T h e

Comparative
M e th od
an d th e
S tu d y
of B ritis h P ol itic s
S amu e l H. B e e r
I
M y
titl e
s u gge s ts parad ox.
How c an
y ou
make
c omparis on s
wh e n
y ou are
d e al in g
with
on l y
on e
s y s te m?
T h e
qu e s tion
h as
poin i
an d I am
goin g to
h in ge
th e s e brie f
in trod u c tory
re marks on
me th od ol ogy
on a d is tin c tion be -
twe e n wh at I s h al l c al l th e me th od of
c omparis on
an d th e me th od of
h y poth e s is .
Wh e n we f irs t
be gan d is c u s s in g
th e s e
qu e s tion s
of
c omparative pol itic s
qu ite
s ome
y e ars ago,
we tal ke d a
good
d e al abou t wh at we c al l e d "th e
l ogic
of
c omparis on ."
In
try in g
to
imagin e
wh at
proc e d u re
th is
l ogic in vol ve d ,
we wou l d th in k of an
in te re s tin g ph e n ome n on
s u c h as
two-party s y s te ms
an d th e n
try
towork ou t an
ord e rl y proc e d u re
f or
d e te rmin in g
th e
n e c e s s ary
an d s u f f ic ie n t c on d ition s f or its e xis te n c e .
Fran kl y ,
in ou r
proje c tion s of
wh at we
th ou gh t
th is me th od
migh t ac h ie ve , th e
pros pe c ts
we re s ome h ow
n ot
n e arl y
s o
brigh t
as we f e l t
th e y ou gh t
to be . Was n ot
c omparis on
th e
s oc ial s c ie n tis t's
e qu ival e n t
of th e n atu ral s c ie n tis t's
l aboratory ?
It was
on l y
wh e n we ad d e d to ou r
ope ration s
th e me th od of
h y poth e s is
th at th e
pros pe c ts be gan
to
brigh te n .
We move d ou r s tre s s f romin d u c tion
to d e d u c tion . We
approac h e d c omparis on th rou gh th e ory
rath e r th an
ap-
proac h in g th e ory th rou gh c omparis on .
From
th e ory -f rom Aris totl e or
Hobbe s , f romM arx or We be r-we d re w ou t
h y poth e s e s
abou t
importan t
an d
in te re s tin g
e ve n ts an d th e n
s ou gh t
to te s t th e min
partic u l arc on te xts .
In th is
way in te re s tin g qu e s tion s
abou t
pol itic al d e ve l opme n t
an d abou t
s u c h
th in gs
as th e rol e of e l ite s , c l as s e s , an d in te l l e c tu al in n ovation we re
in je c te d
in to
c omparative
an d h is toric al s tu d ie s .
Of c ou rs e , I amaware th at th e two me th od s are
c ompl e me n tary .
Wh e n
y ou
h ave te s te d a
h y poth e s is
in on e
partic u l ar
c on te xt
y ou
wil l
probabl y go
on to te s t it in an oth e r. If
y ou
h ave f ou n d th e
h y poth e s ize d c orre l ation
y ou
wil l wan t a c on trol to as s u re
y ou
th at th e c on n e c tion is re al , n ot ac c id e n tal .
M ore ove r, as
y ou
move on f romc as e to c as e it is
l ike l y
an d d e s irabl e th at
y ou r
in itial
h y poth e s e s
orh u n c h e s wil l be
d e ve l ope d
an d re vis e d .
Ne ve rth e l e s s , th e d if f e re n c e in
e mph as is
c an me an ad if f e re n c e in re s e arc h
s trate gy .
It is
pe rh aps main l y
a d if f e re n c e in wh at
y ou
f oc u s on at th e s tart:
th e ory
or f ac t. T h e f orme r-th e me th od of
h y poth e s is -is ,
I
th in k, partic -
u l arl y appropriate
f or th e
s tu d y
of in d ivid u al
s y s te ms . S e n s itize d in c ou n t-
l e s s
way s by y ou rkn owl e d ge
of
th e ory , y ou
e xamin e s ome
s y s te m
or
as pe c t
of a
s y s te m,
d raw ou t
h y poth e s e s
th at s e e m
re l e van t, an d te s t th e m
again s t
th e f ac ts .
Lookin g
bac k, it s e e ms tome th at th is me th od re f l e c ts th e
way
I
proc e e d e d
wh e n I mad e a
s tu d y
of B ritis h
partie s
an d
pre s s u re grou ps s e ve ral
y e ars
ago.1
At
pre s e n t
I am
e n gage d
in
brin gin g
th is
s tu d y u p
to d ate . In th is artic l e
1
B ritis h P ol itic s in th e Col l e c tivis t Age (Ne w York, 1965).
19
T h e
Comparative
M e th od
an d th e
S tu d y
of B ritis h P ol itic s
S amu e l H. B e e r
I
M y
titl e
s u gge s ts parad ox.
How c an
y ou
make
c omparis on s
wh e n
y ou are
d e al in g
with
on l y
on e
s y s te m?
T h e
qu e s tion
h as
poin i
an d I am
goin g to
h in ge
th e s e brie f
in trod u c tory
re marks on
me th od ol ogy
on a d is tin c tion be -
twe e n wh at I s h al l c al l th e me th od of
c omparis on
an d th e me th od of
h y poth e s is .
Wh e n we f irs t
be gan d is c u s s in g
th e s e
qu e s tion s
of
c omparative pol itic s
qu ite
s ome
y e ars ago,
we tal ke d a
good
d e al abou t wh at we c al l e d "th e
l ogic
of
c omparis on ."
In
try in g
to
imagin e
wh at
proc e d u re
th is
l ogic in vol ve d ,
we wou l d th in k of an
in te re s tin g ph e n ome n on
s u c h as
two-party s y s te ms
an d th e n
try
towork ou t an
ord e rl y proc e d u re
f or
d e te rmin in g
th e
n e c e s s ary
an d s u f f ic ie n t c on d ition s f or its e xis te n c e .
Fran kl y ,
in ou r
proje c tion s of
wh at we
th ou gh t
th is me th od
migh t ac h ie ve , th e
pros pe c ts
we re s ome h ow
n ot
n e arl y
s o
brigh t
as we f e l t
th e y ou gh t
to be . Was n ot
c omparis on
th e
s oc ial s c ie n tis t's
e qu ival e n t
of th e n atu ral s c ie n tis t's
l aboratory ?
It was
on l y
wh e n we ad d e d to ou r
ope ration s
th e me th od of
h y poth e s is
th at th e
pros pe c ts be gan
to
brigh te n .
We move d ou r s tre s s f romin d u c tion
to d e d u c tion . We
approac h e d c omparis on th rou gh th e ory
rath e r th an
ap-
proac h in g th e ory th rou gh c omparis on .
From
th e ory -f rom Aris totl e or
Hobbe s , f romM arx or We be r-we d re w ou t
h y poth e s e s
abou t
importan t
an d
in te re s tin g
e ve n ts an d th e n
s ou gh t
to te s t th e min
partic u l arc on te xts .
In th is
way in te re s tin g qu e s tion s
abou t
pol itic al d e ve l opme n t
an d abou t
s u c h
th in gs
as th e rol e of e l ite s , c l as s e s , an d in te l l e c tu al in n ovation we re
in je c te d
in to
c omparative
an d h is toric al s tu d ie s .
Of c ou rs e , I amaware th at th e two me th od s are
c ompl e me n tary .
Wh e n
y ou
h ave te s te d a
h y poth e s is
in on e
partic u l ar
c on te xt
y ou
wil l
probabl y go
on to te s t it in an oth e r. If
y ou
h ave f ou n d th e
h y poth e s ize d c orre l ation
y ou
wil l wan t a c on trol to as s u re
y ou
th at th e c on n e c tion is re al , n ot ac c id e n tal .
M ore ove r, as
y ou
move on f romc as e to c as e it is
l ike l y
an d d e s irabl e th at
y ou r
in itial
h y poth e s e s
orh u n c h e s wil l be
d e ve l ope d
an d re vis e d .
Ne ve rth e l e s s , th e d if f e re n c e in
e mph as is
c an me an ad if f e re n c e in re s e arc h
s trate gy .
It is
pe rh aps main l y
a d if f e re n c e in wh at
y ou
f oc u s on at th e s tart:
th e ory
or f ac t. T h e f orme r-th e me th od of
h y poth e s is -is ,
I
th in k, partic -
u l arl y appropriate
f or th e
s tu d y
of in d ivid u al
s y s te ms . S e n s itize d in c ou n t-
l e s s
way s by y ou rkn owl e d ge
of
th e ory , y ou
e xamin e s ome
s y s te m
or
as pe c t
of a
s y s te m,
d raw ou t
h y poth e s e s
th at s e e m
re l e van t, an d te s t th e m
again s t
th e f ac ts .
Lookin g
bac k, it s e e ms tome th at th is me th od re f l e c ts th e
way
I
proc e e d e d
wh e n I mad e a
s tu d y
of B ritis h
partie s
an d
pre s s u re grou ps s e ve ral
y e ars
ago.1
At
pre s e n t
I am
e n gage d
in
brin gin g
th is
s tu d y u p
to d ate . In th is artic l e
1
B ritis h P ol itic s in th e Col l e c tivis t Age (Ne w York, 1965).
19
Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968
Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968
I s h al l
give
an ac c ou n t of
my progre s s
in th e
h ope
th at it wil l il l u s trate th is
me th od . Firs t I wis h to
brin g
ou t th e th e ore tic al
bac kgrou n d ,
with s tre s s on
c e rtain
as pe c ts
of mod e rn ization
th e ory .
Ne xt I s h al l tu rn to re c e n t
c h an ge s ,
f oc u s in g
on
qu e s tion s
rais e d
by th e ory .
A
c on c l u d in g
s e c tion wil l be c on -
c e rn e d with
pos s ibl e
f u tu re
d e ve l opme n ts .
II
M y
imme d iate c on c e rn h as be e n to
pl ac e
B ritis h
pol itic s
in th e c on te xt of
th e
"organ ization al
re vol u tion ."2
B y
th is I me an th e ris e of th e
l arge -s c al e ,
f ormal
organ ization
to a
pos ition
of d omin an c e in mos t
s ph e re s
of We s te rn
s oc ie ty d u rin g
re c e n t
ge n e ration s .
T h e
l e ad in g e xampl e
is th e
gre at
bu s in e s s
c orporation .
B u t as We be r
poin te d
ou t in h is d is c u s s ion of "u n ive rs al
bu re au c ratization ," we s e e s imil ar f orms in
gove rn me n t, e d u c ation , an d
pol itic s .
In th is tas k of
d e s c ription
an d
e xpl an ation ,
I h ave be e n
h e l pe d by
or-
gan ization th e ory , e s pe c ial l y
th os e id e as
d e ve l ope d
in th e
s tu d y
of e c on omic
c on c e n tration . At th e s ame time , I h ave be e n c on c e rn e d with th e f u rth e r
e l aboration of th e s e id e as , u s in g
th e B ritis h mate rial s to
ge t
s ome
l igh t
on
wh y
s u c h
organ ization s
aris e in th e f ie l d of
partie s
an d
pre s s u re grou ps ,
wh at e f f e c t th e irs ize h as
u pon
th e irin te rn al s tru c tu re an d e xte rn al re l ation s ,
an d , f in al l y , wh at th e ir te n d e n c ie s of f u tu re d e ve l opme n t may be . T o pu t
th e matte r brie f l y an d ambitiou s l y , my c on c e rn h as be e n to work ou t th e
"l aws " of pol itic al c on c e n tration . T h u s , n ot on l y is th e ory brou gh t to th e
s tu d y of f ac t, bu t al s o, I h ope , s u c h s tu d y is s o c on d u c te d as to e n h an c e
th e ory .
Wh il e my e mph as is is on re c e n t d e c ad e s , th e s e are e xamin e d again s t a
bac kgrou n d of B ritis h pol itic al d e ve l opme n t goin g bac k to th e s ixte e n th
c e n tu ry . T h e mos t re c e n t ph as e , wh ic h I c al l Col l e c tivis t, is c on s id e re d as
f ol l owin g e arl ie rph as e s , Rad ic al , Libe ral , Ol d Wh ig, an d Ol d T ory . T h e s e
te rms , I h ave s aid , "c h arac te rize th e main s tage s in wh at on e may c al l th e
mod e rn ization of B ritis h pol itic s ."3 M y l arge rc on c e rn th e re f ore is al s o with
th e f orc e s th at h ave impe l l e d d e ve l opme n t ove r a broad s we e p of B ritis h
h is tory . T h is is n ot th e pl ac e to e l aborate ath e ory of mod e rn ization . A f e w
broad ou tl in e s , h owe ve r, may be s ke tc h e d in ord e rto s h ow h ow, with re -
gard to c e rtain major f orc e s an d tre n d s , c on te mporary B ritis h pol itic s is
c on tin u ou s with pre c e d in g ph as e s .
T h is te rm "mod e rn ization " is a qu e s tion rath e r th an an an s we r. T h e
qu e s tion is wh e th e r on e c an f in d in We s te rn s oc ie ty of re c e n t c e n tu rie s an d
in th e proc e s s by wh ic h it aros e a ty pe or mod e l th at is u s e f u l f or ge n e ral
c omparative s tu d y an d an al y s is . Fol l owin g We be r, I s h ou l d s ay th at th e
ke y c on c e pt is ration al ization .4 B y a proc e s s of ration al ization I me an th e
growth of s c ie n tif ic kn owl e d ge in th e broad e s t s e n s e an d th e impac t of th is
2 Ke n n e th B ou l d in g, T h e Organ ization al Re vol u tion (Ne w York, 1953).
3 B ritis h P ol itic s in th e Col l e c tivis t Age , p. x.
4 S e e al s o T al c ott P ars on s , T h e S oc ial S y s te m (Gl e n c oe , 1951), on "in s titu tion al ize d
ration al ization an d 'c u l tu ral l ag,'" pp. 505-520; an d P ars on s , "Ce rtain P rimary S ou rc e s
an d P atte rn s of Aggre s s ion in th e S oc ial S tru c tu re of th e We s te rn Worl d ," Es s ay s in
S oc iol ogic al T h e ory , P u re an d Appl ie d (Gl e n c oe , 1949).
I s h al l
give
an ac c ou n t of
my progre s s
in th e
h ope
th at it wil l il l u s trate th is
me th od . Firs t I wis h to
brin g
ou t th e th e ore tic al
bac kgrou n d ,
with s tre s s on
c e rtain
as pe c ts
of mod e rn ization
th e ory .
Ne xt I s h al l tu rn to re c e n t
c h an ge s ,
f oc u s in g
on
qu e s tion s
rais e d
by th e ory .
A
c on c l u d in g
s e c tion wil l be c on -
c e rn e d with
pos s ibl e
f u tu re
d e ve l opme n ts .
II
M y
imme d iate c on c e rn h as be e n to
pl ac e
B ritis h
pol itic s
in th e c on te xt of
th e
"organ ization al
re vol u tion ."2
B y
th is I me an th e ris e of th e
l arge -s c al e ,
f ormal
organ ization
to a
pos ition
of d omin an c e in mos t
s ph e re s
of We s te rn
s oc ie ty d u rin g
re c e n t
ge n e ration s .
T h e
l e ad in g e xampl e
is th e
gre at
bu s in e s s
c orporation .
B u t as We be r
poin te d
ou t in h is d is c u s s ion of "u n ive rs al
bu re au c ratization ," we s e e s imil ar f orms in
gove rn me n t, e d u c ation , an d
pol itic s .
In th is tas k of
d e s c ription
an d
e xpl an ation ,
I h ave be e n
h e l pe d by
or-
gan ization th e ory , e s pe c ial l y
th os e id e as
d e ve l ope d
in th e
s tu d y
of e c on omic
c on c e n tration . At th e s ame time , I h ave be e n c on c e rn e d with th e f u rth e r
e l aboration of th e s e id e as , u s in g
th e B ritis h mate rial s to
ge t
s ome
l igh t
on
wh y
s u c h
organ ization s
aris e in th e f ie l d of
partie s
an d
pre s s u re grou ps ,
wh at e f f e c t th e irs ize h as
u pon
th e irin te rn al s tru c tu re an d e xte rn al re l ation s ,
an d , f in al l y , wh at th e ir te n d e n c ie s of f u tu re d e ve l opme n t may be . T o pu t
th e matte r brie f l y an d ambitiou s l y , my c on c e rn h as be e n to work ou t th e
"l aws " of pol itic al c on c e n tration . T h u s , n ot on l y is th e ory brou gh t to th e
s tu d y of f ac t, bu t al s o, I h ope , s u c h s tu d y is s o c on d u c te d as to e n h an c e
th e ory .
Wh il e my e mph as is is on re c e n t d e c ad e s , th e s e are e xamin e d again s t a
bac kgrou n d of B ritis h pol itic al d e ve l opme n t goin g bac k to th e s ixte e n th
c e n tu ry . T h e mos t re c e n t ph as e , wh ic h I c al l Col l e c tivis t, is c on s id e re d as
f ol l owin g e arl ie rph as e s , Rad ic al , Libe ral , Ol d Wh ig, an d Ol d T ory . T h e s e
te rms , I h ave s aid , "c h arac te rize th e main s tage s in wh at on e may c al l th e
mod e rn ization of B ritis h pol itic s ."3 M y l arge rc on c e rn th e re f ore is al s o with
th e f orc e s th at h ave impe l l e d d e ve l opme n t ove r a broad s we e p of B ritis h
h is tory . T h is is n ot th e pl ac e to e l aborate ath e ory of mod e rn ization . A f e w
broad ou tl in e s , h owe ve r, may be s ke tc h e d in ord e rto s h ow h ow, with re -
gard to c e rtain major f orc e s an d tre n d s , c on te mporary B ritis h pol itic s is
c on tin u ou s with pre c e d in g ph as e s .
T h is te rm "mod e rn ization " is a qu e s tion rath e r th an an an s we r. T h e
qu e s tion is wh e th e r on e c an f in d in We s te rn s oc ie ty of re c e n t c e n tu rie s an d
in th e proc e s s by wh ic h it aros e a ty pe or mod e l th at is u s e f u l f or ge n e ral
c omparative s tu d y an d an al y s is . Fol l owin g We be r, I s h ou l d s ay th at th e
ke y c on c e pt is ration al ization .4 B y a proc e s s of ration al ization I me an th e
growth of s c ie n tif ic kn owl e d ge in th e broad e s t s e n s e an d th e impac t of th is
2 Ke n n e th B ou l d in g, T h e Organ ization al Re vol u tion (Ne w York, 1953).
3 B ritis h P ol itic s in th e Col l e c tivis t Age , p. x.
4 S e e al s o T al c ott P ars on s , T h e S oc ial S y s te m (Gl e n c oe , 1951), on "in s titu tion al ize d
ration al ization an d 'c u l tu ral l ag,'" pp. 505-520; an d P ars on s , "Ce rtain P rimary S ou rc e s
an d P atte rn s of Aggre s s ion in th e S oc ial S tru c tu re of th e We s te rn Worl d ," Es s ay s in
S oc iol ogic al T h e ory , P u re an d Appl ie d (Gl e n c oe , 1949).
20 20
S amu e l H. B e e r S amu e l H. B e e r
kn owl e d ge u pon
c u l tu re an d s oc ial s tru c tu re .
Kn owl e d ge
h as e xte n d e d
h u man c on trol an d e n h an c e d th e s e n s e of h u man
c ompe te n c e
e ve r s in c e
pre h is toric
man mad e h is f irs t tool s an d e s tabl is h e d h is f irs t l aws .
M od e rn ity ,
h owe ve r, was
prod u c e d
an d c h arac te rize d
by
a
partic u l ar
kin d of kn owl -
e d ge , viz., kn owl e d ge
th at was at on c e
e mpiric al l y
f ou n d e d an d
s y s te mati-
c al l y
ord e re d . We
may
c al l it s c ie n tif ic
on l y
if th e te rmis u n d e rs tood
broad l y
e n ou gh
to in c l u d e th e
protos c ie n c e
an d
d e ve l opin g
f ol k
te c h n ol ogy
th at l e d
to s ome of th e e arl ie r
prod u c ts
of
mod e rn ity ,
s u c h as th e f irs t in ve n tion s of
th e In d u s trial Re vol u tion . For th e
pu rpos e s
of th is
pre s e n t s tu d y
we
e s pe -
c ial l y
n e e d to
d is tin gu is h
th e
h igh l y d e ve l ope d s c ie n c e , both n atu ral an d
s oc ial , of re c e n t d e c ad e s wh ic h is
prod u c in g
th e "s c ie n tif ic re vol u tion " an d
wh ic h h as
vas tl y
e n h an c e d th e
impac t
of ration al ization
u pon
both
s oc ie ty
in
ge n e ral
an d th e
pol ity
in
partic u l ar.
It is in th is n e w
ph as e
of th e mod -
e rn izin g proc e s s
th at we f in d s ome of th e
prin c ipal
f orc e s
te n d in g
to tran s -
f orm B ritis h
pol itic s
of th e Col l e c tivis t
age .
Ration al ization h as be e n a
prin c ipal
f orc e
prod u c in g d ire c tl y
an d in d i-
re c tl y
s ome of th e main f e atu re s of mod e rn
s oc ie ty ,
s u c h as in d u s trial ization
an d bu re au c ratization . Ye t we mu s t n ot
try
to make it
e xpl ain
too mu c h .
T h e re are
importan t
traits of th e mod e rn
pol ity
wh ic h d e rive f rom oth e r
s ou rc e s . With
re gard
to attitu d e s an d val u e s , on e of th e mos t
importan t
is
wh at may be c al l e d "vol u n taris m." B y th is I me an th e vie w th at h u man
wis h e s are th e bas is of l e gitimac y in c on s titu tion al s tru c tu re an d in pu bl ic
pol ic y . T h e prin c ipal c on tras t is with th e pre mod e rn vie ws of c l as s ic al an d
me d ie val pol itic al c u l tu re th at th e bas is of l e gitimac y is to be f ou n d in
s ome s ou rc e ou ts id e th e h u man wil l , s u c h as d ivin e c omman d or a te l e o-
l ogic al ord e r.
