Chapter

Combustion of Fuels

Combustion is the rapid chemical combination of oxygen with the combustible elements of a fuel, resulting in the production of heat. Combustion is accomplished by mixing fuel and air at elevated temperatures. The air supplies oxygen, which unites chemically with the carbon, hydrogen, and a few minor elements in the fuel to produce heat. Steam has been generated from the burning of a variety of fuels. In addition to the common fossil fuels of coal, oil, and natural gas, today an increased amount and varied supply of waste and by-product fuels are used, such as municipal solid waste (MSW), coal mine tailings, and biomass wastes such as vine clippings and bagasse, a sugar cane by-product. MSW also can have a large percentage of biomass because it contains yard waste. These fuels must be burned and their combustion products properly handled. They create a unique challenge in their use because the fuel quality is significantly reduced due to the fuels lower heating value and poor combustion characteristics. In addition, such fuels often present more restrictive emission limitations. The designs of the boilers are therefore unique to the combustion of each of these fuels. 4.1 The Combustion Process The combustion process follows fundamental principles that must be understood by the designers and operators of boilers and associated equipment to ensure reliable service and high efficiency. 1. Control of air supply. The amount of air required depends on the fuel, the equipment used for combustion, and the operating conditions and is determined from manufacturers recommendations, which
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are based on actual performance tests and operating experience. Too much air results in an excessive release of hot gases from the stack with a correspondingly high heat loss and reduction in efficiency. A deficiency of air permits some of the fuel, unburned or only partially burned, to pass through the furnace, which also results in a reduction in efficiency. It is therefore important that the best proportion of air to fuel be determined and maintained in order to obtain the highest efficiency possible. 2. Mixing of air and fuel. Air and fuel must be mixed thoroughly, since each combustible particle must come into intimate contact with the oxygen contained in the air before combustion can take place. If the air distribution and mixing are poor, there will be an excess of air in some portions of the fuel bed or combustion chamber and a deficiency in others. Combustion equipment is designed with this principle in mind in an attempt to obtain the best possible mixing of fuel and air. 3. Temperature required for combustion. All around us we see combustible material in intimate contact with air, and still it is not burning. Actually, a chemical reaction is taking place, but it is so slow that it is referred to not as combustion but as oxidation. The corrosion (rusting) of steel when exposed to the atmosphere is an example of this oxidation. When the combustible material reaches its ignition temperature, oxidation is accelerated and the process is called combustion. It is the rapid chemical combination of oxygen with the combustible elements of a fuel. Therefore, it is evident that it is important to maintain the fuel and air mixture at a temperature sufficiently high to promote combustion. When the flame comes into contact with the relatively cool boiler tubes, the carbon particles are deposited in the form of soot. When boilers are operated at a very low capacity, the temperatures are lower, which can result in incomplete combustion and excessive smoke if combustion controls are not set properly. 4. Time required for combustion. Air supply, mixing, and temperature determine the rate at which combustion progresses. In all cases an appreciable amount of time is required to complete the process. When the equipment is operated at an excessively high capacity, the time may be insufficient to permit complete combustion. As a result, considerable unburned fuel is discharged from the furnace. The rejected material may be in the form of solid fuel or combustible gases. The resulting loss may be appreciable and therefore must be checked and controlled. These principles involving the process of burning (combustion) may be understood by reference to Figs. 4.1 and 4.2. Here the principles of combustion are applied to solid fuels burned on grates and to pulverized coal, gas, and oil burned in suspension.

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Figure 4.1 The combustion process as applied to hand firing.

Figure 4.1 illustrates a hand-fired stationary grate installed under a water-tube boiler. The coal is supplied by hand through the fire door. Air for combustion enters through both the ashpit and the fire door. Primary air comes through the stoker grate, and secondary air enters through the fire door in this illustration. For the purpose of illustration, the fuel bed may be considered as having four zones. Coal is added to the top or distillation zone; next are the reduction and oxidation zones and, finally, the layer of ash on the grates. The primary air that enters the ashpit door flows up through the grates and ash into the oxidation zone, where the oxygen comes into contact with the hot coal and is converted into carbon monoxide (CO). [As noted later, carbon monoxide (CO) results from incomplete combustion.] As the gases continue to travel upward through the hot-coal bed, this carbon monoxide (CO) changes to carbon dioxide (CO2) as part of the combustion process. The exposure of the coal in the upper zone to the high temperature results in distillation of hydrocarbons (chemical compounds of hydrogen and carbon), which are carried into the furnace by the upward flow of gases. Therefore, the gases entering the furnace through the fuel bed contain combustible materials in the form of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. The oxygen in the secondary air that enters the furnace through the fire door must combine with these combustibles to complete the combustion process before they enter the boiler tube bank and become cooled. From this discussion of the process it is evident that with hand firing a number of variables are involved in obtaining the required rate

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Figure 4.2 The combustion process as applied to suspension

firing.

of combustion and complete utilization of the fuel with a minimum amount of excess air. The fuel must be supplied at the rate required by the steam demand. Not only must the air be supplied in proportion to the fuel, but the amount entering through the furnace doors and the ashpit must be in correct proportions. The air that enters through the ashpit door and passes up through the fuel bed determines the rate of combustion. The secondary air that enters directly into the furnace is used to burn the combustible gases. Thorough mixing of the combustible gases and air in the furnace is necessary because of the short time required for these gases to travel from the fuel bed to the boiler tubes. Steam or high-pressure air jets (overfire air system) are used to assist in producing turbulence in the furnace and mixing of the gases and air (see Sec. 5.11). A failure to distribute the coal evenly on the grates, variation in the size of the coal, and the formation of clinkers result in unequal resistance of the fuel bed to the flow of gases. (A clinker is a hard, compact, congealed mass of fuel matter that has fused in the furnace. It is often called slag.)

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Areas of low resistance in the fuel bed permit high velocity of gases and accelerated rates of combustion, which deplete the fuel and further reduce the resistance. These areas of low resistance have been called holes in the fire. As a result of these inherent shortcomings in hand firing and the physical labor involved, mechanical methods of introducing solid fuel into the furnace and automatically controlling the air supply have been developed. These are explained in Chap. 5. Suspension firing of fuel in a water-cooled furnace is illustrated in Fig. 4.2. This method may be utilized in the combustion of gaseous fuels without special preparations, of fuel oil by providing for atomization, and of solid fuels by pulverization. The fuel particles and air in the correct proportions are introduced into the furnace, which is at an elevated temperature. The fine particles of fuel expose a large surface to the oxygen present in the combustion air and to the high furnace temperature. The air and fuel particles are mixed either in the burner or directly after they enter the furnace. When coal is burned by this method, the volatile matterhydrocarbons and carbon monoxideis distilled off when the coal enters the furnace. These combustible gases and the residual carbon particles burn during the short interval of time required for them to pass through the furnace. The period of time required to complete combustion of fuel particles in suspension depends on the particle size of the fuel, control of the flow of combustion air, mixing of air and fuel, and furnace temperatures. Relatively large furnace volumes are required to ensure complete combustion. The equipment used in the suspension burning of solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels is discussed in Chap. 5. From these illustrations we note that the requirements for good combustion are sufficient time of contact between the fuel and air, elevated temperature during this time, and turbulence to provide thorough mixing of fuel and air. These are referred to as the three Ts of combustiontime, temperature, and turbulence. 4.2 The Theory of Combustion Combustion is a chemical process that takes place in accordance with natural laws. By applying these laws, the theoretical quantity of air required to burn a given fuel can be determined when the fuel analysis is known. The air quantity used in a furnace, expressed as percentage of excess above the theoretical requirements (excess air), can be determined from the flue gas analysis. In the study of combustion we encounter matter in three forms: solid, liquid, and gas. Melting is the change of phase from solid to liquid. Heat must be added to cause melting. The change in the reverse direction, liquid to solid, is freezing or solidifying. The change of

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phase from liquid to gas is called vaporization, and the liquid is said to vaporize or boil. The change from the gaseous or vapor phase to liquid is condensation, and during this process the vapor is said to be condensing. Matter in the form of a solid has both volume and shape. A liquid has a definite volume, in that it is not readily compressible, but its shape conforms to that of the container. A gas has neither a definite volume nor shape, since both conform to that of the container. When liquids are heated, a temperature is reached at which vapor will form above the surface. This vapor is only slightly above the liquid state. When vapor is removed from the presence of the liquid and heated, a gas will be formed. There is no exact point at which a substance changes from a gas to a vapor or from a vapor to a gas. It is simply a question of degree as to how nearly the vapor approaches a gas. Steam produced by boiling water at atmospheric pressure is vapor because it is just above the liquid state. On the other hand, air may be considered a gas because under normal conditions it is far removed from the liquid state (liquid air). Gases follow definite laws of behavior when subjected to changes in pressure, volume, and temperature. The more nearly a vapor approaches a gas, the more closely it will follow the laws. When considering gas laws and when making calculations in thermodynamics (i.e., the relationship between heat and other forms of energy), pressures and temperatures must be expressed in absolute units rather than in gauge values (read directly from gauges and thermometers). Absolute pressures greater than atmospheric are found by adding the atmospheric pressure to the gauge reading. Both pressures must be expressed in the same units. The atmospheric pressure is accurately determined by means of a barometer, but for many calculations the approximate value of 14.7 psi is sufficiently accurate. For example, if a pressure gauge reads 150 psi, the absolute pressure is 164.7 psia (read as pounds per square inch absolute). Absolute pressures below zero gauge are found by subtracting the gauge reading from the atmospheric pressure. When a gauge reads 5 psi, the absolute pressure would be 14.75.0 9.7 psia. Pressures a few pounds above zero gauge and a few pounds below (in the vacuum range) are frequently measured by a Utube containing mercury and are expressed in inches of mercury. Many of the pressures encountered in combustion work are nearly atmospheric (zero gauge) and can be measured by a U-tube containing water. The zero on the Fahrenheit scale is arbitrarily chosen and has no scientific basis. Experiments have proved that the true or absolute zero is 460 below zero on the Fahrenheit thermometer. The absolute temperature on the Fahrenheit scale is found by adding 460F to the thermometer reading. Absolute temperatures on the Fahrenheit scale are called degrees Rankine (R). On the centigrade or Celsius scale, the absolute temperature is determined by adding 273C to the centigrade

