This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com).

Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no

circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
nerdy-notes.com
uploaded by user Umarzilla






Class: EST 102
Lecture/Exam: Full Semester Package
School: SBU
Semester: Fall 2013
Professor: John E. Mak


























This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
Lecture 1 Aug 28
Nhc.noaa.gov track hurricanes
Hurricanes always rotate counter clockwise in the northern hemisphere
Tornadoes can rotate either way
Eye of hurricane lowest and calmest
Categorize hurricane by wind speed, category 1 lowest but can cause a significant amount of
damage because of slow speed
Hurricanes need warm water to move
Tsunami and earthquakes are not weather related but are important
Isomap has millibars - 1000 millibar in 1 bar and 1 bar ~ 1 atmosphere
101325 = 1 atmosphere. Under 1000 has low pressure (in hurricane low pressure). Above
1013 high pressure and below is low pressure. Isobar = constant pressure
High pressure = drought, low pressure most likely raining
Isotherms = temperate map
Radar data = can show precipitation in different regions

Terms:
Weather: the state of the atmosphere (temp, atmosphere, wind, cloud things you can observe
and measure) at a given time and place (different at sbu and boston).
What is climate: the meteorological conditions, including temperature, precipitation, and wind,
which characteristically prevail in a particular region. Climate is the environment condition that
occurs as the result weather characteristic integrated over time of about 100 years (climate).
Past 100 years increase in emission.
What determines weather transfer of energy (99.9% energy by the sun we are solar
powered). We retain this because of the atmosphere and water that keeps the heat. At any
given time half the time is dark and lights so half the time is heated and the other half is cooled.
We have weather because we have atmosphere, some planets do and some dont. ours is
unique. We can breathe here.
Carbon cycling does occur without us.


Lecture 2 Aug 30
Asymmetrical storm: comma-like hurricane
No cloud heat goes up and outer space but when there are clouds then it absorb the heat
Warm front warm air behind it overtaking cold air
Blue triangle next to red triangle = stalled front, not moving
Purple = cold front runs into a warm front (cold air travels faster)
Lower than 1300 = low pressure and above is high pressure
Storm surge happens at high tides more than low tides
Nitrogen and Oxygen in air is inert and we need a tiny amount of O2 than is in the air
#1 greenhouse gas = water vapor. We cannot control water vapor. It depends on the
temperature of the ocean.
Top of Mount Everest: very low air pressure. Troposphere: where we live and 90% of weather
takes place.
This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
8degCelcius/15degFarenheight = -50degCelcius
Adiabatic Expansion: no exchange of energy, air heat, of a certain parcel of air wherever it
goes.
Troposphere gets warmer as you go up and stratosphere (above troposphere) gets warmer as
you go up. This is because of Ozone layer which takes up UV radiation.
O3 (ozone) + hv (photon) O2 + O exothermic release heat
Because air is compressible
1 atmosphere = 15 pounds per square inch. Air is pressing on you everywhere 15lb/sq inch. If
air were water it would be a linear but since its air then it is compressible.
-Solar Radiation-
3 common ways of conducting heat
Conduction transfer of heat through direct element, warming by something warmer than itself -
Pot on stove. Steel, gold excellent thermo conductor. Bad wood good insulator, bad
because it has air. In the jacket, all the feathers trap air.


Lecture 3 Sep 6
The pressure map adjusts with the altitude level by taking into account the altitude for example,
Denver which is 500ft above and has higher air pressure
The temperature maps are not normalized
Winter time, tropopause is lower
O3+huO2 - exothermic releases heat
O2+OO3

Surface pressure standard pressure:
1013.25milibar = 1atmostphere = 14.7PSI (lbs per sq inch)

Conduction for solid and rigid material
Convection for fluid, transport of heat through physical mixing. Gas is treated as a fluid except
it is compressible
Radiation the characteristic can travel through vacuum; can be treated as a way.
Check out the link on lecture 3 - 9/6/12 and the frequency formulas

As the wavelength (lambda) increases, energy (of photon) decreases
As temp inc. then energy (per photon) also inc.