Ration al is m, as th e n otion th at me n h ave th e abil ity s c ie n tif ic al l y to c on -
trol n atu re an d s oc ie ty , d oe s n ot l ogic al l y e n tail vol u n taris m, th e n otion
th at me n ou gh t to d e s ign th e ir e n viron me n t, n atu ral an d s oc ial , to s u it th e ir
own pu rpos e s an d wis h e s . Ye t in th e ris e of pol itic al mod e rn ity th e two are
c l os e l y as s oc iate d . For in s tan c e , th e mod e rn c on c e ption of l aw-makin g in -
vol ve s both . It in c l u d e s th e n otion th at me n c an u s e th e ir e mpiric al l y d e -
rive d kn owl e d ge to c on trol e ve n ts in ord e r, s ay , to promote th e in c re as e in
th e we al th of th e n ation by th e appropriate e c on omic pol ic y . It al s o e x-
pre s s e s th e attitu d e th at wh at me n wan t-wh e th e r, f or in s tan c e , it is th e
gre ate r n ation al powe r of me rc an til is t th e ory or th e c on s u me rs ' s atis f ac tion
of S mith ian e c on omic s -s h ou l d be th e bas is of pu bl ic pol ic y .
T h e importan c e of th is as s oc iation is th at th e ris e of vol u n taris m h as
give n a wid e s c ope to th e proc e s s an d prod u c ts of ration al ization . T h e ap-
pl ic ation of s c ie n c e an d te c h n ol ogy to e c on omic , s oc ial , an d pol itic al prob-
l e ms gre atl y al te rs th e mod e of l if e in th e s e s ph e re s , of te n re qu irin g f ar-
re ac h in g ad aptation of n orms an d val u e s . If pre mod e rn attitu d e s pre vail e d ,
th e re s u l tin g c on f l ic t be twe e n a rigid e th ic al d is c ipl in e an d th e re qu ire me n ts
of a d e ve l opin g s oc ie ty wou l d l e ad to s e ve re s train an d c on f l ic t. In d e e d ,
be c au s e s u c h attitu d e s h ave in man y re s pe c ts s u rvive d , We s te rn mod e rn i-
zation h as f re qu e n tl y be e n marke d by a s pe c ial kin d of c on f l ic t to wh ic h
P ars on s h as give n th e n ame "f u n d ame n tal is t re ac tion ."5 In B ritain th e s e
kn owl e d ge u pon
c u l tu re an d s oc ial s tru c tu re .
Kn owl e d ge
h as e xte n d e d
h u man c on trol an d e n h an c e d th e s e n s e of h u man
c ompe te n c e
e ve r s in c e
pre h is toric
man mad e h is f irs t tool s an d e s tabl is h e d h is f irs t l aws .
M od e rn ity ,
h owe ve r, was
prod u c e d
an d c h arac te rize d
by
a
partic u l ar
kin d of kn owl -
e d ge , viz., kn owl e d ge
th at was at on c e
e mpiric al l y
f ou n d e d an d
s y s te mati-
c al l y
ord e re d . We
may
c al l it s c ie n tif ic
on l y
if th e te rmis u n d e rs tood
broad l y
e n ou gh
to in c l u d e th e
protos c ie n c e
an d
d e ve l opin g
f ol k
te c h n ol ogy
th at l e d
to s ome of th e e arl ie r
prod u c ts
of
mod e rn ity ,
s u c h as th e f irs t in ve n tion s of
th e In d u s trial Re vol u tion . For th e
pu rpos e s
of th is
pre s e n t s tu d y
we
e s pe -
c ial l y
n e e d to
d is tin gu is h
th e
h igh l y d e ve l ope d s c ie n c e , both n atu ral an d
s oc ial , of re c e n t d e c ad e s wh ic h is
prod u c in g
th e "s c ie n tif ic re vol u tion " an d
wh ic h h as
vas tl y
e n h an c e d th e
impac t
of ration al ization
u pon
both
s oc ie ty
in
ge n e ral
an d th e
pol ity
in
partic u l ar.
It is in th is n e w
ph as e
of th e mod -
e rn izin g proc e s s
th at we f in d s ome of th e
prin c ipal
f orc e s
te n d in g
to tran s -
f orm B ritis h
pol itic s
of th e Col l e c tivis t
age .
Ration al ization h as be e n a
prin c ipal
f orc e
prod u c in g d ire c tl y
an d in d i-
re c tl y
s ome of th e main f e atu re s of mod e rn
s oc ie ty ,
s u c h as in d u s trial ization
an d bu re au c ratization . Ye t we mu s t n ot
try
to make it
e xpl ain
too mu c h .
T h e re are
importan t
traits of th e mod e rn
pol ity
wh ic h d e rive f rom oth e r
s ou rc e s . With
re gard
to attitu d e s an d val u e s , on e of th e mos t
importan t
is
wh at may be c al l e d "vol u n taris m." B y th is I me an th e vie w th at h u man
wis h e s are th e bas is of l e gitimac y in c on s titu tion al s tru c tu re an d in pu bl ic
pol ic y . T h e prin c ipal c on tras t is with th e pre mod e rn vie ws of c l as s ic al an d
me d ie val pol itic al c u l tu re th at th e bas is of l e gitimac y is to be f ou n d in
s ome s ou rc e ou ts id e th e h u man wil l , s u c h as d ivin e c omman d or a te l e o-
l ogic al ord e r.
Ration al is m, as th e n otion th at me n h ave th e abil ity s c ie n tif ic al l y to c on -
trol n atu re an d s oc ie ty , d oe s n ot l ogic al l y e n tail vol u n taris m, th e n otion
th at me n ou gh t to d e s ign th e ir e n viron me n t, n atu ral an d s oc ial , to s u it th e ir
own pu rpos e s an d wis h e s . Ye t in th e ris e of pol itic al mod e rn ity th e two are
c l os e l y as s oc iate d . For in s tan c e , th e mod e rn c on c e ption of l aw-makin g in -
vol ve s both . It in c l u d e s th e n otion th at me n c an u s e th e ir e mpiric al l y d e -
rive d kn owl e d ge to c on trol e ve n ts in ord e r, s ay , to promote th e in c re as e in
th e we al th of th e n ation by th e appropriate e c on omic pol ic y . It al s o e x-
pre s s e s th e attitu d e th at wh at me n wan t-wh e th e r, f or in s tan c e , it is th e
gre ate r n ation al powe r of me rc an til is t th e ory or th e c on s u me rs ' s atis f ac tion
of S mith ian e c on omic s -s h ou l d be th e bas is of pu bl ic pol ic y .
T h e importan c e of th is as s oc iation is th at th e ris e of vol u n taris m h as
give n a wid e s c ope to th e proc e s s an d prod u c ts of ration al ization . T h e ap-
pl ic ation of s c ie n c e an d te c h n ol ogy to e c on omic , s oc ial , an d pol itic al prob-
l e ms gre atl y al te rs th e mod e of l if e in th e s e s ph e re s , of te n re qu irin g f ar-
re ac h in g ad aptation of n orms an d val u e s . If pre mod e rn attitu d e s pre vail e d ,
th e re s u l tin g c on f l ic t be twe e n a rigid e th ic al d is c ipl in e an d th e re qu ire me n ts
of a d e ve l opin g s oc ie ty wou l d l e ad to s e ve re s train an d c on f l ic t. In d e e d ,
be c au s e s u c h attitu d e s h ave in man y re s pe c ts s u rvive d , We s te rn mod e rn i-
zation h as f re qu e n tl y be e n marke d by a s pe c ial kin d of c on f l ic t to wh ic h
P ars on s h as give n th e n ame "f u n d ame n tal is t re ac tion ."5 In B ritain th e s e
5
P ars on s , "C rtain P rimary S ou rc e s ." 5
P ars on s , "C rtain P rimary S ou rc e s ."
21 21
Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968 Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968
c on f l ic ts h ave
u s u al l y
be e n mil d e rth an in mos t oth e rc ou n trie s of th e We s t.
Ye t
th e y
h ave oc c u rre d , an d e ve n
tod ay
in s ome
s ph e re s
of B ritis h
pol itic al
d e ve l opme n t
on e c an d is c e rn th is
ty pic al
s train of mod e rn ization . A
prin c i-
pal
in s tan c e wou l d be th e te n ac iou s as s e rtion of c l as s id e n titie s
by
me mbe rs
of both
u ppe r
an d l owe r s trata.
III
Vol u n taris ml e ave s
ope n man y qu e s tion s ,
n ot th e l e as t of wh ic h is , Wh os e
wis h e s are to
gove rn ?
An e l itis t ve rs ion c ou l d be c on c e ive d wh ic h
pu t
s o
h igh
aval u e on th e wis h e s of af e w th at th e
man y
wou l d be
wh ol l y
e xc l u d e d f rom
powe r.
Fas c is mwou l d f it th is
patte rn .
Ye t in c on tras t with c l as s ic al an d
me d ie val n otion s , th e re d oe s s e e mto be in vol u n taris man
ope n n e s s ,
if n ot
a
te n d e n c y ,
toward
d e moc rac y .
Wh il e it is
f airl y
obviou s th at
kn owl e d ge
of
th e
good ,
on wh ic h
pre mod e rn c on c e ption s
bas e d
au th ority ,
is
u n e qu al l y
d is tribu te d
th rou gh ou t s oc ie ty ,
it is h ard to
d e n y
th at
e ve ry
man at l e as t
kn ows wh at h e wan ts .
An oth e r
te n d e n c y
toward
d e moc rac y ,
or at
an y
rate toward th at
partic i-
pation
of wh ic h
d e moc rac y
is on e
varie ty ,
is more
in te re s tin g
an d
probabl y
more
importan t.
It aris e s f roms itu ation al rath e r th an id e al f orc e s .
Ve ry
broad l y , th e propos ition is th at th e patte rn of pu bl ic pol ic y its e l f s ome time s
re qu ire s
th at c e rtain grou ps be give n powe r. Wh e n we s tu d y th e ris e of
d e moc rac y we c ommon l y c on c e n trate on th e s tru ggl e of e xc l u d e d grou ps
f or ac c e s s to in f l u e n c e an d au th ority . On e of th e in te re s tin g probl e ms of
mod e rn ization s tu d ie s is h ow e xc l u d e d grou ps ac qu ire an d u s e th e n on -
pol itic al powe r n e c e s s ary to wage s u c c e s s f u l l y th is s tru ggl e f or e n try . Ye t
we s h ou l d al s o re c ogn ize th at a grou p's c h an c e s f or s u c c e s s may be gre atl y
e n h an c e d
by th e pol ity 's n e e d f or th e ir partic ipation . It h as , f or in s tan c e ,
be e n
c oge n tl y argu e d th at th e Re f ormAc t of 1867 was n e c e s s ary in ord e rto
win th e c on s e n t an d c oope ration of th e s kil l e d workin g c l as s f or th e n e w
patte rn
of
gove rn me n t in te rve n tion th at was be in g in au gu rate d .6 Nor is th e
pos s ibil ity
c on f in e d tomod e rn time s : th e origin s of me d ie val re pre s e n tation
h ave be e n in te rpre te d as "s e l f -gove rn me n t at th e Kin g's c omman d ."7
A
majorin s tan c e , h owe ve r, is provid e d by th e n e w s y s te mof f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation
th at h as aris e n in B ritain in th e Col l e c tivis t pe riod . T h e we l -
f are s tate an d
e s pe c ial l y th e man age d e c on omy of re c e n t d e c ad e s s impl y
c ou l d n ot
ope rate
with ou t th e ad vic e an d c oope ration of th e gre at organ ize d
prod u c e rs ' grou ps of bu s in e s s , l abor, an d agric u l tu re , an d th e h is tory of
th e s e
grou ps provid e s man y in s tan c e s s h owin g th e powe rf u l in f l u e n c e of
gove rn me n t
in
c al l in g th e min to e xis te n c e , s h apin g th e ir goal s , an d e n d ow-
in g
th e mwith e f f e c tive powe r.8 At th e pre s e n t time th e bu rd e n s an d c om-
pl e xitie s of th e we l f are s tate an d man age d e c on omy s imil arl y re qu ire a s til l
gre ate rmobil ization of c on s e n t.
I d on ot by an y me an s in te n d to s ay th at e ve ry s u c h n e e d of pu bl ic pol ic y
wil l be me t by a c orre s pon d in g an d appropriate in c orporation of th e re l e -
van t
grou pin to th e e f f e c tive pol ity . An au th oritarian s y s te mmay me e t th e
6
B y
P rof . H. L. B e al e s of th e Un ive rs ity of Lon d on in private c on ve rs ation .
7
Al be rt B .
Wh ite , S e l f -Gove rn me n t
at th e Kin g's Comman d : A S tu d y in th e B e gin -
n in gs of En gl is h De moc rac y (Lon d on , 1933).
8
B ritis h P ol itic s in th e Col l e c tivis t
Age , e s p.
Ch . 12.
c on f l ic ts h ave
u s u al l y
be e n mil d e rth an in mos t oth e rc ou n trie s of th e We s t.
Ye t
th e y
h ave oc c u rre d , an d e ve n
tod ay
in s ome
s ph e re s
of B ritis h
pol itic al
d e ve l opme n t
on e c an d is c e rn th is
ty pic al
s train of mod e rn ization . A
prin c i-
pal
in s tan c e wou l d be th e te n ac iou s as s e rtion of c l as s id e n titie s
by
me mbe rs
of both
u ppe r
an d l owe r s trata.
III
Vol u n taris ml e ave s
ope n man y qu e s tion s ,
n ot th e l e as t of wh ic h is , Wh os e
wis h e s are to
gove rn ?
An e l itis t ve rs ion c ou l d be c on c e ive d wh ic h
pu t
s o
h igh
aval u e on th e wis h e s of af e w th at th e
man y
wou l d be
wh ol l y
e xc l u d e d f rom
powe r.
Fas c is mwou l d f it th is
patte rn .
Ye t in c on tras t with c l as s ic al an d
me d ie val n otion s , th e re d oe s s e e mto be in vol u n taris man
ope n n e s s ,
if n ot
a
te n d e n c y ,
toward
d e moc rac y .
Wh il e it is
f airl y
obviou s th at
kn owl e d ge
of
th e
good ,
on wh ic h
pre mod e rn c on c e ption s
bas e d
au th ority ,
is
u n e qu al l y
d is tribu te d
th rou gh ou t s oc ie ty ,
it is h ard to
d e n y
th at
e ve ry
man at l e as t
kn ows wh at h e wan ts .
An oth e r
te n d e n c y
toward
d e moc rac y ,
or at
an y
rate toward th at
partic i-
pation
of wh ic h
d e moc rac y
is on e
varie ty ,
is more
in te re s tin g
an d
probabl y
more
importan t.
It aris e s f roms itu ation al rath e r th an id e al f orc e s .
Ve ry
broad l y , th e propos ition is th at th e patte rn of pu bl ic pol ic y its e l f s ome time s
re qu ire s
th at c e rtain grou ps be give n powe r. Wh e n we s tu d y th e ris e of
d e moc rac y we c ommon l y c on c e n trate on th e s tru ggl e of e xc l u d e d grou ps
f or ac c e s s to in f l u e n c e an d au th ority . On e of th e in te re s tin g probl e ms of
mod e rn ization s tu d ie s is h ow e xc l u d e d grou ps ac qu ire an d u s e th e n on -
pol itic al powe r n e c e s s ary to wage s u c c e s s f u l l y th is s tru ggl e f or e n try . Ye t
we s h ou l d al s o re c ogn ize th at a grou p's c h an c e s f or s u c c e s s may be gre atl y
e n h an c e d
by th e pol ity 's n e e d f or th e ir partic ipation . It h as , f or in s tan c e ,
be e n
c oge n tl y argu e d th at th e Re f ormAc t of 1867 was n e c e s s ary in ord e rto
win th e c on s e n t an d c oope ration of th e s kil l e d workin g c l as s f or th e n e w
patte rn
of
gove rn me n t in te rve n tion th at was be in g in au gu rate d .6 Nor is th e
pos s ibil ity
c on f in e d tomod e rn time s : th e origin s of me d ie val re pre s e n tation
h ave be e n in te rpre te d as "s e l f -gove rn me n t at th e Kin g's c omman d ."7
A
majorin s tan c e , h owe ve r, is provid e d by th e n e w s y s te mof f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation
th at h as aris e n in B ritain in th e Col l e c tivis t pe riod . T h e we l -
f are s tate an d
e s pe c ial l y th e man age d e c on omy of re c e n t d e c ad e s s impl y
c ou l d n ot
ope rate
with ou t th e ad vic e an d c oope ration of th e gre at organ ize d
prod u c e rs ' grou ps of bu s in e s s , l abor, an d agric u l tu re , an d th e h is tory of
th e s e
grou ps provid e s man y in s tan c e s s h owin g th e powe rf u l in f l u e n c e of
gove rn me n t
in
c al l in g th e min to e xis te n c e , s h apin g th e ir goal s , an d e n d ow-
in g
th e mwith e f f e c tive powe r.8 At th e pre s e n t time th e bu rd e n s an d c om-
pl e xitie s of th e we l f are s tate an d man age d e c on omy s imil arl y re qu ire a s til l
gre ate rmobil ization of c on s e n t.
I d on ot by an y me an s in te n d to s ay th at e ve ry s u c h n e e d of pu bl ic pol ic y
wil l be me t by a c orre s pon d in g an d appropriate in c orporation of th e re l e -
van t
grou pin to th e e f f e c tive pol ity . An au th oritarian s y s te mmay me e t th e
6
B y
P rof . H. L. B e al e s of th e Un ive rs ity of Lon d on in private c on ve rs ation .
7
Al be rt B .
Wh ite , S e l f -Gove rn me n t
at th e Kin g's Comman d : A S tu d y in th e B e gin -
n in gs of En gl is h De moc rac y (Lon d on , 1933).
8
B ritis h P ol itic s in th e Col l e c tivis t
Age , e s p.
Ch . 12.
22 22
S amu e l H. B e e r S amu e l H. B e e r
n e e d
by
amobil ization of c on s e n t th at in vol ve s l ittl e orn ore al ac c ommod a-
tion of th e s tru c tu re of
powe r. M ore ove r, an d more
ge n e ral l y ,
th e "n e e d s "
of
s y s te ms ,
as of in d ivid u al s , s impl y may go
u n f u l f il l e d . Ye t th e f ac t th at
s u c h s itu ation al
pre s s u re s
d o aris e th rows
l igh t on an importan tc on n e c tion
be twe e n ration al ization an d
partic ipation ,
two of th e
major
f e atu re s c om-
mon l y
as c ribe d to th e mod e rn
pol ity .
As a matte rof h is toric al f ac t, we d o f in d th at th e
d e ve l opme n t
of
pu bl ic
pol ic y
u n d e r th e in f l u e n c e of
growin g kn owl e d ge
h as be e n as s oc iate d with
th e e xte n s ion of
d e moc rac y ,
or its au th oritarian s u bs titu te . No d ou bt th e
f orc e s
promotin g
e ac h of th e s e
d e ve l opme n ts
are in
man y re s pe c ts in d e -
pe n d e n t
of on e an oth e r. Ye t th e re are
s tron g
tie s th at te n d to make th e m
d e ve l op toge th e r.
Ration al ization an d
partic ipation
c an in th e s h ort ru n
c ome in to c on f l ic t, as is s h own
by
th e f amil iar
probl e m
of
re c on c il in g
d e moc rac y
an d
pl an n in g.
Ye t as th e
an al y s is
of th is
probl e m
al s o s h ows , in
th e
l on g
ru n th e two
gotoge th e r.
T h e kin d of f l e xibl e an d
c on s tan tl y c h an g-
in g
c on trol
ty pic al l y
e xe rc is e d
by
mod e rn
pol itie s
c an n ot re s t on
rigid
n orms an d
u n th in kin g c u s tom, bu t mu s t e n l is t th e ac tive
re s pon s e
an d
u n d e rs tan d in g
of af f e c te d
grou ps . Ce rtain l y ,
in
c on s id e rin g
th e
pos s ibl e
f u tu re
d e ve l opme n ts
of a
pol itic al s y s te m,
as we s h al l d o at al ate r
poin t
of
th is artic l e , we s h ou l d l ook f or th os e
c h an ge s
in
pu bl ic pol ic y
th at
may
re -
qu ire
an
ad ju s tme n t
of th e s tru c tu re of
powe r
in f avor of re l e van t grou ps .
IV
Ration al is man d vol u n taris mc h arac te rize th e mod e rn s pirit an d ge n e ral l y
pe rvad e
attitu d e an d be h aviors o f aras a
s oc ie ty is mod e rn . In pol itic s , th e y
s u gge s t
abroad bu t d is tin c tive c l as s of
s y s te ms , d e f in in g th e bas ic orie n ta-
tion s th at
l e gitimize
an d in s titu tion al ize proc e s s e s of ration al ization an d
d e moc ratization .
Wh at d o th e s e c rite riate l l u s abou t th e f ive ty pe s of pol itic s th at I h ave
u s e d to
pe riod ize
B ritis h
pol itic al d e ve l opme n t? T h e pre mis e s of Ol d T ory
pol itic al
be h aviorwe re s til l
e s s e n tial l y me d ie val , re f l e c tin g th e an c ie n t f aith
of "th e Gre atCh ain of
B e in g." Ac tu al l y , u n d e r th e in f l u e n c e of a powe rf u l
mon arc h an d
n e wl y
c e n tral ize d
gove rn me n t, l aw-makin g was prac tic e d on
af arwid e r s c al e th an
be f ore , y e t was s til l re s tric te d in th e ory by th e n otion
of af ixe d an d
u n c h an gin g
ord e rof man an d n atu re an d in f ac t by c on s c iou s
imitation of ah ie rarc h ic an d
c orporatis tpas t. T h e mod e rn is mof n in e te e n th -
c e n tu ry pol itic s
s tan d s ou t in
s h arp c on tras t. Lais s e r-f aire its e l f e xpre s s e d
a
growin g s y s te matic kn owl e d ge of s oc ie ty an d was c on s c iou s l y ad opte d as
a
pu bl ic pol ic y
th at wou l d
promote e c on omic d e ve l opme n t. In pol itic al
th ou gh t,
th e s ou rc e of
l e gitimac y was n ow c on c e ive d as h u man wil l -f or
th e
Libe ral s ,
th e wil l of
ration al , in d e pe n d e n t me n ; f or th e Rad ic al s , th e wil l
of al l th e
pe opl e .
Ou r f oc u s on mod e rn ization make s th e Ol d Wh ig mod e l a f as c in atin g
e xampl e
of tran s ition al
pol itic s . Its bas ic orie n tation is mod e rn , f or al th ou gh
mu c h of th e Ol d
T ory id e al of h ie rarc h y an d c orporatis mis re tain e d , th e
pre mis e s
h ave s h if te d
rad ic al l y , pe rmittin g f ar gre ate r s c ope f or h u man
c on trivan c e an d
c h an gin g c irc u ms tan c e . In c id e n tal l y , th e s ign if ic an c e of
th is
pe riod
in B ritis h
d e ve l opme n t is s u gge s te d by a c omparative l ook at
n e e d
by
amobil ization of c on s e n t th at in vol ve s l ittl e orn ore al ac c ommod a-
tion of th e s tru c tu re of
powe r. M ore ove r, an d more
ge n e ral l y ,
th e "n e e d s "
of
s y s te ms ,
as of in d ivid u al s , s impl y may go
u n f u l f il l e d . Ye t th e f ac t th at
s u c h s itu ation al
pre s s u re s
d o aris e th rows
l igh t on an importan tc on n e c tion
be twe e n ration al ization an d
partic ipation ,
two of th e
major
f e atu re s c om-
mon l y
as c ribe d to th e mod e rn
pol ity .
