a1b, the introductory words.
toward the Son of Heaven. Yet Lu was only a small state; the conduct
of the bigger and more powerful states can easily be visualized. As a
suzerain power the royal court of Chou was now more nominal than
real. Thus the regional autonomy which was inherent in the very
nature of political feudalism and which had made its existence ap-
aprent from the very beginning came into the open and in full power.
Local autonomy displayed itself in a number of other ways. Ig-
noring the authority of the king, who alone was supposed to decide
upon waging war or making peace, the powerful princes independ-
ently warred against the lesser states and annexed them to their
own territories, regardless of the fact that these states had been
created by mandate of the Chou king just as had their own fiefs.
Rebelling again against old traditions, the states of Cheng and Chin
proclaimed new law codes,10 and the state of Lu introduced taxes
on private land.11 In defiance of the "Royal Regulations" Lu set up
three armies instead of the two allowed to it by law,12 and similarly
Chin established six armies instead of three.13 Both Lu and Cheng
adopted new ways of exacting military service and military con-
tributions.14 Arrogating to themselves the prerogatives of the Son of
Heaven, the most powerful princes compelled the weaker feudatories
to divert the tribute due the royal court to them.
While the principalities achieved autonomy, the tributary states
attained complete independence. Within the feudatories the princes
experienced similar decline of power as did the king in the kingdom.
10 Tso chuan, XLIII, 8b 1 1a and LIU, 6b 7a.
11 In the Ch'un-ch'iu, supposedly annals of Lu, it is recorded that in 594 B. C. the
State of Lu introduced the taxation on the tnou gj^. {Tso chuan, XXIV, 4a). Mou was
the measure of surface of especially cultivated land. Interpretation of the terse state-
ment varies with different scholars. But we believe that it means a tax on privately
owned land which by this time had made its appearance. Kuo Mo-jo also thinks that
it was a tax on private land, but differs from us in the interpretation of the social
status of the owners of such land. While we think that they were the wealthy common
people, he asserts that they were the nobility. (See his Shih p'i-p'an shu, 41 42).
11 Tso chuan, XXXI, 7b. Tso chuan, XXXI, 3b.
14 See Ku Tung-kao, XIV, 1a 3b.
In the state of Chin the princely power had long been contested
among the important noble families, three of which eventually
divided the principality in 431 B. C. into three states: Han, Chao
and Liang (Wei). The real power of the state of Lu was in the hands
of three families from whom the prince was never able to retrieve it.
From the sixth century on, the most important noble family in the
state of Ch'i was the T'ien (Ch'en in the bronze inscriptions), which
became so arrogant that it established its measures of capacity side
by side with the official measures of the state15 and eventually usurp-
ed the reign in the seventies of the fourth century.
All of this we learn from either literary sources or archaeological
evidence. There must have been many other similar events about
which records were not made or have not been preserved.
In the Chan-kuo period (4o3221 B. C.), we find that the authority
of the Chou king was further curtailed, if indeed he still had any
authority beyond his own domain at all. In the fourth century all
the princes of the major states had appropriated the title of "king"
(wang), thus elevating themselves formally to equality with the
Chou royalty, though in reality they were much superior in power.
As a consequence, the old Chou king could lay claim to no more
special privileges.
With the deprivation of the exclusive use of the title of "king"
came further reductions of the domain of Chou. In 426 B. C., the
principality of Eastern Chou was established, occupying its eastern
section to match the Western Chou principality which occupied
the western section. As a result, what was left of the Chou domain
was but the city of Lo-yang (east of its modern city namesake in
central northern Honan) with the limited surrounding area. In
367 B. C. the states of Han and Chao made Western and the Eastern
Chou autonomous and brought them under their respective domina-
15 This is recorded in Tso chuan, XLII, 4b. Both bronze and pottery measures of
capacity of the T'ien (Ch'en in the inscriptions on those measures) family have been
found. For the inscriptions on the bronze measures see Kuo Mo-jo, Liang Chou chin-
wen-tz' it ta-hsi k'ao-shih, 221a223b.
tion.16 They thus deprived Chou of its last two feudatories, and
reduced it to a city. The last king of Chou, King Nan, becoming
king in 316 B. C., had to abandon his city and go to the Western
Chou for protection.17 Actually Chou was no more, though officially
it ended in 256 B. C. at the death of King Nan.
The above historical description of some features of the political
feudalism of the Chou dynasty and especially concerning the relations
between the royal court and its princely states and between the
princely house and the lesser nobility, shows that enfeudation under
the Chou system was a grant of important privileges and a delegation
of administrative powers approaching autonomy. Whatever the
incipient features of Chou feudalism, the feudatories, especially the
large ones, eventually attained independence by neglecting their
obligations to the royal court, by extending the basic privileges
granted, and by assuming many others which may or may not have
had a legal foundation. Since, from the very beginning, the prin-
cipalities possessed authority over the land arid the population
within their boundaries, and since from the eighth century on they
became independent, establishing their own institutions in financial,
legal and military matters, it should be beyond any doubt that they
also had the right of casting coins. The same must be true of the tribu-
tary states.
That coinage in China of Chou was not a royal prerogative but a
privilege enjoyed by the feudatories and tributary states as well seems
to be borne out also by the varieties in the shapes of the coins and
by the differences in monetary designations and monetary units
of the coinages of the period. In the state of Ch'i the coinage was the
knife. In Ch'u it was the yuan-chin. In the royal domain of Chou
and other states it was the spade. Each had a special monetary
unit, and each its own denominational system. Different from all
other states, Ch'u cast coins of gold.
18 Shih-chi, XLIII, 17b and IV, 34b.
17 This is the interpretation derived from the statement made by Ssu-ma Ch'ien in
Shih-chi, IV, 34b.
In 336 B. C. when the state of Ch'in established and issued its of-
ficial currency (Late Spade IV), King Hsien of Chou hastened to
send his congratulations on the event. The action of the Chou royalty
implies not only that the state coinage of Ch'in was not a royal grant
but also that it had nothing to do with the time-honored royal
superiority of Chou. As a matter of fact, it is improper for us to
speak of "royal grant" at this point because at this time the ruler
of Ch'in had already assumed the title of "king" himself and had
thus elevated himself to the same level as the Chou royalty. It is
altogether out of the question that the action of one king had to be
ratified beforehand by another.