Lecture 4 Sep 11
Greenhouse effect: (will be tested on this)
Venus: many atmospheres of CO2: 460degCel
Mars: -60degCel - atmosphere blown off. solar wind probably blew the atmosphere away due to
collisions.
This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
Radiation comes from the sun
TOA (top of the atmos) 1370 Watts/m(sq)
When sun is on the horizon, solar zenith angle is 90deg
Between you and the sun, there are gases and they absorb radiation.
Average solar input (over 24 hrs, throughout the year, all latitudes) - taking all that into account makes it
350 W/m(squared) at TOA
Albedo: if something is colored white, then everything is reflected and Albedo is 1 with respect to visible
range. Snow, bright white cloud, albedo is very high. Over the water is close to 0, about 0.5, average of
all is .3, dirt has albedo of .2
On the global, annual, night day average, albedo of the planet, the temp of earth is about -18+-30deg (?)
As solar radiation comes into the earth's atmosphere, the visible energy is absorbed by earth's surface.
Everything is releasing heat, anything above 0deg Kelvin is releasing heat. Difference between reflection
and radiation.
Greenhouse absorbs the infrared radiation and send it back down. Water is by far the most important
greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. If water vapor absorbs a lot of infrared radiation then it emits it also.
The second most important is CO2 then methane and the many others.
if 1000 photons coming in every second from the sun at the top of the atmosphere, how many photons
are going out of the atmosphere? ans: a thousand
Positive and negative feedbacks as Ds goes up, H2O goes up. Clouds increase albedo. Clouds can be
considered enhanced positive or negative feedback
Why is ice melt a positive feedback: because decreases the albedo (less incoming energy is being
reflected and more is being retained).

Lecture 5 Sep 13
Different greenhouse gases are at different rates in the spectrum
What is closest to a blackbody: Sun
What is the definition of a blackbody? Anything that reflects a lot is not a blackbody. Earth = .3 ,
reflects 30% and absorbs 70%
Moon is not a good blackbody because it is pretty light.
Blackbody temperature: most visible at 6000degK
ROYGBIV R=longest wavelength and V=shortest wavelength.
The colder the body, the longer the wavelength.
H20 is a great greenhouse gas. Everything that comes out gets trapped in the region.
IR windows (infrared windows) where most of the heat gets escaped.
Overlap with CO2 and water vapor.
This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
In UV, all of it is absorbed by O2.
O2+OO3 , O3+hvO2+O
UV radiation is in the stratosphere and not in the troposphere. The UV rad reacted with the
CFCs

Polar Stratospheric clouds form when the reaction happens for ozone destruction.
Once theyre in the stratosphere, theyre broken down the by the stratospheric lights.
Do we have stratospheric ozone destruction in the arctic? No, although we do see a few
percentage. The arctic is less stable.

Want ozone in stratosphere and dont want ozone in troposphere.
Solar input its in the visible. Earth absorbs the radiations and earth needs to release it which it
doesnt by infrared heat. That solar input is what dries weather and climate. Is the planet heated
evenly, uniformly? No because there are places that are rly hot and rly cold.
Solar zenith angle determines solar intensity. Solar intensity is max at SZA=0 (or where solar
alt=90deg) Zenith=directly overhead, perpendicular to horizon.
23.5deg tilt to earths axis.


Lecture 6 Sep 18
High up in the atmosphere, no real influence on the surface - cold and windy. No friction to slow
down the wind up there.
Chapter 8

Driving questions what forces control the speed and direction of the wind?
Forces a) pressure gradient force b) Coriolis force, c) centripetal force d) friction force e)
gravity
Interacting forces a) hydrostatic equilibrium b) geostrophic wind c) gradient wind

Forces Pressure Gradient Force
Strength of the pressure gradient force is equal to the difference in positions. Ex:
Pressure (P) = Force(F) over Area(A)
Bigger difference in pressure = bigger force
Direction is always pointing from high to low
Not only is strength of the fore dependent on the pressures but it is also dependent on the
difference between the point of where you are measuring the pressures. --- The bigger the
difference between the H and L, the bigger the force, the closer the distance, the stronger the
force ---
Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) (p2-p1, the bigger the difference, the PGF is bigger. If the
distance between
The 2 places [longer, shorter] the PGF will be greater/lower accordingly)



This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
Coriolis force:
You need velocity to have a Coriolis force
The Coriolis force always points to the center of location
There is not Coriolis force on the equator.
The direction of the Coriolis force always points 90deg to the right from the direction of the
motion like the northern hemisphere.
Northern Hemisphere Direction of Motion
Right angle


Coriolis Force

Forces centripetal force
Any time you have a curvature (not a straight motion), the centripetal force is present
The centripetal force always points toward the center of a curved path

Forces Frictional Force
Frictional force is the resistance between two objects
Friction acts on two interacting bodies with or without motion
Ball is in motion, for example moving to the right; the frictional force will be toward the left.






Lecture 7 Sep 20
On the earth, the Coriolis force always points 90deg to the right of the motion because we are
on a rotating planet.

N. Hemisphere (direction of motion)
90deg to the right


Coriolis force

Whichever way you are traveling, frictional force acts in the opposite direction

Forces Gravitational Force
The attraction of forces between 2 bodies

Interacting Forces The forces describes interact to control the vertical and horizontal motion of
air.
Hydrostatic Equilibrium Balance of gravity and the vertical pressure gradient
This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.