As a matte rof h is toric al f ac t, we d o f in d th at th e
d e ve l opme n t
of
pu bl ic
pol ic y
u n d e r th e in f l u e n c e of
growin g kn owl e d ge
h as be e n as s oc iate d with
th e e xte n s ion of
d e moc rac y ,
or its au th oritarian s u bs titu te . No d ou bt th e
f orc e s
promotin g
e ac h of th e s e
d e ve l opme n ts
are in
man y re s pe c ts in d e -
pe n d e n t
of on e an oth e r. Ye t th e re are
s tron g
tie s th at te n d to make th e m
d e ve l op toge th e r.
Ration al ization an d
partic ipation
c an in th e s h ort ru n
c ome in to c on f l ic t, as is s h own
by
th e f amil iar
probl e m
of
re c on c il in g
d e moc rac y
an d
pl an n in g.
Ye t as th e
an al y s is
of th is
probl e m
al s o s h ows , in
th e
l on g
ru n th e two
gotoge th e r.
T h e kin d of f l e xibl e an d
c on s tan tl y c h an g-
in g
c on trol
ty pic al l y
e xe rc is e d
by
mod e rn
pol itie s
c an n ot re s t on
rigid
n orms an d
u n th in kin g c u s tom, bu t mu s t e n l is t th e ac tive
re s pon s e
an d
u n d e rs tan d in g
of af f e c te d
grou ps . Ce rtain l y ,
in
c on s id e rin g
th e
pos s ibl e
f u tu re
d e ve l opme n ts
of a
pol itic al s y s te m,
as we s h al l d o at al ate r
poin t
of
th is artic l e , we s h ou l d l ook f or th os e
c h an ge s
in
pu bl ic pol ic y
th at
may
re -
qu ire
an
ad ju s tme n t
of th e s tru c tu re of
powe r
in f avor of re l e van t grou ps .
IV
Ration al is man d vol u n taris mc h arac te rize th e mod e rn s pirit an d ge n e ral l y
pe rvad e
attitu d e an d be h aviors o f aras a
s oc ie ty is mod e rn . In pol itic s , th e y
s u gge s t
abroad bu t d is tin c tive c l as s of
s y s te ms , d e f in in g th e bas ic orie n ta-
tion s th at
l e gitimize
an d in s titu tion al ize proc e s s e s of ration al ization an d
d e moc ratization .
Wh at d o th e s e c rite riate l l u s abou t th e f ive ty pe s of pol itic s th at I h ave
u s e d to
pe riod ize
B ritis h
pol itic al d e ve l opme n t? T h e pre mis e s of Ol d T ory
pol itic al
be h aviorwe re s til l
e s s e n tial l y me d ie val , re f l e c tin g th e an c ie n t f aith
of "th e Gre atCh ain of
B e in g." Ac tu al l y , u n d e r th e in f l u e n c e of a powe rf u l
mon arc h an d
n e wl y
c e n tral ize d
gove rn me n t, l aw-makin g was prac tic e d on
af arwid e r s c al e th an
be f ore , y e t was s til l re s tric te d in th e ory by th e n otion
of af ixe d an d
u n c h an gin g
ord e rof man an d n atu re an d in f ac t by c on s c iou s
imitation of ah ie rarc h ic an d
c orporatis tpas t. T h e mod e rn is mof n in e te e n th -
c e n tu ry pol itic s
s tan d s ou t in
s h arp c on tras t. Lais s e r-f aire its e l f e xpre s s e d
a
growin g s y s te matic kn owl e d ge of s oc ie ty an d was c on s c iou s l y ad opte d as
a
pu bl ic pol ic y
th at wou l d
promote e c on omic d e ve l opme n t. In pol itic al
th ou gh t,
th e s ou rc e of
l e gitimac y was n ow c on c e ive d as h u man wil l -f or
th e
Libe ral s ,
th e wil l of
ration al , in d e pe n d e n t me n ; f or th e Rad ic al s , th e wil l
of al l th e
pe opl e .
Ou r f oc u s on mod e rn ization make s th e Ol d Wh ig mod e l a f as c in atin g
e xampl e
of tran s ition al
pol itic s . Its bas ic orie n tation is mod e rn , f or al th ou gh
mu c h of th e Ol d
T ory id e al of h ie rarc h y an d c orporatis mis re tain e d , th e
pre mis e s
h ave s h if te d
rad ic al l y , pe rmittin g f ar gre ate r s c ope f or h u man
c on trivan c e an d
c h an gin g c irc u ms tan c e . In c id e n tal l y , th e s ign if ic an c e of
th is
pe riod
in B ritis h
d e ve l opme n t is s u gge s te d by a c omparative l ook at
23 23
Comparative P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968 Comparative P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968
Fran c e , wh ic h move d f rom its Ol d
T ory pe riod d ire c tl y
to Libe ral an d
Rad ic al
re gime s ,
with a
re s u l tin g
s h oc k f rom wh ic h it h as n ot
y e t f u l l y
re c ove re d .
On th e wh ol e , th e f ive
ty pe s
of
pol itic s
s h ow a tre n d toward
gre ate r
mod e rn ization .
M ay
we
s ay
th e n th at th e Col l e c tivis t mod e l is th e mos t
mod e rn ? In th e B ritis h c as e th is c ou l d be
argu e d .
T h e
pu bl ic pol ic y
of th e
we l f are s tate an d
man age d e c on omy c e rtain l y
re f l e c ts th e broad e s t an d
d e e pe s t powe r
of s oc ial c on trol . In
c on c e ption
th e Col l e c tivis t mod e l is more
d e moc ratic th an th e oth e rs s in c e it
provid e s
n ot
on l y
f or
parl iame n tary
bu t
al s o f or f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation . M ore ove r, on e c ou l d al s o
re as on abl y
c on te n d th at in th e B ritis h c on te xt Rad ic al
d e moc rac y
c ou l d n e ve r ac h ie ve
its
obje c t
u n til it was tran s f orme d
by
th e c l as s
pol itic s
of th e Col l e c tivis t
ph as e .
Ye t it mu s t n ot be as s u me d th at f u rth e r
pol itic al d e ve l opme n t
in B ritain
mu s t c on tin u e th is tre n d . T h e
d e ve l opin g
n e e d s of th e
patte rn
of
pol ic y may
re d u c e as we l l as e n h an c e th e
importan c e
of
grou ps ,
e ve n
c on c e ivabl y
e l imin atin g
s ome f rom e f f e c tive
partic ipation .
In re l ation to th e
e c on omy ,
it h as be e n
pos s ibl e
to c on c e ive of th e
with e rin g away
of th e re n tie r;
s imil arl y , importan t pol itic al
c l as s e s c an l os e th e ir re l e van c e to
pol ic y
an d
d e c l in e . S u c h
c h an ge s
make u s c on s id e r
amon g
th e
pos s ibil itie s
n ot
on l y
f u rth e r d e moc ratization , bu t al s o a "re h ie rarc h ization ."9
Above al l , e ve n th ou gh th e s e c on c e ption s are u s e f u l f or c omparative
an al y s is , we mu s t n ot in f e r f rom th e m th at th e B ritis h s u c c e s s ion wil l be
f ol l owe d in oth e r c ou n trie s . T h at th e B ritis h pol ity we n t th rou gh an in d i-
vid u al is t ph as e , f or in s tan c e , is n o re as on to be l ie ve th at oth e r c ou n trie s wil l
or mu s t go th rou gh a s imil ar ph as e . In d e e d , c ou n trie s th at mod e rn ize l ate r
c an be e xpe c te d to u s e th e ir kn owl e d ge of wh at h appe n e d e l s e wh e re in
ord e r to gu id e or, if th e y c h oos e , to s h ort-c irc u it s ome ph as e . Ou r growin g
kn owl e d ge of mod e rn ization is its e l f an e xampl e of th e ration al ization
proc e s s an d s h ows h ow it may give u s gre ate r c on trol ove r pol itic al d e ve l op-
me n t.
M od e rn ization th e ory h e l ps u s pic k ou t an d id e n tif y importan t tre n d s .
It is , h owe ve r, an aid n ot on l y to d e s c ription , bu t al s o to e xpl an ation , s u g-
ge s tin g way s to ge t at th e d y n amic s of th e proc e s s an d th e c au s e s of c h an ge .
In th e pre s e n t s tu d y , ration al is m, as an orie n tation th at in s titu tion al ize s th e
pu rs u it of kn owl e d ge an d its appl ic ation to probl e ms of c on trol , is a prin c i-
pal s ou rc e of th is d y n amis m. We c an ge t a c l os e r l ook at s ome of th e c om-
pl e xitie s of th is proc e s s if we tu rn n ow to th e te n d e n c ie s of Col l e c tivis t
pol itic s .
V
In c on s tru c tin g a mod e l of Col l e c tivis t pol itic s , I mad e a two-f ol d u s e of
th e ory . On e tas k was to id e n tif y th e bas ic orie n tation s of pol itic al ac tors .
In d oin g th is I e xpl oite d th e re s ou rc e s of th e h is tory of pol itic al th ou gh t,
vu l garize d s o as to th row l igh t on ope rative id e al s . B ritis h s oc ial is t th ou gh t
h e l ps on e ge t a gras p of th e pre mis e s of ac tion of th e Labou r party , e s pe -
Fran c e , wh ic h move d f rom its Ol d
T ory pe riod d ire c tl y
to Libe ral an d
Rad ic al
re gime s ,
with a
re s u l tin g
s h oc k f rom wh ic h it h as n ot
y e t f u l l y
re c ove re d .
On th e wh ol e , th e f ive
ty pe s
of
pol itic s
s h ow a tre n d toward
gre ate r
mod e rn ization .
M ay
we
s ay
th e n th at th e Col l e c tivis t mod e l is th e mos t
mod e rn ? In th e B ritis h c as e th is c ou l d be
argu e d .
T h e
pu bl ic pol ic y
of th e
we l f are s tate an d
man age d e c on omy c e rtain l y
re f l e c ts th e broad e s t an d
d e e pe s t powe r
of s oc ial c on trol . In
c on c e ption
th e Col l e c tivis t mod e l is more
d e moc ratic th an th e oth e rs s in c e it
provid e s
n ot
on l y
f or
parl iame n tary
bu t
al s o f or f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation . M ore ove r, on e c ou l d al s o
re as on abl y
c on te n d th at in th e B ritis h c on te xt Rad ic al
d e moc rac y
c ou l d n e ve r ac h ie ve
its
obje c t
u n til it was tran s f orme d
by
th e c l as s
pol itic s
of th e Col l e c tivis t
ph as e .
Ye t it mu s t n ot be as s u me d th at f u rth e r
pol itic al d e ve l opme n t
in B ritain
mu s t c on tin u e th is tre n d . T h e
d e ve l opin g
n e e d s of th e
patte rn
of
pol ic y may
re d u c e as we l l as e n h an c e th e
importan c e
of
grou ps ,
e ve n
c on c e ivabl y
e l imin atin g
s ome f rom e f f e c tive
partic ipation .
In re l ation to th e
e c on omy ,
it h as be e n
pos s ibl e
to c on c e ive of th e
with e rin g away
of th e re n tie r;
s imil arl y , importan t pol itic al
c l as s e s c an l os e th e ir re l e van c e to
pol ic y
an d
d e c l in e . S u c h
c h an ge s
make u s c on s id e r
amon g
th e
pos s ibil itie s
n ot
on l y
f u rth e r d e moc ratization , bu t al s o a "re h ie rarc h ization ."9
Above al l , e ve n th ou gh th e s e c on c e ption s are u s e f u l f or c omparative
an al y s is , we mu s t n ot in f e r f rom th e m th at th e B ritis h s u c c e s s ion wil l be
f ol l owe d in oth e r c ou n trie s . T h at th e B ritis h pol ity we n t th rou gh an in d i-
vid u al is t ph as e , f or in s tan c e , is n o re as on to be l ie ve th at oth e r c ou n trie s wil l
or mu s t go th rou gh a s imil ar ph as e . In d e e d , c ou n trie s th at mod e rn ize l ate r
c an be e xpe c te d to u s e th e ir kn owl e d ge of wh at h appe n e d e l s e wh e re in
ord e r to gu id e or, if th e y c h oos e , to s h ort-c irc u it s ome ph as e . Ou r growin g
kn owl e d ge of mod e rn ization is its e l f an e xampl e of th e ration al ization
proc e s s an d s h ows h ow it may give u s gre ate r c on trol ove r pol itic al d e ve l op-
me n t.
M od e rn ization th e ory h e l ps u s pic k ou t an d id e n tif y importan t tre n d s .
It is , h owe ve r, an aid n ot on l y to d e s c ription , bu t al s o to e xpl an ation , s u g-
ge s tin g way s to ge t at th e d y n amic s of th e proc e s s an d th e c au s e s of c h an ge .
In th e pre s e n t s tu d y , ration al is m, as an orie n tation th at in s titu tion al ize s th e
pu rs u it of kn owl e d ge an d its appl ic ation to probl e ms of c on trol , is a prin c i-
pal s ou rc e of th is d y n amis m. We c an ge t a c l os e r l ook at s ome of th e c om-
pl e xitie s of th is proc e s s if we tu rn n ow to th e te n d e n c ie s of Col l e c tivis t
pol itic s .
V
In c on s tru c tin g a mod e l of Col l e c tivis t pol itic s , I mad e a two-f ol d u s e of
th e ory . On e tas k was to id e n tif y th e bas ic orie n tation s of pol itic al ac tors .
In d oin g th is I e xpl oite d th e re s ou rc e s of th e h is tory of pol itic al th ou gh t,
vu l garize d s o as to th row l igh t on ope rative id e al s . B ritis h s oc ial is t th ou gh t
h e l ps on e ge t a gras p of th e pre mis e s of ac tion of th e Labou r party , e s pe -
9 T h e e xpre s s ion
of a
T ory ac qu ain tan c e of min e . 9 T h e e xpre s s ion
of a
T ory ac qu ain tan c e of min e .
24 24
S amu e l H. B e e r S amu e l H. B e e r
c ial l y d u rin g
th e
party 's
"S oc ial is t Ge n e ration ," wh ic h ran
rou gh l y f rom
1918
th rou gh
1945.
T ory th ou gh t, al th ou gh ,
as on e wou l d
e xpe c t,
more d if -
f u s e an d l e s s f ormal ize d in u tte ran c e , brin gs
ou t th e orie n tation s of th e
c e n tral c u rre n t of s e n time n t an d be h avior
amon g Con s e rvative s .
In both c as e s , th e s e orie n tation s , wh il e s u f f u s e d with th e ration al is t an d
vol u n taris t e th os of
mod e rn ity ,
al s o
e mbod y
oth e r val u e s , e s pe c ial l y
c on -
c e ption s
of c l as s , wh ic h e xh ibit
powe rf u l
s tran d s of
pre mod e rn th ou gh t
an d
f e e l in g.
T h e s e val u e s c e n te r on c l as s , y e t th e y
c on c e ive its f u n c tion s
qu ite
d if f e re n tl y ,
th e S oc ial is t
re gard in g
c l as s as
c re atin g
a h orizon tal d ivis ion
in
s oc ie ty ,
wh il e th e
T ory
l ooks on it as a f orm of ve rtic al
in te gration .
In
s pite
of s u c h
vital l y importan t d if f e re n c e s , h owe ve r, both s e ts of c l as s
val u e s
l e gitimize
a
c ompl e x
s e t of more
partic u l ar
attitu d e s
s u pportin g
party gove rn me n t
an d f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation .
In th e B ritis h
pol itic al
c ommu n ity ,
th is
ge n e ral ac c e ptan c e
of
party gove rn me n t
an d f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation
l e ad s to mas s ive
pol itic al
c on c e n tration -on th e on e h an d
th e mas s
party
an d on th e oth e r h an d wh at we
migh t
c al l th e mas s
pre s s u re
grou ps , me an in g by
th is
e s pe c ial l y
th e
gre at prod u c e rs ' organ ization s
of th e
in d u s trial
e c on omy ,
s u c h as trad e u n ion s an d trad e as s oc iation s .
T h e u s e of
th e ory
in th e
an al y s is above may be th ou gh t of as a kin d of
pol itic al an th ropol ogy .
Like th e c u l tu ral
an th ropol ogis t, we c an l ook f or th e
orie n tation s or
pre mis e s
of ac tion th at
s u pport, pe rh aps th rou gh in te rve n in g
l e ve l s of
th ou gh t
an d
f e e l in g,
a s e t of
partic u l ar attitu d e s d is pl ay e d in c om-
pl e x,
c on c re te be h avior.
Al th ou gh we are d e al in g with th e in te n tion al an d
pu rpos ive
l if e of a
c ommu n ity ,
th e
f in d in gs h ave e xpl an atory val u e , in s of ar
as
th e y
l oc ate motivation al bas e s on wh ic h be h avior d e pe n d s .
T h e
c on c e ption s
of
party gove rn me n t an d f u n c tion al re pre s e n tation
gre atl y h e l p
in
id e n tif y in g
an d
d e s c ribin g th e broad ou tl in e s of B ritis h
pol itic s
in th e twe n tie th
c e n tu ry
an d in
s e ttin g of f c e rtain of its d is tin c tive
f e atu re s f rom th os e of th e l ibe ral an d in d ivid u al is t n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . As
we e xamin e th e
pol itic al
be h avior of th is more re c e n t time , h owe ve r, we
f in d
patte rn s
of be h avior th at are n ot in c l u d e d in th is d e s c ription . We f in d
u n if ormitie s d e rive d f rom th e s tru c tu re s an d patte rn s l e gitimize d by th e
ope rative
id e al s of Col l e c tivis t
pol itic s , bu t n ot in te n d e d by th e m. T h e
mod e l of
party gove rn me n t
an d f u n c tion al re pre s e n tation , in oth e r word s ,
h as n ot
on l y
man if e s t
f u n c tion s , bu t al s o l ate n t f u n c tion s .
In
id e n tif y in g
th e s e l ate n t f u n c tion s an d in trac in g th e ir origin an d in te r-
c on n e c tion , organ ization th e ory prove s u s e f u l . Ec on omis ts in th e ir s tu d y of
e c on omic c on c e n tration h ave s h own h ow th e s ize of th e l arge c orporation
af f e c ts both its in te rn al s tru c tu re an d its e xte rn al re l ation s . T h e s e c on s e -
qu e n c e s
of e c on omic c on c e n tration c an be s u mmarize d u n d e r f ou r h e ad in gs ,
two
re l atin g
to in te rn al e f f e c ts an d two re l atin g to e xte rn al e f f e c ts : man -
age rial is m, bu re au c rac y , bargain in g, an d wh at Gal braith h as c al l e d "d e -
pe n d e n c e
e f f e c t."10
Abs trac tin g
f rom th e e c on omic
c on te xt, I f ou n d th is an al y s is of th e
te n d e n c ie s of
l arge -s c al e organ ization h igh l y s u gge s tive wh e n appl ie d to
pol itic al
f ormation s . Wh il e n ot
e xac tl y an al ogou s , th is patte rn of re l ation s
in th e e c on omic f ie l d
h e l pe d me f in d s imil ar c on s e qu e n c e s re s u l tin g f rom
c ial l y d u rin g
th e
party 's
"S oc ial is t Ge n e ration ," wh ic h ran
rou gh l y f rom
1918
th rou gh
1945.
T ory th ou gh t, al th ou gh ,
as on e wou l d
e xpe c t,
more d if -
f u s e an d l e s s f ormal ize d in u tte ran c e , brin gs
ou t th e orie n tation s of th e
c e n tral c u rre n t of s e n time n t an d be h avior
amon g Con s e rvative s .
In both c as e s , th e s e orie n tation s , wh il e s u f f u s e d with th e ration al is t an d
vol u n taris t e th os of
mod e rn ity ,
al s o
e mbod y
oth e r val u e s , e s pe c ial l y
c on -
c e ption s
of c l as s , wh ic h e xh ibit
powe rf u l
s tran d s of
pre mod e rn th ou gh t
an d
f e e l in g.
T h e s e val u e s c e n te r on c l as s , y e t th e y
c on c e ive its f u n c tion s
qu ite
d if f e re n tl y ,
th e S oc ial is t
re gard in g
c l as s as
c re atin g
a h orizon tal d ivis ion
in
s oc ie ty ,
wh il e th e
T ory
l ooks on it as a f orm of ve rtic al
in te gration .
In
s pite
of s u c h
vital l y importan t d if f e re n c e s , h owe ve r, both s e ts of c l as s
val u e s
l e gitimize
a
c ompl e x
s e t of more
partic u l ar
attitu d e s
s u pportin g
party gove rn me n t
an d f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation .
In th e B ritis h
pol itic al
c ommu n ity ,
th is
ge n e ral ac c e ptan c e
of
party gove rn me n t
an d f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation
l e ad s to mas s ive
pol itic al
c on c e n tration -on th e on e h an d
th e mas s
party
an d on th e oth e r h an d wh at we
migh t
c al l th e mas s
pre s s u re
grou ps , me an in g by
th is
e s pe c ial l y
th e
gre at prod u c e rs ' organ ization s
of th e
in d u s trial
e c on omy ,
s u c h as trad e u n ion s an d trad e as s oc iation s .
T h e u s e of
th e ory
in th e
an al y s is above may be th ou gh t of as a kin d of
pol itic al an th ropol ogy .
Like th e c u l tu ral
an th ropol ogis t, we c an l ook f or th e
orie n tation s or
pre mis e s
of ac tion th at
s u pport, pe rh aps th rou gh in te rve n in g
l e ve l s of
th ou gh t
an d
f e e l in g,
a s e t of
partic u l ar attitu d e s d is pl ay e d in c om-
pl e x,
c on c re te be h avior.
Al th ou gh we are d e al in g with th e in te n tion al an d
pu rpos ive
l if e of a
c ommu n ity ,
th e
f in d in gs h ave e xpl an atory val u e , in s of ar
as
th e y
l oc ate motivation al bas e s on wh ic h be h avior d e pe n d s .