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thermometer reading. Absolute temperatures on the centigrade scale are measured in kelvins (K). Expressed in absolute units of pressure and temperature, the three principal laws governing the behavior of gases may be stated as follows (where V1 and V2 are, respectively, the initial and final volumes, P1 and P2 are, respectively, the initial and final absolute pressures, and T 1 and T 2 are, respectively, the initial and final absolute temperatures): Constant temperature. When the temperature of a given quantity of gas is maintained constant, the volume will vary inversely as the pressure. If the pressure is doubled, the volume will be reduced by one-half: V1 P2 V2 P1 Constant volume. When the volume of a gas is maintained constant, the pressure will vary directly as the temperature. When the temperature is doubled, the pressure also will be doubled: P1 T1 P2 T2 Constant pressure. When a gas is maintained at constant pressure, the volume will vary directly as the temperature. If the temperature of a given quantity of gas is doubled, the volume also will be doubled: V1 T1 V2 T2 In combustion work the gas temperature varies over a wide range. Air enters the furnace or air heater, for example, at 70F, is heated in some instances to over 3000F in the furnace, and is finally discharged from the stack at between 300 and 400F. During these temperature changes, the volume varies because the gases are maintained near atmospheric pressure. This is most important because fans, flues and ducts, boiler passes, etc., must be designed to accommodate these variations in volume. In addition to these physical aspects of matter, we also must consider the chemical reactions that occur in the combustion process. All substances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements. The smallest particle into which an element may be divided is termed an atom. Atoms combine in various combinations to form molecules, which are the smallest particles of a compound or substance. The

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characteristics of a substance are determined by the atoms that make up its molecules. Combustion is a chemical process involving the reaction of carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur with oxygen. The trading about and changing of atoms from one substance to another constitute an exacting procedure. Substances always combine in the same definite proportions. The atoms of each of the elements have a weight number referred to as the atomic weight. These weights are relative and refer to oxygen, which has an atomic weight of 16. Thus, for example, carbon, which is three-quarters as heavy as oxygen, has an atomic weight of 12. The chemical and physical properties of substances involved in the combustion process are given in Table 4.1. When oxygen and the combustible elements or compounds are mixed in definite proportions at an elevated temperature under ideal conditions, they will combine completely. [The theoretical proportions (no deficiency and no excess) of elements or compounds in a chemical reaction are referred to as the stoichiometric ratio.] This shows that a given combustible element requires a definite amount of oxygen to complete combustion. If additional oxygen is supplied (more than necessary for complete combustion), the excess will not enter into the reaction but will pass through the furnace unchanged. On the other hand, if there is a deficiency of oxygen, the combustible material will remain unburned. The law of combining weights states that the eleTABLE 4.1

Properties of Substances in the Combustion Process Chemical

Physical
Specific volume, ft3/lb 13.28 8.75 13.75 192.52 13.75 12.03 6.02 26.80 Heating value, Btu/lb 14,540 4,355 62,000 4,050

Name Air Carbon Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Sulfur Sulfur dioxide Water vapor

State Gas Solid Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas Solid Gas Vapor

*Approximate. At 14.7 lb/in2 and 68 F. Air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. This figure is the average accepted molecular weight. At atmospheric pressure and 212F.

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ments and compounds combine in definite proportions that are in simple ratio to their atomic or molecular weights.
Example The atomic and molecular weights of elements and compounds are useful in determining the weights and volume of gases. It has been determined that at the same temperature and pressure a given volume of all perfect gases will contain the same number of molecules. To test this theory, calculate the volume in cubic feet of 32 lb of oxygen and 28 lb of nitrogen (weights equivalent to their respective molecular weights). Solution The specific volume in cubic feet per pound of oxygen and nitrogen as given in Table 4.1 are, respectively, 12.03 and 13.75 at a pressure of 14.7 lb/in2 and at 68F. Therefore, 32 lb 12.03 ft3/lb 385 ft3 of oxygen 28 lb 13.75 ft3/lb 385 ft3 of nitrogen The weight of pounds of any substance, equal to its molecular weight, is known as a pound mole. Therefore, a pound mole of oxygen equals 32 lb and a pound mole of nitrogen equals 28 lb.

The following is an explanation of some of the chemical reactions involved in combustion: The volume of carbon dioxide (CO2) produced is equal to the volume of oxygen (O2) used. The carbon dioxide gas is, however, heavier than the oxygen. The combining weights are 12 lb of carbon (1 12) and 32 lb of oxygen (2 16), uniting to form 44 lb of carbon dioxide, or 1 lb of carbon requires 2.67 lb of oxygen (32/12 2.67) and produces 3.67 lb of carbon dioxide (1 2.67 3.67). (See Table 4.2.) The combustion of 1 lb of carbon produces 14,540 Btu. When carbon is burned to carbon monoxide (CO) (Table 4.3), which is incomplete combustion, the volume of oxygen used is only one-half of that required for completely burning the carbon to carbon dioxide; the volume of carbon monoxide produced is two times that of the oxygen
TABLE 4.2

Carbon Burned to Carbon Dioxide

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TABLE 4.3

Carbon Burned to Carbon Monoxide

supplied. The heat released is only 4355 Btu/lb, but it is 14,540 Btu when 1 lb of carbon is completely burned. The net loss is, therefore, 10,185 Btu/lb of carbon and shows the importance of completely burning the combustible gases before they are allowed to escape from the furnace. In the reaction shown in Table 4.4, the two molecules of carbon monoxide (CO) previously produced, by the incomplete combustion of two molecules of carbon, are combined with the necessary one molecule of oxygen to produce two molecules of carbon dioxide. The 1 lb of carbon produced 2.333 lb of carbon monoxide. Finally, however, the 1 lb of carbon produces 3.67 lb of carbon dioxide regardless of whether the reaction is in one or two steps. The total amount of oxygen required, as well as the heat liberated per pound of carbon, is the same for complete combustion in both cases. Hydrogen is a very light gas with a high heat value. The combustion of 1 lb of hydrogen gas liberates 62,000 Btu (Table 4.1). To develop this heat, two molecules of hydrogen combine with one molecule of oxygen to form two molecules of water (Table 4.5). One volume of oxygen is required for two volumes of hydrogen. The weight relations are 1 lb of hydrogen and 8 lb of oxygen, producing 9 lb of water. This water appears as water vapor in the flue gases.
TABLE 4.4

Carbon Monoxide Burned to Carbon Dioxide

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TABLE 4.5

Combustion of Hydrogen

The equations for these and some of the other reactions involved in combustion are as follows: C 2C O2 O2 CO2 2CO 2CO2 2H2O SO2 (sulfur dioxide) (sulfur trioxide)

2CO O2 2H2 O2 S 2S O2

3O2 2SO3 CH4

2O2

CO2 2H2O

2C2H2
Acetylene

5O2 4CO2 2H2O 3O2 2CO2 2H2O 7O2 4CO2 6H2O

C2H4
Ethylene

2C2H6
Ethane

Sulfur is an undesirable constituent in fuels. It has a heating value of only 4050 Btu/lb (Table 4.1), contaminates the atmosphere with sulfur dioxide unless controlled with air pollution control equipment, and causes corrosion in the flues, economizers, and air heaters. Some forms of sulfur adversely affect pulverization. In the combustion process, 1 lb of sulfur combines with 1 lb of oxygen to form 2 lb of sulfur dioxide. (Actually, a portion of the sulfur is

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converted to sulfur trioxide. The summation of all the sulfur oxides in the flue gases is referred to as SOx..) The sulfur dioxide in the flue gases can be approximated as follows: SO2 lb/h K lb/h fuel burned 2 S/100 where K the ratio of SO2 in flue gases to a theoretical amount resulting from the combustion of the sulfur in the fuel (frequently assumed to be 0.95) and S the percentage of sulfur in the fuel. It is customary to express sulfur oxide emission in pounds per million Btus of fuel burned. SO2 lb/h 1,000,000 SO2 lb/million Btu lb fuel/h Btu/lb in fuel
Example Coal containing 1.5 percent sulfur with a Btu content of 11,500 Btu/lb burns at the rate of 3 tons per hour. What is the sulfur emission in pounds per million Btus input to furnace? Solution SO2 lb/h 0.95 3 2000 2 1.5/100 171 171 1,000,000 SO2 lb/million Btu 2.48 3 2000 11,500

In practice, the oxygen supplied for combustion is obtained from the atmosphere. The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that for practical purposes may be considered as being composed of the following:
Element Oxygen Nitrogen Volume, % 20.91 79.09 Weight, % 23.15 76.85

Only the oxygen enters into chemical combination with the fuel. The nitrogen combines in small amounts with the oxygen to form nitrogen oxides, commonly called NOx. These are an atmospheric pollutant. The amount of NOx produced depends on the combustion process. The higher the temperature in the furnace, the greater the amount of nitrogen oxides. The remainder of the nitrogen passes through the combustion chamber without chemical change. It does, however, absorb heat and reduces the maximum temperature attained by the products of combustion. Since air contains 23.15 percent by weight of oxygen, in order to supply 1 lb of oxygen to a furnace it is necessary to introduce 1 4.32 lb of air 0.2315

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Since 1 lb of carbon requires 2.67 lb of oxygen (see Table 4.2), we must supply 4.32 2.67 11.53 lb of air per pound of carbon The 11.53 lb of air is composed of 2.67 lb of oxygen and 8.86 lb of nitrogen. 11.53 2.67 8.86 lb air lb O2 lb N2

By referring to the equation for the chemical reaction of carbon and oxygen (see Table 4.2), we find that 1 lb of carbon produces 3.67 lb of carbon dioxide. Therefore, the total products of combustion formed by burning 1 lb of carbon with the theoretical amount of air are 8.86 lb of nitrogen and 3.67 lb of carbon dioxide. In a similar manner it can be shown that 1 lb of hydrogen requires 34.56 lb of air for complete combustion. The resulting products of combustion are 9 lb of water and 26.56 lb of nitrogen. Also, 1 lb of sulfur requires 4.32 lb of air, and therefore, the products of combustion are 3.32 lb of nitrogen and 2 lb of sulfur dioxide. The condition under which, or degree to which, combustion takes place is expressed as perfect, complete, or incomplete. Perfect combustion, which we have been discussing, consists of burning all the fuel and using only the calculated or theoretical amount of air. Complete combustion also denotes the complete burning of the fuel but by supplying more than the theoretical amount of air. The additional air does not enter into the chemical reaction. Incomplete combustion occurs when a portion of the fuel remains unburned because of insufficient air, improper mixing, or other reasons. See Sec. 4.4 for a discussion of coal analysis. The values given in Table 4.6 will now be used in determining the amount of air required and the resulting products involved in the perfect combustion of 1 lb of coal having the following analysis:
Constituent Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Sulfur Ash Total Weight per lb 0.75 0.05 0.02 0.09 0.01 0.08 1.00

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TABLE 4.6

Theoretical Quantities Involved in Combustion of Fuel Required Resulting quantities CO2 3.67 N2 8.86 26.56 3.32 H2O 9.00 SO2 2.00

Constituent Carbon (C) Hydrogen (H) Sulfur (S)

O2 2.67 8.00 1.00

Air 11.53 34.56 4.32

All values are expressed in pounds per pound of fuel.