The geostrophic wind is a balance of the two following two forces:
Pressure Gradient force
Coriolis force
Isobar: the same pressure Low pressure
-----------------------PH--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------C---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
High pressure



Geostrophic winds are parallel to the isobar
Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
Depends on the difference of pressure and inversely proportional to the difference in the
distance (D)
It is always perpendicular to the isobar (90deg to the right of motion)

Coriolis force is always 90deg to the right from the motion in the northern hemisphere
Coriolis force is always 90deg to the left from the motion in the southern hemisphere

Gradient Wind an imbalance of the following three forces causing circular motion
1) Pressure Gradient Force
2) Coriolis Force
3) Centripetal Force

Interacting Forces Friction
Geostrophic and gradient winds are frictionless. How to maintain balance or equilibrium with
friction?

Cyclone low pressure at center, wind going in
Anti-cyclone high pressure at center, wing going outward

Continuity of Wind
We can have convergence and divergence of wind. Remember that what comes in has to go
out.





This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.


Lecture 8 Sep 25
When in doubt, wind direction follows isobars in (geostrophic flow). If isobars are circular, then
the wind would be circular. If its straight wind then it is geostrophic wind; gradient wind is a
curved wind.
CF H PGF L

Wind

Centripetal force is an inward force resulting in curved flow
Gradient wind is curved versus geostrophic wind

High pressure clockwise wind around high pressure
Low pressure anti-clockwise wind around the low pressure
Faster you move, the more the CF
CF turns you to the Right in the Northern Hemisphere (PGF) and to the Left in the southern
hemisphere

CF = 2 * omega * V * sin(theta)
Omega speed of rotation 1000mph
V- Speed of the air parcel
Theta latitude

Sin 0deg = 0
Sin 90deg = 1
Sin of theta is biggest when theta = 90deg
CF is biggest when youre at the north/south pole or when you are at higher latitude.
CF induces rotation (we wouldnt have tornadoes or hurricanes no hurricanes at the equator
b/c CF would be 0)

If geostrophic wind changes then friction changes as well; it would be the opposite of the
direction you are going.
Which force is a static force? Coriolis, Friction, Pressure Gradient. Answer: Pressure Gradient
How to transport heat from low latitudes to high latitudes mixing of air (not only by convection
which can be very small and very high but it goes only vertical and advection is horizontal)
Oceans hold more heat than air by far. Millions of gallons are moved up the Gulf Stream by the
second.
As solar altitude increases, solar input increases and vice versa.

SZA: angle between the sun coming in and directly above you. 0 directly about you, 90
SZA=0

This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
What causes seasons? Varying distances between earth and sun OR Earths axial tilt - ans:
Earths axial tilt
How do you know its not distance between earth and sun?

Earth is 23.5deg off normal, there will be certain times of the year where the top of the earth will
be exposed to sun for a longer period of time (length of day inc as the axial tilt becomes greater
with respect of tilt toward sun)
Summer solstice: longest day of the year in the Northern hemisphere


Lecture 9 Sep 27
Forces and everything before forces will be on exam: 10/4/12
Autumnal and spring equinox solstice
Summer 23.5 deg north sun is directly overhead
Winter 23.5 deg south sun is directly overhead
There is 12 hour day & night in the equator all the day but sun isnt directly overhead.
Large solar input doesnt mean large temperature difference

Max solar alt at SBU: latitude = 40.3, 40 deg north minus axial tilt (23.5)
When: summer solstice June 21 or22
90 deg minus 16.5 deg = 73.5 deg

How high above the horizon is the sun at the North Pole on a summer solstice:
Max solar altitude at North Pole: 90 minus 23.5 = 66.5, minus 90 = 23.5

What about interannual variations in temperature? (Global or regional? Whats the difference?)
On avg the interannual variations (compared to seasonal variation) are very small

Conduction is the direct transfer of heat through contact; air is a bad conductor and a good
insulator.
Convection is mixing heating up a liquid and that liquid can mix and as it mixes, it can diffuse
its heat.


Lecture 10 Oct 11
Its cold because of few clouds
If evaporation greater than condensation rate, the air above the ocean is SUBSATURATED
(Saturated = equilibrium)

Can it rain if the Relative Humanity (RH) or surface less than 100% - YES, because you only
have to be supersaturated or saturated where the rain is forming or where theres fog. Colorado
is very dry and during the winter is 40%, in the afternoon, the greater chance for rain.