T h e
c on c e ption s
of
party gove rn me n t an d f u n c tion al re pre s e n tation
gre atl y h e l p
in
id e n tif y in g
an d
d e s c ribin g th e broad ou tl in e s of B ritis h
pol itic s
in th e twe n tie th
c e n tu ry
an d in
s e ttin g of f c e rtain of its d is tin c tive
f e atu re s f rom th os e of th e l ibe ral an d in d ivid u al is t n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . As
we e xamin e th e
pol itic al
be h avior of th is more re c e n t time , h owe ve r, we
f in d
patte rn s
of be h avior th at are n ot in c l u d e d in th is d e s c ription . We f in d
u n if ormitie s d e rive d f rom th e s tru c tu re s an d patte rn s l e gitimize d by th e
ope rative
id e al s of Col l e c tivis t
pol itic s , bu t n ot in te n d e d by th e m. T h e
mod e l of
party gove rn me n t
an d f u n c tion al re pre s e n tation , in oth e r word s ,
h as n ot
on l y
man if e s t
f u n c tion s , bu t al s o l ate n t f u n c tion s .
In
id e n tif y in g
th e s e l ate n t f u n c tion s an d in trac in g th e ir origin an d in te r-
c on n e c tion , organ ization th e ory prove s u s e f u l . Ec on omis ts in th e ir s tu d y of
e c on omic c on c e n tration h ave s h own h ow th e s ize of th e l arge c orporation
af f e c ts both its in te rn al s tru c tu re an d its e xte rn al re l ation s . T h e s e c on s e -
qu e n c e s
of e c on omic c on c e n tration c an be s u mmarize d u n d e r f ou r h e ad in gs ,
two
re l atin g
to in te rn al e f f e c ts an d two re l atin g to e xte rn al e f f e c ts : man -
age rial is m, bu re au c rac y , bargain in g, an d wh at Gal braith h as c al l e d "d e -
pe n d e n c e
e f f e c t."10
Abs trac tin g
f rom th e e c on omic
c on te xt, I f ou n d th is an al y s is of th e
te n d e n c ie s of
l arge -s c al e organ ization h igh l y s u gge s tive wh e n appl ie d to
pol itic al
f ormation s . Wh il e n ot
e xac tl y an al ogou s , th is patte rn of re l ation s
in th e e c on omic f ie l d
h e l pe d me f in d s imil ar c on s e qu e n c e s re s u l tin g f rom
10
J,
K.
Gal braith ,
T h e Af f l u e n t S oc ie ty (B os ton , 1958), p. 158.
10
J,
K.
Gal braith ,
T h e Af f l u e n t S oc ie ty (B os ton , 1958), p. 158.
25 25
Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r1968 Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r1968
c on c e n tration in
partie s
an d
pre s s u re grou ps
an d s o to s e e th e
me an in g an d
in te rc on n e c tion of f orms of be h avior th at h ad
pre viou s l y
s e e me d u n re l ate d .
T h e d is tin c tive in te l l e c tu al c on tribu tion of
s oc iol ogy ,
Robe rt M e rton h as
s aid , is tobe f ou n d in th e
s tu d y
of u n in te n d e d
c on s e qu e n c e s .1'
In th is s e n s e
th is
an al y s is
of th e "l aws " of
pol itic al c on c e n tration , i.e ., of th e l ate n t
f u n c tion s of c e rtain
pu rpos ive s tru c tu re s , c an be
th ou gh t
of as a kin d of
pol itic al s oc iol ogy .
VI
With th e h u n c h e s an d
h y poth e s e s s u gge s te d by
th e s e e l e me n ts of
organ iza-
tion
th e ory ,
we c an d e te c t an d ord e rth e
u n an tic ipate d c on s e qu e n c e s
s e t in
train
by
th e
patte rn
of
party gove rn me n t
an d f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation .
As
h as of te n be e n obs e rve d , th e mas s
party ,
e ve n if its
in s piration
is
h igh l y
d e moc ratic , te n d s to
s e parate
th e
l e ad e rs h ip
f romth e ran k an d f il e an d to
ac c u mu l ate in f l u e n c e in th e ir h an d s . T h e c on ve n tion s of B ritis h c abin e t
gove rn me n t al s o work in th is d ire c tion . B u t it is we l l to s e e th at s u c h
te n d e n c ie s toward
man age rial is m
al s o in h e re in oth e r
l arge
f ormation s s u c h
as worke rs ' an d
e mpl oy e rs ' organ ization s
as we l l as
pol itic al partie s .
A
major
s ou rc e of
man age rial is m
is th e
s pe c ial ize d
an d in d e e d
prof e s -
s ion al s kil l s th at l e ad e rs mu s t
d e ve l op
an d e xe rc is e if th e y are to h ol d th e ir
organ ization s toge th e r
an d
c arry ou t th e ir pu rpos e s . Organ ization al n e c e s -
s itie s of th is kin d h e l pu s e xpl ain th e d e c l in e of th e Labou rparty c on f e re n c e
an d of th e
party 's e xtraparl iame n tary organ ization f romth e rol e give n it in
th e
party 's image
of its e l f an d ac tu al l y c arrie d ou t in th e e arl ie rph as e s of its
h is tory .
S u c h e l itis t te n d e n c ie s c au s e l ittl e s train amon g T orie s , wh os e
an c ie n t
s oc iol ogy ac c e pts h ie rarc h y as a l aw of ord e rl y l if e . In s of ar, h ow-
e ve r,
as
pol itic al man age rs
win th e ir s tatu s by ac h ie ve me n t an d by d e mon -
s trate d
c apac itie s
of
e xpe rtis e or prof e s s ion al kn owl e d ge , th e re is as s h arp
a c l as h of
man age rial is m
with
T ory as with S oc ial is t val u e s .
S ize an d
c ompl e xity
in
pol itic al f ormation s as in oth e r organ ization s al s o
te n d to
promote bu re au c rac y or, tou s e th e more ge n e ral te rm, f ormal ization .
S id n e y
We bb's n e at c on s titu tion of 1918, as e l aborate d an d ame n d e d ove r
th e
y e ars ,
il l u s trate s th e poin t. On th e Con s e rvative s id e , th e party an d its
l e ad e rs h ave s h own th e ms e l ve s re markabl y f orward in th e u s e of f ormal
organ ization
f romth e
d ay s
of Dis rae l i th rou gh th e e raof Wool ton . No d ou bt,
h owe ve r,
th e re is
gre ate rre l u c tan c e th an amon g S oc ial is ts to f ormal ize th e
f rame work of vital d e c is ion s an d au th oritative pos ition s , as s h own by th e
l on g d e l ay
in
e s tabl is h in g
an
e xpl ic it s e t of ru l e s f or c h oic e of a party
l e ad e r.
"M an age rial bu re au c rac y " re f e rs to th e e f f e c ts of c on c e n tration on in -
te rn al s tru c tu re s . Its e f f e c ts on e xte rn al re l ation s are twof ol d . T h e ope rative
id e al s of f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation l e gitimize an d e ve n re qu ire c on s u l tation
be twe e n
gove rn me n t
an d
prod u c e rs ' grou ps . T h e d e gre e of c on c e n tration
ac h ie ve d
by man y
of th e s e
grou ps
in th e irre s pe c tive f ie l d s me an s , h owe ve r,
th at c on s u l tation al mos t
in e vitabl y be c ome s n e gotiation an d , in d e e d , akin d
c on c e n tration in
partie s
an d
pre s s u re grou ps
an d s o to s e e th e
me an in g an d
in te rc on n e c tion of f orms of be h avior th at h ad
pre viou s l y
s e e me d u n re l ate d .
T h e d is tin c tive in te l l e c tu al c on tribu tion of
s oc iol ogy ,
Robe rt M e rton h as
s aid , is tobe f ou n d in th e
s tu d y
of u n in te n d e d
c on s e qu e n c e s .1'
In th is s e n s e
th is
an al y s is
of th e "l aws " of
pol itic al c on c e n tration , i.e ., of th e l ate n t
f u n c tion s of c e rtain
pu rpos ive s tru c tu re s , c an be
th ou gh t
of as a kin d of
pol itic al s oc iol ogy .
VI
With th e h u n c h e s an d
h y poth e s e s s u gge s te d by
th e s e e l e me n ts of
organ iza-
tion
th e ory ,
we c an d e te c t an d ord e rth e
u n an tic ipate d c on s e qu e n c e s
s e t in
train
by
th e
patte rn
of
party gove rn me n t
an d f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation .
As
h as of te n be e n obs e rve d , th e mas s
party ,
e ve n if its
in s piration
is
h igh l y
d e moc ratic , te n d s to
s e parate
th e
l e ad e rs h ip
f romth e ran k an d f il e an d to
ac c u mu l ate in f l u e n c e in th e ir h an d s . T h e c on ve n tion s of B ritis h c abin e t
gove rn me n t al s o work in th is d ire c tion . B u t it is we l l to s e e th at s u c h
te n d e n c ie s toward
man age rial is m
al s o in h e re in oth e r
l arge
f ormation s s u c h
as worke rs ' an d
e mpl oy e rs ' organ ization s
as we l l as
pol itic al partie s .
A
major
s ou rc e of
man age rial is m
is th e
s pe c ial ize d
an d in d e e d
prof e s -
s ion al s kil l s th at l e ad e rs mu s t
d e ve l op
an d e xe rc is e if th e y are to h ol d th e ir
organ ization s toge th e r
an d
c arry ou t th e ir pu rpos e s . Organ ization al n e c e s -
s itie s of th is kin d h e l pu s e xpl ain th e d e c l in e of th e Labou rparty c on f e re n c e
an d of th e
party 's e xtraparl iame n tary organ ization f romth e rol e give n it in
th e
party 's image
of its e l f an d ac tu al l y c arrie d ou t in th e e arl ie rph as e s of its
h is tory .
S u c h e l itis t te n d e n c ie s c au s e l ittl e s train amon g T orie s , wh os e
an c ie n t
s oc iol ogy ac c e pts h ie rarc h y as a l aw of ord e rl y l if e . In s of ar, h ow-
e ve r,
as
pol itic al man age rs
win th e ir s tatu s by ac h ie ve me n t an d by d e mon -
s trate d
c apac itie s
of
e xpe rtis e or prof e s s ion al kn owl e d ge , th e re is as s h arp
a c l as h of
man age rial is m
with
T ory as with S oc ial is t val u e s .
S ize an d
c ompl e xity
in
pol itic al f ormation s as in oth e r organ ization s al s o
te n d to
promote bu re au c rac y or, tou s e th e more ge n e ral te rm, f ormal ization .
S id n e y
We bb's n e at c on s titu tion of 1918, as e l aborate d an d ame n d e d ove r
th e
y e ars ,
il l u s trate s th e poin t. On th e Con s e rvative s id e , th e party an d its
l e ad e rs h ave s h own th e ms e l ve s re markabl y f orward in th e u s e of f ormal
organ ization
f romth e
d ay s
of Dis rae l i th rou gh th e e raof Wool ton . No d ou bt,
h owe ve r,
th e re is
gre ate rre l u c tan c e th an amon g S oc ial is ts to f ormal ize th e
f rame work of vital d e c is ion s an d au th oritative pos ition s , as s h own by th e
l on g d e l ay
in
e s tabl is h in g
an
e xpl ic it s e t of ru l e s f or c h oic e of a party
l e ad e r.
"M an age rial bu re au c rac y " re f e rs to th e e f f e c ts of c on c e n tration on in -
te rn al s tru c tu re s . Its e f f e c ts on e xte rn al re l ation s are twof ol d . T h e ope rative
id e al s of f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation l e gitimize an d e ve n re qu ire c on s u l tation
be twe e n
gove rn me n t
an d
prod u c e rs ' grou ps . T h e d e gre e of c on c e n tration
ac h ie ve d
by man y
of th e s e
grou ps
in th e irre s pe c tive f ie l d s me an s , h owe ve r,
th at c on s u l tation al mos t
in e vitabl y be c ome s n e gotiation an d , in d e e d , akin d
11
Robe rt K. M e rton , S oc ial
T h e ory an d S oc ial S tru c tu re , (Gl e n c oe , 1949), Ch . 1,
"M an if e s t an d Late n t Fu n c tion s ," p. 66.
11
Robe rt K. M e rton , S oc ial
T h e ory an d S oc ial S tru c tu re , (Gl e n c oe , 1949), Ch . 1,
"M an if e s t an d Late n t Fu n c tion s ," p. 66.
26 26
S amu e l H. B e e r S amu e l H. B e e r
of c ol l e c tive
bargain in g.
T h e an n u al
pric e
re vie w be twe e n th e gove rn me n t
an d th e Nation al Farme rs Un ion is a
good e xampl e .
Of e ve n more im-
portan c e
are th e
re pe ate d
e f f orts of
gove rn me n ts
to ac h ie ve
agre e me n twith
trad e u n ion s an d trad e as s oc iation s on an in c ome s
pol ic y
f romwh ic h , in -
d e e d , wh e n th e e f f orts are s u c c e s s f u l , akin d of
"e xtraparl iame n tary l e gis l a-
tion " re s u l ts .
Wh e n we l ook at th e re l ation s of th e
partie s
an d th e e l e c torate , h owe ve r,
th e
appropriate
te rmis
"bid d in g"
rath e rth an
"bargain in g."
T h e s e two
f airl y
e ve n l y
matc h e d
partie s
make an in te n s e e f f ort to
id e n tif y
an d attrac t
e ve ry
vote th at
migh t
f l oat. T h is l e ad s to a
gre at
s tre s s on
grou pappe al s .
On e c an
th in k of th e s e vote rs as c on s u me r
grou ps ,
th e be n e f ic iarie s or
pros pe c tive
be n e f ic iarie s of th e we l f are s tate . "T h e vote r," as Lord Wool ton on c e s aid ,
"is al s o th e c on s u me r." On e re s u l t of th is
proc e s s
of
bid d in g
is to e n h an c e
th e rol e of th e
u s u al l y poorl y organ ize d
c on s u me r
grou ps
in th e e l e c toral
an d
gove rn me n tal proc e s s .
At th e s ame time th e re is ac e rtain
"d e pe n d e n c e
e f f e c t" as
pol itic al partie s s h ape
th e of te n in c h oate wis h e s of th e s e e l e c tors .
On e f u rth e r
te n d e n c y
of
pol itic al
c on c e n tration s h ou l d al s o be me n tion e d
be c au s e of its
be arin g
on a
major d e ve l opme n t
of re c e n t
y e ars .
In B ritain
as in mos t oth e r We s te rn c ou n trie s
d u rin g
th e
pos twar pe riod ,
th e
in te n s ity
of
pol itic al
c on f l ic t
s ign if ic an tl y ,
an d rath e r
u n e xpe c te d l y , d imin is h e d , l e ad -
in g
tomu c h d is c u s s ion of "th e d e c l in e of
id e ol ogy " an d "c on s e n s u s pol itic s ."
Variou s re as on s wil l be c on s id e re d at a l ate r poin t. He re it may be poin te d
ou t h ow th is
te n d e n c y
is
promote d by
th e
obje c tive pol itic al c on d ition s
u n d e r wh ic h th e two mas s
partie s
mu s t
ope rate . Eac h party wh e n s e e kin g
powe r
mu s t bid f or th e vote s of
man y
of th e s ame c on s u me rs ' grou ps an d
wh e n in
powe r
mu s t
bargain
with mu c h th e s ame s e t of prod u c e rs ' grou ps .
T h e s e are th e h ard re al itie s of
ge ttin g
e l e c te d an d of
gove rn in g. T oge th e r
th e y
h ave worke d to
promote
a
c on ve rge n c e of party program, gre atl y l e s -
s e n in g
th e
id e ol ogic al
d is tan c e be twe e n S oc ial is t an d Con s e rvative . As
id e ol ogic al
c on tou rs h ave f ad e d a n e w
grou p pol itic s h as appe are d as a
more an d more
promin e n t
f e atu re of th e
pol itic al s c e n e .
VII
S u c h in brie f are th e l ate n t f u n c tion s of th e mod e l of party gove rn me n t an d
f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation .
T h e two
major s itu ation al f ac tors f romwh ic h
th e y
f l ow are a
h igh
l e ve l of
pol itic al c on c e n tration an d a wid e s c ope of
gove rn me n t
in te rve n tion . It is al s o importan t th at th e re are two major
partie s
an d th at
th e y
h ave be e n
f airl y e ve n l y matc h e d in e l e c toral s tre n gth .
T h e
propos ition s
e mbod ie d in th is an al y s is are n ot me re l y d e s c riptive , bu t
al s o
e xpl an atory .
If we d on ot
proje c t too mu c h on toth e te rm, we c an th in k
of th e mas "l aws " of
pol itic al c on c e n tration . T h e y are c on tin u ou s with mu c h
we l l -e s tabl is h e d
organ ization th e ory an d go on to d e ve l op c e rtain h y poth e -
s e s in a f ormth at make s th e mte s tabl e in th e c on te xt of oth e r pol itic al
s y s te ms .
In th e
pre viou s an al y s is , l ate n t f u n c tion is in e ac h in s tan c e in c on f l ic t
with
ope rative
id e al . T h e te n s ion an d s train th at re s u l t h ave aps y c h ol ogic al
as pe c t
th at c an be
re ad il y il l u s trate d . On e e xampl e is th e l on g agon y of th e
Labou r
party
in th e f if tie s wh e n it was torn by th e c on f l ic t be twe e n its
of c ol l e c tive
bargain in g.
T h e an n u al
pric e
re vie w be twe e n th e gove rn me n t
an d th e Nation al Farme rs Un ion is a
good e xampl e .
Of e ve n more im-
portan c e
are th e
re pe ate d
e f f orts of
gove rn me n ts
to ac h ie ve
agre e me n twith
trad e u n ion s an d trad e as s oc iation s on an in c ome s
pol ic y
f romwh ic h , in -
d e e d , wh e n th e e f f orts are s u c c e s s f u l , akin d of
"e xtraparl iame n tary l e gis l a-
tion " re s u l ts .
Wh e n we l ook at th e re l ation s of th e
partie s
an d th e e l e c torate , h owe ve r,
th e
appropriate
te rmis
"bid d in g"
rath e rth an
"bargain in g."
T h e s e two
f airl y
e ve n l y
matc h e d
partie s
make an in te n s e e f f ort to
id e n tif y
an d attrac t
e ve ry
vote th at
migh t
f l oat. T h is l e ad s to a
gre at
s tre s s on
grou pappe al s .
On e c an
th in k of th e s e vote rs as c on s u me r
grou ps ,
th e be n e f ic iarie s or
pros pe c tive
be n e f ic iarie s of th e we l f are s tate . "T h e vote r," as Lord Wool ton on c e s aid ,
"is al s o th e c on s u me r." On e re s u l t of th is
proc e s s
of
bid d in g
is to e n h an c e
th e rol e of th e
u s u al l y poorl y organ ize d
c on s u me r
grou ps
in th e e l e c toral
an d
gove rn me n tal proc e s s .
At th e s ame time th e re is ac e rtain
"d e pe n d e n c e
e f f e c t" as
pol itic al partie s s h ape
th e of te n in c h oate wis h e s of th e s e e l e c tors .
On e f u rth e r
te n d e n c y
of
pol itic al
c on c e n tration s h ou l d al s o be me n tion e d
be c au s e of its
be arin g
on a
major d e ve l opme n t
of re c e n t
y e ars .
In B ritain
as in mos t oth e r We s te rn c ou n trie s
d u rin g
th e
pos twar pe riod ,
th e
in te n s ity
of
pol itic al
c on f l ic t
s ign if ic an tl y ,
an d rath e r
u n e xpe c te d l y , d imin is h e d , l e ad -
in g
tomu c h d is c u s s ion of "th e d e c l in e of
id e ol ogy " an d "c on s e n s u s pol itic s ."
Variou s re as on s wil l be c on s id e re d at a l ate r poin t. He re it may be poin te d
ou t h ow th is
te n d e n c y
is
promote d by
th e
obje c tive pol itic al c on d ition s
u n d e r wh ic h th e two mas s
partie s
mu s t
ope rate . Eac h party wh e n s e e kin g
powe r
mu s t bid f or th e vote s of
man y
of th e s ame c on s u me rs ' grou ps an d
wh e n in
powe r
mu s t
bargain
with mu c h th e s ame s e t of prod u c e rs ' grou ps .
T h e s e are th e h ard re al itie s of
ge ttin g
e l e c te d an d of
gove rn in g. T oge th e r
th e y
h ave worke d to
promote
a
c on ve rge n c e of party program, gre atl y l e s -
s e n in g
th e
id e ol ogic al
d is tan c e be twe e n S oc ial is t an d Con s e rvative . As
id e ol ogic al
c on tou rs h ave f ad e d a n e w
grou p pol itic s h as appe are d as a
more an d more
promin e n t
f e atu re of th e
pol itic al s c e n e .
VII
S u c h in brie f are th e l ate n t f u n c tion s of th e mod e l of party gove rn me n t an d
f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation .
T h e two
major s itu ation al f ac tors f romwh ic h
th e y
f l ow are a
h igh
l e ve l of
pol itic al c on c e n tration an d a wid e s c ope of
gove rn me n t
in te rve n tion . It is al s o importan t th at th e re are two major
partie s
an d th at
th e y
h ave be e n
f airl y e ve n l y matc h e d in e l e c toral s tre n gth .
T h e
propos ition s
e mbod ie d in th is an al y s is are n ot me re l y d e s c riptive , bu t
al s o
e xpl an atory .
If we d on ot
proje c t too mu c h on toth e te rm, we c an th in k
of th e mas "l aws " of
pol itic al c on c e n tration . T h e y are c on tin u ou s with mu c h
we l l -e s tabl is h e d
organ ization th e ory an d go on to d e ve l op c e rtain h y poth e -
s e s in a f ormth at make s th e mte s tabl e in th e c on te xt of oth e r pol itic al
s y s te ms .
In th e
pre viou s an al y s is , l ate n t f u n c tion is in e ac h in s tan c e in c on f l ic t
with
ope rative
id e al . T h e te n s ion an d s train th at re s u l t h ave aps y c h ol ogic al
as pe c t
th at c an be
re ad il y il l u s trate d . On e e xampl e is th e l on g agon y of th e
Labou r
party
in th e f if tie s wh e n it was torn by th e c on f l ic t be twe e n its
27 27
Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968
Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968
d e e pl y
f e l t d e moc ratic an d s oc ial is t
my th
an d th e h ard re al itie s of
pol itic al
s u rvival . Nor is th e s train of c on f l ic t of th is s ort e mbod ie d
s impl y
in f ac -
tion al c on f l ic t.