The coin specimens do not reveal whether the lesser nobility in the
principality had the right of minting coins, but many mint names of
the spades were names of cities or towns held as fiefs by lesser nobles
at the time the coins were cast. Chih of the Hollow-handle Spade
(Plate IX, 2) was the fief of the Chih family (Hsun Ying and his
descendants) of the state of Chin from the end of the seventh century
on.18 Tung Chou (Eastern Chou) was a feudatory established in
426 B. C., and as a mint it cast the small Hollow-handle Spades
bearing its name (Plate XII, 3). Chin-yang was the fief of the Chao
family of Chin during the Ch'un-ch'iu period and the first capital
of the state of Chao established by the same family at the beginning
of the Chan-kuo period. Bearing the name of the city are both Old
Spades (Plate XIII, 35) and Late Spades (Plate XXI, 13)
which were cast when the city was in the possession of the Chao
family. P'ing-yang was the seat of Lord of P'ing-yang enfeoffed by
the prince of the state of Chao. The preserved coins bearing the
name of the city are Late Spades which were in circulation in the
corresponding period during which the city was in possession of the
Lord of P'ing-yang.19 The mint of Wu-an of the Late Spades (Plate
18 Quite a few passages to this effect are found in the Tso chuan. References in the
Kuo yii are XIII, 1a and XV, 7a. The original family name of the holder of the fief of
Chih was Hsiin; they were called Chih after the name of the fief.
See Shih-chi, LXXIII, 2a and LXXVI, 6a.
XXI, 6) is the fief of Lord of Wu-an, Su Ch'in, enfeoffed by Marquis
Hsu (349326 B. C.) of Chao, when that type of spade was in cir-
culation.20 The mint of the Late Spades of An-yang (Plate XXII,
23, to be distinguished from the An-yang of Ch'in established in
257 B. C. which cast Late Spade IV) was the fief of the eldest son
of King Hui-w6n of Chao from 296 B. C. on.21 The An-yang Late
Spades were issued before the middle of the third century B. C.
During the round coinage period, Tung Chou and Hsi Chou (Western
Chou) cast this type of currency (Plate LI V, 5; LIII, 6 respectively).
Both were feudatories when the round coins were in use.
We can add to the list a few more mint names of spades which were
also the names of cities or towns held as fiefs by the lesser nobles in
various principalities. Those mentioned already should be sufficient
to illustrate our point that minor fief holders appear to have
enjoyed the privilege of coinage. It may be questioned how one
can assert with assurance that the spade coins bearing the names
of certain cities held as fiefs by the lesser nobles did not come from
the mint of the prince who, for one reason or another, had the names
of particular localities inscribed upon it.22 To be sure, in such details
of history there is seldom absolute certainty, but, considering the
general feudal pattern prevailing at that time, our assumption
seems plausible.
Further evidence for the assumption is derived from the fact that
the names of feudal states never appear as mint names on the
spade coins. If coinage had been a prerogative of princes which was
denied to the lesser nobility, the name of their state rather than
local cities should have been given in the legends. This happens
nowhere, for even the coins from the mint of the prince bear only
the name of the city which is his capital. It appears that, as far as
20 Shih-chi, LXIX, 17a -17b. J1 Shih-chi, XLIII, 27b -28a.
22 Coins inscribed with the names of the local mints are found in the coinages of a
number of later imperial dynasties, when coinage was an imperial prerogative and
private casting was forbidden. Among them the best known are the coins of the Ch'ing
or Manchu dynasty.
coinage is concerned, the king minted coins for circulation in his
domain; the prince could do the same for his principality; the
head of a tributary state for his realm; the lesser nobles for their
own fiefs.
However, the situation in the state of Ch'i during the period of
the Early Knife seems to be different. As far as the many hundreds
of the Early Knives of that state are concerned, they all bear the
name of the state, Ch'i, not of the name of its capital (Ying-ch'iu,
later Lin-tzu) or of any other city or town. This characteristic
seems to have a profound implication, if the style of inscription of the
coin had anything to do with the right of coinage. If it did, and so
it appears to us, the prince of Ch'i possessed the exclusive right of
coinage during the period of the Early Knives, just like the rulers
of Chi-mo, An-yang and T'an, which were then independent states in
the east beyond the boundaries of the Chou kingdom. At this
point it may not be superfluous to repeat our suggestion that the
first knife coinage of Ch'i probably was an imitation of the coinage
of those eastern states. Even if the right of coinage was a princely
prerogative in the state of Ch'i, we are not at all certain whether
open or clandestine minting of the official currency by the lesser
nobility or private individuals was countenanced. During the late
Ch'un-ch'iu and early Chan-kuo periods, when the Late Knives
were in circulation, the prince's exclusive right of coinage seems
to have disappeared. At this time T'an, an ancient autonomous
state which had been annexed by Ch'i to form part of its terri-
tory, cast its own knives, of which hundreds have been recovered
in modern Po-shan county in eastern Shantung. A passage in the Mo-
tzii, which probably was written by a disciple or follower of Mo Ti
{fifth century B. C.) in the state of Ch'i in the fourth century, states,
"The kingly knife never changes."23 This statement would indicate
that, at the time the passage was written, there were already knife
coins other than those issued by the king of Ch'i.
38 Mo-tzu, X, 15a.
The coinage of the state of Ch'u presents a similar picture to that
of Ch'i, but, unlike that of Ch'i, the mint names of the yuan-chin of
Ch'u are the names of the capitals (Ying, Ch'en) of the state. In this
case, the name of the capital was used in the same sense as the name
of the state. The use of the name of the state capital as mint name
may also signify a centralization of the right of coinage. But the
yuan-chin discovered so far have been few in number. Any conclusion
based on a limited quantity of material may not correspond to the
fact.
The first state monopoly of coinage about which we are fairly sure
was the state coinage established by King Hui-wen of Ch'in in 336
B. C. The monetary policy of King Hui-wen was followed by his des-
cendants, and was applied to the whole of ancient China in 221 B. C.
by the First Emperor (Shih-huang-ti) after he conquered the other
states and unified China.