%RH = (vapor pressure/saturation vapor pressure) * 100%
This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
VP: 15milibar at the surface
RH at -20deg C = 15
RH = 500% - super saturated well below the altitude and above the temp.
The closer you are to RH, the thicker the cloud, the more potential for rain fall. Warm parcel of
air has more potential than the cold parcel of air biggest amount of preset from warm air
precipitation.
Moisture Variables know some of it

Evaporation
Condensation
Saturation
Vapor pressure

Which processes are endothermic and exothermic?
Evaporation is endothermic

Sat. vapor pressure: depends primarily of the air temp, warm air can hold more water vapor
Describes how much WV is necessary to make the air saturated at any given temp

RH and Dew Pt:
Early morning:
Temp: 10degC
E: 12mb
Es: 12mb (10degC)
Noon:
E: 30degC
E: 12mb
42: mb (30degC)

If temp is same as dew point then RH = 100%

What is the RH of a parcel of air at 25degC with a dew pt temp of 15degC?
Vapor Pressure? (Or partial pressure of water): around 15mb (according to graph)
RH: VP/SatVP 60%
RH: 15mb/27 ~ 60%
Dew pt: gives approx. of how humid you are. The temp at which condensation will occur or
where RH = 100%

The smaller the diff between your temp and dew point temp, the more humid
RH and human comfort: less able to cool yourself because one of the biggest mechanisms of
cooling is evaporation.
In warm weather, main source of body cooling is through evaporation of perspiration
Evaporation takes heat from the skin (cooling the skin, then the body)
This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
When the air temp is high and relative hum is low, the perspiration on the skin evaporates
quickly
More humid: hotter it feels
Fog = condensation
Condensation nuclear take up water vapor and grow larger, become visible to naked eyes when
RH reaches 100%
Sat reached and condensation forms a cloud near the ground

Radiation fog: when the ground cools more quickly than the air above it; ground fog
Ground colder = the air directly above the ground (through conduction)
Advection fog: transport of fairly moist air on warmer surface hitting a cooler surface it is
physically transported (advection horizontal movement, literally moving blown). Ex: during
the night time on an ocean land boundary, land cools more rapidly than the ocean. The amount
of material having to cool is much lower.

General cloud types: low, medium, high cloud
Cumulonimbus: 1) a lot of water vapor. 2) A lot of motion, a lifting mechanism lifting the air
vertically - pushing the air up to 10miles. Thunderstorms,
Nimbo-stratus: more smooth and spread out smeared out and has vertical, but not as strong,
vertical development.


Lecture 11 Oct 16
Atmospheric stability
Stability is a state of equilibrium in terms of atmospheric movement
Adiabatic process if a parcel of air expands and cools, or compressed and warms, with no
exchange of heat with its outside surroundings.

The environment lapse rate is the actual, observed lapse rate in the air.
We determine the stability of the air by comparing the adiabatic lapse rate of the air parcel to
the environmental lapse rate.

As air parcel goes up, it expands and gets colder and as it goes down, it compacts and
becomes warmer
Dry adiabatic lapse rate: 10degC/1000meters
Environmental Lapse rate: 4degC/1000meters

Determining stability: conditionally unstable (3
rd
scenario)
Latent heat is released during condensation!

Dry adiabatic lapse rate, (dry) = 10degC/1000m where air parcel is less saturated.
Wet adiabatic lapse rate, (wet) < 10degC/1000m

This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
*Level of condensation* level of where the air parcel reaches saturation and the RH is 100%
(condensation releases heat)

Atmospheric Stability
1) Buoyancy
a. Density of Air parcel compared to surrounding air if you are less dense, you are
buoyant
b. This boils down to temperature
c. IF YOU ARE warmer your Dew


Stable below a 1000m and unstable above 1000m conditionally stable and cond. Unstable
1000m dew point = temp water vapor

Why air parcel temp decreases: as the air parcel rises, water condensation happens and it
releases latent heat and dew point decreases.


Lecture 12 Oct 18
Density changes with altitude, density goes down and altitude goes up. It also changes with
temperature;
Density, altitude and temperature.
Same altitude, same density. Temperature. Am I buoyant at this spot? Have to compare it with
surrounding air, the temperature of the air and the air surrounding it.
Buoyant? Same altitude?
Temp is 19deg and surrounding air is 20deg.
At parcel of air contract, the volume gets smaller but.
Density increases as temp goes down.
Density at 19deg is greater at 20deg for another parcel of air. More dense, tendency to sink.

Temperature difference at the same altitude when talking about stability.
Difference of temperature of parcel of air and the air surrounding it = heat.