P e rh aps
e ve n more
s ign if ic an t
is its
impac t
on in d ivid u al s ,
d ivid in g
th e m
again s t th e ms e l ve s , as , f or in s tan c e , in th e c as e of a
T ory
l e ad e r wh o win s h is
pos ition by ac h ie ve me n t, y e t atte mpts
to
ad apt
to th e
s u rvivin g c on c e ption s
of h ie rarc h ic c l as s
f e e l in g amon g
h is f e l l ows . Vote rs
in th e mas s
may
al s o be af f e c te d , re s pon d in g
with u n e as e an d c on f u s ion to
th e f ac t th at th e
gre at pol itic al organ ization s
d o n ot
me re l y re s pon d
to th e
pu bl ic wil l , bu t in s ome
d e gre e
man u f ac tu re it.
T h e s e
ps y c h ol ogic al as pe c ts
h ave a
be arin g
on
pol itic al d e ve l opme n t
an d
wou l d be worth
e xpl orin g
f u rth e r. He re ou rc on c e rn is with th e more d ire c t
te n d e n c ie s to
c h an ge proc e e d in g
f romth e Col l e c tivis t mod e l . T h e u n an tic i-
pate d c on s e qu e n c e s
th at we h ave c on s id e re d are th e ms e l ve s
d e partu re s
in
be h avior f roman in te n d e d
patte rn ,
wh ic h f or a
l on ge r
or s h orte r
pe riod
was e s tabl is h e d . Ye t, as th is brie f s ke tc h
s u gge s ts ,
l ate n t f u n c tion s
may
in
an
importan t
s e n s e work to main tain th e s tru c tu re oroth e ru n it f romwh ic h
th e y proc e e d ,
e ve n
th ou gh th e y
are in c on f l ic t with its
pu rpos e .
T h e Labou r
party ,
f or in s tan c e , c ou l d
h ard l y
h ave s u rvive d if it h ad n ot mod if ie d its
origin al prac tic e to al l ow f or f ar s tron ge rl e ad e rs h ip. Late n t f u n c tion s may
s u pport e ve n wh il e th e y tran s f orma s tru c tu re .
VIII
Havin g l ooke d at th e te n d e n c ie s of th e Col l e c tivis t mod e l as e xh ibite d ge n -
e ral l y in th e pos twarpe riod , we may n ow c on s id e rwh at h as be e n h appe n in g
in th e s ixtie s an d th e n go on to e xamin e th e pos s ibil itie s of th e f u tu re . In
th is d is c u s s ion I wan t e ve n more e xpl ic itl y to make th e c on c e pt of ration al i-
zation th e f oc u s of in qu iry . T h is c on c e pt is e s pe c ial l y re l e van t to re c e n t
d e ve l opme n ts be c au s e of th e e xpl os ion of s c ie n tif ic kn owl e d ge with its
ramif y in g impac t th rou gh ou t s oc ie ty . On e of th e mos t obviou s e f f e c ts is on
th e e c on omy wh e re , as we are c on tin u al l y tol d , th e s c ie n tif ic re vol u tion h as
be c ome th e prin c ipal d y n amic f orc e , brin gin g abou t a prof e s s ion al ization
of th e mod e of prod u c tion , d is tribu tion , an d e xc h an ge . Amon g oth e rth in gs ,
it c on tin u al l y re d u c e s th e n u mbe r of man u al worke rs an d in c re as e s th e
wh ite -c ol l ar c l as s e qu ippe d with te c h n ic al an d prof e s s ion al train in g, a
c h an ge in oc c u pation al s tru c tu re th at c an n ot h e l pbu t h ave importan te f f e c ts
u pon partie s an d pol itic s .
M ore ove r, th e s c ie n tif ic re vol u tion af f e c ts th e pol ity n ot on l y in d ire c tl y
th rou gh e c on omic d e ve l opme n t, bu t al s o d ire c tl y as ou r kn owl e d ge of s o-
c ie ty its e l f re s pon d s to th e s c ie n tif ic impu l s e . T h u s , f or in s tan c e , n ot on l y
in gove rn me n t d e partme n ts , bu t al s o in th e l e ad in g e c h e l on s of partie s an d
pre s s u re grou ps th e re is oc c u rrin g a prof e s s ion al ization of re f ormas th e
s oc ial s c ie n c e s are appl ie d to probl e ms of pu bl ic pol ic y . S u re l y th e mos t
we igh ty in s tan c e of th e way gre ate r kn owl e d ge c an af f e c t pol itic s is th e
impac t of Ke y n e s ian e c on omic s on th e c on f l ic t of partie s . T h rou gh ou t th e
We s t an d we l l be f ore th e e raof af f l u e n c e , th is re vol u tion in id e as d is s ol ve d
th e rigid d oc trin e s of pre war "c apital is m" an d "s oc ial is m," brin gin g ol d
c ombatan ts in to a wid e are a of agre e me n t, as th e e me rge n c e of "B u ts ke l l -
is m" re ve al e d to s l igh tl y as ton is h e d B riton s in th e e arl y 1950's . In th is way ,
d e e pl y
f e l t d e moc ratic an d s oc ial is t
my th
an d th e h ard re al itie s of
pol itic al
s u rvival . Nor is th e s train of c on f l ic t of th is s ort e mbod ie d
s impl y
in f ac -
tion al c on f l ic t.
P e rh aps
e ve n more
s ign if ic an t
is its
impac t
on in d ivid u al s ,
d ivid in g
th e m
again s t th e ms e l ve s , as , f or in s tan c e , in th e c as e of a
T ory
l e ad e r wh o win s h is
pos ition by ac h ie ve me n t, y e t atte mpts
to
ad apt
to th e
s u rvivin g c on c e ption s
of h ie rarc h ic c l as s
f e e l in g amon g
h is f e l l ows . Vote rs
in th e mas s
may
al s o be af f e c te d , re s pon d in g
with u n e as e an d c on f u s ion to
th e f ac t th at th e
gre at pol itic al organ ization s
d o n ot
me re l y re s pon d
to th e
pu bl ic wil l , bu t in s ome
d e gre e
man u f ac tu re it.
T h e s e
ps y c h ol ogic al as pe c ts
h ave a
be arin g
on
pol itic al d e ve l opme n t
an d
wou l d be worth
e xpl orin g
f u rth e r. He re ou rc on c e rn is with th e more d ire c t
te n d e n c ie s to
c h an ge proc e e d in g
f romth e Col l e c tivis t mod e l . T h e u n an tic i-
pate d c on s e qu e n c e s
th at we h ave c on s id e re d are th e ms e l ve s
d e partu re s
in
be h avior f roman in te n d e d
patte rn ,
wh ic h f or a
l on ge r
or s h orte r
pe riod
was e s tabl is h e d . Ye t, as th is brie f s ke tc h
s u gge s ts ,
l ate n t f u n c tion s
may
in
an
importan t
s e n s e work to main tain th e s tru c tu re oroth e ru n it f romwh ic h
th e y proc e e d ,
e ve n
th ou gh th e y
are in c on f l ic t with its
pu rpos e .
T h e Labou r
party ,
f or in s tan c e , c ou l d
h ard l y
h ave s u rvive d if it h ad n ot mod if ie d its
origin al prac tic e to al l ow f or f ar s tron ge rl e ad e rs h ip. Late n t f u n c tion s may
s u pport e ve n wh il e th e y tran s f orma s tru c tu re .
VIII
Havin g l ooke d at th e te n d e n c ie s of th e Col l e c tivis t mod e l as e xh ibite d ge n -
e ral l y in th e pos twarpe riod , we may n ow c on s id e rwh at h as be e n h appe n in g
in th e s ixtie s an d th e n go on to e xamin e th e pos s ibil itie s of th e f u tu re . In
th is d is c u s s ion I wan t e ve n more e xpl ic itl y to make th e c on c e pt of ration al i-
zation th e f oc u s of in qu iry . T h is c on c e pt is e s pe c ial l y re l e van t to re c e n t
d e ve l opme n ts be c au s e of th e e xpl os ion of s c ie n tif ic kn owl e d ge with its
ramif y in g impac t th rou gh ou t s oc ie ty . On e of th e mos t obviou s e f f e c ts is on
th e e c on omy wh e re , as we are c on tin u al l y tol d , th e s c ie n tif ic re vol u tion h as
be c ome th e prin c ipal d y n amic f orc e , brin gin g abou t a prof e s s ion al ization
of th e mod e of prod u c tion , d is tribu tion , an d e xc h an ge . Amon g oth e rth in gs ,
it c on tin u al l y re d u c e s th e n u mbe r of man u al worke rs an d in c re as e s th e
wh ite -c ol l ar c l as s e qu ippe d with te c h n ic al an d prof e s s ion al train in g, a
c h an ge in oc c u pation al s tru c tu re th at c an n ot h e l pbu t h ave importan te f f e c ts
u pon partie s an d pol itic s .
M ore ove r, th e s c ie n tif ic re vol u tion af f e c ts th e pol ity n ot on l y in d ire c tl y
th rou gh e c on omic d e ve l opme n t, bu t al s o d ire c tl y as ou r kn owl e d ge of s o-
c ie ty its e l f re s pon d s to th e s c ie n tif ic impu l s e . T h u s , f or in s tan c e , n ot on l y
in gove rn me n t d e partme n ts , bu t al s o in th e l e ad in g e c h e l on s of partie s an d
pre s s u re grou ps th e re is oc c u rrin g a prof e s s ion al ization of re f ormas th e
s oc ial s c ie n c e s are appl ie d to probl e ms of pu bl ic pol ic y . S u re l y th e mos t
we igh ty in s tan c e of th e way gre ate r kn owl e d ge c an af f e c t pol itic s is th e
impac t of Ke y n e s ian e c on omic s on th e c on f l ic t of partie s . T h rou gh ou t th e
We s t an d we l l be f ore th e e raof af f l u e n c e , th is re vol u tion in id e as d is s ol ve d
th e rigid d oc trin e s of pre war "c apital is m" an d "s oc ial is m," brin gin g ol d
c ombatan ts in to a wid e are a of agre e me n t, as th e e me rge n c e of "B u ts ke l l -
is m" re ve al e d to s l igh tl y as ton is h e d B riton s in th e e arl y 1950's . In th is way ,
28 28
S amu e l H. B e e r S amu e l H. B e e r
re as on h as h ad as mu c h to d o with
re d u c in g
th e c l as s
s tru ggl e
as
an y
ma-
te rial f orc e .
In th e e c on omic
s ph e re
th e d omin an c e of s c ie n c e an d
appl ie d te c h n ol ogy
is a
major
c h arac te ris tic of th e
"pos tin d u s trial " s oc ie ty .
It s h ou l d n ot be
s u rpris in g
if its
impac t
we re al s o wid e an d
d e e p e n ou gh
to
prod u c e
a
"pos t-
c ol l e c tivis t"
pol itic s .
IX
It wil l be c on ve n ie n t to c on s id e r th e
c h an ge s
of th e s ixtie s u n d e r th e two
h e ad in gs
of
party gove rn me n t
an d f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation .
If we as k wh e th e r th e re h as be e n a f u rth e r
l e s s e n in g
of th e
id e ol ogic al
d is tan c e be twe e n th e two
partie s ,
th e an s we r is
c l e arl y
Ye s . T h e l as t
major
Labou r
program
of th e f if tie s , T h e Fu tu re Labou r
Of f e rs You , wh ic h was
pu t
ou t in 1958, s h owe d h ow f ar
grou p pol itic s
h ad
qu al if ie d party pol itic s .
T h e h ars h d e f e ats s u f f e re d
by Hu gh
Gaits ke l l wh e n h e trie d in 1959-1960 to
al te r Cl au s e IV, th e an c ie n t
pl e d ge
of u n ive rs al
pu bl ic own e rs h ip,
re ve al e d
gre at s tre n gth
on th e
part
of th e ol d
my th .
Ye t
by
th e f irs t
y e ars
of -iron -
ic al l y -Harol d
Wil s on 's
l e ad e rs h ip,
re vis ion is m h ad
c l e arl y
c arrie d th e
d ay ,
an d th e ol d rh e toric of n ation al ization h ad
ju s t
abou t van is h e d f rom
party
an d trad e -u n ion oratory .
On th e Con s e rvative s id e th e re h ad be e n at l e as t an e qu ival e n t move me n t
toward th e ir oppon e n ts . Al th ou gh th e Con s e rvative s s h owe d af te r re tu rn in g
to powe r in 1951 th at th e y h ad ac c e pte d n ot on l y th e we l f are s tate , bu t al s o
th e man age d e c on omy , th e y s til l re je c te d pl an n in g. Un d e r M ac mil l an , h ow-
e ve r, th e y gave u p th e ir brie f f l irtation with "n e ol ibe ral is m" an d c re ate d th e
Nation al Ec on omic De ve l opme n t Cou n c il , e s tabl is h in g wh at th e y h ope d
wou l d be a B ritis h ve rs ion of Fre n c h pl an if ic ation . Af te r Labou r took of f ic e
in 1964, th e two partie s c ame to l ook e ve n more al ike . Like th e Con s e rva-
tive s in th e l ate 1950's wh o h ad be e n obl ige d to re s ort to d e f l ation in ord e r
to prote c t th e pou n d , Labou r n ot on l y ac c e pte d th at obl igation , bu t f in al l y
re s orte d to th e d e l ibe rate c re ation of u n e mpl oy me n t in atte mptin g to h on or
it. A l e f t win g amon g bac kbe n c h e rs an d in th e party organ ization c on tin u e d
to prote s t an d re s is t. Ye t a c omparis on with th e "Ke e p Le f t" grou p in th e
d ay s of Attl e e 's gove rn me n t s h ows h ow vas tl y th e Le f t h ad d e c l in e d in
we igh t, in f l u e n c e , an d id e as .
If c l as s id e ol ogie s h ave d e c l in e d , c l as s pol itic s , on th e oth e r h an d , c on -
tin u e s to f l ou ris h migh til y . B y c l as s pol itic s I me an primaril y c l as s votin g,
al th ou gh I al s o in c l u d e oth e r partis an be h avior s u c h as party me mbe rs h ip.
If we take man u al an d n on man u al oc c u pation s as id e n tif y in g re s pe c tive l y
th e workin g c l as s an d th e mid d l e c l as s an d th e n as k h ow e ac h of th e s e two
grou ps h as d ivid e d its s u pport be twe e n th e two main partie s s in c e th e war,
we f in d th at in s pite of party c on ve rge n c e , af f l u e n c e , an d l ike d e ve l opme n ts ,
th e in d e x of c l as s votin g h as re main e d re markabl y h igh an d s tabl e ove r th e
y e ars .12 In th e e l e c tion s of both 1964 an d 1966 th e re we re s l igh t s h if ts in
12
S e e Robe rt R. Al f ord , P arty an d S oc ie ty (Ch ic ago, 1963), p. 348; an d Al f ord , "Cl as s
Votin g in th e An gl o-Ame ric an P ol itic al S y s te ms ," in S e y mou r M artin Lips e t an d S te in
Rokkan , e d s . P arty S y s te ms an d Vote r Al ign me n ts (Ne w York, 1967), e s p. p. 85 an d
p. 93, n . 51.
re as on h as h ad as mu c h to d o with
re d u c in g
th e c l as s
s tru ggl e
as
an y
ma-
te rial f orc e .
In th e e c on omic
s ph e re
th e d omin an c e of s c ie n c e an d
appl ie d te c h n ol ogy
is a
major
c h arac te ris tic of th e
"pos tin d u s trial " s oc ie ty .
It s h ou l d n ot be
s u rpris in g
if its
impac t
we re al s o wid e an d
d e e p e n ou gh
to
prod u c e
a
"pos t-
c ol l e c tivis t"
pol itic s .
IX
It wil l be c on ve n ie n t to c on s id e r th e
c h an ge s
of th e s ixtie s u n d e r th e two
h e ad in gs
of
party gove rn me n t
an d f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation .
If we as k wh e th e r th e re h as be e n a f u rth e r
l e s s e n in g
of th e
id e ol ogic al
d is tan c e be twe e n th e two
partie s ,
th e an s we r is
c l e arl y
Ye s . T h e l as t
major
Labou r
program
of th e f if tie s , T h e Fu tu re Labou r
Of f e rs You , wh ic h was
pu t
ou t in 1958, s h owe d h ow f ar
grou p pol itic s
h ad
qu al if ie d party pol itic s .
T h e h ars h d e f e ats s u f f e re d
by Hu gh
Gaits ke l l wh e n h e trie d in 1959-1960 to
al te r Cl au s e IV, th e an c ie n t
pl e d ge
of u n ive rs al
pu bl ic own e rs h ip,
re ve al e d
gre at s tre n gth
on th e
part
of th e ol d
my th .
Ye t
by
th e f irs t
y e ars
of -iron -
ic al l y -Harol d
Wil s on 's
l e ad e rs h ip,
re vis ion is m h ad
c l e arl y
c arrie d th e
d ay ,
an d th e ol d rh e toric of n ation al ization h ad
ju s t
abou t van is h e d f rom
party
an d trad e -u n ion oratory .
On th e Con s e rvative s id e th e re h ad be e n at l e as t an e qu ival e n t move me n t
toward th e ir oppon e n ts . Al th ou gh th e Con s e rvative s s h owe d af te r re tu rn in g
to powe r in 1951 th at th e y h ad ac c e pte d n ot on l y th e we l f are s tate , bu t al s o
th e man age d e c on omy , th e y s til l re je c te d pl an n in g. Un d e r M ac mil l an , h ow-
e ve r, th e y gave u p th e ir brie f f l irtation with "n e ol ibe ral is m" an d c re ate d th e
Nation al Ec on omic De ve l opme n t Cou n c il , e s tabl is h in g wh at th e y h ope d
wou l d be a B ritis h ve rs ion of Fre n c h pl an if ic ation . Af te r Labou r took of f ic e
in 1964, th e two partie s c ame to l ook e ve n more al ike . Like th e Con s e rva-
tive s in th e l ate 1950's wh o h ad be e n obl ige d to re s ort to d e f l ation in ord e r
to prote c t th e pou n d , Labou r n ot on l y ac c e pte d th at obl igation , bu t f in al l y
re s orte d to th e d e l ibe rate c re ation of u n e mpl oy me n t in atte mptin g to h on or
it. A l e f t win g amon g bac kbe n c h e rs an d in th e party organ ization c on tin u e d
to prote s t an d re s is t. Ye t a c omparis on with th e "Ke e p Le f t" grou p in th e
d ay s of Attl e e 's gove rn me n t s h ows h ow vas tl y th e Le f t h ad d e c l in e d in
we igh t, in f l u e n c e , an d id e as .
If c l as s id e ol ogie s h ave d e c l in e d , c l as s pol itic s , on th e oth e r h an d , c on -
tin u e s to f l ou ris h migh til y . B y c l as s pol itic s I me an primaril y c l as s votin g,
al th ou gh I al s o in c l u d e oth e r partis an be h avior s u c h as party me mbe rs h ip.
If we take man u al an d n on man u al oc c u pation s as id e n tif y in g re s pe c tive l y
th e workin g c l as s an d th e mid d l e c l as s an d th e n as k h ow e ac h of th e s e two
grou ps h as d ivid e d its s u pport be twe e n th e two main partie s s in c e th e war,
we f in d th at in s pite of party c on ve rge n c e , af f l u e n c e , an d l ike d e ve l opme n ts ,
th e in d e x of c l as s votin g h as re main e d re markabl y h igh an d s tabl e ove r th e
y e ars .12 In th e e l e c tion s of both 1964 an d 1966 th e re we re s l igh t s h if ts in
12
S e e Robe rt R. Al f ord , P arty an d S oc ie ty (Ch ic ago, 1963), p. 348; an d Al f ord , "Cl as s
Votin g in th e An gl o-Ame ric an P ol itic al S y s te ms ," in S e y mou r M artin Lips e t an d S te in
Rokkan , e d s . P arty S y s te ms an d Vote r Al ign me n ts (Ne w York, 1967), e s p. p. 85 an d
p. 93, n . 51.
29 29
Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968
Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968
mid d l e -c l as s s tratato Labou r, with th e re s u l t th at "th e c l as s
pol aris ation
of
th e B ritis h e l e c torate was
pe rh aps f rac tion al l y
re d u c e d ."'13 A rath e rs imil ar
bu t more s u bs tan tial s h if t al s o was re ve al e d
amon g
Labou rM P 's , c an d i-
d ate s e l e c te d in 1965-1966
s h owin g
a
s trikin g
in c re as e in
prof e s s ion al
oc -
c u pation s
an d
u n ive rs ity bac kgrou n d .
P e rh aps
th e mos t
importan t
an d
c e rtain l y
n ot th e l e as t
pu zzl in g d e ve l op-
me n ts re l ate to
party me mbe rs h ip.14
We
re c ogn ize ,
of c ou rs e , th at
on l y
a
s mal l f rac tion of th e mil l ion s
re porte d by
e ac h
party
are in f ac t ac tive
party
worke rs . S til l th e s e mil l ion s
re pre s e n t
a s ou rc e of
gre at
f in an c ial
s u pport
an d a
re c ru itin g grou n d
f or th e s c ore s of th ou s an d s of ac tivis ts .
Al th ou gh
th e Con s e rvative s d o n ot
ke e p
a
ve ry
e xac t ac c ou n t, th e ir
me mbe rs h ip
f e l l
f romabou t 2.8 mil l ion to 2.3 mil l ion be twe e n th e
e arl y
f if tie s an d
e arl y
s ixtie s . On th e Labou rs id e , in d ivid u al
me mbe rs h ip
re ac h e d a
pe ak
in 1953
of abou t on e mil l ion af te r s ome
y e ars
of
s te ad y growth .
From1953 to 1966,
h owe ve r, th e
f igu re d roppe d by
al mos t 25
pe rc e n t.
T rad e -u n ion me mbe r-
s h ip
in th e
party
re ac h e d its
pe ak
in 1956, al s o af te r a
l on g
an d
s te ad y
c l imb. In th e
f ol l owin g
te n
y e ars , al th ou gh
th e trad e -u n ion total f e l l of f
by
on l y
2
pe rc e n t,
it f ail e d to
ke e p pac e
with th e work f orc e , wh ic h
gre w by
s ome 7 pe rc e n t. T h e Labou rparty , f ar f rome mbrac in g e ve r l arge rc irc l e s of
th e workin g c l as s , s u f f e re d n ot me re l y a s topbu t an abs ol u te d e c l in e .
As f or c au s e s of th is d e c l in e , th e mos t pl au s ibl e is th e c h an ge in oc c u pa-
tion al s tru c tu re . In man u f ac tu rin g al on e , f or in s tan c e , be twe e n 1954 an d
1964, th e pe rc e n t of ad min is trative , te c h n ic al , an d c l e ric al worke rs ros e
f rom18.4 to 23.1. T h e e f f e c t on me mbe rs h ipin th e u n ion s th e ms e l ve s h as
be e n marke d . Al th ou gh wh ite -c ol l ar worke rs are be in g u n ion ize d , th e y d o
n ot make u p f or l os s e s in th e d e c l in in g oc c u pation s , s u c h as min in g, s h ip-
bu il d in g, an d te xtil e s , an d be twe e n 1953 an d 1963, al th ou gh th e total n u m-
be r of e mpl oy e e s we n t u p 9 pe rc e n t, trad e -u n ion me mbe rs h ipros e on l y 4
pe rc e n t.