In the case of carbon, the values given in Table 4.7 are found as follows: 0.75
lb C/lb coal

2.67
lb O2 reqd/lb C

2.00
lb O2 reqd/lb coal

2.00
lb O2 /lb coal

4.32
lb air reqd/lb O2

8.64
lb air reqd/lb coal

0.75
lb C/lb coal

3.67
lb CO2 /lb C

2.75
lb CO2 /lb coal

8.64
lb air reqd/lb coal

2.00
lb O2 reqd/lb coal

6.64
lb N2 /lb coal

The values for hydrogen and sulfur are found in a similar manner. Note in Table 4.7 that the weight of fuel and air supplied is equal to the weight of the resulting quantities. 0.92 lb
fuel less ash

10.022 lb
air reqd

10.942 lb
total input

2.75 lb
CO2

7.722 lb
N2

0.45 lb
water vapor

0.02 lb
SO2

10.942 lb
total output

Therefore, when analyzing Table 4.7, it takes approximately 10 lb of air to burn 1 lb of coal, and this combustion results in approximately 11 lb of flue gas (10.942) on a theoretical basis. In practice, it is necessary and economical to supply more air than the theoretical amount in order to obtain complete combustion. The air supplied to a combustion process in an amount above that theoretically required is known as excess air. The flue gas analysis is effective in determining the amount of air supplied for combustion, as indicated by Fig. 4.3. This graph shows how the amount of excess air used in the combustion process can be calculated by the percentage of either carbon dioxide or oxygen in the flue gases. When a single fuel is burned, the carbon dioxide content of the flue gases provides a satisfactory index of the amount of excess air being used. This can be explained by the fact that with the complete combustion of 1 lb of carbon, 3.67 lb of carbon dioxide is produced. (See Table 4.2.)

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TABLE 4.7

Theoretical Quantities Involved in Combustion of Coal Required Resulting Quantities CO2 2.75 2.75 N2 6.64 1.328 0.033 8.001 H2O 0.45 0.45 SO2 0.02 0.02

Constituent Carbon Hydrogen Sulfur Total Correction for N2 in coal O2 in coal Corrected total
NOTE:

Weight per lb 0.75 0.05 0.01 0.81

O2 2.00 0.40 0.01 2.41

Air 8.64 1.728 0.043 10.411

0.02 0.09

0.09 2.32

0.389 10.022

2.75

0.02 0.299 7.722

0.45

0.02

All values are expressed in pounds per pound of coal.

Therefore, the amount of carbon dioxide formed depends on the amount of carbon burned. When a relatively large amount of air is used, the fixed amount of carbon dioxide gas will be diluted and the percentage correspondingly lowered. Conversely, if only a small amount of excess air is used, there will be less dilution, and the percentage of carbon dioxide will be relatively high. For a given percentage of excess air, fuels with higher carbon-hydrogen ratio will have a higher percentage of carbon dioxide in the flue gases than fuels with lower carbonhydrogen ratio. For a given percentage of excess air, the flue gases from a coal-fired furnace will have a higher percentage of carbon dioxide than when fuel oil is burned. For example, flue gas will contain 12 percent carbon dioxide when 54 percent excess air is used with bituminous coal and only 27 percent excess air with fuel oil (see Fig. 4.3). The percentage of oxygen in the flue gases provides an adequate measurement of excess air when either single or multiple fuels are being used. The oxygen in the flue gases represents that portion which entered but did not combine with the combustible elements in the fuel. This oxygen in the flue gases and the nitrogen with which it was mixed are the excess air. The theoretical oxygen and therefore air requirement is approximately proportional to the heat content of the fuel even with variations in the carbon-hydrogen ratio. For a given percentage of oxygen, the excess air is approximately the same for either coal or fuel oil. For example, a flue gas will contain 6 percent oxygen when 40 percent excess air is used with bituminous coal and 38.8 percent excess air with fuel oil. The flue gas analysis is obtained by use of the Orsat, as explained in Sec. 4.8, which is an apparatus where gaseous constituents are

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Figure 4.3

Carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2) in percentage by volume compared with the excess air used when various types of fuels are burned.

measured by absorption in separate chemical solutions. Modern facilities use continuous emission-monitoring (CEM) equipment; however, the Orsat remains an important piece of test equipment to verify the results from electronic equipment. The analysis includes carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2), and carbon monoxide (CO). When the sum of these three constituents is subtracted from 100, the remainder is assumed to be nitrogen (N2). The excess air in percentage of the theoretical requirements can be calculated by the following formula: O212CO Percentage of excess air 100 0.263N2 12COO2 However, when there is no carbon monoxide present, the formula becomes O2 Percentage of excess air 100 0.263N2O2 The use of these formulas will be shown by application to the following flue gas analyses.
Analysis A B CO2 13.7 13.5 O2 3.5 5.5 CO 1.8 0.0 N2 81.0 81.0

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Analysis A: 3.512 1.8 Percentage of excess air 100 13.9 0.263 81.0 12 1.8 3.5 Analysis B: 5.5 Percentage of excess air 100 34.8 0.263 81.05.5 For analysis A, the excess air is 13.9 percent; for B, it is 34.8 percent. Free oxygen is present in both analyses, but the presence of carbon monoxide in A indicates incomplete combustion. When 1 lb of carbon is burned to carbon dioxide, 14,540 Btus are released, but when it is burned to carbon monoxide only 4355 Btus are released, a loss of 10,185 Btu/lb (see Table 4.1). Therefore, it is important that the carbon monoxide content of the products of combustion be at a minimum. It also means that the carbon monoxide content of the products of combustion can be used to control the amount of excess air. When there is a trace of carbon monoxide in the flue gases, the air supply is increased. When the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur in solid fuels are known, the heating value can be approximated by using Dulongs formula: Heating value, Btu/lb of fuel 14,540C 62,000(H 18O) 4050S Theoretical air required, lb/lb fuel 11.53C 34.56(H 18O) 4.32S It is preferable to determine the heating value of a fuel by actually developing and measuring the heat. This is accomplished by completely burning a carefully weighed sample of the fuel in a calorimeter. The heat produced causes a temperature rise in a known quantity of water. The temperature rise is indicative of the heating value of the fuel. Physical characteristics of fuel are, in many cases, more important in practical application than chemical constituents. Means have been devised for determining some of these characteristics by simple control tests that can be made by the plant operators. As noted previously, fuel and air mixing to ensure complete combustion is not perfect, and therefore excess air is required. However, because the excess air that is not used for combustion leaves the unit as part of the flue gas at stack exit temperatures, the amount of excess air should be minimized. The energy required to heat the air from ambient to stack temperature is lost heat. Each design of combustion equipment has its excess air requirements, and Table 4.8 shows typical ranges for various fuels and methods of firing.

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TABLE 4.8

Ranges of Excess Air Requirements for Various Fuels and Methods of Firing Fuel Pulverized coal Coal Fluidized bed combustion Spreader stoker Water-cooled vibrating grate stoker Chain and traveling grate stoker Underfeed stoker Fuel oil Natural gas Coke oven gas Blast furnace gas Wood/bark Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) Municipal solid waste (MSW)
SOURCE:

Excess air, % by weight 1520

1520 2535 2535 2535 2540 315 315 315 1530 2025 4060 80100

Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.

Excess air also can be considered as providing a safety factor above the actual air that is required for combustion. A boiler that is operating without sufficient air has the potential for a dangerous condition because the fuel-air mixture is fuel-rich, and the possibility of an explosion exists. 4.3 The Air Supply Supplying oxygen, as contained in air, is an important consideration in the combustion process. In a typical case in which 15 lb of air is required per pound of coal (assuming approximately 50 percent excess air), it is necessary to deliver 15 tons of air to the furnace and to pass almost 16 tons of gases through the boiler for each ton of coal burned. (See Table 4.7, where 10 lb of air is required per pound of coal and, with 50 percent excess air, 15 lb of air is required.) In many installations the ability to supply air is the limiting factor in the rate of combustion. The number of pounds of fuel that can be burned per square foot of stoker grate area depends on the amount of air that can be circulated through the fuel bed. A means must be provided to supply the required amount of air to the furnace. The products of combustion must be removed from the furnace and circulated over the heat-absorbing

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surfaces. Finally, the pollutants must be removed from the resulting flue gases before they are discharged through the stack to the atmosphere. This circulation of gases is caused by a difference in pressure, referred to in boiler practice as draft. Draft is the differential in pressure between two points of measurement, usually the atmosphere and the inside of the boiler setting. A differential in draft is required to cause the gases to flow through a boiler setting. This required differential varies directly as the square of the rate of flow of gases. For example, when the flow is doubled, the difference in draft between two points in the setting will increase four times. For a given amount of fuel burned, the quantity of gases passing through the boiler depends on the amount of excess air being used. The draft differential across the boiler tube bank and the differential created by an orifice in the steam line are used to actuate a flowmeter. Recording flowmeters are calibrated under actual operating conditions by use of the flue gas analysis so that when the steam flow output and the gas flow coincide, the optimal amount of air is being supplied. A draft gauge in the form of a U-tube is partly filled with water. A sampling tube inserted in the boiler setting is then connected to one end of the U-tube, while the other end remains open to the atmosphere. The difference in the height of the two columns of water is a measure of the draft. The scales on these gauges are calibrated in inches, and the difference in height of the columns is read in inches of water. The draft gauges in common use are mechanical or dry-type gauges. However, the scales are calibrated in inches of water. A pressure in the furnace slightly lower than that of the atmosphere (draft) causes the air to enter, thus supplying the oxygen required for combustion. A draft at the boiler outlet greater than that in the furnace causes the products of combustion to circulate through the unit. The rate of flow or quantity of air supplied can be regulated by varying the draft differential. The principle of draft and air regulation is explained by reference to the hand-fired boiler, using a natural draft, shown in Fig. 4.4 and the graph of Fig. 4.5. The stack produces a draft of 1.0 in of water, which is regulated by the stack damper to give the required furnace draft. As the capacity increases, more air is required to burn the additional fuel, and the stack damper must be opened to compensate for the draft loss caused by the increased flow of gases. Draft loss occurs across the fuel bed, the boiler, the damper, and the breeching (flue). Finally, at 100 percent capacity, the stack damper is wide open and no more air can be supplied, thus limiting the ability of the furnace to burn additional coal efficiently.