How does temp change?
how does it change as a parcel rises (vertical motion/stability) adiabatic process parcel of air
pushed upward expands. The work required to expand that parcel of air has to come from that
parcel of air itself. Since gravity is harder to walk up (than down), the parcel of air is fighting
gravity. As it expands, it takes energy. As parcel of air comes down, swapping potential/kinetic
energy and cools.
Adiabatic process taking parcel of air to rise requires energy.
Adiabatic Lapse rate: the rate of cooling as a parcel of air rises. Calculating it: G (gravitational
acceleration) and Specific air.
On Earth, the adiabatic process is about 1degC/100m; 10degC/1000m
This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
Gamma (symbol) dry adiabatic lapse rate. = -dt/dz - (positive number when going up)
Rate of cooling with increasing altitude is ideal when compared to the environmental lapse rate.



Stability temp of parcel of air and the air around it.
Assuming rising adiabatically (increases 10deg per 1000m)

Environmental lapse rate: the measured, or observed, or ambient change in temp with
altitude. (What it is in the real world measured with balloon and thermometer) then compare
the temp of the parcel of air with the temp surrounding it.
Environmental lapse rate: 4degC/1000m
Dry Adiabatic lapse rate: 10degC/1000m

The greater the temp, the more the density difference which is like a cork in water. The higher
up you go, the greater the tendency to go back down where you came from. The harder, the
greater you push the parcel of air up, the more the tendency of it to go down.
Buoyant at every altitude above surface increases with increasing altitude.
How chimney works: acceleration of air through the chimney, as the air goes up to go out, it
creates a vacuum of pressure from underneath which continuously draws air upward. The
longer the chimney is the better. Same as how hurricane works.
Check out graphs in the lecture slides.

Another way to determine if stable

This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
Follow dashed line from the first dashed line of y-axis to the higher one. Where it hits the same
altitude. z = altitude

If air pushed upward to downward, going to want to continue to stay in that direction.

When the environmental lapse rate is toward the right, then it is more stable. Environmental
lapse rate is steeper, more stable; shallower, more unstable.
Adiabatic lapse rate changes, now the moister the wet adiabatic lapse rate = condensation in
the parcel of air.
r-wet = r-dry (sum amount)
r-wet (wet adiabatic lapse rate) < r-dry
This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.

Clear day no level of condensation



Lecture 13 Oct 23
Why is Death Valley so hot? Give at least 3 reasons
1) Adiabatic compression in death valley because death valley is below sea level
2) Solar radiation a lot of solar input.
3) Orographic lifting followed by dehydration on the windward side adiabatic rate is less than
10deg per 1000 meters.
4) Insulated from marine influence.
Dry adiabatic rate 10deg per 1000m

Calculation:
%RH = VP/SVP * 100%
40%RH = VP/42mb
Ex: VP for RH 10% at 30deg? 4.2 (10% * 42)

Condensation and Freezing latent heat release
Evaporation latent heat uptake
This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.

Which of the following would cause the RH to decrease?
How to increase/decrease the RH? Ans: Warming the air if you warm the air the RH goes
down.

Check slides what you should know

Adiabatic lapse rate = ideal. We use it to convert. Environmental lapse rate it much different and
it gives us an idea of the stability of the parcel of air.

What causes condensation/evaporation?


Determining stability: conditionally unstable atmosphere (know the drawing/graph)
Hurricanes form over warm water which is the source. The warmer the water, the warmer the air
around it which allows the hurricane to continue. The heat release in the parcel of air makes it
very unstable.

Increasing temp, increasing alt
Colder below = more dense. Colder air is denser.

Radiation inversion: loss of heat via radiation. Ex: night time on a clear night, no more solar
input and the heat in the ground that had gotten during the day radiated upward to outer space.
It is very little greenhouse gases to absorb (no clouds). A good portion of it just goes to outer
space. Even though greenhouse gases, transparent heat. Vast majority of heat from the ground
passes right through the atmosphere.
The ground at night can become cool and colder than the air above it. A thin layer which cold
and directly above it is what it warm. That sets up the inversion layer. Clear night and calm
night (so no mixing), ground is cool, air above it warmer and air above is cooler; night time
inversion.
Temp/alt plot:




This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.


Once the sun comes up, the inversion immediately breaks down because the sun heats the
ground and becomes:


Inversion: super stable.
Inversion is like putting a lid in the atmosphere.

As air is pushed down, the temp inc.

General circulation of planet earth
If the planet were no rotating we would have large convection cells due to uneven heating of the
planets surface.
Rotation introduces a Coriolis force, making moving parcels bear to the right in the NH and to
the left in the SH.

The Hadley cell. Larger scale convection cells. Convergence/divergence leads to semi-
permanent and H and L pressure centers.

Near the equator there is a band of low pressure.
ITCZ line shifts throughout the year. Just like the bird, it follows the sun. From Jan-July the
ITCZ shifts to the north, just like the sun moves to the north in northern and southern
hemisphere.