S u c h c h an ge s in oc c u pation al s tru c tu re s u re l y mu s t af f e c t pol itic al be -
h avior. Ye t th e re l ation s h ip is n ot s impl e . For on e th in g, th is oc c u pation al
s h if t h as be e n goin g on f or a l on g time . From1931 to 1951, f or in s tan c e ,
man u al wage -e arn e rs d e c l in e d as a pe rc e n t of th e popu l ation f rom 70.3
to 64.2, wh il e wh ite -c ol l ar e mpl oy e e s ros e f rom 23.0 pe rc e n t to 30.9 pe rc e n t.
Ye t it was in th e mid -f if tie s th at th e Labou rparty re ac h e d th e pe ak of its
in d ivid u al an d trad e -u n ion me mbe rs h ip. M ore ove r, th e f ac t th at th e Con -
s e rvative party h as al s o l os t me mbe rs h ip s u gge s ts th at th e re l e van t c on d i-
tion mu s t af f e c t both partie s .
T h e d e c l in e of id e ol ogic al d is tan c e be twe e n th e partie s c ou l d we l l be an
in f l u e n c e . T h e re l ation s h ip is f amil iar: a party re ac h e s ou t to attrac t n e w
vote rs , bu t in th e proc e s s wate rs d own th e d oc trin e th at h ad pre viou s l y
attrac te d n e w re c ru its . Ye t th is f ormu l ation impl ie s ad imin u tion of in te n s ity
of s u pport amon g partis an s wh ic h d oe s n ot s qu are e as il y with th e f ac t th at
pe r c apita f in an c ial c on tribu tion f romth e l oc al partie s to th e n ation al La-
bou r party
h as al mos t d ou bl e d
d u rin g th e pe riod
of
d e c l in in g me mbe rs h ip.
13 D. E. B u tl e r an d An th on y Kin g, T h e B ritis h Ge n e ral El e c tion of 1966 (Ne w York,
1966), p.
265.
14
For a s e arc h in g d is c u s s ion , s e e Le on Eps te in , P ol itic al P artie s in We s te rn De -
moc rac ie s (Ne w York, 1967), e s p. Ch . 4, "T h e S oc ial is t Workin g-Cl as s P arty ."
mid d l e -c l as s s tratato Labou r, with th e re s u l t th at "th e c l as s
pol aris ation
of
th e B ritis h e l e c torate was
pe rh aps f rac tion al l y
re d u c e d ."'13 A rath e rs imil ar
bu t more s u bs tan tial s h if t al s o was re ve al e d
amon g
Labou rM P 's , c an d i-
d ate s e l e c te d in 1965-1966
s h owin g
a
s trikin g
in c re as e in
prof e s s ion al
oc -
c u pation s
an d
u n ive rs ity bac kgrou n d .
P e rh aps
th e mos t
importan t
an d
c e rtain l y
n ot th e l e as t
pu zzl in g d e ve l op-
me n ts re l ate to
party me mbe rs h ip.14
We
re c ogn ize ,
of c ou rs e , th at
on l y
a
s mal l f rac tion of th e mil l ion s
re porte d by
e ac h
party
are in f ac t ac tive
party
worke rs . S til l th e s e mil l ion s
re pre s e n t
a s ou rc e of
gre at
f in an c ial
s u pport
an d a
re c ru itin g grou n d
f or th e s c ore s of th ou s an d s of ac tivis ts .
Al th ou gh
th e Con s e rvative s d o n ot
ke e p
a
ve ry
e xac t ac c ou n t, th e ir
me mbe rs h ip
f e l l
f romabou t 2.8 mil l ion to 2.3 mil l ion be twe e n th e
e arl y
f if tie s an d
e arl y
s ixtie s . On th e Labou rs id e , in d ivid u al
me mbe rs h ip
re ac h e d a
pe ak
in 1953
of abou t on e mil l ion af te r s ome
y e ars
of
s te ad y growth .
From1953 to 1966,
h owe ve r, th e
f igu re d roppe d by
al mos t 25
pe rc e n t.
T rad e -u n ion me mbe r-
s h ip
in th e
party
re ac h e d its
pe ak
in 1956, al s o af te r a
l on g
an d
s te ad y
c l imb. In th e
f ol l owin g
te n
y e ars , al th ou gh
th e trad e -u n ion total f e l l of f
by
on l y
2
pe rc e n t,
it f ail e d to
ke e p pac e
with th e work f orc e , wh ic h
gre w by
s ome 7 pe rc e n t. T h e Labou rparty , f ar f rome mbrac in g e ve r l arge rc irc l e s of
th e workin g c l as s , s u f f e re d n ot me re l y a s topbu t an abs ol u te d e c l in e .
As f or c au s e s of th is d e c l in e , th e mos t pl au s ibl e is th e c h an ge in oc c u pa-
tion al s tru c tu re . In man u f ac tu rin g al on e , f or in s tan c e , be twe e n 1954 an d
1964, th e pe rc e n t of ad min is trative , te c h n ic al , an d c l e ric al worke rs ros e
f rom18.4 to 23.1. T h e e f f e c t on me mbe rs h ipin th e u n ion s th e ms e l ve s h as
be e n marke d . Al th ou gh wh ite -c ol l ar worke rs are be in g u n ion ize d , th e y d o
n ot make u p f or l os s e s in th e d e c l in in g oc c u pation s , s u c h as min in g, s h ip-
bu il d in g, an d te xtil e s , an d be twe e n 1953 an d 1963, al th ou gh th e total n u m-
be r of e mpl oy e e s we n t u p 9 pe rc e n t, trad e -u n ion me mbe rs h ipros e on l y 4
pe rc e n t.
S u c h c h an ge s in oc c u pation al s tru c tu re s u re l y mu s t af f e c t pol itic al be -
h avior. Ye t th e re l ation s h ip is n ot s impl e . For on e th in g, th is oc c u pation al
s h if t h as be e n goin g on f or a l on g time . From1931 to 1951, f or in s tan c e ,
man u al wage -e arn e rs d e c l in e d as a pe rc e n t of th e popu l ation f rom 70.3
to 64.2, wh il e wh ite -c ol l ar e mpl oy e e s ros e f rom 23.0 pe rc e n t to 30.9 pe rc e n t.
Ye t it was in th e mid -f if tie s th at th e Labou rparty re ac h e d th e pe ak of its
in d ivid u al an d trad e -u n ion me mbe rs h ip. M ore ove r, th e f ac t th at th e Con -
s e rvative party h as al s o l os t me mbe rs h ip s u gge s ts th at th e re l e van t c on d i-
tion mu s t af f e c t both partie s .
T h e d e c l in e of id e ol ogic al d is tan c e be twe e n th e partie s c ou l d we l l be an
in f l u e n c e . T h e re l ation s h ip is f amil iar: a party re ac h e s ou t to attrac t n e w
vote rs , bu t in th e proc e s s wate rs d own th e d oc trin e th at h ad pre viou s l y
attrac te d n e w re c ru its . Ye t th is f ormu l ation impl ie s ad imin u tion of in te n s ity
of s u pport amon g partis an s wh ic h d oe s n ot s qu are e as il y with th e f ac t th at
pe r c apita f in an c ial c on tribu tion f romth e l oc al partie s to th e n ation al La-
bou r party
h as al mos t d ou bl e d
d u rin g th e pe riod
of
d e c l in in g me mbe rs h ip.
13 D. E. B u tl e r an d An th on y Kin g, T h e B ritis h Ge n e ral El e c tion of 1966 (Ne w York,
1966), p.
265.
14
For a s e arc h in g d is c u s s ion , s e e Le on Eps te in , P ol itic al P artie s in We s te rn De -
moc rac ie s (Ne w York, 1967), e s p. Ch . 4, "T h e S oc ial is t Workin g-Cl as s P arty ."
30 30
S amu e l H. B e e r S amu e l H. B e e r
An oth e r
porte n tou s
in n ovation of th e s ixtie s
s u re l y
n e e d s to be c on s id -
e re d . T h is is th e
partie s ' in c re as in g
u s e of n e w c ommu n ic ation s
te c h n iqu e s ,
e s pe c ial l y s u rve y
re s e arc h an d
ad ve rtis in g
an d te l e vis ion . In both
partie s
th e re was
s tron g
in itial re s is tan c e . On th e Con s e rvative s id e th e id e al of
T ory s tate s man s h ips u gge s ts
th at th e rol e of th e
gove rn in g
c l as s is to
gove rn
an d th e n to as k th e
approval
of th e
pe opl e ,
on wh os e f avorabl e
ju d gme n tit
c an , in th e
l on g ru n , c ou n t. On th e Labou rs id e th e n otion of c on f e re n c e as
th e au th e n tic voic e of th e
workin g
c l as s is n o more f avorabl e to th e u s e of
s u rve y
re s e arc h to
id e n tif y
th e wis h e s of vote rs . T h e e f f e c tive n e s s of th e n e w
te c h n iqu e s
in
win n in g e l e c tion s , h owe ve r, f in al l y
broke
th rou gh
th e s e ob-
s tac l e s . Fe ars of th e ir
s l ippin g popu l arity
l e d th e Con s e rvative s to take
th e f irs t
s te p
in 1959, e ve n
th ou gh th e y
we re at th at time in of f ic e . Labou r
f ol l owe d s u it in 1964, be in g gre atl y
in f l u e n c e d
by
th e s c ie n tif ic
f in d in gs of
Dr. M ark Abrams an d th e
l e ad e rs h ip
of
Hu gh
Gaits ke l l . In d e e d th is wh ol e
c h an ge
in tac tic s was
part
of th e "re vis ion is t"
triu mph
ove r th e
id e ol ogu e s .
In 1966 both
partie s
c on tin u e d th e ir e f f orts , th e Con s e rvative s in th e ir at-
te mpt
to l oc ate
"targe t
vote rs "
makin g
a f ar more ambitiou s u s e of
s u rve y
re s e arc h th an h ad e ve r be e n mad e be f ore .
Foral l th e re main in g re s is tan c e s of trad ition al is m, th e re c an be n o d ou bt
th at th is re vol u tion in e l e c toral me th od s an d th e re s u l tin g prof e s s ion al iza-
tion of vote -ge ttin g wil l go f orward . T h e c on ve n tion al wis d omof th e party
l e ad e r an d age n t abou t th e vote r appe al of pe n s ion s , h ou s in g, e d u c ation ,
an d
oth e r e l e me n ts in th e bid d in g proc e s s is n ow re f in e d an d mad e f ar more
e xac t by s u rve y re s e arc h , wh il e th e atte mpt to win th e s u pport of th e re l e -
van t grou ps is h e igh te n e d by an in c re as in gl y s oph is tic ate d u s e of ad ve rtis -
in g an d te l e vis ion .
T h e e f f e c ts of th is majors te p in ration al ization are n ot l ike l y to be c on -
f in e d to e l e c tion s , an d c an h ard l y h e l p af f e c tin g th e powe r s tru c tu re s of th e
two partie s . T h e re is s til l arol e f or th e l oc al ac tivis ts , y e t as ame an s of as -
c e rtain in g an d in f l u e n c in g th e pu bl ic wil l th e y are ove rs h ad owe d by th e
n e w
te c h n iqu e s . In th e Labou rparty , th e e f f e c t wil l s u re l y be to re d u c e
s til l
f u rth e rth e rol e of c on f e re n c e in pol ic y -makin g. With re gard toth e pos ition s
of th e two partie s , th e n e w an d more e f f e c tive proc e s s e s of bid d in g
may
ve ry we l l d raw th e me ve n c l os e r toge th e r. T ory s tate s man s h ipits e l f c an n ot
wh ol l y re s is t th e e f f e c t of h ard e vid e n c e of th e vote rs ' d e s ire s . In 1966, f or
e xampl e , wh e n s u rve y re s e arc h s h owe d th at th e vote rs pre f e rre d Labou r's
pol ic y
of
c ompre h e n s ive e d u c ation toth e Con s e rvative s tan d , s tate s man s h ip
at l e as t c ompromis e d by omittin g th e me n tion of e d u c ation f romth e man i-
f e s to. No d ou bt th e imme n s e l y in c re as e d d e man d s f or mon e y wh ic h
th e
n e w te c h n iqu e s e n tail al s o c ou l d af f e c t powe r s tru c tu re . In 1964, f or e xam-
pl e ,
Labou r tre bl e d its e xpe n d itu re s on its pre e l e c tion c ampaign as c om-
pare d
with 1959. Itis worth me n tion in g th at as pe c ial c ommitte e h as re c e n tl y
propos e d th at th e Labou rparty ad opt a s y s te m of grad u ate d d u e s f or its
in d ivid u al me mbe rs , vary in g with th e ir in c ome s .
x
In re vis in g h is s tan d ard work on B ritis h pre s s u re grou ps in 1965, P rof e s s or
Fin e r wrote : "... . T h e mos t s trikin g impre s s ion I h ave re c e ive d is th e s tabil -
ity an d d u rabil ity of th e s y s te mit d e s c ribe s .... B road l y s pe akin g, th e s ame
An oth e r
porte n tou s
in n ovation of th e s ixtie s
s u re l y
n e e d s to be c on s id -
e re d . T h is is th e
partie s ' in c re as in g
u s e of n e w c ommu n ic ation s
te c h n iqu e s ,
e s pe c ial l y s u rve y
re s e arc h an d
ad ve rtis in g
an d te l e vis ion . In both
partie s
th e re was
s tron g
in itial re s is tan c e . On th e Con s e rvative s id e th e id e al of
T ory s tate s man s h ips u gge s ts
th at th e rol e of th e
gove rn in g
c l as s is to
gove rn
an d th e n to as k th e
approval
of th e
pe opl e ,
on wh os e f avorabl e
ju d gme n tit
c an , in th e
l on g ru n , c ou n t. On th e Labou rs id e th e n otion of c on f e re n c e as
th e au th e n tic voic e of th e
workin g
c l as s is n o more f avorabl e to th e u s e of
s u rve y
re s e arc h to
id e n tif y
th e wis h e s of vote rs . T h e e f f e c tive n e s s of th e n e w
te c h n iqu e s
in
win n in g e l e c tion s , h owe ve r, f in al l y
broke
th rou gh
th e s e ob-
s tac l e s . Fe ars of th e ir
s l ippin g popu l arity
l e d th e Con s e rvative s to take
th e f irs t
s te p
in 1959, e ve n
th ou gh th e y
we re at th at time in of f ic e . Labou r
f ol l owe d s u it in 1964, be in g gre atl y
in f l u e n c e d
by
th e s c ie n tif ic
f in d in gs of
Dr. M ark Abrams an d th e
l e ad e rs h ip
of
Hu gh
Gaits ke l l . In d e e d th is wh ol e
c h an ge
in tac tic s was
part
of th e "re vis ion is t"
triu mph
ove r th e
id e ol ogu e s .
In 1966 both
partie s
c on tin u e d th e ir e f f orts , th e Con s e rvative s in th e ir at-
te mpt
to l oc ate
"targe t
vote rs "
makin g
a f ar more ambitiou s u s e of
s u rve y
re s e arc h th an h ad e ve r be e n mad e be f ore .
Foral l th e re main in g re s is tan c e s of trad ition al is m, th e re c an be n o d ou bt
th at th is re vol u tion in e l e c toral me th od s an d th e re s u l tin g prof e s s ion al iza-
tion of vote -ge ttin g wil l go f orward . T h e c on ve n tion al wis d omof th e party
l e ad e r an d age n t abou t th e vote r appe al of pe n s ion s , h ou s in g, e d u c ation ,
an d
oth e r e l e me n ts in th e bid d in g proc e s s is n ow re f in e d an d mad e f ar more
e xac t by s u rve y re s e arc h , wh il e th e atte mpt to win th e s u pport of th e re l e -
van t grou ps is h e igh te n e d by an in c re as in gl y s oph is tic ate d u s e of ad ve rtis -
in g an d te l e vis ion .
T h e e f f e c ts of th is majors te p in ration al ization are n ot l ike l y to be c on -
f in e d to e l e c tion s , an d c an h ard l y h e l p af f e c tin g th e powe r s tru c tu re s of th e
two partie s . T h e re is s til l arol e f or th e l oc al ac tivis ts , y e t as ame an s of as -
c e rtain in g an d in f l u e n c in g th e pu bl ic wil l th e y are ove rs h ad owe d by th e
n e w
te c h n iqu e s . In th e Labou rparty , th e e f f e c t wil l s u re l y be to re d u c e
s til l
f u rth e rth e rol e of c on f e re n c e in pol ic y -makin g. With re gard toth e pos ition s
of th e two partie s , th e n e w an d more e f f e c tive proc e s s e s of bid d in g
may
ve ry we l l d raw th e me ve n c l os e r toge th e r. T ory s tate s man s h ipits e l f c an n ot
wh ol l y re s is t th e e f f e c t of h ard e vid e n c e of th e vote rs ' d e s ire s . In 1966, f or
e xampl e , wh e n s u rve y re s e arc h s h owe d th at th e vote rs pre f e rre d Labou r's
pol ic y
of
c ompre h e n s ive e d u c ation toth e Con s e rvative s tan d , s tate s man s h ip
at l e as t c ompromis e d by omittin g th e me n tion of e d u c ation f romth e man i-
f e s to. No d ou bt th e imme n s e l y in c re as e d d e man d s f or mon e y wh ic h
th e
n e w te c h n iqu e s e n tail al s o c ou l d af f e c t powe r s tru c tu re . In 1964, f or e xam-
pl e ,
Labou r tre bl e d its e xpe n d itu re s on its pre e l e c tion c ampaign as c om-
pare d
with 1959. Itis worth me n tion in g th at as pe c ial c ommitte e h as re c e n tl y
propos e d th at th e Labou rparty ad opt a s y s te m of grad u ate d d u e s f or its
in d ivid u al me mbe rs , vary in g with th e ir in c ome s .
x
In re vis in g h is s tan d ard work on B ritis h pre s s u re grou ps in 1965, P rof e s s or
Fin e r wrote : "... . T h e mos t s trikin g impre s s ion I h ave re c e ive d is th e s tabil -
ity an d d u rabil ity of th e s y s te mit d e s c ribe s .... B road l y s pe akin g, th e s ame
31 31
Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968 Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968
gre at organ is ation s
s til l h ol d th e c e n tre of th e
s tage ,
c on tin u e to make th e
s ame s ort of d e man d s , an d
pre s s
th e m
by
th e s ame s ort of tac tic s ."15 With
re gard
to f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation ,
two
d e ve l opme n ts ,
both c on tin u ou s
with
pas t tre n d s , are n otabl e . T h e
s y s te m
of
qu as i-c orporatis mbrin gin g
gove rn me n t
an d
prod u c e rs ' grou ps
in to in timate an d c on tin u ou s re l ation -
s h ips
h as be e n s til l f u rth e r e l aborate d an d in s titu tion al ize d . At th e s ame
time , th e
e xpe rt,
th e
s c ie n tif ic al l y
an d
prof e s s ion al l y
train e d
pe rs on ,
h as
c on tin u e d to
gain
a
pos ition
of
gre ate r
in f l u e n c e . In n e ith e r c as e , h owe ve r,
h as th e c ou rs e of e ve n ts be e n s mooth ; on th e
c on trary ,
l ike B ritis h
pl an n in g
its e l f , it h as be e n
pu n c tu ate d by "S top
an d Go."
A n e w an d
gre ate r
c ommitme n t to
pl an n in g
was in s titu tion al ize d in n e w
mac h in e ry
th at th e Con s e rvative s
in au gu rate d
an d Labou r
d e ve l ope d :
th e
Nation al Ec on omic
De ve l opme n t
Cou n c il with its s c ore or s o of l ittl e Ne d -
d ie s f or
s pe c if ic f ie l d s , th e
De partme n t
of Ec on omic Af f airs , th e Nation al
B oard f or P ric e s an d In c ome s .
T h rou gh
th e s e c h an n e l s , c on s u l tation be -
twe e n
gove rn me n t
an d
prod u c e rs ' grou ps
was wid e n e d an d
re gu l arize d .
A
majorc h an ge f ac il itatin g
th is n e w l e ve l of c on tac t was th e c ru c ial s h if t
in th e attitu d e s of
organ ize d
bu s in e s s toward th e
ac c e ptan c e
of e c on omic
pl an n in g.
Eve n af te r th e war, in d u s try
c on tin u e d to be torn be twe e n its ol d
prin c ipl e
of
in d e pe n d e n c e
of
gove rn me n t
an d th e n e w
pos s ibil itie s
of e x-
e rc is in g in f l u e n c e on it at th e c os t of c l os e r as s oc iation . Fin al l y , in th e
e arl y s ixtie s a d e c is ion was mad e in f avor of th e l atte r al te rn ative , re f l e c te d
in th e vigorou s ad voc ac y by th e Fe d e ration of B ritis h In d u s trie s of e c on omic
pl an n in g f or growth on th e Fre n c h mod e l . In d e e d , it was in d u s try 's ac c e pt-
an c e of its n e w re s pon s ibil itie s in th e NEDCth at l e d to th e amal gamation
of th e th re e main pe ak organ ization s in to on e c ompre h e n s ive organ ization ,
th e Con f e d e ration of B ritis h In d u s try . Norwas th is n e w c ommitme n tpu re l y
organ ization al : in d ivid u al f irms c oope rate d h e artil y in provid in g th e mas s ive
in f ormation n e e d e d f or Labou r's Nation al P l an .
In th e s ixtie s , as in th e f ortie s , h owe ve r, th e s u c c e s s of pl an n in g d e pe n d e d
u pon th e re s train t of in f l ation , apartic u l arl y ac u te probl e mf or an e c on omy
in th e e xpos e d in te rn ation al pos ition of th e B ritis h . Again as in th e pas t, th e
n e w grou p pol itic s c au s e d d if f ic u l tie s .16 Gove rn me n ts s h owe d gre at re -
l u c tan c e to re s tric t c on s u mption , private an d pu bl ic . Again s t th is bac k-
grou n d of e xc e s s ive d e man d , it was e ve n h ard e r to ac h ie ve s u c c e s s in th e
e f f ort to h ol d d own th e f orc e s makin g f or in f l ation on th e s id e of c os ts , e s -
pe c ial l y wage s . T h e atte mpt to s e t u p an e f f e c tive in c ome s pol ic y was th e
c ore of th e probl e m, an d th e prol on ge d an d in tric ate bargain in g of th e La-
bou r Gove rn me n twith prod u c e rs ' grou ps , e s pe c ial l y trad e u n ion s , make s a
f as c in atin g c h apte r in th e d e ve l opme n t of f u n c tion al re pre s e n tation . P ar-
l iame n t pl ay e d are s id u al rol e , an d wh il e th e th re at to u s e l e gal powe rs d id
grad u al l y mate rial ize , e ve n ts again mad e it c l e ar th at th e re al f ou n d ation of
a s u c c e s s f u l pol ic y wou l d h ave to be vol u n tary c oope ration .