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Figure 4.4

Flow of air and flue gas through a hand-fired boiler.

Figure 4.5

Draft in a hand-fired boiler.

The type of fuel determines the amount of draft differential required to produce a given airflow through the fuel bed. This is one of the reasons that more load can be carried with some fuels than with others. Figure 4.6 shows the draft normally required to burn several different types of fuels at varying rates.

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Figure 4.6

Fuel bed draft differential required for various fuels.

Early boiler designs met their total draft requirements with natural draft that was supplied by the height of the stack. As units became larger and included additional heat traps, such as superheaters, economizers, and air heaters (and thereby having a higher draft loss), it was not practical to draft the entire unit from the stack. These units required fans in addition to the stack, using a forced-draft (FD) fan alone or in combination with an induced-draft (ID) fan. Most combustion equipment uses forced-draft fans for supplying air to the furnace either through the burners or through the grates. An enclosure, called a wind box, provides the air distribution for proper combustion. The wind box is a reinforced, metal-cased enclosure that attaches to the furnace wall and incorporates the burners and distributes the combustion air. It also can refer to the air distribution ductwork under a stoker. It can be located on a furnace wall or on all the furnace walls depending on the burner configuration. The attachments to the furnace walls must be gas-tight and must permit thermal expansion between the casing and the tubes.

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Depending on the size of the boiler, the wind box can be arranged in compartments on the front and rear furnace walls to optimize the control of combustion. The forced-draft (FD) fan supplies the air at a pressure above that of the atmosphere and forces it into the furnace. Figures 4.7 and 4.8 show the application of forced draft to a stoker and the draft and wind-box pressure at various boiler capacities. This is the same unit as that shown in Fig. 4.4 except that an underfeed stoker has been substituted for the hand-fired grates. The forced-draft fan produces a pressure under the stoker and causes the necessary air to flow up through the fuel bed. An increase in capacity requires an increase in pressure under the stoker to cause the additional air to flow through the fuel bed. The stack produces the draft necessary to circulate the gases through the boiler and breeching (flue). By automatic regulation of the stack damper, the furnace draft is maintained constant at 0.05 in of water. Operating a furnace at a constant draft slightly below atmospheric pressure is referred to as balanced draft. When the combustion rate increases, more air is added to the furnace, and a corresponding increased amount of flue gas is removed. This results in a greater flow but maintains a constant pressure in the furnace. Since the total effect of the stack is now available in overcoming the resistance through the boiler, a higher capacity can be

Figure 4.7

Flow of air and flue gas through an underfeed stoker-fired

boiler.

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Figure 4.8

Draft and wind-box pressure in an underfeed stoker-fired boiler.

obtained than with the same unit operating without a forced-draft fan and with hand-fired grates. The stack provided an adequate means of circulating the air and gases through hand-fired grates or burners and boilers. However, the application of stokers necessitated the use of forced-draft fans, and induced-draft fans are required when economizers, air heaters, or flue gas cleaning equipment is applied to balanced-draft boilers. Modern boilers that burn solid fuels are nearly all balanced-draft units incorporating a forced-draft (FD) fan and an induced-draft (ID) fan. The pressurized furnaces used in connection with package oil- and gas-fired boilers require only forced-draft fans. Figure 4.9 shows how the pressure developed by the forced-draft fan is used to produce the flow of air and flue gases through the entire unit. Combustion air flows from the forced-draft fan through the supply duct to the wind box, into the furnace, and through the boiler, economizer, and interconnecting flues to the stack. All the energy required is supplied by the forced-draft fan. At the maximum capacity of 200,000 lb of steam per hour, the static pressure at the forced-draft fan outlet must be 19.6 in of water (gauge). The pressure drop across the wind box is maintained nearly constant at all steam loads by adjustable louvers. This creates a high velocity at the burners and promotes thorough

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Figure 4.9 Air and flue gas pressure in a 200,000 lb/h pressurized fuel oil and natural

gas-fired package boiler.

mixing of air and fuel, thereby maintaining good combustion efficiency at lower steam loads. Note the draft loss differential for the boiler and economizer and how it increases as capacity increases. The pressure-furnace principle had been applied to large pulverizedcoal-fired boilers. The necessary air and gas flow was developed with the forced-draft fan, but a number of design and operating problems were introduced such as flue gas leaks from the furnace into operating areas of the plant. In addition, the requirement for flue gas cleaning equipment, such as SO2 scrubbers and fabric filters, increased the draft loss and made the pressurized unit unattractive. Therefore, these types of units are designed today as balanced-draft boilers incorporating both FD and ID fans. 4.4 Coal Coal was formed by the decomposition of vegetation that grew in prehistoric forests. At that time the climate was favorable for very rapid growth. Layer upon layer of fallen trees was covered with sediment, and after long periods of aging, the chemical and physical properties of the now ancient vegetation deposits were changed, through various intermediate processes, into coal. The process of coal formation can be observed in the various stages on the earth today. However, present-day

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formations are insignificant when compared with the magnitude of the great coal deposits. It is estimated that 100 years is required to deposit 1 ft of vegetation in the form known as peat, and 4 ft of peat is necessary for the formation of 1 ft of coal. Therefore, it requires 400 years to accumulate enough vegetable matter for a 1-ft layer of coal. The conversion from peat to coal requires ages of time. In some areas where other fuel is scarce, the peat is collected, dried, and burned. The characteristics of coal depend on the type of vegetation from which it was formed, the impurities that became intermixed with the vegetable matter at the time the peat bog was forming, and the aging, time, temperature, and pressure. It is apparent that the characteristics of coal vary widely. For example, peat often contains partially decomposed stems, twigs, and bark. Peat is progressively transformed to lignite, which eventually can become anthracite when provided with the proper progression of geologic changes. However, this transformation takes hundreds of years to complete. Coal is a heterogeneous material that varies in chemical composition according to location. In addition to the major organic ingredients of C, H2, and O2, coal also contains impurities. The impurities that are of major concern are ash and sulfur. The ash results from mineral or inorganic material that was introduced during formation of the coal. Ash sources include inorganic substances, such as silica, which are part of the chemical structure of the plants. Dissolved mineral grains that are found in swamp water are also captured by the organic matter during the formation of coal. Mud, shale, and pyrite are deposited in pores and cracks of the coal seams. Sulfur occurs in coal in three forms: 1. Organic sulfur, which is part of the coals molecular structure 2. Pyritic sulfur, which occurs as the mineral pyrite 3. Sulfate sulfur, which is primarily from iron sulfate The highest sulfur source is sulfate iron, which is found in water. Fresh water has a low sulfate concentration, whereas salt water is high in sulfate. Bituminous coal is found deposited in the interior of the United States, where oceans once covered the region, and this coal has a high sulfur content. Coal can be classified as follows, and typical analyses are shown in Table 4.9. Peat is the first product in the formation of coal and consists of partially decomposed plant and mineral matter. Peat has a moisture content of up to 70 percent and a heating value as low as 3000 Btu/lb.
Peat.

200 TABLE 4.9

Representative Analyses of Wood, Peat, and Coal on an As Received Basis Proximate analysis Volatile matter 26.14 35.34 27.63 27.13 14.47 8.47 1.16 Fixed carbon 11.17 22.91 44.84 62.52 75.31 76.65 88.21 Ultimate analysis Calorific value, Btu/lb 5800 3586 7090 9376 13,919 14,081 13,156 13,298

Kind of fuel Wood Peat Lignite Subbituminous Bituminous Semibituminous Semianthracite Anthracite
SOURCE:

Moisture 56.70 34.55 24.28 3.24 2.03 3.38 2.80

Ash 5.99 7.20 3.25 7.11 8.19 11.50 7.83

Sulfur 0.64 1.10 0.36 0.95 2.26 0.63 0.89

Hydrogen 6.25 8.33 6.60 6.14 5.24 4.14 3.58 1.89

Carbon 49.50 21.03 42.40 55.28 78.00 79.97 78.43 84.36

Nitrogen 1.10 1.10 0.57 1.07 1.23 1.26 1.00 0.63

Oxygen 43.15 62.91 42.13 33.90 7.47 4.18 4.86 4.40

Adapted from E. S. Moore, Coal, Wiley, New York.

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Although it is not an official coal classification, it is used as a fuel in some parts of the world. Lignite is the lowest ranking of coal with a heating value of less than 8300 Btu/lb and a moisture content as high as 35 percent. The volatile content is also high, and therefore lignite ignites easily.
Lignite. Subbituminous.

These coals are noncoking; i.e., they have minimal swelling on heating and have a relatively high moisture content of 15 to 30 percent. They are high in volatile matter and thus ignite easily. They also have less ash and burn cleaner than lignite. They have a low sulfur content, generally less than 1 percent, and a heating value between 8300 and 11,500 Btu/lb. Because of the low sulfur content, many power plants have changed to subbituminous coal in order to limit SO2 emissions.

This coal is the one most commonly burned in electric utility boilers, and it has a heating value between 10,500 and 14,000 Btu/lb. As compared with lignite and subbituminous coals, the heating value is higher and the moisture content and volatile matter are lower. The high heating value and its relatively high volatile matter enable these coals to burn easily when fired as pulverized coal. Some types of bituminous coal, when heated in the absence of air, soften and release volatiles and then form coke, a porous, hard, black product. Coke is used as fuel in blast furnaces to make iron.
Bituminous.

This is the highest ranked coal. It has the highest content of fixed carbon, ranging from 86 to 98 percent. It has a low volatile content, which makes it a slow-burning fuel. Its moisture content is low at about 3 percent, and its heating value can be as high as 15,000 Btu/lb. Anthracite is low in sulfur and volatiles and burns with a hot, clean flame. It is used mostly for domestic heating as well as some metallurgical processes. However, utility-type boilers are designed to burn this low-volatile coal in pulverized coal-fired boilers. Refer to Fig. 2.42.
Anthracite.