Lecture 14 Oct 25
Earths Planetary Circulation
Near/at the equator: low pressure bands
Circulation is maintained in the atmosphere of our idealized Earth because the planetary-scale
winds spoilt into 3 belts in each hemisphere
0-30, 30-60, 60-90
Now some winds blow with the some blow against the planets rotation


This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
Idealized circulation pattern
Surface winds converge along equator and along 60deg latitude circles
Convergence leads to rising air, expansion cooling, cloud development and precipitation
Convergence zones are belts of relatively low surface air pressure
Surface winds diverges at the poles and along the 30deg latitude circles
o Air descends, is compressed and warms, and weather is generally fair
o Divergence zones are belts of relatively high surface air pressure
El-Nio is abnormal condition large shift

Northerlies come from the west
Around the 60deg lines easterlies in the Arctic

Long-term average pattern of wind-driven ocean-surfaced currents. West to east currents in the
middle latitudes this sets up geysers. Geysers in the ocean basin are driven by the planetary-
scale atmospheric circulation. (Coriolis force is 0 at 0deg latitude)
Warmest water to be in the central pacific: near North Pacific Ocean

Wind aloft
Aloft, winds in the middle and upper troposphere blow away from the ITCZ
cumulonimbus clouds 30-50k feet into the atmosphere
These feed into the subtropical highs
Resulting convection cells are called Hadley cells

ITCZ follows the sun
It reaches farthest north in July
It reaches to its most southerly latitudes in January
Monsoon: Any wind that changes its direction seasonally. The Indian (or African) monsoon.
Seasonal precipitation patterns. 80% of all annual rain occurs in a few weeks, over a period of a
few months.
Northern January, super-hot and super wet in India because of the shift of ITCZ
During winter, radiative cooling over the Asian continent results in greater density, leading to
subsiding air (producing high pressure)

In autumn, radiational cooling chills the land more than the adjacent ocean surface
The subsiding continental air sinks, warms up, and becomes dry (dehydration). Winters in India
are hot (110 deg) and dry. Little deflection, since closer to equator
Onshore winds bring humid air over continents. As air heats up, it rises, cools, and water
condenses out.


This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
Jet Streams
Narrow corridors of very strong wind
In middle latitudes, the most prominent jet stream (polar front jet stream) is located above the
polar front in the upper troposphere town the mid-latitude tropopause and the polar
tropopause
o Follow the path of the planetary westerly waves
o Winds may top 160km/hr (100mph)
o Eastbound aircraft seek it as a tail wind

Lecture 16 Nov 8
Know how to explain - Water travel towards the west and warms up, temp increases as you
progress westward. Sea height is higher in the western pacific than the eastern pacific. (ITCZ)
*If water is warm near Australia then why arent there any typhoons and hurricanes? It is
because the equator is there and the Coriolis force is there. Coriolis force goes to 0 and there is
no rotation so there wont be any cyclonic motion except rains; until 15deg north*
During El Nio no more upwelling. Surface Ocean gets warmer. How can this occur? Weaker
trade winds/no trade winds. Winds are cut off/severely reduced, because the pressure gradient
across the pacific decreased or went to 0. The PG next to Indonesia must have gone to 0.
The Indonesian Low moves toward the east, by about 2,500 mi.
During El Nio, the pressure in Tahiti becomes usually lower, whereas the pressure in the
western pacific becomes higher. Convective clouds follow the warm water, which moves
eastward.
Normally hot and dry, normally wet and humid then expect opposite for both during El Nio.
1 in 3 = El Nio year. Theyre less common but not rare. El Nios have gone on for the past
thousands of years.
La Nia super normal condition. Instead of having a low pressure, there is a very deep
pressure. Dry then drier. Its an exacerbated normal conditioned.
Understand the El Nio and El Nia plot

Air mass origin, weather systems:
Different densities, water content, some sort of equilibration between the 2 air masses. Air
masses or varying origins exist usually in mid-latitudes.

Intersection of different air masses - makes fronts
Cold, warm, stationary and occluded fronts

Warm front: warm air running into colder air. It is encroaching upon the cold air, as a result of
the collision, the cold is denser and the warm air is buoyant than the cold air so the warm air will
rise above the cold air as it comes in contact. A characteristic of a warm front is that you will see
the clouds forming. You will see a temp change afterward. Precept precedes the passage of a
warm front because of shallow slope, less dense air over more dense air.
This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
Cold front: near the surface, harder the air for move and gives a bullnose surface. It significantly
changes the changes of the surface. It slams the warm air and pushes it up; almost like
orographic lifting. It is like cumulonimbus clouds.
Occluded front: when a cold front warms into a warm front. Cold moves faster than warm. Right
behind the warm front, there will be a cold front. C W C(er could be), the warm air is being
sandwiched. The warm air, as it rides over the cooler air but it is also being pushed from both
sides, so it is moved up. Cold occluded is more common.
Stationary font: simply when it isnt moving to any single direction.