Leaving the problem of the right of coinage enjoyed by the aris-
tocracy of Chou and its tributary states, we come finally to the
problem of the right of coinage enjoyed by the common people. Our
question is: Were people of common origin in the state of Ch'in
before 336 B. C. and other states before 221 B. C. allowed to cast
coins? Regarding this question, there is absolutely no information
of either early or late origin. However, an indication may be ob-
tained from the policies, especially the monetary policy, of the
founder of the Han (or Former Han) dynasty (2o6 B. C.8 A.D.)
which replaced the Ch'in dynasty. The essence of the policies of Liu
Pang, founder of the Han, in civil affairs was to reverse the centrali-
zation of Ch'in and to restore the traditions of the old Chou.24
Abolishing the centralized administration of Ch'in, Liu Pang res-
tored the feudal political system of Chou by setting up feudal states
in the greater part of the Han empire. Abrogating the imperial
monopoly on the production of salt and iron, he made them free
industries. Abandoning the imperial prerogative in coinage, he
24 See Wang Yii-ch'flan, "An Outline of the Central Government of the Former Han
Dynasty," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, XII (1949), 134 187.
"ordered the people to cast coins,"25 to remedy, as contemporary
statesmen and writers used to say, "the abuses of the Ch'in dynasty."
Since these "abuses," which included the imperial monopoly of
coinage, were of Ch'in creation, Liu Pang's decree of free coinage
must be understood as a restoration of a pre-Ch'in or Chou tradition.
Therefore, it is our belief that during the Chou period, at least during
its later part and specifically before 336 B. C. in the state of Ch'in
and before 221 B. C. in the other states, whoever had the means
among common people were allowed to cast coins.
Shih-chi, XXX, 1a.
APPENDIX I
OBJECTS WRONGLY REGARDED AS MONEY
In catalogues one usually finds illustrations of some objects which
have been regarded as money or media of exchange at some time or
other in Chinese antiquity. Scrupulous numismatists classify them
as "Money That Cannot Be Investigated" (Wu k'ao chHen) and some
dealers have called them "barter money." These objects are the so-
called Ou hsin ch'ien (Lily-root-heart money), the Ling chHen (Bell
money), the ChHao pi (Bridge money) which is also called Ch'ing pi
(Dingle-dangle money), and the Yii pi (Fish money), etc.
Lacouperie has shown that the "Lily-root-heart money" was not
money.1 We must add, however, that at the time the so-called "Lily-
root-heart money" inscribed with the date of "Yuan-yen ssu nien"
(9 B. C.) was made, the official money for ordinary use was Wu-chu
copper cash (silver and gold was used only rarely). The coin was
round in shape with a square hole in the center, the standard shape
and design ever since 221 B. C. As money the Wu-chu was immeasur-
ably superior to the "Lily-root-heart money." The two forms could
not have been circulating as money side by side with each other. It
is irrational to assume that such a crude and clumsy object as the
"Lily-root-heart" had been used as money at a time when the Chinese
monetary system had had a history of centuries and had reached
the peak of its development (so far as its shape and design are con-
cerned) before the introduction of Western methods of striking at the
end of the nineteenth century. Furthermore, "Lily-root-heart" as
money is not found in the Shih huo chih (Treatise on Food and
Money), Chapter XXIV of the Han shu, the second part of which is
Lacouperie, Catalogue of Chinese Coins, XXXI.
237
a rather detailed record of the governmental finance and the minting
of money from 221 B. C. to 23 A. D.2
We do not know to what use the "Lily-root-heart" was put during
the Han times. Lacouperie suggests that it might have been a sort of
tally, but he offers no proof.
There is abundant proof that the "Bell money" was not money. The
most convincing is the fact that bells of the shapes in coin catalogues
have been found in tombs of the Han or post-Han period together
with the Wn-chu coins. For instance, in the tombs designated as
A 5 and A 7 at the Tou-chi-t'ai (Fighting Cocks Terrace) in Pao-chi
county in western Shensi such a bell was recovered together with
162 Wu-chu coins. In the tomb designated as D 4 one such bell was
found together with 38 Wu-chu coins. In tomb D 5 one bell was
discovered with 3 Wu-chu coins.3 For practically the same reasons
we rejected the so-called "Lily-root-heart money" as money, we
must reject the bells also.
The so-called "Dingle-dangle money" is a miniature of an ancient
musical instrument called the chHng, whence the numismatists'
term "Ch'ing pi." Looking like a miniature musical instrument, the
object was buried with the dead to be used by the soul in the other
world. This explanation of their use resulted from investigations of
Shang Ch'eng-tso, who studied the report of the finds in an old tomb
of the house of Ch'u, a feudatory of Chou, discovered in Ch'ang-sha,
Hunan.4 Shang Ch'eng-tso's finding should be sufficient to disprove
the allegation that the object at issue was money.
Of the four kinds of objects mentioned above only "fish" remains
to be investigated. While the credulous numismatists who believe
that it was money offer no proof, we have no direct evidence to dis-
* This chapter of the Han shu has been translated by Dr. Nancy Lee Swann and
published by the Princeton University Press under the title, Food & Money in Ancient
China, 195o.
3 Su Ping-ch'i j|^ ^ J^, Tou-chi-t'ai kou-tung-ch'ii mu-tsiang. (Peiping, 1948), pp.
16 and 27.
4 Shang Ch'eng-tso, Ch'ang-sha ku-wu wSn-chien chi, II, 22a 22b.
Appendix I 239
prove it. The fish as illustrated in the catalogues of Chinese coins and
in the articles on Chinese primitive money are largely of two kinds,
different in shape and in skill of casting. While one type is slender
and finely cast, the other is thicker and crudely made. The size
varies in both types. According to their size, Nishimura divides them
into three major classes: large, medium and small, the last of which
is further divided into seven minor groups based on slight differences
in designs.5
Invariably, all of them, large or small, finely or crudely made,
have a hole in the head. This is probably the reason which leads-
numismatists to the belief that they were money. Reports say that
most of the fish have been unearthed along the Yellow River in
Honan, but the circumstances in which they were discovered are
not known. In the tomb designated as F 5 at the Tou-chi-t'ai, Pao-
chi, Shensi, 93 pieces of copper fish of the crudely made variety
were unearthed.6 None was found in any other of the 1o3 tombs
in the same area. Judging from the position in which they were
discovered, Su Ping-ch'i, who took part in the excavation, thinks
that they were ornamental objects for the coffin.7 According to
Su's chronology which is based on the shape of the legs in the early
tripods (called li), the tomb containing the bronze fish should be
dated to the so-called "short-legged li" period, which falls within
the Chou dynasty. Yet for this period, we cannot find any historical
record or archaeological evidence which would indicate that bronze
fish had been used as money at this time.
6 Nishimura, op. cit., 29 and illustrations on 3o.
Su Ping-ch'i, op. cit., 34, 1oo, 252, 268. 'Op. cit., 1oo.