Preparation plants are capable of upgrading coal quality. In this process, foreign materials, including slate and pyrites, are separated from the coal. The coal may be washed, sized, and blended to meet the most exacting power plant demands. However, this processing increases the cost of coal, and an economic evaluation is required to determine whether the cost can be justified. If the raw coal available in the area is unsatisfactory, the minimum required upgrading must be determined. Utility plants obtain the lowest steam cost by selecting their combustion equipment to use the raw coal available in the

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area. However, in order to meet sulfur dioxide emission limits, many utilities use low-sulfur coals that often have to be transported significant distances. For example, many plants located in the midwest of the United States use coals shipped from Montana and Wyoming. For over 20 years, Powder River Basin (PRB) coals, where mines are located across eastern Wyoming and Montana, have led in the supply of these low-sulfur coals. The annual production of this coal has increased significantly, from less than 10 million tons per year in the mid-1970s to over 300 million tons per year today. Nearly all this coal is used in electric power plants. Most of this coal produces less than 1 lb of SO2 per million Btus, thus making it a popular choice, even though it has a relatively low heat content, ranging from 8400 to 9300 Btu/lb. The effect on the SO2 removal requirements is simplified, as discussed in Chap. l2. Since this coal can be mined efficiently and economically because its seams lie close to the surface, it also has a price advantage over coals from other locations. However, transportation costs are higher than those for coals from eastern regions. Many utilities, independent power producers (IPPs), and large industrial plants have switched from eastern bituminous coals to PRB coal for reasons of cost alone. Others are using the fuel because it reduces emissions of SO2 without the need to install costly scrubbers. However, the use of PRB coals has some negative effects that must be handled. The fuel has a higher moisture content, which results in a lower heating value. It also has a lower ash softening temperature and a higher ash content. These characteristics often result in greater fouling and slagging of boiler heating surfaces, and dust control in and around the power plant is more diffcult. Fugitive dust can ignite and even explode under certain conditions, and this puts plant personnel and equipment at risk, making it even more important to have good housekeeping procedures. The higher ash content places additional burden on the ash handling system and on the needed landfill to handle the waste material. However, these potential operating difficulties can be managed, and PRB coals will continue to be used because of their lower cost and lower sulfur content. All the many factors involved in obtaining the lowest-cost steam production must be taken into consideration. For a new facility, this would involve the selection of combustion equipment for the coal that is available in the region or for the coal that may be imported to the plant. For an existing facility, a selection of the type of coal to best match existing combustion equipment may be necessary.

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Because of the varied and complex nature of coal, a number of methods for evaluating and specifying have been developed. One of the simplest methods of controlling coal quality is the proximate analysis, which includes moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash, heating value, and sometimes sulfur. The procedure for obtaining a proximate analysis must be in accordance with ASTM1 laboratory procedures, which are generally as follows: Moisture. A 1-g sample of coal is placed in an oven where the temperature is maintained at 220F for 1 h. The difference between the weight before and after drying is the amount of moisture removed. Volatile matter. The sample is next placed in a furnace in a covered crucible, where the temperature is maintained at 1700F for a period of 7 min. The gaseous substance driven off is called volatile matter. Fixed carbon. The lid is now removed from the crucible, the furnace temperature is increased, and the crucible is allowed to remain in the furnace until the combustible has been completely burned. The loss in weight as a result of this burning is the amount of fixed carbon. Ash. The residual material in the crucible is ash. Heating value. The heating value of coal may be determined by use of a bomb calorimeter. The bomb calorimeter provides a means of burning a small sample of coal under controlled conditions and measuring the resulting temperature rise in a given quantity of water. A 1-g sample (a gram is 1/453.6 lb) of pulverized and dried coal is placed in a tray. The tray is then placed in a steel bomb with a fuse wire arranged to extend into the tray of coal. The bomb is then closed, connected to an oxygen tank, and pressurized. A measured amount of water is poured into the calorimeter bucket. The bucket is placed in the calorimeter, and the bomb is carefully submerged in the water. A stirring device agitates the water to maintain uniform temperature. A calibrated thermometer permits the operator to observe the temperature. The coal is now ignited by means of the fuse wire and the temperature rise is noted. The heating value of the coal in Btu/lb is found by multiplying the temperature rise by a constant for the specific calorimeter. Coal analyses are expressed in three different ways depending on the constituents included. The designation as received or as fired refers to
1

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

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an analysis in which the actual moisture is included. When the expression moisture-free or dry coal is used, the analysis considers the moisture as having been removed. Since neither moisture nor ash adds to the heating value of coal, analyses are calculated to exclude these constituents and in this way to give a true indication of the nature of the combustible material. When the moisture and ash are not included, the analysis is referred to as moisture- and ash-free or combustible. Sulfur has some heating value but is nevertheless an objectionable constituent of coal because of its corrosiveness and because of its contribution to air pollution, which is commonly referred to as acid rain. The ultimate analysis of coal includes carbon (C), hydrogen (H), sulfur (S), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N). This analysis is performed in a chemical laboratory. It is required for heat-balance calculations and the determination of the theoretical air requirements. Table 4.9 gives a typical representation of the proximate and ultimate analysis of fuels on an as-received basis, classified by rank according to the progressive changes from wood to anthracite. Analyses of coal types vary based on their location throughout the world. In this ultimate analysis, the moisture content is included in the hydrogen and oxygen values. The calculations in Table 4.10 show how the ultimate analysis for bituminous coal can be expressed with the moisture as a separate item. The calculations also show how the analysis can be converted to a dry and ash-free basis. Ash is an inert material, but its characteristics frequently determine the desirability of a coal for a given installation. Because of the importance of the fusion or melting temperature of the ash, tests have been devised to determine this property.2 The ash to be tested is molded into a small pyramid, placed in a test furnace, and exposed to a steadily increasing temperature. The atmosphere surrounding the sample is controlled, and the temperature is measured while the pyramids are observed through a peephole in the side of the furnace (Fig. 4.10). The temperature of the pyramids is noted and recorded at three stages of melting: initial deformation (Fig. 4.10a), when the tip of the pyramid first shows a change; ash-softening temperature (Fig. 4.10b), when the pyramid forms in a sphere; and melting point (Fig. 4.10c), when the ash becomes fluid and the sphere flattens. These three temperatures are reported in reference to ash fusion. Fusion temperatures provide ash melting characteristics and are used to determine the potential for slagging under normal operating conditions. The degree of slagging can determine the firing method for the boiler. When coal is heated in the absence of air or with a large deficiency of air, the lighter constituents are volatilized and the heavier hydrocarbons crack, liberating hydrogen and leaving a residue of carbon.
2

Such tests are used by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

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TABLE 4.10

Bituminous Coal Ultimate Analysis: Calculation of Moisture and Ash-Free From tables Separate moisture 0.95
1

Basis Dry 0.98 5.04 80.62 (10.0324) 1.27 4.74 7.35 100.00 (10.0735) Combustible 1.06 5.44 87.01 1.37 5.12 100.00

S H C N O Ash Moist

0.95 5.243.24 9* 78.00 1.23

4.88 78.00 1.23 4.59 7.11 3.24 100.00

7.11 100.00

*1 lb H2 8 lb O2 9 lb H2O.

Figure 4.10 Ash fusion temperature determination

This carbon residue that contains the ash and a part of the sulfur of the original coal is called coke. The principal uses for coke are in the production of pig iron in blast furnaces and in iron foundries. Because it is smokeless in combustion, it has been used for space heating. The coking tendency of coal is expressed by the free-swelling index (FSI). This test is made by grinding a sample of coal to pass a no. 60 sieve and then heating 1 g under specified conditions that also have been described by ASTM. The profile obtained by heating the sample is compared with a standard set of profiles to determine the FSI of the sample. The standard profiles are expressed in one-half units from 1 to 9. Coals having an FSI below 5 are referred to as free-burning, since particles do not tend to stick together and form large lumps of coke when heat is applied but remain separate during the combustion process. Coals having an FSI above 5 are referred to as caking or coking, since the particles swell and tend to stick together when heated.

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The caking, or coking, characteristics of coal affect its behavior when it is burned on hand-fired grates or stokers. When a coal cakes, the smaller particles adhere to one another, and large masses of fuel are formed on the grates. This action reduces the surface area that is exposed to oxygen and therefore retards the burning. Since these large pieces of coke do not burn, a portion is discharged to the ashpit as unburned carbon. For efficient combustion, a coking coal requires some agitation of the fuel bed to break up the coke masses in order to maintain uniform air distribution. Free-burning coals, on the other hand, may be burned successfully without fuel bed agitation. These characteristics (coking and free-burning) need not be considered when coal is burned in the pulverized form. Coal that has a relatively high percentage of volatile matter is termed soft; that which has a lower percentage of volatile matter is termed hard. Many bituminous coals are considered soft coals, whereas anthracite coal is considered a hard coal. When coal is heated, the volatile matter has a tendency to be distilled off in the form of combustible gases known as hydrocarbons. These volatile gases liberated from coal must be burned in the combustion space above the fuel bed. A large combustion space must be provided to burn these gases and thereby eliminate fuel loss and smoke. Because hard coal has a relatively lower percentage of volatile matter, it burns with a short flame, and most of the combustion takes place in the fuel bed. When soft coal is burned in pulverized form, the volatile material is distilled off and burns as a gas. This makes it relatively easy to maintain ignition and complete combustion with a minimum flame travel. Hard coal is also burned in the pulverized form, and in this case, each particle is a small portion of carbon that must be burned by contact with oxygen. The combustion of these carbon particles requires an appreciable amount of time, resulting in a long flame travel and a tendency for the fire to puff out at low loads and when starting up. Other conditions being equal, it is necessary to resort to finer pulverization when hard coal is burned than when soft coal is burned. Thus consideration must be given to the volatile content of the coal both in designing equipment and in operation. Coal as it is removed from the mine contains some moisture, and the amount may be increased by exposure to the weather before it reaches the plant. Moisture represents an impurity in that it adds to the weight but not to the heating value of coal. It enters the furnace in the form of water and leaves as steam in the flue gas. Heat generated by the fuel actually must be expended to accomplish this conversion. Normally it is to the operators advantage to burn coal with a low moisture content to prevent the loss of heat that results from converting the water into vapor or steam. However, when coal is