Lecture 17 Nov 13
Cloud occurs before the passage of the warm front
Cold front more tightly released rather than warm front
Occluded: when one front runs into another
Stationary front: alternating symbols on each side

Air pollution: types London smog, photochemical smog, particulate matter/aerosol
2 types gases and particulates - (more concerned about particulates after industrial
revolution).
London type smog: fog and smoke particulate
Photochemical smog: gas phase, result of the chemical reaction that occur in the atmosphere in
sunlight when you have certain precursors: hydro carbons and NO2 [from cars and fossil fuel
combustion]
Particulate matter: dust

London type smog, photochemical smog
Nitrogen oxide
Reactive organic gases
Ozone
Sunlight
Need hydro carbons a.k.a. volatile, need NO2 and NO nitrogen oxide
Organic: it has nitrogen and hydrogen compounds
Need sunlight
3 ingredients for photochemical smog cars and other combustion type processes
[NO2]
High temp combustion, lighting, cars, electric production which is also combustion
Biosphere plants and trees
Ozone in the troposphere is bad

Where pollutants come from; types of sources of Air Pollutants

SO2 released from coal combustion around 2%, it reacts with OH, water, etc. and produces
sulfuric acid and water = sulfate aerosols
This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
PM 10 particulate matter in microns, number is the amount

Health considerations
Smaller particles that we cant see affect us the most except for acidic particles. It settles in your
lungs.
Nat. defense against big and small particles
First line of defense: nasal. Second:
Gap in defense system: 1-4 micron size.

Dry deposition: large particles, by gravity
Wet deposition: precipitation, rain and snow

Carbon monoxide: incomplete combustion on and is poisonous
Attached to hemoglobin and cant transfer so you suffocate

Lecture 18 Nov 15
Size and chemical composition
Size efficiency of body of removing particles. Lungs = gas exchange take place.
Aerosols can be a physical to inhibit you by their presence. Scarred tissue in lungs can result in
cancer. On size of an aerosol not the chemical composition.
Size: 0.1-1micronmeter (um) best size to get past bodys defenses.

Next to worry about: aerosol composition.
Will they react with your body system?
1) Oxidation capacity
a. Ozone (which is a gas, not a particle) but ozone can change the chemical composition of
a particle.
2) Acidity
a. Sulfur dioxide is a gas but sulfur is very quickly converted in to the atmosphere.
Factors that affect air pollution
The role of wind
o Dilution of pollution dependent upon wind speed
Topography: another thing to worry about

Lecture 19 Nov 27
Radiation (depending on where you are) starts in the evening when the sun goes down in clear
night and breaks up when sun hits the surface.
*Know the difference between radiation inversion and subsidence inversion*- know all the plots
for the inversions. (Fanning, Fumigation, Looping)
Acid deposition
Tornadoes come from thunderstorms: where there are tornadoes, there are thunderstorms
This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
What spawns thunderstorms? The sun: convection, causing strong updrafts of humid air.
Therefore thunderstorms occur where/when you have significant solar energy around
summertime.
Convection:
1) Conduction
2) Latent heat releases
a. Water condenses out; the speed of the air moving in the upward direction can keep the
water suspended. The suspension of water is dependent on the amount of energy
associated with the activity.
Cumulus stage when clouds start to form for tornado

Wind shear: wind moving in different direction; violent turbulence of winds

Singe cell thunderstorm last about an hour or less
Multi cell occur for several hours

How to make a thunderstorm:
1) Relative humid air in lower troposphere
2) Instability
3) Uplift/convection
Area of most frequent thunderstorms: Florida
2
nd
most frequent: Colorado/Oklahoma
Areas of very low: Pacific Northwest
Florida: an exceptional case for thunderstorms
Air mass convergence
Differential heating: over the peninsula of Florida you heat the land faster than the left or right
rising air is being replaced form the east of west. Air mass convergence over the peninsula, air
replacing the air is coming from the Gulf of Mexico is relatively warm. Peninsula of land sticking
out (Florida) makes it vulnerable.
Colorado is quite dry but where does the humidity come from. There is rain shadow near the
Rocky Mountains.
The Midwest had the Gulf of Mexico

Hazard associated with severe thunderstorms
Lightning (dozens of people killed yearly). Downdrafts, Large sized hail, flash floods, tornadoes.