As of th is writin g, it c an on l y be s aid th at th e in c ome s -pol ic y atte mptwas
a f ail u re . T h e re as on was in
part a matte r of c h oic e an d wil l : th e mas s ive
tran s port-worke rs ' u n ion as of ol d , s u pporte d by s u c h u n ion s as th e e n gi-
15
S . E. Fin e r, An on y mou s Empire (Lon d on , 1966), p. ix.
16
I h ave d is c u s s e d th e re l ation s h ip in "T h e B ritis h Le gis l atu re an d th e P robl e m of
M obil izin g Con s e n t," in El ke Fran k, e d . Lawmake rs in a Ch an gin g Worl d (En gl e wood
Cl if f s , 1966), e s p. pp. 37-39.
gre at organ is ation s
s til l h ol d th e c e n tre of th e
s tage ,
c on tin u e to make th e
s ame s ort of d e man d s , an d
pre s s
th e m
by
th e s ame s ort of tac tic s ."15 With
re gard
to f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation ,
two
d e ve l opme n ts ,
both c on tin u ou s
with
pas t tre n d s , are n otabl e . T h e
s y s te m
of
qu as i-c orporatis mbrin gin g
gove rn me n t
an d
prod u c e rs ' grou ps
in to in timate an d c on tin u ou s re l ation -
s h ips
h as be e n s til l f u rth e r e l aborate d an d in s titu tion al ize d . At th e s ame
time , th e
e xpe rt,
th e
s c ie n tif ic al l y
an d
prof e s s ion al l y
train e d
pe rs on ,
h as
c on tin u e d to
gain
a
pos ition
of
gre ate r
in f l u e n c e . In n e ith e r c as e , h owe ve r,
h as th e c ou rs e of e ve n ts be e n s mooth ; on th e
c on trary ,
l ike B ritis h
pl an n in g
its e l f , it h as be e n
pu n c tu ate d by "S top
an d Go."
A n e w an d
gre ate r
c ommitme n t to
pl an n in g
was in s titu tion al ize d in n e w
mac h in e ry
th at th e Con s e rvative s
in au gu rate d
an d Labou r
d e ve l ope d :
th e
Nation al Ec on omic
De ve l opme n t
Cou n c il with its s c ore or s o of l ittl e Ne d -
d ie s f or
s pe c if ic f ie l d s , th e
De partme n t
of Ec on omic Af f airs , th e Nation al
B oard f or P ric e s an d In c ome s .
T h rou gh
th e s e c h an n e l s , c on s u l tation be -
twe e n
gove rn me n t
an d
prod u c e rs ' grou ps
was wid e n e d an d
re gu l arize d .
A
majorc h an ge f ac il itatin g
th is n e w l e ve l of c on tac t was th e c ru c ial s h if t
in th e attitu d e s of
organ ize d
bu s in e s s toward th e
ac c e ptan c e
of e c on omic
pl an n in g.
Eve n af te r th e war, in d u s try
c on tin u e d to be torn be twe e n its ol d
prin c ipl e
of
in d e pe n d e n c e
of
gove rn me n t
an d th e n e w
pos s ibil itie s
of e x-
e rc is in g in f l u e n c e on it at th e c os t of c l os e r as s oc iation . Fin al l y , in th e
e arl y s ixtie s a d e c is ion was mad e in f avor of th e l atte r al te rn ative , re f l e c te d
in th e vigorou s ad voc ac y by th e Fe d e ration of B ritis h In d u s trie s of e c on omic
pl an n in g f or growth on th e Fre n c h mod e l . In d e e d , it was in d u s try 's ac c e pt-
an c e of its n e w re s pon s ibil itie s in th e NEDCth at l e d to th e amal gamation
of th e th re e main pe ak organ ization s in to on e c ompre h e n s ive organ ization ,
th e Con f e d e ration of B ritis h In d u s try . Norwas th is n e w c ommitme n tpu re l y
organ ization al : in d ivid u al f irms c oope rate d h e artil y in provid in g th e mas s ive
in f ormation n e e d e d f or Labou r's Nation al P l an .
In th e s ixtie s , as in th e f ortie s , h owe ve r, th e s u c c e s s of pl an n in g d e pe n d e d
u pon th e re s train t of in f l ation , apartic u l arl y ac u te probl e mf or an e c on omy
in th e e xpos e d in te rn ation al pos ition of th e B ritis h . Again as in th e pas t, th e
n e w grou p pol itic s c au s e d d if f ic u l tie s .16 Gove rn me n ts s h owe d gre at re -
l u c tan c e to re s tric t c on s u mption , private an d pu bl ic . Again s t th is bac k-
grou n d of e xc e s s ive d e man d , it was e ve n h ard e r to ac h ie ve s u c c e s s in th e
e f f ort to h ol d d own th e f orc e s makin g f or in f l ation on th e s id e of c os ts , e s -
pe c ial l y wage s . T h e atte mpt to s e t u p an e f f e c tive in c ome s pol ic y was th e
c ore of th e probl e m, an d th e prol on ge d an d in tric ate bargain in g of th e La-
bou r Gove rn me n twith prod u c e rs ' grou ps , e s pe c ial l y trad e u n ion s , make s a
f as c in atin g c h apte r in th e d e ve l opme n t of f u n c tion al re pre s e n tation . P ar-
l iame n t pl ay e d are s id u al rol e , an d wh il e th e th re at to u s e l e gal powe rs d id
grad u al l y mate rial ize , e ve n ts again mad e it c l e ar th at th e re al f ou n d ation of
a s u c c e s s f u l pol ic y wou l d h ave to be vol u n tary c oope ration .
As of th is writin g, it c an on l y be s aid th at th e in c ome s -pol ic y atte mptwas
a f ail u re . T h e re as on was in
part a matte r of c h oic e an d wil l : th e mas s ive
tran s port-worke rs ' u n ion as of ol d , s u pporte d by s u c h u n ion s as th e e n gi-
15
S . E. Fin e r, An on y mou s Empire (Lon d on , 1966), p. ix.
16
I h ave d is c u s s e d th e re l ation s h ip in "T h e B ritis h Le gis l atu re an d th e P robl e m of
M obil izin g Con s e n t," in El ke Fran k, e d . Lawmake rs in a Ch an gin g Worl d (En gl e wood
Cl if f s , 1966), e s p. pp. 37-39.
32 32
S amu e l H. B e e r S amu e l H. B e e r
n e e rs ' u n d e r
n e wl y
rad ic al
l e ad e rs h ip, s impl y
re f u s e d to
c oope rate .
Ye t th e re
we re al s o
importan t
s tru c tu ral we akn e s s e s , on th e s id e of both
e mpl oy e rs '
an d
e mpl oy e e s ' organ ization s ,
wh ic h th row
in te re s tin g l igh t
on th e
s tage
of
pol itic al
c on c e n tration re ac h e d
by
th e B ritis h
pol ity .
As
c ompare d
with
s imil ar
grou ps
in s u c h c ou n trie s as S we d e n , B ritis h
prod u c e rs ' grou ps
h ave
l on g
be e n c ritic ize d f or th e ir l ac k of c oh e s ion . Ye t mod e rn e c on omic man -
age me n t,
wh ic h e n tail s th e
makin g
of
bargain s
th at wil l be
ke pt, re qu ire s
c oh e re n t an d au th oritative
l e ad e rs h ip
on both s id e s of th e
private
s e c tor.
Con c e n tration
amon g
u n ion s h as
gon e f orward , an d
tod ay
70
pe rc e n t
of
trad e -u n ion
me mbe rs h ip
is in c l u d e d in s ome
e igh te e n h u ge organ ization s .
T h e
d y n amic s
of u n ion
growth
s e e m
in e xorabl y
to be
e l imin atin g
th e
man y
s mal l
organ ization s ,
wh il e th e
s e paratis m
of d if f e re n t c raf ts is in
part ove r-
c ome
by
th e f u rth e r
growth
of
ge n e ral
u n ion s .
At th e s ame time ,
h owe ve r,
f u l l
e mpl oy me n t
h as l e d to a s h if t of mu c h
s ign if ic an t
c ol l e c tive
bargain in g
f romth e n ation al to th e
pl an t
l e ve l . Eve n
wh e n n ation al
organ ization s
d id ac c ommod ate th e ir
agre e me n ts
on
wage
rate s to th e c rite riaof th e in c ome s
pol ic y , "e arn in gs
d rif t" at th e
workpl ac e
l e ve l c on tin u e d to s we l l th e f orc e s of c os t in f l ation . As
c ompare d
with th e
time wh e n
n ation al l y agre e d wage
rate s we re
virtu al l y
id e n tic al with e arn -
in gs ,
th is n e w
d e ve l opme n t
h as me an t are al an d
major
l os s of
au th ority
on
th e part of th e n ation al u n ion s . Wh e th e r th e ir c e n tral powe r s h ou l d be
s tre n gth e n e d or th e s e d e c e n tral ize d prac tic e s s h ou l d be re c ogn ize d an d
re gu l arize d is be in g ard e n tl y d e bate d . Wh ate ve r s tru c tu re is ad opte d , it c an
be s aid th at if th is n e w s tage of ration al ize d c on trol of th e e c on omy is to
s u c c e e d , s ome c orre s pon d in g me an s mu s t be f ou n d to mobil ize c on s e n t
amon g th e af f e c te d grou ps .
T h is f ail u re of pl an n in g h as al s o me an t a c e rtain s e tbac k f or th at prof e s -
s ion al ization of pol ic y -makin g wh ic h is a growin g c h arac te ris tic of B ritis h
as of oth e r We s te rn gove rn me n ts . If we l ook ge n e ral l y at th e rol e of th e
s c ie n tis t in B ritis h gove rn me n t, we c an s e e th at it h as grown s l owl y an d
s te ad il y in B ritain d u rin g th e pas t two or th re e d e c ad e s , al th ou gh by n o
me an s as gre atl y as in th e Un ite d S tate s . As h as of te n h appe n e d to oth e r
grou ps an d c l as s e s in th e pas t, th e n e w n e e d s of pu bl ic pol ic y h ave e l e vate d
th e e f f e c tive powe r an d in f l u e n c e of th e s c ie n tif ic al l y an d prof e s s ion al l y
train e d s trata. B ritain gave s c ie n tis ts n e w an d importan t f u n c tion s d u rin g
th e war an d s in c e th e n , re l ative to GNP , h as in ve s te d abou t as mu c h in
c ivil ian re s e arc h an d d e ve l opme n t as h as th e Un ite d S tate s . T h e n e twork of
ad vis ory c ommitte e s th at c l u s te r arou n d gove rn me n t d e partme n ts in c l u d e s
a h igh proportion of s c ie n tif ic al l y train e d pe opl e . T h e c re ation of th e M in -
is try of T e c h n ol ogy h as improve d th e ir pos ition with in th e ad min is tration
an d give n s c ie n c e pol ic y an e w importan c e .
In d e e d , wh e n Harol d Wil s on took of f ic e in 1964 it was with gre at prom-
is e s of brin gin g th e s c ie n tif ic re vol u tion to f ru ition in B ritain . On e imme d i-
ate in s tan c e was af l oc kin g of d on s , partic u l arl y e c on omis ts , toWh ite h al l , a
migration re min is c e n t of Ame ric an prac tic e an d in d e e d c on s c iou s l y imitat-
in g it. If th e origin al h ope s f or e c on omic pl an n in g h ad be e n f u l f il l e d , th e
rol e of th e prof e s s ion al wou l d h ave be e n e ve n gre ate rth an it is tod ay . T h e
pre s s u re of e c on omic c ris is , h owe ve r, with its u s u al f e atu re s of
in f l ation
an d an in te rn ation al d e f ic it, f orc e d au th ority away f romth e n e w organ s
an d bac k toward th e T re as u ry , wh ic h al th ou gh by n o me an s as in n oc e n t of
n e e rs ' u n d e r
n e wl y
rad ic al
l e ad e rs h ip, s impl y
re f u s e d to
c oope rate .
Ye t th e re
we re al s o
importan t
s tru c tu ral we akn e s s e s , on th e s id e of both
e mpl oy e rs '
an d
e mpl oy e e s ' organ ization s ,
wh ic h th row
in te re s tin g l igh t
on th e
s tage
of
pol itic al
c on c e n tration re ac h e d
by
th e B ritis h
pol ity .
As
c ompare d
with
s imil ar
grou ps
in s u c h c ou n trie s as S we d e n , B ritis h
prod u c e rs ' grou ps
h ave
l on g
be e n c ritic ize d f or th e ir l ac k of c oh e s ion . Ye t mod e rn e c on omic man -
age me n t,
wh ic h e n tail s th e
makin g
of
bargain s
th at wil l be
ke pt, re qu ire s
c oh e re n t an d au th oritative
l e ad e rs h ip
on both s id e s of th e
private
s e c tor.
Con c e n tration
amon g
u n ion s h as
gon e f orward , an d
tod ay
70
pe rc e n t
of
trad e -u n ion
me mbe rs h ip
is in c l u d e d in s ome
e igh te e n h u ge organ ization s .
T h e
d y n amic s
of u n ion
growth
s e e m
in e xorabl y
to be
e l imin atin g
th e
man y
s mal l
organ ization s ,
wh il e th e
s e paratis m
of d if f e re n t c raf ts is in
part ove r-
c ome
by
th e f u rth e r
growth
of
ge n e ral
u n ion s .
At th e s ame time ,
h owe ve r,
f u l l
e mpl oy me n t
h as l e d to a s h if t of mu c h
s ign if ic an t
c ol l e c tive
bargain in g
f romth e n ation al to th e
pl an t
l e ve l . Eve n
wh e n n ation al
organ ization s
d id ac c ommod ate th e ir
agre e me n ts
on
wage
rate s to th e c rite riaof th e in c ome s
pol ic y , "e arn in gs
d rif t" at th e
workpl ac e
l e ve l c on tin u e d to s we l l th e f orc e s of c os t in f l ation . As
c ompare d
with th e
time wh e n
n ation al l y agre e d wage
rate s we re
virtu al l y
id e n tic al with e arn -
in gs ,
th is n e w
d e ve l opme n t
h as me an t are al an d
major
l os s of
au th ority
on
th e part of th e n ation al u n ion s . Wh e th e r th e ir c e n tral powe r s h ou l d be
s tre n gth e n e d or th e s e d e c e n tral ize d prac tic e s s h ou l d be re c ogn ize d an d
re gu l arize d is be in g ard e n tl y d e bate d . Wh ate ve r s tru c tu re is ad opte d , it c an
be s aid th at if th is n e w s tage of ration al ize d c on trol of th e e c on omy is to
s u c c e e d , s ome c orre s pon d in g me an s mu s t be f ou n d to mobil ize c on s e n t
amon g th e af f e c te d grou ps .
T h is f ail u re of pl an n in g h as al s o me an t a c e rtain s e tbac k f or th at prof e s -
s ion al ization of pol ic y -makin g wh ic h is a growin g c h arac te ris tic of B ritis h
as of oth e r We s te rn gove rn me n ts . If we l ook ge n e ral l y at th e rol e of th e
s c ie n tis t in B ritis h gove rn me n t, we c an s e e th at it h as grown s l owl y an d
s te ad il y in B ritain d u rin g th e pas t two or th re e d e c ad e s , al th ou gh by n o
me an s as gre atl y as in th e Un ite d S tate s . As h as of te n h appe n e d to oth e r
grou ps an d c l as s e s in th e pas t, th e n e w n e e d s of pu bl ic pol ic y h ave e l e vate d
th e e f f e c tive powe r an d in f l u e n c e of th e s c ie n tif ic al l y an d prof e s s ion al l y
train e d s trata. B ritain gave s c ie n tis ts n e w an d importan t f u n c tion s d u rin g
th e war an d s in c e th e n , re l ative to GNP , h as in ve s te d abou t as mu c h in
c ivil ian re s e arc h an d d e ve l opme n t as h as th e Un ite d S tate s . T h e n e twork of
ad vis ory c ommitte e s th at c l u s te r arou n d gove rn me n t d e partme n ts in c l u d e s
a h igh proportion of s c ie n tif ic al l y train e d pe opl e . T h e c re ation of th e M in -
is try of T e c h n ol ogy h as improve d th e ir pos ition with in th e ad min is tration
an d give n s c ie n c e pol ic y an e w importan c e .
In d e e d , wh e n Harol d Wil s on took of f ic e in 1964 it was with gre at prom-
is e s of brin gin g th e s c ie n tif ic re vol u tion to f ru ition in B ritain . On e imme d i-
ate in s tan c e was af l oc kin g of d on s , partic u l arl y e c on omis ts , toWh ite h al l , a
migration re min is c e n t of Ame ric an prac tic e an d in d e e d c on s c iou s l y imitat-
in g it. If th e origin al h ope s f or e c on omic pl an n in g h ad be e n f u l f il l e d , th e
rol e of th e prof e s s ion al wou l d h ave be e n e ve n gre ate rth an it is tod ay . T h e
pre s s u re of e c on omic c ris is , h owe ve r, with its u s u al f e atu re s of
in f l ation
an d an in te rn ation al d e f ic it, f orc e d au th ority away f romth e n e w organ s
an d bac k toward th e T re as u ry , wh ic h al th ou gh by n o me an s as in n oc e n t of
33 33
Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968 Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968
e xpe rtis e
as it on c e was , re main s
e s pe c ial l y
th e h ome of th e
ge n e ral is t
an d
n on prof e s s ion al
ad min is trator.
XI
In th is brie f s ke tc h of re c e n t
d e ve l opme n ts ,
th e re
appe ar
n o
gre at d e partu re s
f romth e mod e l of Col l e c tivis t
pol itic s .
B ritain 's
pol itic s ,
l ike B ritain 's
prob-
l e ms , be ars a re markabl e re s e mbl an c e to wh at it was te n an d e ve n
twe n ty
y e ars ago.
Ye t th e re are in c re me n tal
c h an ge s
in
e c on omy
an d
pol ity
wh ic h
c ou l d
brin g
abou t a
qu al itative c h an ge .
Wh at are s ome of th e
s h ape s
th at
th is
pol itic al
f u tu re
may
take ?
T h e f u rth e r
d e ve l opme n t
of
c orporatis m
is
s u re l y
tobe
e xpe c te d . P l an n in g
is in e vitabl e in an
e c on omy
th at s e e ks both
s tabil ity
an d
e xpan s ion .
In th e
abs e n c e of a total itarian
bu re au c rac y ,
s u c h
pl an n in g
me an s th at th e e n te r-
pris e s
an d
pe opl e
th at
c arry
ou t th e
pl an s
mu s t be
brou gh t
in on th e irf ormu -
l ation . T o th is e xte n t, as
pl an n in g d e ve l ops ,
f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation
wil l
l ike wis e
grow, be c omin g
an e ve n more
importan tpart
of th e
re pre s e n tative
s y s te m
of th e
pol ity .
T h e s tru c tu re
may
be c ome more c e n tral ize d , as h as
be e n th e
te n d e n c y
in th e
pas t.
Orit
may f u n c tion al l y
an d
te rritorial l y
d e -
c e n tral ize tas ks th at are n ot
e xc e s s ive l y bu rd e n in g
th e c e n te r. T h e e xte n -
s ion of c on trol
th rou gh
s ome f orm of bu re au c ratic s tru c tu re , h owe ve r,
s e e ms
h ard l y
to be avoid e d .
B u t
c orporatis m
c an n ot c on s titu te a
c ompl e te pol ity
an d mu s t be
s u ppl e -
me n te d
by
s ome oth e r s ou rc e of wil l an d d ire c tion s u c h as h as c ome in th e
pas t f romth e party s y s te m. On e of th e more apoc al y ptic pos s ibil itie s h as
re c e n tl y be e n c h arac te rize d by a f rie n d of min e s pe akin g ge n e ral l y of
th e d an ge rs f ac in g We s te rn c ou n trie s . T h is pos s ibil ity h e d e s c ribe d as
"Cae s aris mbas e d on te c h n oc rac y be c au s e of th e d if f ic u l tie s e xpe rie n c e d
by d e moc rac y in d e al in g with c ompl e xity ." T h e d e man d f or pl an n in g is in -
e xorabl e , bu t th e re gime of partie s is in c apabl e of ge n e ratin g amon g th e
popu l ac e th e u n d e rs tan d in g an d ac c e ptan c e th at wil l prod u c e th e d e c is ion s
n e c e s s ary f or pl an n in g. A Cae s aris m, pe rh aps l e s s au th oritarian an d more
man ipu l ative th an ks to th e n e w te c h n iqu e s of c ommu n ic ation , pe rf orms
th is e s s e n tial f u n c tion of f ormin g th e pu bl ic wil l , n o d ou bt in c on ju n c tion
with a c on trol l e d s y s te mof c orporatis m.
With th is ve ry f amil iar s pe c te r on e may c on tras t a te n d e n c y of more re -
c e n t vin tage , wh ic h in s of ar as it is re al ize d wou l d d is ru pt th e impos in g
mon is md e s c ribe d in th e pre viou s paragraph with a rad ic al l y n e w kin d of
d u al is m. T h e patte rn of pol ic y we s u gge s te d above c arrie s th e impe rs on al ity
an d c e n tral ization of bu re au c rac y to a n e w h e igh t, l e gitimizin g th e mwith
th e au th ority of s c ie n c e an d mod e rn ration al ity . Ye t, as we h ave re c e n tl y
l e arn e d again , pre c is e l y th is s e t of f ac tors c an prod u c e apowe rf u l re ac tion .
T h e re are pre c e d e n ts in th e pas t. Upon th e f ou n d ation l aid by vol u n taris m,
mod e rn ity h as f romtime to time prod u c e d a roman tic re ac tion th at re je c ts
n ot on l y th e d is c ipl in e of an obje c tive e th ic s , bu t al s o th e d is c ipl in e of an
in d u s trial e n viron me n t. In B ritain , f romth e Lu d d ite s to D. H. Lawre n c e ,
d if f e re n t c l as s e s an d time s h ave s h are d th is impu l s e , of wh ic h s tu d e n t
an arc h is mis on l y are c e n t f l owe rin g.