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burned on grates or stokers, there are conditions that make it advantageous to have a small percentage of moisture present. This moisture tends to accelerate the combustion process, keep the fuel bed even, and promote uniform burning. The advantages gained by the presence of the moisture may then balance the loss resulting from the heat required for its evaporation. Coals having 7 to 12 percent moisture content are recommended for use on chain- and traveling-grate stokers. The addition of moisture to promote combustion of coal is referred to as tempering. Coal transportation costs are a significant part of the overall fuel cost. Nearly 60 percent of all coal deliveries is made by rail, and slightly less than 20 percent is transported by barge. The remaining coal delivery is equally divided between truck shipment and a continuous belt system when the power plant is located at the coal mine. Coal with a high moisture content presents some difficult handling problems. During the winter season, this moisture freezes while the coal is in transit, making it very difficult to remove the coal from the railroad cars. The methods used to thaw coal cars are gas burners under the cars, thawing sheds equipped with radiant electric heaters, and thawing sheds with steam coils for heating air, which is circulated around the cars. Car shakers are helpful, but they will not remove frozen coal. Coal removed from the storage pile during snowy or rainy weather also may contain a high percentage of moisture. The wet coal adheres to the chutes, causing problems in the flow of the coal to the stoker or pulverizer mill. In many plants this has become a serious operating problem. Improvised methods of rapping the pipe, using an air lance, etc., have proved marginally effective in getting the coal to flow. In the design of the plant, the coal feed pipe from the bunkers to the stoker or mill should be as nearly perpendicular as possible with no bends or offsets. Access openings should be provided so that when stoppages do occur they can be relieved quickly. Electric vibrators have proved beneficial when the pitch of the chute is insufficient to promote flow. In some installations, hot air is passed through the coal pipe with the coal. The larger the coal size, the less water it will retain. Therefore, some relief from freezing in cars and the stoppage of chutes can be obtained by using a coarser grade of coal. This, however, usually means an increase in cost. The practice of applying antifreeze solutions to the coal when it is loaded at the mines has proved effective in reducing moisture pickup in transit. The added coal cost can be justified by the reduced handling costs at the plant. In fact, for hot, dry weather, where winds could create coal dust clouds, the coal is often sprayed with oil or an antifreeze solution to settle the fines.

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In general, coal-fired power plants are located in remote areas where the outdoor storage of coal has not been a major problem. Coal dust from open coal piles and storm water runoff from these coal piles had to be dealt with, but the remoteness of the sites made these problems rather minimal. However, with the worldwide implementation of various health and environmental regulations, the covering of coal piles is being considered as a requirement at many power plant sites. Figures1.6 and 1.7 show an example of a plant site in Florida where the environmentally sensitive location made it necessary to install coal storage domes. These domes protect the coal piles from rain, wind, and moisture buildup. Dry coal burns more efficiently, and the coal pile is protected from erosion and runoff. A dry stockpile reduces the risk of moisture buildup in pockets, which can cause spontaneous combustion, a common problem associated with piles of coal. The coal domes shown in Fig. 4.11 provide coal storage for a power plant located in Taiwan. Each of the domes is designed to store over 150,000 tons of coal, and they are approximately 475 ft in diameter and 150 ft in height. Because of the location of the site adjacent to the ocean, these domes were built with aluminum. Domes located in areas where the environment is not corrosive can be constructed using galvanized steel. Internal cladding prevents dust accumulation on the internal structure. This cladding provides a sealed, gap-free surface that resists dust accumulation and minimizes potential explosion hazards due to dust buildup.

Figure 4.11 Coal storage domes for power plant in Taiwan. (Geometrica, Inc.)

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Figure 4.11 also shows the coal conveyors to and from the coal storage domes. Each dome is designed to house the coal feed conveyor, the stacking and reclaiming equipment, and the coal transfer system to the exit conveyor. Ventilation and filtering systems are also built into the domes to provide normal ventilation as well as ensuring against any methane or smoke buildup. A schematic of the coal conveying system and the stacking and reclaiming equipment is shown in Fig. 4.12. A photograph of the system in operation is shown in Fig. 4.13. With the use of coal so important to the production of low-cost electrical energy, and with protection of the environment being such a vital requirement, innovative methods of handling and burning coal, such as these coal storage domes, are now being used. Particle size is an important consideration in the selection of coal. The size requirement for different equipment varies widely. Coal burned on grates must have a certain size composition to regulate the passage of air through the fuel bed, while for a pulverized-coal burner the coal must be reduced in size to small, powderlike particles to promote rapid and complete combustion. There is a tendency for coal particles to fracture when mechanical force is applied. Dense, hard coals resist fracture and retain their size during handling. Soft coals shatter easily, break up into small particles when handled, and therefore are said to be friable. Size degradation during shipment depends on the coal friability, which identifies its ease of crumbling, and the techniques, methods, and number of transfers that should be used. This size degradation is not a concern when the coal is to be pulverized. When coal containing a range of sizes is dropped through a chute or other coal-conveying equipment, the fine and coarse particles segregate. If this condition occurs in the coal supply to a stoker, the fine is admitted to one section and the coarse to another. The resistance of the fuel bed to airflow varies, resulting in different rates of airflow through the grates and subsequent variations in the rates of combustion. Coal-conveying systems for supplying stokers should be designed to prevent this segregation. Refer to Fig. 5.9 for a typical coal distributor across a stoker inlet. Fine coal particles have a greater tendency to retain moisture, and wet fine coal will not flow readily through chutes and spouts. The clogging of coal-conveying equipment by fine wet coal becomes so troublesome that coal with coarser particles sometimes must be selected. Once the fine wet coal is in the furnace, there is a tendency for the combustion gases to carry the small particles of coal. This results in a loss of heat due to the unburned carbon. The type of combustion equipment dictates the size of coal that is required. Therefore, it is necessary to designate coal size by stating

210

Figure 4.12 A schematic diagram showing internal coal conveyor system within coal storage domes (Geometrica, Inc.)

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Figure 4.13 Coal conveyor system in operation (Geometrica, Inc.)

the largest and smallest pieces and the percentage of the varioussized particles, such as 114 in by 14 in with not more than 15 percent minus 14. For stoker-fired units, coal sizing is specified to meet the stoker requirements, and therefore no additional sizing equipment is required at the plant. For pulverized-coal-fired boilers, a maximum delivered top size is specified with no limitation on the percentage of fines. A characteristic known as grindability is considered when selecting coal for pulverizer plants. Some coals are harder and therefore more

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difficult to pulverize than others. The grindability of coal is tested, and the results are reported in accordance with the Hardgrove standard, which has an index of 100. A weighed, screened sample is placed in a laboratory test mill, and a given preestablished amount of energy is applied. The ratio of the fineness produced in the test sample to that produced when the same amount of energy was expended on a sample of standard coal is the Hardgrove value for the coal tested. The index is relative, since large values, such as 100, represent coals that are more easily pulverized than those having smaller values, such as 40, which are difficult to pulverize. A knowledge of the grindability of coal is used in the selection of pulverizer mills and in the procuring of satisfactory coal for a pulverized-coal-fired plant. When coal for an installation is being selected, a study should be made of the fusing or melting temperature of the ash that it contains. The exposure of low-fusing-temperature ash to the high-temperature zones of a fuel bed causes hard clinkers to form. These clinkers interfere with the movement of fuel in a stoker and make it difficult to clean a hand-fired grate. This results in an increased amount of carbon being removed with the ash, uneven fuel bed with increased excess air, and burned-out grates or stoker castings. In pulverized-coal-fired furnaces and in some cases even with stokers, the molten ash is carried by the gases to the walls and into the boiler passes, where it accumulates in large quantities. This slagging of ash causes deterioration of any refractory furnace lining, and its accumulation on the boiler tubes progresses until it bridges across from one tube to the other. This reduces the effective area of the gas passage, thereby restricting the flow. When the melting temperature of the ash is low, it is sometimes necessary to operate the boiler at reduced capacity or with increased excess air in order to lower the furnace temperature to prevent slag formation. The study of fusion temperatures originally was developed to evaluate the clinkering tendency of coal ash that was produced by combustion on a stoker grate. In a pulverized-coal-fired unit, however, rather than slow heating and gradual melting of ash, the process is reversed. Ash particles are heated rapidly and then cooled at a relatively slow rate as they pass through the furnace and convection passes of the boiler. In a pulverized-coal-fired unit during combustion, the coal particles are heated nearly instantaneously to approximately 3000F. As the flue gas cools in the furnace, the ash is cooled in approximately 2 seconds to a temperature of about 2000F at the furnace exit. Fusion temperatures provide an indication of the temperature range over which portions of the ash will be in a molten state or a plastic state. High fusion temperatures indicate that ash released in the furnace will cool quickly to a nonsticky state, which results in minimum slagging. However, low fusion temperatures indicate that ash will

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remain molten or sticky longer, and therefore slagging in the furnace or on boiler convection passes has a higher probability. The boiler must be designed for the coals that are to be used. When temperatures in the furnace are below the initial deformation temperature, a large proportion of the ash particles would be in a dry state and would not adhere to the heating surfaces. Some settlement of this dust could appear on heating surfaces, but this could be removed by sootblowers. (Refer to Sec. 6.9.) At temperatures above initial deformation, the ash becomes more sticky and can adhere readily to heating surfaces. This slagging potential can seriously affect boiler performance when this situation occurs. The amount of ash in coal also should be given consideration, since it is an impurity that is purchased. It produces no heat and must be removed from the furnace and hauled from the plant. Since ash is an inert material, the heating value of coal can be expected to be low when the ash content is high. A minimum of 4 to 6 percent ash is required in coal burned on hand-fired grates and on some stokers. The layer of ash forms an insulator that prevents an excessive amount of heat from reaching the grates. When the ash content of the coal is too low and the grates are unprotected, the grates become overheated, and maintenance costs are increased. Combustion equipment is designed to use high-ash coal and to operate without difficulty and with a minimum of carbon loss in the ash. Therefore, when coals are selected, the minimum ash requirement to protect the grates must be given first consideration if this is a factor. Then the economics of coals with various ash contents must be considered. Coals having a low ash content can be obtained either by selection or by processing. However, this selection of low-ash coal must be justified on an overall economic basis. With the use of adequate combustion equipment, many plants find high-ash coal more economical. In fact, as noted in Chap. 2, fluidized bed boilers are designed to burn waste coals that have a very high ash content and a low heating value. For these facilities, fuel costs are very low. When selecting coal and the equipment used in the burning of coal, the sulfur content must be considered. The corrosive effects of sulfur necessitate the use of special materials in the construction of conveyors and bunkers. The dew point of the flue gases is lowered by the presence of the sulfur oxides. The flue gas temperature reduction in economizers and air heaters must be limited to prevent the metal temperatures from being reduced to or below the dew point. This precaution is necessary to prevent serious corrosion. Furthermore, the sulfur oxides discharged with the flue gases pollute the atmosphere unless adequate air pollution control equipment is utilized, such as flue gas scrubber systems, as described in Chap. 12.