APPENDIX II
SPADES OF PROBABLE POST-CHOU ORIGIN
(Plate XVII)
Among preserved spade coins there is one type which may have a
post-Chou origin. So far as discovered, spades of this type are of
two sizes, both of which appear to have been contemporary. The larger
is distinguished by its extraordinarily long body and slender shape
(Plate XVII, 1). It bears a legend of five characters on the obverse
and another of two on the reverse. The content of both is unusual.
Because of these characteristics the spade has attracted much atten-
tion, and its legends have had various decipherments. The two-
character legend on the reverse is not difficult to read: it is shih huo
"+" it or "Ten huo" as generally accepted by numismatists. As has
been discussed in Chapter VIII, huo was the monetary unit of the
knife coinage.
Unlike that of the reverse the obverse legend of five characters has
remained a controversial subject up to today. The author of the
Ch'ien hut (Comprehensive Catalogue of Coins) reads it ch'u pu tang
shih huo %E -flj Ha "t* ft, meaning "Special spade equivalent to
ten huo." Ma Ang reads it as chH pi tang chin shih #r it "gT Jx +,
which according to his interpretation means "Long (coin); Compared
with (another coin) it is worth ten chin." Chin as a monetary unit
has also been discussed in Chapter VIII. Chiang T6-liang (Ch'iu-shih)
and Sun Hsing-yen (Yiian-ju) read it as/ pi tang shih chin ft it l>
"t" Jx, which, in their opinion, means "Four of this coin are equivalent
to ten chin." This decipherment and interpretation is accepted by
the famous numismatist, Ch'u Shang-ling.1
For the sake of convenience, let us separate the whole legend in-
to two parts, with the first two characters constituting the first
1 The various decipherments suggested by Chinese numismatists for this inscription
can be found in Ting Fu-pao, Ku ch'ien ta-tz' H-tien, VIII, 23b 25b.
24o
Appendix II 241
part and the other three characters the second. In respect to the
first two characters, none of the decipherments can be regarded as
satisfactory. In fact, those decipherments are so ill-founded epi-
graphically and the interpretations suggested for them are so arti-
ficial that they can hardly convince any one. In 19o3 Ch'in Pao-tsan
in his / hsia lu proposed to read the first two characters as P'ei
ch'ien %% ^.2 As we have mentioned previously, chHen, written
il in modern script, was another name for spade coins. Ch'in
Pao-tsan proposes that P'ei, written ffl in the modern script,
was the city located in the northern part of present Kiangsu province.
Both his decipherments and his identification for P'ei have been
acclaimed by Lo Po-chao, a noted contemporary numismatist,3 and
there are good reasons for his enthusiasm. Epigraphically, the
decipherment of the first character as p'ei is plausible, and that of the
second as ch'ien should be satisfactory. Furthermore, the provenance
of the coin is restricted to various localities in northern Kiangsu,* and
this tends to confirm that it was cast by the old city of P'ei.
Two readings have been suggested for the second part or the
last three characters of the whole legend, tang shih chin and tang
shih huo. The second reading is untenable, because the last character
while showing no resemblance to the character for huo, looks
structurally exactly like the basic component part of the cha-
racter chin $ft, the monetary unit of the spade coinage, and
as that it must be regarded. The phrase tang shih chin implies that
the coin with this specification must have been intended for use as
equivalent to ten chin units. This reminds us of the Special Old
Spade of Liang of high denomination which is specified in its legend
to be equivalent to five chin.
Combining the two parts of the whole legend we thus arrive at the
* Ch'in Pao-tsan, op. cit., Ill, part 1, han 1b 5b; also Ku ch'ien ta-tz1'ii-tien,2^3. 25a.
* Lo Po-chao, "Ch'in Ch'u chih-chi chi Han ch'u huo-pi kai-lun," Ch'iian-pi,No. 2
(194o), 2.
* Reported by Weng Shu-p'ei and Ch'in Pao-tsan who are quoted by Lo Po-chao,
op. cit., 3 4.
16 Monograph 113
following decipherment: P'ei ch'ien tang shih chin "MP ^ & "t" Jv
meaning, "Spade of P'ei, worth [lit. "to stand for"] ten chin."
Like the phrase tang shih chin, the inscription on the reverse of
the spade "Ten huo" must be also taken to mean that the coin with
this inscription was to be used as equivalent to so many huo units. If
we read the coin's inscriptions as a whole, we will have such a long
legend: P'ei chHen tang shih chin, shih huo or, "Spade of P'ei, worth
ten chin or ten huo."
As is clearly implied in the legend, the spade of this type was cast
to be used as an inter-regional currency, good in the region where the
huo was the monetary unit as well as in the region where the chin
was the monetary unit. Comparable to this type of spade we have
only the Special Old Spades of Liang, which were coins to be used
in both lieh and the chin areas.
Was this type of spade also of Chou origin, as were the Special Old
Spades of Liang? Lo Po-chao and Cheng Chia-hsiang, whom he
quotes, doubt that. They regard it as a type of coin cast in the years
between the fall of Ch'in dynasty (2o7 B. C.) and the establishment
of the Han dynasty (2o2 B. C.). The reasons for their opinion are:
first, that "Among the ancient spade coins none has been specified
with the denomination of 'Ten huo" (Ch6ng Chia-hsiang); and,
secondly, that they were found not in the "north" as the spades of
the Chou period were, but were "mostly in Kiangsu and Chekiang"
(Lo Po-chao).5 Although these reasons are not sufficient, or even
relevant, for determining the date of this type of spade, the possibil-
ity of the late origin of the coin cannot be denied. The evidence, as
we see it, is as follows:
1. The weight of the chin monetary unit as expressed in this type
of spades is very small. Six specimens from the collection of the
American Numismatic Society have been weighed and the results
show: 36.96, 36.1o, 29.56, 33.13, 32.18, and 35.9o grams.
The average weight of these six specimens is 33.92 grams. Since a
spade of this type was to be used as ten chin, then the weight of one
B Lo Po-chao, op. cit., 3.
Appendix II 243
chin is 3.39 grams. This is incomparably smaller than the chin unit of
the Old Spade (average 13. grams), or the Late Spade (average 12
grams), or even that of the Round Coin, which as shown by the
specimen of Yii is 8.22 grams. Since the weight of the monetary
unit chin had been on steady decrease ever since its adoption, and
since its weight in connection with the type of the spade at issue is
even much smaller than that of the Round Coin which was the latest
coin type of the Chou period, it should be natural to assume that
this type of spade maybe later than the Round Coin; in other words,
it may be of post-Chou origin.