B u t if re be l l iou s s tu d e n ts are th e mos t vivid e xh ibit, th e pos s ibil itie s of a
re gion al or l oc al pol itic s are more s e riou s an d n o l e s s roman tic . In re c e n t
e xpe rtis e
as it on c e was , re main s
e s pe c ial l y
th e h ome of th e
ge n e ral is t
an d
n on prof e s s ion al
ad min is trator.
XI
In th is brie f s ke tc h of re c e n t
d e ve l opme n ts ,
th e re
appe ar
n o
gre at d e partu re s
f romth e mod e l of Col l e c tivis t
pol itic s .
B ritain 's
pol itic s ,
l ike B ritain 's
prob-
l e ms , be ars a re markabl e re s e mbl an c e to wh at it was te n an d e ve n
twe n ty
y e ars ago.
Ye t th e re are in c re me n tal
c h an ge s
in
e c on omy
an d
pol ity
wh ic h
c ou l d
brin g
abou t a
qu al itative c h an ge .
Wh at are s ome of th e
s h ape s
th at
th is
pol itic al
f u tu re
may
take ?
T h e f u rth e r
d e ve l opme n t
of
c orporatis m
is
s u re l y
tobe
e xpe c te d . P l an n in g
is in e vitabl e in an
e c on omy
th at s e e ks both
s tabil ity
an d
e xpan s ion .
In th e
abs e n c e of a total itarian
bu re au c rac y ,
s u c h
pl an n in g
me an s th at th e e n te r-
pris e s
an d
pe opl e
th at
c arry
ou t th e
pl an s
mu s t be
brou gh t
in on th e irf ormu -
l ation . T o th is e xte n t, as
pl an n in g d e ve l ops ,
f u n c tion al
re pre s e n tation
wil l
l ike wis e
grow, be c omin g
an e ve n more
importan tpart
of th e
re pre s e n tative
s y s te m
of th e
pol ity .
T h e s tru c tu re
may
be c ome more c e n tral ize d , as h as
be e n th e
te n d e n c y
in th e
pas t.
Orit
may f u n c tion al l y
an d
te rritorial l y
d e -
c e n tral ize tas ks th at are n ot
e xc e s s ive l y bu rd e n in g
th e c e n te r. T h e e xte n -
s ion of c on trol
th rou gh
s ome f orm of bu re au c ratic s tru c tu re , h owe ve r,
s e e ms
h ard l y
to be avoid e d .
B u t
c orporatis m
c an n ot c on s titu te a
c ompl e te pol ity
an d mu s t be
s u ppl e -
me n te d
by
s ome oth e r s ou rc e of wil l an d d ire c tion s u c h as h as c ome in th e
pas t f romth e party s y s te m. On e of th e more apoc al y ptic pos s ibil itie s h as
re c e n tl y be e n c h arac te rize d by a f rie n d of min e s pe akin g ge n e ral l y of
th e d an ge rs f ac in g We s te rn c ou n trie s . T h is pos s ibil ity h e d e s c ribe d as
"Cae s aris mbas e d on te c h n oc rac y be c au s e of th e d if f ic u l tie s e xpe rie n c e d
by d e moc rac y in d e al in g with c ompl e xity ." T h e d e man d f or pl an n in g is in -
e xorabl e , bu t th e re gime of partie s is in c apabl e of ge n e ratin g amon g th e
popu l ac e th e u n d e rs tan d in g an d ac c e ptan c e th at wil l prod u c e th e d e c is ion s
n e c e s s ary f or pl an n in g. A Cae s aris m, pe rh aps l e s s au th oritarian an d more
man ipu l ative th an ks to th e n e w te c h n iqu e s of c ommu n ic ation , pe rf orms
th is e s s e n tial f u n c tion of f ormin g th e pu bl ic wil l , n o d ou bt in c on ju n c tion
with a c on trol l e d s y s te mof c orporatis m.
With th is ve ry f amil iar s pe c te r on e may c on tras t a te n d e n c y of more re -
c e n t vin tage , wh ic h in s of ar as it is re al ize d wou l d d is ru pt th e impos in g
mon is md e s c ribe d in th e pre viou s paragraph with a rad ic al l y n e w kin d of
d u al is m. T h e patte rn of pol ic y we s u gge s te d above c arrie s th e impe rs on al ity
an d c e n tral ization of bu re au c rac y to a n e w h e igh t, l e gitimizin g th e mwith
th e au th ority of s c ie n c e an d mod e rn ration al ity . Ye t, as we h ave re c e n tl y
l e arn e d again , pre c is e l y th is s e t of f ac tors c an prod u c e apowe rf u l re ac tion .
T h e re are pre c e d e n ts in th e pas t. Upon th e f ou n d ation l aid by vol u n taris m,
mod e rn ity h as f romtime to time prod u c e d a roman tic re ac tion th at re je c ts
n ot on l y th e d is c ipl in e of an obje c tive e th ic s , bu t al s o th e d is c ipl in e of an
in d u s trial e n viron me n t. In B ritain , f romth e Lu d d ite s to D. H. Lawre n c e ,
d if f e re n t c l as s e s an d time s h ave s h are d th is impu l s e , of wh ic h s tu d e n t
an arc h is mis on l y are c e n t f l owe rin g.
B u t if re be l l iou s s tu d e n ts are th e mos t vivid e xh ibit, th e pos s ibil itie s of a
re gion al or l oc al pol itic s are more s e riou s an d n o l e s s roman tic . In re c e n t
34 34
S amu e l H. B e e r S amu e l H. B e e r
y e ars ,
l oc al is mh as be c ome a
major prin c ipl e
of
oppos ition , e s pe c ial l y
in
by -e l e c tion s .
M ore to th e
poin t
is th e
powe rf u l u ps u rge
of Ce l tic n ation al -
is m. As
En gl is h
c ivil s e rvan ts
c on tin u al l y poin t ou t, th e d e man d s of S c ots
n ation al is ts make n o e c on omic s e n s e . Ye t e n th u s ias mf or th e S c ottis h Na-
tion al is t
party grows
an d c on f ron ts n ot
on l y
Libe ral s bu t al s o Labou rite s
an d Con s e rvative s with th e
pros pe c t
of
be in g wipe d
ou t n orth of th e T we e d .
We l s h n ation al is ts l ike th e S c ots h ave on e M P at
pre s e n t.
B u t c l os e ob-
s e rve rs f ore c as t
growin g
s u c c e s s f or th e min th e n ot too d is tan t f u tu re .
If we s u btrac t th e e xtre mis mf romth e s e two
pos s ibil itie s , th e y s u gge s t
a
party
d u al is mbas e d n ot on c l as s bu t on a c e n tral -l oc al axis , s u c h as c h ar-
ac te rize d
man y
n ation s
d u rin g
th e
e arl y y e ars
of th e ir
d e ve l opme n t.
Wh e th e r s u c h te n d e n c ie s wou l d be
powe rf u l e n ou gh
to s u s tain a
two-party
s y s te m,
as d id th e
prin c ipl e s
of Hamil ton an d Je f f e rs on in th e Un ite d S tate s ,
s e e ms d u biou s , bu t
th e y migh t
we l l l oos e n an d
d is organ ize
th e
pre s e n t
ord e rl y pl ay
of
partie s .
T h at
ord e rl y pl ay
its e l f te n d s to tran s f ormth e
s y s te m.
If th e
partie s
c on -
tin u e to
c on ve rge , c on c e ivabl y th e y
c ou l d
prod u c e
a c on d ition of
"party
d u opol y
with ou t
prod u c t
d if f e re n tiation ." Fu rth e r
prof e s s ion al ization
of
l e ad e rs h ip wou l d re d u c e th e powe r of mil itan ts an d ope n th e way to a
h igh l y f l e xibl e pol ic y . T h rou gh two "c atc h al l " partie s , c ompe tin g te ams of
l e ad e rs wou l d s e e k powe r on th e bas is of s h if tin g c oal ition s of vote rs .
Con c e ivabl y an "e ra of good f e e l in g" c ou l d s u pe rve n e in wh ic h th e ol d
d u al is mwou l d be d is s ol ve d by th e ove rwh e l min g d omin an c e of on e party .
In vie w of Labou r's gl oomy pros pe c ts at th e mome n t, it is n ot id l e to s pe c u -
l ate on th is pos s ibil ity of d e moc ratic on e -party gove rn me n t. B road l y agre e d
on th e bas ic ou tl in e s of th e we l f are s tate an d man age d e c on omy , a s e t of
l ive l y f ac tion s with in th is gre at c atc h al l party wou l d c on te s t f or party an d
s o gove rn me n tal c on trol . On e is re min d e d of th e CDU, or th e Ch ris tian
De moc rats of Ital y , or in d e e d n ot a l ittl e of th e T orie s d u rin g th e ir re c e n t
l on g te n u re of powe r.
T h e d is c u s s ion of th e c atc h al l party an d of f ac tion s s u gge s ts a more
rad ic al al te rn ative th at s h ou l d n ot be d is mis s e d . T h is is th e with e rin g away
of party al toge th e r. Os trogors ki, it wil l be re me mbe re d , re gard e d party as
th e d e ad h an d of trad ition al is me xte n d e d in a n e w f ormin to th e e ra of
l ibe rty . In s te ad of partie s h e pre f e rre d c ombin ation s of c itize n s s h if t-
in g with is s u e s an d probl e ms . With ou t try in g to f ol l ow h is propos al s e x-
ac tl y , we s h ou l d at l e as t c on s id e r th e pos s ibil ity th at partie s may be c ome
f airl y d y s f u n c tion al an d as a re s u l t d e c l in e an d d is appe ar. Os trogors ki d id
in d e e d h ave a poin t wh e n h e obs e rve d th e ir trad ition al izin g in f l u e n c e . B y
f re e zin g vote rs in th e ir ad h e re n c e to a s y mbol , th e y pre ve n t a f l e xibl e re -
s pon s e to n e w probl e ms . T h e c on tin u an c e of c l as s l in e s an d c l as s in te re s ts
gave s ome ju s tif ic ation to th e s te re oty pin g of pol itic al re s pon s e . If we c an
s u ppos e th e d e c l in e of c l as s , more f l e xibl e me an s of mobil izin g opin ion an d
c h an gin g th e c on f igu ration s of l oy al ty an d s u pport wou l d be appropriate .
In th is s e n s e we migh t th in k of party as c h arac te rizin g a tran s ition al s tage
be twe e n trad ition al s oc ie ty an d a f u l l y mod e rn s oc ie ty .
As in an y d is c u s s ion of B ritis h pol itic s , we re tu rn at th e e n d to th e bas ic
qu e s tion of c l as s . In B ritain , c l as s trail s with it an c ie n t h abits of th ou gh t an d
f e e l in g th at h ark bac k to Ol d T ory is m. Eve n th os e wh o re be l l e d an d s til l
re be l again s t c l as s as th e prod u c t of in d u s trial c apital is mac qu ire d th e ir
y e ars ,
l oc al is mh as be c ome a
major prin c ipl e
of
oppos ition , e s pe c ial l y
in
by -e l e c tion s .
M ore to th e
poin t
is th e
powe rf u l u ps u rge
of Ce l tic n ation al -
is m. As
En gl is h
c ivil s e rvan ts
c on tin u al l y poin t ou t, th e d e man d s of S c ots
n ation al is ts make n o e c on omic s e n s e . Ye t e n th u s ias mf or th e S c ottis h Na-
tion al is t
party grows
an d c on f ron ts n ot
on l y
Libe ral s bu t al s o Labou rite s
an d Con s e rvative s with th e
pros pe c t
of
be in g wipe d
ou t n orth of th e T we e d .
We l s h n ation al is ts l ike th e S c ots h ave on e M P at
pre s e n t.
B u t c l os e ob-
s e rve rs f ore c as t
growin g
s u c c e s s f or th e min th e n ot too d is tan t f u tu re .
If we s u btrac t th e e xtre mis mf romth e s e two
pos s ibil itie s , th e y s u gge s t
a
party
d u al is mbas e d n ot on c l as s bu t on a c e n tral -l oc al axis , s u c h as c h ar-
ac te rize d
man y
n ation s
d u rin g
th e
e arl y y e ars
of th e ir
d e ve l opme n t.
Wh e th e r s u c h te n d e n c ie s wou l d be
powe rf u l e n ou gh
to s u s tain a
two-party
s y s te m,
as d id th e
prin c ipl e s
of Hamil ton an d Je f f e rs on in th e Un ite d S tate s ,
s e e ms d u biou s , bu t
th e y migh t
we l l l oos e n an d
d is organ ize
th e
pre s e n t
ord e rl y pl ay
of
partie s .
T h at
ord e rl y pl ay
its e l f te n d s to tran s f ormth e
s y s te m.
If th e
partie s
c on -
tin u e to
c on ve rge , c on c e ivabl y th e y
c ou l d
prod u c e
a c on d ition of
"party
d u opol y
with ou t
prod u c t
d if f e re n tiation ." Fu rth e r
prof e s s ion al ization
of
l e ad e rs h ip wou l d re d u c e th e powe r of mil itan ts an d ope n th e way to a
h igh l y f l e xibl e pol ic y . T h rou gh two "c atc h al l " partie s , c ompe tin g te ams of
l e ad e rs wou l d s e e k powe r on th e bas is of s h if tin g c oal ition s of vote rs .
Con c e ivabl y an "e ra of good f e e l in g" c ou l d s u pe rve n e in wh ic h th e ol d
d u al is mwou l d be d is s ol ve d by th e ove rwh e l min g d omin an c e of on e party .
In vie w of Labou r's gl oomy pros pe c ts at th e mome n t, it is n ot id l e to s pe c u -
l ate on th is pos s ibil ity of d e moc ratic on e -party gove rn me n t. B road l y agre e d
on th e bas ic ou tl in e s of th e we l f are s tate an d man age d e c on omy , a s e t of
l ive l y f ac tion s with in th is gre at c atc h al l party wou l d c on te s t f or party an d
s o gove rn me n tal c on trol . On e is re min d e d of th e CDU, or th e Ch ris tian
De moc rats of Ital y , or in d e e d n ot a l ittl e of th e T orie s d u rin g th e ir re c e n t
l on g te n u re of powe r.
T h e d is c u s s ion of th e c atc h al l party an d of f ac tion s s u gge s ts a more
rad ic al al te rn ative th at s h ou l d n ot be d is mis s e d . T h is is th e with e rin g away
of party al toge th e r. Os trogors ki, it wil l be re me mbe re d , re gard e d party as
th e d e ad h an d of trad ition al is me xte n d e d in a n e w f ormin to th e e ra of
l ibe rty . In s te ad of partie s h e pre f e rre d c ombin ation s of c itize n s s h if t-
in g with is s u e s an d probl e ms . With ou t try in g to f ol l ow h is propos al s e x-
ac tl y , we s h ou l d at l e as t c on s id e r th e pos s ibil ity th at partie s may be c ome
f airl y d y s f u n c tion al an d as a re s u l t d e c l in e an d d is appe ar. Os trogors ki d id
in d e e d h ave a poin t wh e n h e obs e rve d th e ir trad ition al izin g in f l u e n c e . B y
f re e zin g vote rs in th e ir ad h e re n c e to a s y mbol , th e y pre ve n t a f l e xibl e re -
s pon s e to n e w probl e ms . T h e c on tin u an c e of c l as s l in e s an d c l as s in te re s ts
gave s ome ju s tif ic ation to th e s te re oty pin g of pol itic al re s pon s e . If we c an
s u ppos e th e d e c l in e of c l as s , more f l e xibl e me an s of mobil izin g opin ion an d
c h an gin g th e c on f igu ration s of l oy al ty an d s u pport wou l d be appropriate .
In th is s e n s e we migh t th in k of party as c h arac te rizin g a tran s ition al s tage
be twe e n trad ition al s oc ie ty an d a f u l l y mod e rn s oc ie ty .
As in an y d is c u s s ion of B ritis h pol itic s , we re tu rn at th e e n d to th e bas ic
qu e s tion of c l as s . In B ritain , c l as s trail s with it an c ie n t h abits of th ou gh t an d
f e e l in g th at h ark bac k to Ol d T ory is m. Eve n th os e wh o re be l l e d an d s til l
re be l again s t c l as s as th e prod u c t of in d u s trial c apital is mac qu ire d th e ir
35 35
Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968
Comparative
P ol itic s Oc tobe r 1968
s e n s e of
id e n tity
an d
s ol id arity
n ot
on l y
f romth os e
obje c tive c on d ition s ,
bu t al s o f roma mu c h ol d e r
h e ritage .
In th is s e n s e c l as s d imin is h e s as mod -
e rn ization
proc e e d s .
S tron g
as th is
h e ritage may
be , h owe ve r, it s til l
re qu ire s
s ome c u rre n t
an d
obje c tive
f oc u s f or its s u rvival . If s u c h f oc i c an n ot be e l imin ate d ,
n e ith e r c an th e s e n s e of c l as s . On e f oc u s c on s is ts of d if f e re n c e s in mate rial
we l l -be in g
an d
s ty l e
of l if e .
Qu ite c on c e ivabl y
af f l u e n c e c ou l d
s pre ad
to th e
poin t
wh e re th is bas is of c l as s an d c l as s
pol itic s
h ad
virtu al l y
van is h e d .
An oth e r f oc u s c on s is ts of th e
re l ation s h ip
of in d ivid u al s to th e
own e rs h ip
of th e me an s of
prod u c tion .
T h e
s pre ad
of bu re au c ratization
c on tin u al l y
e rod e s th is d if f e re n c e
by makin g e mpl oy e e s
of more an d more me mbe rs of
th e
e c on omy .
B u t c l as s al s o, an d I amin c l in e d to th in k th is is th e mos t im-
portan t me an in g
of th e te rm, re s ts on d if f e re n c e s of
powe r.
T h e
pros pe c t
of
e l imin atin g
d if f e re n c e s of
powe r
in
s oc ie ty
an d s o of
e l imin atin g
th e d if f e r-
e n t attitu d e s th at me n take toward th e d is tribu tion of
powe r
s e e ms
h igh l y
u n l ike l y .
Con c e ivabl y ,
th e two
partie s
c ou l d be c ome irre l e van t to B ritis h
pol itic s
if
th e y
we re
c on te s tin g n oth in g
bu t th e d is tribu tion of mate rial
good s
an d
s e rvic e s .
S imil arl y ,
if th at
my th
of u n ive rs al n ation al ization
prod u c e d by
th e
pol itic al imagin ation
of Labou r's f ou n d e rs we re th e
party 's on l y
re as on f or
be in g, th e party migh t we l l s e e th e time wh e n th e re was n o f u tu re f or it.
B u t T orie s an d S oc ial is ts al s o c on f ron t on e an oth e ras ad voc ate s of d is tin c -
tive attitu d e s toward th e d is tribu tion of powe r. In th e T ory ac c e ptan c e of
th e s oc ial goal of s e c u rity , Con s e rvative s h ave mu c h in c ommon with S o-
c ial is ts . B u t th e T ory be l ie f in in e qu al ity , n ot me re l y with re gard to d is -
tribu tive ju s tic e bu t al s o with re gard to powe r in th e s tate an d in s oc ie ty ,
pu ts af u n d ame n tal prin c ipl e at is s u e be twe e n T orie s an d Labou r. Howe ve r
e van e s c e n t Labou r's c ommitme n t to th e goal of f e l l ows h ip may h ave be -
c ome , B ritis h s oc ial is m is s til l "abou t e qu al ity ." Eve n in B ritain 's pos tin -
d u s trial s oc ie ty , th e re is l ike l y to be avigorou s f u tu re f or h e r pre s e n t party
d u al is m.
s e n s e of
id e n tity
an d
s ol id arity
n ot
on l y
f romth os e
obje c tive c on d ition s ,
bu t al s o f roma mu c h ol d e r
h e ritage .
In th is s e n s e c l as s d imin is h e s as mod -
e rn ization
proc e e d s .
S tron g
as th is
h e ritage may
be , h owe ve r, it s til l
re qu ire s
s ome c u rre n t
an d
obje c tive
f oc u s f or its s u rvival . If s u c h f oc i c an n ot be e l imin ate d ,
n e ith e r c an th e s e n s e of c l as s . On e f oc u s c on s is ts of d if f e re n c e s in mate rial
we l l -be in g
an d
s ty l e
of l if e .
Qu ite c on c e ivabl y
af f l u e n c e c ou l d
s pre ad
to th e
poin t
wh e re th is bas is of c l as s an d c l as s
pol itic s
h ad
virtu al l y
van is h e d .
An oth e r f oc u s c on s is ts of th e
re l ation s h ip
of in d ivid u al s to th e
own e rs h ip
of th e me an s of
prod u c tion .
T h e
s pre ad
of bu re au c ratization
c on tin u al l y
e rod e s th is d if f e re n c e
by makin g e mpl oy e e s
of more an d more me mbe rs of
th e
e c on omy .
B u t c l as s al s o, an d I amin c l in e d to th in k th is is th e mos t im-
portan t me an in g
of th e te rm, re s ts on d if f e re n c e s of
powe r.
T h e
pros pe c t
of
e l imin atin g
d if f e re n c e s of
powe r
in
s oc ie ty
an d s o of
e l imin atin g
th e d if f e r-
e n t attitu d e s th at me n take toward th e d is tribu tion of
powe r
s e e ms
h igh l y
u n l ike l y .
Con c e ivabl y ,
th e two
partie s
c ou l d be c ome irre l e van t to B ritis h
pol itic s
if
th e y
we re
c on te s tin g n oth in g
bu t th e d is tribu tion of mate rial
good s
an d
s e rvic e s .
S imil arl y ,
if th at
my th
of u n ive rs al n ation al ization
prod u c e d by
th e
pol itic al imagin ation
of Labou r's f ou n d e rs we re th e
party 's on l y
re as on f or
be in g, th e party migh t we l l s e e th e time wh e n th e re was n o f u tu re f or it.
B u t T orie s an d S oc ial is ts al s o c on f ron t on e an oth e ras ad voc ate s of d is tin c -
tive attitu d e s toward th e d is tribu tion of powe r. In th e T ory ac c e ptan c e of
th e s oc ial goal of s e c u rity , Con s e rvative s h ave mu c h in c ommon with S o-
c ial is ts . B u t th e T ory be l ie f in in e qu al ity , n ot me re l y with re gard to d is -
tribu tive ju s tic e bu t al s o with re gard to powe r in th e s tate an d in s oc ie ty ,
pu ts af u n d ame n tal prin c ipl e at is s u e be twe e n T orie s an d Labou r. Howe ve r
e van e s c e n t Labou r's c ommitme n t to th e goal of f e l l ows h ip may h ave be -
c ome , B ritis h s oc ial is m is s til l "abou t e qu al ity ." Eve n in B ritain 's pos tin -
d u s trial s oc ie ty , th e re is l ike l y to be avigorou s f u tu re f or h e r pre s e n t party
d u al is m.
36 36