Hazards associated with severe thunderstorms
Lightning
Charge separation, followed by discharge; electricity
If you are an insulator, you can hold a lot of charge: us, trees, ground, and air (can hold charge
and separate charge)
This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
During the updrafts: a lot of friction. Accumulate charge (store in the air) and move out of the
ground: an excess flow of electrons and moving it upward with air currents which bring it to the
clouds. As the charge separation continues to increase, it cant maintain it. Lightning occurs
after you separate charge from earth and sky. If you are a ground or tree, you are grounded.
Thats why you dont want to stand next to a tree, the tree if hit by lightning blows up.
Q: can tornadoes in the US rotate clockwise (viewed from above)?
Center of tornado: low pressure
They dont always have to rotate counter clockwise; however, yes: it disrupts the law but the
geostrophic force is very small to apply and depends how the tornadoes form
90% rotate counter clockwise


Lecture 20 Nov 29
Tornadoes strongest natural phenomenon; 100-1500meters across
Dont last for very long: few minutes to a few hours
Tornado: tight cyclone
-Mesocyclone
Most tornadoes central south US
Worst tornado: March 18 1925 1Pm Tristate US (covered 3 states), more than 200miles, lasted
3.5 hours, killed 700ppl, made 7k people homeless
Strongest type of hurricane Mitch
Well defined eye = strong hurricane
Difference between tropical storm and hurricane is how fast
Typhoon in pacific and hurricane in Atlantic (location)
The eye calm light and variable winds not pressure, no strong wind, no gradient. It is
relatively clear, descending air. As air descends it warms up adiabatically. It is a stable low
pressure center. Outside of the eye = the eye wall, just surrounding the eye.
Warm water induces atmospheric instability if you want a lot of strong up drafts. Tornadoes
transfer air from low latitudes to high latitudes.
What do you need to make a hurricane/typhoon?
Warm seas
Atmospheric instability
High humidity
Significant Coriolis force/vorticity
Pre-existing low pressure disturbance
Low vertical wind shear/upper air flow support

Disturbance: area where you are getting some sort of activity such as transfer of clouds
Tropical storm involves into a hurricane




This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
Lecture 21 Dec 6
Warmer air greater atmospheric stability
What do you need to make a hurricane/typhoon?
Warm seas (80F/30C, 50m depth)
Atmospheric instability
High humidity (see above)
Significant Coriolis force/vorticity
Pre-existing low pressure disturbance
Low vertical wind shear/upper air flow support

Compared to storm systems at mid-latitudes (extra-tropics), hurricanes are smaller and more
violent. Minimum pressures at the center of the hurricanes (the eye) can be less than 900 mb
Hurricanes require warm 26C waters and significant Coriolis deflection greater than 4deg lat.
They also need winds to keep them aloft.
Water temperatures decrease as they go north because of temp.
Easterly waves occur in the May-Nov timeframe, and are caused by massive solar input and
instability (movement) associated with the African jet. Why is there an African jet? Massive solar
input of the Sahara desert in the contrast to the cooler coast-
ITCZ goes way north in the Asia in the summer and way south during the winter
Driest place on the map is all the way down below Latin American and Australia, Arctic; second
is probably Chicago
Rain shadow is after prevailing wind over mountain. Temp of the is warmer at the rain shadow


Final:
Composition of the atmosphere: structure altitude the physical structure and chemical
composition argon, nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor
Greenhouse gases low on concentration
Water vapor varies a tremendous amount, warmer = more vapor
Past and present (more present than past)
What drives the climate system energy 99.5% comes from the sun. Also have geothermal
heating volcanoes.
Understand solar input and albedo, how the sun warms the earth; blackbodies temp
Short and long wave radiation, UV rays
Radiative forces
Temperature variation solar zenith angle, length of day, seasons
Diff between land and water, Kansas vs San Francisco
Pressure variation produce pressure gradient. Understand the different forces (definitely will
be on exam)
Water why is water vapor abundant? How would you predict that it varies? RH and absolute
humidity
Different adiabatic lapse rates, comparing them; as something evaporates, whatever it leaves
behind cools
Latent heat uptake in evaporation
This document is the property of Nerdy Notes (www.nerdy-notes.com). Permission is granted to view this document only to authorized users; under no
circumstances are you allowed to distribute, store or transmit this document without the express, written consent of Nerdy Notes, Inc.
Radiation inversions, at night temp
Know lapse rates and atmospheric stability, stable condition
Global circulation remember the ITCZ which is centered on the equator and the migration of
the ITCZ follows the sun; monsoon Indian monsoon is the biggest on the planet. ITCZ shifts
and the airflow changes
Fronts basic, warm cold occluded stationary, characteristic, why to get them, where and
where not to find them, jet streams strongest in subtropical with polar air. Differences in
precept
Mid-latitude weather and climates cyclone and tornado formation
Thunderstorm how do they form, where might you expect updrafts and down drafts
Air pollution and association on it with atmospheric stability
During El-Nio, more wind shear and less air flow support fewer hurricanes because of
enhanced wind shear
Hurricanes