2. The supposition of its being of post-Chou origin is supported
by the style in which the character for the monetary unit huo is
written. During the Chou period, huo as the monetary unit of the
knife coinage is written ft or, in an abbreviated form, -t; the fuller
form shown on the right side of Plate XVII, 1 is never found. It is
the fuller form which directly becomes stylized into the form of the
modern character, Jt huo. (flS, alone, is now pronounced hua).
In view of these facts, Ch6ng Chia-hsiang's and Lo Pao-chao's sug-
gestion that this type of spade was cast after the fall of Ch'in and
before the establishment of Han is plausible. Since the rebels were
bent on destroying everything that had formed part of the institu-
tions of the "tyrannical Ch'in," some of their leaders, possibly de-
scendants of old noble families, might have attempted to restore the
monetary system to the forms current under Chou.
Who cast them? Lo Pao-chao believes that it was the Western
Ch'u (2o6 2o2 B. C.), in whose territory the suggested mint city
of P'ei was located.6
If all these suggestions are correct, we see that along with the
overthrow of the totalitarian Ch'in regime and the restoration of the
political conditions of Chou, there was revived one of the economic
institutions of that period, the spade monetary system, in certain
parts of China at the end of the third century B. C.
op. at., 2.
***
16*
Now we must say a few words about the small type of the post-
Chou spades. The legend of this type of spade, which is placed on
both sides of the coin is much simpler and involves no great diffi-
culties. It reads Ssii ch'ien tang shih chin. VS ^k S "t* ft". The
last four characters are identical with those of the large type dis-
cussed above. Most numismatists regard the first character of the
legend, ssu, as the numeral for "four," but Lo Po-chao contends that
it is the name of the mint city, which was the capital of the Ssii-shui
Province of the Ch'in dynasty.7 According to the former opinion,
the legend means "Four of this spade are equivalent to ten chin;"
but according to Lo Po-chao, it means "Spade of Ssii, worth ten
chin." Since this type of spade appears to have been contemporary
with the large post-Chou spade discussed above and since two of
them (Plate XVII, 2 shows two spades attached together) weigh
only 15.25 grams, or about half the weight of the large type, the
reading of the character as the numeral for "four" sounds reasonable.
Since, as a rule, the first character in the legends of all spades of
the Chou period (after which this type of coin was modelled) is the
name of the mint city, Lo Po-chao's suggestion appears also plausible.
This is the kind of problem which can be solved definitively only
after more material and information are available.
Finally, it may be interesting to note that, judging from the shape
of the coins and the design of their inscriptions, this type of spade
appears to have been the direct model after which Wang Mang
(923 A. D.) cast his spade coins in his attempt to restore the
monetary system of Chou as he understood it. For his spades resemble
the spade under discussion in every aspect and do not have as much
in common with the spades of the Chou period. In other words, the
restoration of the monetary system of Chou by Wang Mang was a
copy of the first attempted restoration of the economic institution
at the end of the third century B. C.
'op.cit.,4-5.
KEY TO THE PLATES
(Unless otherwise noted, specimens illustrated are from the cabinet of the Museum
of the American Numismatic Society)
Ple Pages of Text on
Number which discussed
I 1-3 Cowrie shells found in China 66, 67
47 Bone imitations of cowrie shells 71
8 Stone imitation of cowrie shell 73
9-1o Copper imitations of cowrie shells 74
II 1 Copper imitation of cowrie shell 74
23 Copper imitations of cowrie shells, gilted 74
46 "Ant nose money." 7683
7 Ancient bronze weeding spade discovered in Cheng-chou,
Honan, China. Reproduced from article by Kuroda Ke-
nichi in Kokogaku zasshi, XVI (1926), 138. Reduced from
actual size. Designated as "Tool Kuroda" in text 9o
8 Ancient bronze weeding spade found in China. Reproduc-
ed from article by Shinji Nishimura in Canton, I (1939),
34. Reduced from actual size. Designated as "Tool Nishi-
mura" in text 91
III Ancient bronze weeding spade. Designated in text as
"TooIANS." 9o
IV Prototype Spade Coin. Same design on both sides 93, 116
V 1 Prototype Spade Coin in Imperial Museum of Japan.
Reproduced from article by Irita Seizo in Kokogaku
zasshi, XV (1925), 41o. Reduced in size 92, 116
2 Prototype Spade Coin of I. Reproduced from Ku ch'ien
ta-tz' ii-tien, III, 94 b 95 a. Reverse has same design, but
bears no legend. 116,189
VI Hollow-handle Spade 1 93,97,117, 156
VII 1 Hollow-handle Spade I found in a Chou tomb in northern
Honan. From a rubbing provided by Kuo Pao-chiin. 93, 97, 117
2 Hollow-handle Spade II. No legend. Same design on both
sides 93) 97, "7
VIII 1 Hollow-handle Spade II with mark at end of handle
which does not appear on the reverse. Spades of this type
245
Plate Pages of text on
are said to have been found in the area of Lo-yang,
Honan 93, 97, 117
2 Hollow-handle Spade II with numeral pa for "eight" on
obverse 93, 97, 117
IX 1 Hollow-handle Spade II with character hsin (eighth char-
acter of the ten "heavenly stem" characters) on obverse. . 93, 97, 117
2 Hollow-handle Spade II of Chih 93, 97,117, 232
X 1 Hollow-handle Spade II of I. From Ku ch'ien ta-tz'ii-tien,
III, 94 a 112, 117
2 Hollow-handle Spade II. Legend: Mi chin or Chin (one
chin of Mi). From Ku ch'ien ta-tz'u-tien, III, 8o a 214
XI 1 Hollow-handle Spade III of Wu. Legend: Wu. Reverse
has same design but no legend 118
2 Hollow-handle Spade III of "San-ch'uan." Legend: San-
ch'uan chin. Reverse has same design but no legend 118, 214
XII 1 Hollow-handle Spade III of Lu-shih. Legend: Lu-shih. ... 118
2 Hollow-handle Spade III of Wu-an. Legend: Wu-an. From
Yiieh-yii ku huo tsa-yung 118
3 Hollow-handle Spade III of Tung-chou or Eastern Chou.
Legend: Tung-chou. From Yiieh-yii ku huo tsa-yung. . 118, 120, 232
XIII 1 Very small Hollow-handle Spade with long but partly
undecipherable legend. From Yiieh-yii ku huo tsa-yung ... 119
2 Very small Hollow-handle Spade. Legend: Po. From Ku
ch'ien ta-tz'u-tien, III, 64 b 119
3 Old Spade of Chin-yang. Two chin. Legend (Upside
down): Chin-yang erh chin 121, 232
4 Old Spade of Chin-yang. One chin. Legend (Upside
down): Chin-yang i chin 121, 232
5 Old Spade of Chin-yang. Half chin. Legend (Upside
down): Chin pan chin. From Ku ch'ien ta-tz' t<-tien,Ill,i6b. 121, 232
XIV 1 Old Spade of Liang. Two chin. Legend (Upside down):
Liang erh chin 121
2 Old Spade of Liang. One chin. Legend (Upside down):
Liang i chin 121
3 Old Spade of Liang. Half chin. Legend (Upside down):
Liang pan chin 121
4 Old Spade of An-i. Two chin. Legend: An-i erh chin 121
5 Old Spade of An-i. One chin. Legend: An-i i chin 121
XV 1 Old Spade of An-i. Half chin. Legend: An-i pan chin 121
2 Old Spade of Fen or Pin. Legend (Upside down): FSn
(or Pin) pu. This is the only known specimen in legend
of which the term "pu," is clearly shown to be a designation
for spade coin. From Fang Jo, Yiieh-yii ku huo tsa-yung . . 111, 122
Key to the Plates
247
Plate Pages of text on
3 Special Old Spade of Liang. Legend: Liang cheng shang
chin tang lieh. 122,124,138,139
4 Special Old Spade of Liang. Legend: Liang pan shang
erh chin tang lieh. From Ku ch'ien ta-tz'it-tien, III, 18 b. . 122,138,139
5 Special Old Spade of Liang. Legend: Liang ch'ung chin
wu tang lieh shih-erh 122,138
XVI 1 Special Old Spade of Liang. Legend: Liang ch'ung chin
wu tang lieh shih-erh 122,138
2 Old Spade. Legend: Lu-shih nieh chin.
3 Old Spade. Legend: Nieh chin.
XVII 1 Spade of P'ei (?) probably of post-Chou origin. Obv.
legend: P'ei ch'ien tang shih chin. Rev. legend: Shih huo. 240, 243
2 Spade of probably post-Chou origin. Obv. legend: SsH
ch'ien. Rev. legend: Tang shih chin. Two spades un-
severed 244
XVIII1 Late Spade I of Ta-yin. One chin. Obv. legend: Ta-yin.
Rev. legend: Ch'i (seven) 123,124
2 Late Spade I of Ta-yin. Half chin. Obv. legend: Ta-yin
pan. Rev. legend: San (three) 123,124
XIX 1 Variety of Late Spade I of Ta-yin. Half chin 123
2 Variety of Late Spade I of Ta-yin. Half chin 123
3 Variety of Late Spade I of Ta-yin. Half chin 123,124
XX 1 Late Spade I of Tzu-shih. One chin. Legend: Tzit-shih. 123
2 Variety of the Late Spade I of Tzu-shih. Half chin. Leg-
end: Tzit-shih pan 123
3 Late Spade I of Tzu-shih. Half chin. Legend: Tzit-shih
pan chin 123
4 Late Spade I of Han-tan. One chin. Legend: Han-tan .. 123,177
XXI 1-2 Late Spade I of Chin-yang. Half chin. Legend: Chin-
yang pan 123,126,232
3 Variety of the Late Spade I of Chin-yang. Half chin.
Legend: Chin-yang 123,232
4 Late Spade I of Chung-yang. Half chin. Obv. legend:
Chung-yang. Rev. legend: Pan (half) 123
5 LateSpadeIofLin.HalfeAjw.Legend:La> (Lin,half) 123
6 Late Spade I of Wu-an. Half chin. Legend: Wu-an. ... 123,233
7 Late SpadeII of Kung. Legend: Kung (?) 123
XXII 1 Late Spade II of Kuo. Half chin. Obv. legend: Kuo.
Rev. legend: I pan (half) 123,124
2 Late Spade II of An-yang. Half chin. Legend: An-yang. 123,233
3 Late Spade II of An-yang. Probably one chin or early
half chin. Legend: An-yang 123)233
248
Plate Pages of test on
XXIII 1 Late Spade II of Ch'ui. Legend: Ch'ui 123
2 Late Spade of Pei-ch'iu (?). Half chin 123
3 Late Spade II of Liang. Probably one chin or early half
chin. Legend: Liang 123
4 Late Spade II of Liang. Half chin 123
5 Late Spade II of Lin. Half chin 123
6 Late Spade II of Ch'ang-tzu. Half chin 123
7 Late Spade II of T'un-liu. Half chin 123
XXIV 1 Late Spade II of P'ing-yang. Half chin. Legend: P'ing-
yang 123
2 Late Spade II of An-yang. Half chin. Legend: An-yang. .. 123
3 Late Spade II of P'ing-yin. Half chin 123
4 Late Spade II of Hsiang-p'ing. Half chin. Legend:
Hsiang-p'ing 123
5 Late Spade II of Kung-ch'ang (?). Half chin 123
6 Variety of No. 3 123
XXV 1 Late Spade III of Lin. One chin. Obv. legend: Lin. Rev.
legend: ch'i (seven) 123
2 Late Spade III of Lin. Half chin. Obv. legend: Lin. Rev.
legend: Nien chiu (twenty-nine) 123
XXVI 1 Late Spade III of Li-shih. One chin. Legend: Li-shih.
2 Late Spade III 6f Li-shih. Half chin. Legend: Li-shih. ... 123
3 Late Spade IV of Hsia-pi-yang. One Hang. Obv. legend:
Hsia-pi-yang. Rev. legend: J liang with numeral shih-ch'i
(seventeen) on top. From Okutaira, IV, 71b 123,124
XXVII 1 Late Spade IV of Hsia-pi-yang. Twelve chu (i. e., half
liang). Obv. legend: Hsia-pi-yang. Rev. legend: shih-erh
chu (twelve chu) with numeral {one) above 123,124
2 Late Spade IV of An-yang. Twelve chu. Obv. legend:
An-yang. Rev. legend: Shih-erh chu with numeral shih-
erh (twelve) above 123,124,126
XXVIII1 Bronze knife discovered in Yin-hsu. Shang origin. Re-
duced, Seep. 144 for details 144
2 Ancient bronze knife reported to have been discovered
in modern Wei county on the Shantung Peninsula 145
XXIX Early Knife of Ch'i. Obv. legend: Ch'i tsao-pang ch'ang fa
huo 146,157,158
XXX Early Knife of Ch'i. Obv. legend: Ch'i tsao-pang ch'ang huo. 146,157,158
XXXI Early Knife of Ch'i. Obv. legend: Ch'i fa huo 146,157,158
XXXII Early Knife of Ch'i. Obv. legend: Ch'i chih fa huo 146,157, r58
XXXIII Early Knife of Ch'i. Legend: Ch'i chih huo 146,157,15s
XXXIV Early Knife of Chi-mo. Obv. legend: Cfti-mo chih fa huo. 146,153,155
Rev. legend: ICai fing. ..
Key to the Plates
249
Plate
Number
XXXV
XXXVI
XXXVII
XXXVIII 1
XXXIX
XL
XLI 1
2
3
XLII
XLIII
XLIV
XLV
XLVI
XLVII
XLVIII 1-2
Pages of Text on
which discussed
Early Knife of Chi-mo. Obv. legend: Chi-mo chih fa
huo. Rev. legend: An pang 146,153,157, 158,159
Early Knife of Chi-mo. Later issue. Legend: Chi-mo fa
huo 146,153, 157, 159.
Early Knife of An-yang. Obv. legend: An-yangchih
fa huo 146, 153, 157
Early Knife of T'an. Broken. Obv. legend: T'an pang.
From Yiieh-yu ku huo tsa-yung 146, 153, 157
Sharp-pointed Knife. Legend undecipherable. From
Ku ch'ien ta-tz'u-tien, IV, 176 b 162, 165
Sharp-pointed Knife. Legend: Fei 162
Sharp-pointed Knife. Legend: Liu (orLw, six) 162
Sharp-pointed Knife. No legend 162
Sharp-pointed Knife. No legend 162
Sharp-pointed Knife of Lin. Legend: Lin. From Ku
Mien ta-tz'H-tien, VII, 407 b 162, 163
Ming Knife. Obv. Legend: Ming. Rev. legend: Tso shih
(Left, ten) 162
Ming Knife. Obv. legend: Ming. Rev. legend: Yu (right). 162
Ming Knife. Obv. legend: Ming. Rev. legend: Wai lu (?)
(Outside mint ?) 162,167
King Mnife. Obv. legend: Ming. Rev. legend undeci-
pherable 162, 167
Ming Knife. Obv. legend: Ming. Rev. legend: Hsing. .. 162, 167
Ming Knife showing variant style of the legend Ming. 162, 167
Ming Knife showing variant style of the legend Ming. . 162, 167
Ming Knife showing variant style of the legend Ming. 162,167
Ming Knife of Ch'i. Obv. legend: Ming. Rev. legend:
Ch'i huo. From Ku ch'ien ta- tz'u-tien, IV, 158 b 162, 167
Ming Knife of Ch'eng-po. Obv. Legend: Ming. Rev.
legend: Ch'eng-po huo. From Ku ch'ien ta-tz'it-tien, IV,
158 b 167
Late Knife of T'an. Except for the first character which
is T'an the legend is undecipherable. Legend on reverse;
obverse plain 170, 171
Late Knife of T'an. Except for the first characterwhich
is T'a the legend or legends are undecipherable. Legend
on reverse; obverse plain 170,171
Han-tan Knife. Obv. Legend: Han-tan 162,172
Plate Pages of Textoe
XLIX I Han-tan Knife. Obv. Legend: Han-tan 162
2 Late Knife. No legend. Reverse plain 162
3 Late Knife of Po-jen. Legend: Po-jen. Reverse plain 162,172
4 Late Knife of Ch'eng-po. Legend: Ch'eng-po. Reverse plain. 162,172
L 1 Late Knife. Legend: Ch'eng. rowan 162
2 Small Knife of Chin-yang. Legend: Chin-yang hw>. From
Yiieh-yii ku huo tsa-yung 162,172
3 Small Knife of Chin-yang. Legend: Chin-(yang) huo. From
Yiieh-yii ku huo tsa-yung 162,172
4 Small Knife of Chin-yang. Legend: Chin-yang hsin huo. . . 162,172
5 Small Knife of Lin. Legend: Lin. From Ku ch'ien ta-
tz-'ii lien, VII, 407 b. Reverse plain 162,172
LI 1 Yuan-chin. Legend: Ying yuan. From Fang Chun-i, 28 a.
Gold 180-186
2 Yuan-chin. Legend: Ying yuan. From Huang Chun, Part
2. Copper 180-186
3 Yuan-chin. Legend: Ying yiian. From Huang Chun, Part
2. Gold 180-186
4 Yuan-chin (?). Legend undecipherable. From Huang Chun,
Part 2. Lead 180-186
5 Yuan-chin. Legend: Ch'in yiian. From Fang Chun-i,
XXIX, 32 a. Gold 180-186
6 Round coin of I. One huo. Legend: / huo 187,190
7 Round coin of I. Four huo. Legend: J ssuhuo 187,190
8 Round coin of I. Two huo. Legend: I erh huo 187,190
9 Round coin of I. Six huo. Legend: / liu huo 187, 190
1o-11 Ming round coins showing epigraphical varieties. One
huo. Legend: Ming huo 190
LII I Ming round coins showing epigraphical varieties. One huo.
Legend: Ming huo 190
2 Ming round coin. Four huo. Legend: Ming ssu. From Ku
ch'ien ta-tz'H-tien, V, 249 b 190,191
3 Round coin. One huo. Legend: / huo 192
4 Round coin of An-hsiang. One chin. Legend: An-hsiang. .. 193
5 Round coin of Ch'ang-yiian. One chin. Legend: Ch'ang-
yiian i chin (one chin of Ch'ang-yiian) 193
6 Variety of No. 5. From Ku ch'ien ta-tz'H-tien, V, 251 a. ... 193
7 Round coin of Chi-yin. One chin. Legend: Chi-yin 193
8 Round coin of Chi-yin. One chin. Legend: Chi-yin. From
Ku ch'ien ta-tz'u-tien 194
LIII 1 Round coin of Chi-yin. Half chin. Legend: Chi-yin 193,194
2 Round coin of Chin-(yang). Legend: Chin-(yang). From
Yiieh-yii ku huo tsa-yung 193
Key to the Plates
251
Pages of Text on
which discussed
Round coin of Kung. Legend: Kung shun ch'ih chin (Pure
red money of Kung) 193
Round coin of Kung. One chin. Legend: Kung. Reverse
plain 193
Round coin of Kung. Half chin. Legend: Kung pan chin.
From Ku ch'ien ta-tz'u-tien, V, 241 b 193
Round coin of Western Chou. Half chin. Legend: Hsi Chou
From Ku ch'ien ta-tz'u-tien, V, 241 b.
2 Round coin of Lin. One chin. Different in design. Legend:
Lin. From Ku ch'ien ta-tz'H-tien, VI, 361 b 193, 194
Round coin of Lin. One chin. Different in design. Legend:
Lin. From Ku ch'ien ta-tz'it-tien, VI, 361 b 193
Round coin of Eastern Chou. One chin. Legend: Tung
Chou. From Ku ch'ien ta-tz'ii-tien, V, 251 b 193
Round coin of Eastern Chou. Half chin. Legend: Tung
Chou. From Ku ch'ien ta-tz'H-tien, V, 251 b 193, 195
Variety of No. 5.
Round coin of Yii. One chin. Legend: Yii chin (chin or
one chin of Ytt) 193
Round coin of Yuan. One chin. Legend: Yuan 193
Round coin of Ch'in. Legend: Chung i Hang shih-ssu chu. . 196
Round coin of Ch'in. Legend: Chung i Hang shih-san chu. . 196
Round coin probably of Ch'in origin 196,197
Round coin of Ch'in. Legend: Chung i Hang shih-erh chu.
From Ku ch'ien ta-tz'u-tien, V, 283 b 197
Round coin probably of Ch'in origin. Legend: Pan yuan.
From Ku ch'ien ta-tz'u-tien, V, 227 a 196, 197
252
Maps
253
254
c .9- -.b >e
PLATES
EARLY CHINESE COINAGE
PLATE I
tr
10
COWRIES (1-3) AND COWRIE IMITATIONS (4-10)
PLATE II
^*t. ' &%'/*&''' '.
COWRIE IMITATIONS (1-3) "ANT NOSE MONEY" (4H5)
BRONZE WEEDING SPADES:
"TOOL KURODA" (7) "TOOL NISHIMURA" (8)
PLATE III
BRONZE WEEDING SPADE
"TOOL ANS"
PLATE IV
PLATE V
PROTOTYPE SPADES
PLATE VI
HOLLOW-HANDLE SPADE I
PLATE VII
Q
<
Q
<
o
X
&V
PLATE VIII
v.--.y,,--
c/3
W
Q
<
C/3
w
J
Q
Z
<
o
o
PLATE IX
W
a
<
in
'J1
w
Q
S5
<
I
3
o
PLATE X
rjBaiTV.Tto.
tSlP~:
IL&L:
late' /
c/5
W
Q
<
PL,
EC.
O
EC
,. i,t.'ii < Wi'
PLATE XI
PLATE XII
PLATE XIII
&&&?;&'
M
?<?
(JffaKbi
il
HOLLOW-HANDLE SPADES (1-2)
OLD SPADES OF CHIN-YANG (3-5)
PLATE XIV
<&*$M
fA
OLD SPADES OF LIANG (1-3) AND AN-I (4-5)
PLATE XV
OLD SPADES OF AN-I (1) FEN OR PIN (2)
SPECIAL OLD SPADES OF LIANG (3-5)
PLATE XVI
SPECIAL OLD SPADE OF LIANG (I)
OLD SPADES (2-3)
PLATE XVIII
LATE SPADES I OF TA-YIN
PLATE XIX
LATE SPADES I OF TA-YIN
PLATE XX
LATE SPADES I OF TZU-SHIH (1-3)
AND HAN-TAN (4)
PLATE XXI
LATE SPADES I (1-6) II (7)
PLATE XXII
LATE SPADES II
PLATE XXIII
LATE SPADES II
PLATE XXIV
LATE SPADES II
PLATE XXV
LATE SPADES III
PLATE XXVI
LATE SPADES III (1-2) IV (3)
PLATE XXVII
'*.:'-*
LATE SPADES IV
PLATE XXVIII
ANCIENT BRONZE KNIVES 2
PLATE XXIX
EARLY KNIFE OF CH'I
PLATE XXX
EARLY KNIFE OF CH'I
PLATE XXXI
EARLY KNIFE OF CH'I
PLATE XXXII
EARLY KNIFE OF CH'I
PLATE XXXIII
EARLY KNIFE OF CH'I
PLATE XXXIV
EARLY KNIFE OF CHI-MO
PLATE XXXV
PLATE XXXVI
PLATE XXXVII
EARLY KNIFE OF AN-YANG
EARLY CHINESE COINAGE PLATE XXXVIII
EARLY KNIFE OF TAN (1) SHARP-POINTED KNIFE (2)
PLATE XXXIX
SHARP-POINTED KNIFE
PLATE XL
SHARP-POINTED KNIFE
PLATE XLI
>wV
ym
M
.m
If
1 3
SHARP-POINTED KNIVES
PLATE XLII
MING KNIVES
PLATE XLIII
1 "3* 2
MING KNIVES
PLATE XLIV
MING KNIVES
PLATE XLV
MING KNIVES
PLATE XLVI
MING KNIVES
PLATE XLVII
MING KNIVES: CH'ENG-PO (1), T'AN (2)
PLATE XLVIII
LATE KNIVES: T'AN (1-2), HAN-TAN (3)
PLATE XLIX
.c'[>
S'
* * 1
:Z
.
i
IS
9
1
[1
3
LATE KNIVES
PLATE L
LATE KNIFE (1) SMALL KNIVES (2-5)
PLATE LI
YUAN-CHIN (1-5) ROUND COINS OF I (6-9)
MING ROUND COINS (10-11)
PLATE LI I
7 8
ROUND COINS: MING (1-2) AN-HSIANG (4)
CH'ANG-YUAN (5-6) CHI-YIN (7-8)
PLATE LIU
^m^/
ROUND COINS: CHI-YIN (1) CHIN-(YANG) (2)
KUNG (3-5) WESTERN CHOU (6)
PLATE LIV
$4$
2
ROUND COINS: LIN (1-3) EASTERN CHOU (4-6)
PLATE LV
ROUND COINS: Yt) (1) YUAN (2) CH'IN (3-4,6)
PROBABLY CH'IN (5,7)

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