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Since it is seldom possible to schedule coal deliveries to meet plant needs, it is necessary to maintain a storage. This storage of coal frequently presents a problem in that the coal has the potential for overheating and starting to burn. This self-excited burning is known as spontaneous combustion. Actually, it is not entirely self-excited because the oxygen is obtained from the air. At first the oxidation proceeds slowly at atmospheric temperature, but if the heat produced is not carried away, the temperature increases. This higher temperature accelerates the process, and the heat is generated more rapidly. When the ignition temperature is reached, the coal starts to burn. Many tons of coal have been wasted as the result of spontaneous combustion. Some of the precautions against spontaneous combustion are as follows: 1. Take the temperature of the coal by means of a thermocouple inserted in a pointed pipe. 2. In outside areas, use a means of storage that will prevent segregation; tightly pack the coal to exclude air. Isolate any hot region from the remainder of the pile. 3. Prevent the direct radiation of heat from the boiler, etc., against the side of bunkers by providing an insulating air space between the inner and outer bunker walls. 4. Do not allow a storage of coal to remain in excess of 1 month in an overhead bunker, and monitor the temperature of the coal with thermocouples. 5. Should the temperature exceed 150F, inject carbon dioxide gas at once, by use of a perforated pipe driven into the coal. The introduction of carbon dioxide should not, however, be considered a final answer because the coal must be moved as soon as possible. 6. Provide a nitrogen blanket over the coal in the bunker to reduce contact with the oxygen in the air.

4.5 Fuel Oil The origin of petroleum has not been definitely established, but several theories have been offered. The combination of carbon and hydrogen as they exist in petroleum could have been generated from either animal or vegetable matter. One theory holds that large amounts of some form of animal or vegetable matter, and perhaps both, decayed and aged under pressure and in the presence of salt water. Those who offer this theory point to the fact that petroleum deposits are usually found in the presence of salt water. Another theory holds that petroleum

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was formed by inorganic substances, i.e., without the presence of either animal or vegetable life. This theory is based on the fact that material containing hydrogen and carbon has been produced experimentally by the action of certain carbides and water. Petroleum is believed, by the advocates of this theory, to have been formed in the interior of the earth by the action of minerals, water, and gases. Deposits of petroleum are found floating on subterranean lakes of salt water. A dome-shaped layer of nonporous rock holds the petroleum in place. The dome-shaped rock formation usually also entraps a quantity of natural gas. The deposit consists of natural gas, petroleum, and water, which are separated from the rock down in the order named by virtue of their specific gravity. Oil is obtained by drilling through the layer of rock that covers the oil and gas. This procedure releases the natural gas, which is stored underground or transmitted through pipelines for use in distant cities. The oil is removed from the ground by a pumping operation that frequently fails to remove all the oil deposit. When compared with coal, fuel oils are relatively easy to handle and burn, and there is significantly less ash to dispose of. In most oil burners, the oil is atomized and mixed with combustion air. In this atomized state, the characteristics of oil approximate those of natural gas. Fuel oils include virtually all petroleum products that are less volatile than gasoline. They range from light oils, which are used in internal combustion or turbine engines, to heavy oils, which require heating. The heavier fuel oils are those used for steam generation in boilers. The specific gravity of fuel oil is used as a general index of its classification and quality in much the same manner as the proximate analysis is used to specify the characteristics of coal. In determining the specific gravity of oil or any substance, the weight of a given volume of the substance is divided by the weight of an equal volume of water when both are measured at the same temperature. Special laboratory determinations of fuel oil are made in terms of specific gravity, but in practical fieldwork the gravity is measured by a hydrometer and read in degrees Baum or API. The API scale as adopted by the American Petroleum Institute is now generally accepted to determine the relative density of oil. It differs slightly from the Baum scale. The specific gravity as expressed in relation to water may be converted into degrees API by the use of the following formula: 141.5 API 131.5 sp. gr. at 60/60F Note: Sp. gr. at 60/60F means that oil at 60F has been referred to water at 60F. Since water has a specific gravity of 1, we find from this formula that it has an API gravity of 10. The API gravity of commercial fuel oil varies from 10 to 40.

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Example A sample of fuel oil has a specific gravity of 0.91 at 60F. What is its gravity in degrees API? Solution 141.5 API 131.5 24.0 0.91

Specific gravity, therefore, is the ratio of the density of oil to the density of water, and it is important because oil is purchased by volume, either by the gallon or by the barrel. Heavier, liquid fuels have a lower API gravity, as noted in Table 4.11. The viscosity or resistance to flow of an oil is important because it affects the ease with which it can be handled and broken up into a fine mist by the burner. An increase in temperature lowers the viscosity of an oil and causes it to flow more readily. It is therefore necessary to heat heavy oils in order to handle them effectively in pumps and burners.
TABLE 4.11

Commercial Classification of Fuel Oil Designation Light domestic Medium domestic Heavy domestic Light industrial Medium industrial Heavy industrial API 3840 3436 2832 2426 1822 1416 Btu/gal 136,000 138,500 141,000 145,000 146,500 148,000

Fuel oil no. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Light oils contain a larger proportion of hydrogen than heavy oils. These light oils ignite easily and are said to have low flash and fire points. The flash point of an oil is the temperature at which the gases given off will give a flash when ignited. The fire point is the temperature at which the gases given off may be ignited and will continue to burn. An oil that has a low flash point will burn more readily than one with a high flash point. The heating value of fuel oil is expressed in either Btu/lb or Btu/gal. The commercial heating value of fuel oil varies from approximately 18,000 to nearly 20,000 Btu/lb. The calorimeter provides the best means of determining the heating value of fuel oil. When the gravity in API degrees is known, the heating value may be estimated by use of the following formula: Btu/lb of oil 17,687 57.7 API gravity at 60F
Example If a sample of fuel oil has an API gravity of 25.2 at 60F, what is the approximate Btu/lb?

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Solution Btu/lb of oil 17,687 57.7 25.2 17,687 1454 19,141

The calculation of the heating value of fuel oil is generally not required because ASTM test methods have established the specifications for fuel oils, and these are used when fuel oil is purchased. Some of the impurities in fuel oil that affect its application and should be determined by analysis are ash, sulfur, moisture, and sediment. These are established by ASTM test procedures. There is a wide variation in the composition and characteristics of the fuel oil used for the generation of heat. Practically any liquid petroleum product may be used if it is feasible economically to provide the necessary equipment for its combustion. Fuel oils may be classified according to their source as follows: 1. Residual oils. These are the products that remain after the more volatile hydrocarbons have been extracted. The removal of these hydrocarbons lowers the flash point and makes the oil safe for handling and burning. This residual oil is usually free from moisture and sediment except for that which is introduced by handling and in transit from refinery to consumer. These oils are high-viscosity fluids and require heating for proper handling and combustion. Fuel oils in grades 4 and 5 (see Table 4.11) are less viscous and therefore more easily handled and burned than no. 6 oil. Number 6 usually requires heating for handling and burning. 2. Crude petroleum. This is the material as it comes from the oil well without subsequent processing. Sometimes, because of exposure to the weather or for other reasons, the crude petroleum is too low in quality to justify refining, and it is then used as fuel under power boilers. Since it may contain some volatile gases, it must be handled with care. Present-day refinery practices make it possible to recover some high-quality product from almost all crude petroleum. Therefore, only a small quantity of this material is now available for use as fuel oil. The processing of crude oil yields a wide range of more valuable products. The average product yield of a modern refinery is
Gasoline Lube oil Jet fuel Kerosene Distillates Residual fuel Total 44.4% 16.4 6.2 2.9 22.5 7.6 100.0%

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3. Distillate oils. These are obtained by fractional distillation and are of a consistency between kerosene and lubrication oils. Fuel oil produced in this manner does not contain the heavy tar residue found in others. The light grades of fuel oils are produced in this manner. These oils are typically clean and essentially free of sediment and ash and are relatively low in viscosity. These fuel oils are generally in grades 1 and 2 (see Table 4.11). Although no. 2 oil is sometimes used as a fuel for steam generation, it is used primarily for home heating and industrial applications where there is a very high importance on low ash and low sulfur. For steam-generation applications, these fuel oils are used as a startup or supplemental fuel to a solid-fuel combustion process. 4. Blended oils. These are mixtures of two or all of the above, in proportions to meet the desired specifications. For commercial purposes, fuel oils are divided into six classes according to their gravity (see Table 4.11). The no. 5 oil is sometimes referred to as bunker B and the no. 6 as bunker C, although bunker C also frequently refers to oil heavier than 14API. Fuel oil is used for the generation of heat in preference to other fuels when the price warrants the expense or when there are other advantages that outweigh an unfavorable price difference. In some instances, the cleanliness, reduced stack emissions, ease of handling, small space requirements, low cost of installation, and other advantages derived from the use of fuel oil compensate for a considerable price difference when compared with solid fuels. The fact that oil can be fired automatically and that there is a minimum amount of ash to be removed makes its use desirable. The location of the plant with respect to the source of fuel supply and the consequent transportation costs are determining factors in the economic choice of fuels. Many plants are equipped to burn two or more kinds of fuel in order that they may take advantage of the fluctuating costs over the life of the plant. In burning fuel oil, it is essential that it be finely atomized to ensure mixing of the oil particles with the air. To accomplish this, it is necessary to have pumping equipment for supplying the oil and burners suitable for introducing the fuel into the furnace. The heavy grades of fuel oil cannot be pumped or atomized properly by the burner until the viscosity has been lowered by heating. The storage tanks that contain heavy oil must be equipped with heating coils and the temperature maintained at 100 to 120F to facilitate pumping. This oil must then be passed through another heater before it goes to the burners. With intermediate grades, the tank heater is not necessary, since the required temperature for atomization is obtained by the heater in the oil lines. The temperature to which the fuel oil should be heated before it enters the burners varies with different equipment, but the generally accepted practice is as follows:

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Fuel oil no. 4 5 6

Temperature at burner, F 135 185 220

Fuel oil provides a satisfactory source of heat for many types of services when the correct equipment is used and good operating practices are followed. The ash content is usually low, but even a small amount may react with the refractory in a furnace and cause rapid deterioration. Completely water-cooled furnace designs have solved this problem. The flame should be adjusted to prevent impingement on the furnace walls because flame impingement results in failure of the furnace water wall tubes. Moisture, emulsified oil, abrasive particles, and other foreign matter, referred to collectively as sludge, settle to the bottom of the storage tank. When this sludge has accumulated in sufficient quantity to be picked up by the oil pump, strainer and burner nozzles become stopped up and abrasive material causes pump and burner wear. Because of its relatively low cost, no. 6 fuel oil is the oil most often used for steam generation. Its ash content is very low when compared with coal, since it ranges between 0.01 and 0.5 percent. Seldom does it exceed 0.2 percent. Yet operating problems do exist because the fuel oil contains vanadium, sodium, and sulfur in the ash, causing deposits and corrosion in the boilers. The deposition of oil ash constituents on furnace walls and on superheater surfaces can be a serious problem, and the design and operation of the boiler must take this into account. Sulfur is another objectionable constituent of fuel oil, and it can range from a low of 0.01 percent for no. 1 fuel oil to a high of 3.5 percent for no. 6 fuel oil. Some of the sulfur compounds formed during the combustion process raise the dew point of the flue gases, mix with the moisture present in the gases, and corrode metal parts. This corrosive action results in plugging of gas passages and rapid deterioration of boiler tubes, casings, and especially economizers and air heaters. Furthermore, the sulfur compounds discharged with the flue gases contaminate the atmosphere. The reduction of this source of contamination is the subject of much debate among air pollution control authorities. The corrosive action is reduced by maintaining the flue gases at a temperature higher than the dew point. The gases must be permitted to discharge at a higher temperature, thus carrying away more heat and reducing the efficiency. If uncontrolled emissions from an oil-fired facility exceed established limits, then SO2 scrubbers are required. Burner and accessory equipment capable of operating with very low percentages of excess air provide another method of combating the

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problems encountered in burning fuel oil having a high sulfur content. For a fuel oil of given sulfur content, the dew point of flue gases can be lowered by operating with a low percentage of excess air. This method also increases the efficiency, and the contaminants discharged to the atmosphere are less objectionable. However, established limits must be met. The use of oil as an energy source is for boilers predominately in the industrial sector for heating and steam production. However, as shown in Chap. 1, less than 5 percent of the electricity generated in the United States uses oil as its fuel source. 4.6 Gas Natural gas usually occurs in the same region as petroleum. The gas, because of its low specific gravity, is found above the petroleum and trapped by a layer of nonporous rock. Since natural gas and petroleum are usually found together, it is believed that they have a similar origin. The gas in its natural state is under pressure, which causes it to be discharged from the well. Electric production by utilities has in the past consumed relatively small amounts of natural gas. However, the use of gas turbine cycles is increasing this consumption significantly. For industrial steam generation, natural gas is used widely because of its ease in distribution, the requirement for a smaller boiler space, and its relative simplicity in overall plant design. Methane (CH4) is the largest component of natural gas, with the remainder primarily ethane (C2H6). Natural gas is the most desirable fuel for steam generation because it can be piped directly to the boiler, which eliminates the need for storage. Natural gas is free of ash and mixes easily with air, providing complete combustion without smoke. However, because of the high content of hydrogen in natural gas as compared with coal or oil, more water vapor is produced in the combustion process. This results in a lower boiler efficiency as compared with burning coal or oil. In addition, the fuel cost and availability are directly related, and high fuel costs can result when demand is high or the supply is limited. Manufactured substitutes for natural gas may be produced from solid or liquid fuels. These gases are produced for special industrial applications and for domestic use. Because they cost more than other fuels, they are seldom used under power boilers. Producer gas is manufactured from coke or coal. Steam and air are blown up through the incandescent fuel bed. Both carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are generated here and pass up through what is termed a reduction zone. In this zone the shortage of oxygen causes

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the oxygen and carbon to combine to form carbon monoxide. As the gases pass through this zone, they encounter a heavy layer of coal. The volatile gases are distilled from this coal and, together with the carbon monoxide obtained from the region below, pass from the top. The combustibles are carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and a small amount of volatile gases. The heating value of this gas is slightly above that of blast-furnace gas. Water gas and oil gas are manufactured for industrial applications where a gaseous fuel is required and for domestic supply, sometimes being used to augment the natural gas supply. These gases are too expensive to use under power boilers unless the unit is small, and if they are used, full automatic control is necessary. In most cases, gaseous fuels that are derived from coal have currently been replaced by natural gas and fuel oil because of their greater availability and less cost. An analysis of gases consists of expressing the chemical compounds of which they are composed in percentage by either volume or weight. The combustible constituents are composed of various combinations of hydrogen and carbon known as hydrocarbons. Also, there are various inert gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The chemical analysis of a gas is useful in determining the air required for combustion and in calculating the products of combustion, the heating value, the type of burners required, etc. The heating value of gas is determined by burning a sample in a gas calorimeter. This is an instrument in which a given quantity of gas is burned and the resulting heat transferred to a measured quantity of water. Unlike a solid- or liquid-fuel calorimeter, the gas calorimeter utilizes a constant measured flow of gas and water. The heat generated by the combustion of gas is absorbed by the cooling water. The temperature rise of the water is an index of the heat produced and, by use of suitable constants for a given calorimeter, may be converted into Btu/ft3 of gas. Gas used for fuel is classified according to its source or method of manufacture. Table 4.12 gives typical analyses of natural and more generally used manufactured gases. In order for gas to be burned efficiently, it must be mixed with the correct proportion of air. Since the fuel is already in the gaseous state, it is unnecessary to break it up, as is the case with solid and liquid fuels. Correct proportioning and mixing are, however, essential. This process is accomplished by the burner and by admission of secondary air. Combustion must be complete before the mixture of gases reaches the boiler heating surfaces. With optimal conditions, it is possible to obtain complete combustion of gas with a very low percentage of excess air. These conditions

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TABLE 4.12

Analysis of Fuel Gases (by Volume) Manufactured

Gas CH4 C2H6 C2H4 CO2 CO N H Btu/ft at 60F and atmospheric pressure
3

Natural 83.5 14.4 2.1 1080

Producer 2.5 0.5 5.5 22.3 59.0 10.2 140

Coke oven 29.1 3.1 1.7 4.9 4.4 56.8 550

Blast furnace 12.7 26.7 57.1 3.5 98.1

include furnace and burner design for correct mixing of fuel and air, sensitive controls, and scheduled maintenance and calibration of all equipment. Gas is a desirable fuel because it is easy to control, requires no handling equipment, and leaves no ash to remove from the furnace. 4.7 By-product Fuels Industrial processes frequently produce materials that may be burned in industrial furnaces. The utilization of these by-products not only reduces the cost of fuel and thus lowers operating costs but also frequently solves a disposal problem at the same time. However, the economic advantage to be derived from the use of these fuels must be evaluated in terms of added investment for equipment and of increased operating costs. By-product fuel is often not available in quantities sufficient to meet the total steam demand. In these situations it is necessary to provide for a supplementary fuel. Wood is available as a by-product fuel in sawmills, paper mills, and factories that manufacture articles made of wood. The sawmill waste products consist of slabs, edgings, trimmings, bark, sawdust, and shavings in varying percentages. This material is passed through a hogging machine, which reduces it to shavings and chips in preparation for burning. A hogging machine consists of knives or hammers mounted on an element that rotates within a rigid casing. The knives shred the wood waste and force it through a series of spacer bars mounted in a section of the casing. Dry wood waste has a heating value of 8000 to 9000 Btu/lb. This shredded material (hog fuel) contains

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approximately 50 percent moisture and, therefore, has a low heating value. Woodworking plants that manufacture furniture and similar articles use seasoned wood. The moisture content of the waste material is from 20 to 25 percent. This waste material consists of sawdust and shavings and only a small amount of trimmings. Precautions are necessary in its handling and storing to prevent fires and explosions. Bark is removed from logs before they are ground into pulp in paper mills. This bark may contain 80 percent moisture, a part of which is often pressed out before it can be utilized for fuel. Even these moisture contents are often above 65 percent, and a large part of the heat from combustion is required to evaporate the inherent moisture. A by-product solution (black liquor) containing wood fibers and residual chemicals is produced in some paper mills. The wood fibers are burned, and the chemicals are recovered as ash in the furnace. In this operation a savings is realized both by the reclamation of heat and by the recovery of the chemicals used in the pulping process. The black liquor is concentrated before being introduced into the furnace, where it is atomized and burned in a manner similar to fuel oil. Bagasse is a by-product material produced when the juice is removed from the cane in a sugar mill. The moisture content is 40 to 55 percent, and the heating value, 4000 to 5200 Btu/lb. The utilization of this by-product material is an important factor in the economic operation of a sugar mill. Special furnaces have been developed to provide a means of utilizing the heat from the furnace to evaporate some of the moisture before attempting to burn the fuel. Bagasse is frequently supplemented with auxiliary fuels. The disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW) has become a worldwide problem and requires special attention. The methods available for its disposal including recycling and waste-to-energy facilities are described in Chap. 13. Coke-oven gas is the volatile material removed when coal is heated to produce coke. These volatile gases are collected and burned as a byproduct of the coke production. Coke-oven gas has a heating value of 460 to 650 Btu/ft3. This gas burns very well because of its high concentration of hydrogen, and it presents few problems when used as a fuel to produce steam. Blast-furnace gas is produced as a by-product of steel mill furnaces. The air is blown up through the hot fuel bed of the blast furnace, where it combines with carbon to form carbon monoxide. The resulting gases contain carbon monoxide and small quantities of hydrogen as combustibles in addition to inert gases consisting of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. The heating value varies from 90 to 110 Btu/ft 3 . Because the production of this gas is irregular and the steam demand does not coincide with the gas production, gas storage is necessary

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and supplementary fuel is required. When used, the deposits from the combustion of blast-furnace gas adhere readily to boiler heating surfaces, and provisions for sootblowers must be made for cleaning. Refinery gas is a by-product of crude oil refining operations. The heating value of this gas is high because of the large amount of heavy hydrocarbons present and will vary from 1000 to 1800 Btu/ft3 depending on the refining process. The gas produced is frequently adequate to generate the steam required by the refinery. Refineries also produce petroleum coke, which has a high carbon but low hydrogen and ash content. This fuel is used by the refinery or sold for use in neighboring plants. Although not truly defined as a by-product fuel similar to those described earlier, various sludges are produced in industrial processes, and these can be used in a boiler as a fuel to produce steam. In the papermaking process, a number of sludges are generated. The now common recycling of old newspapers, magazines, and corrugated paper containers has increased the quantity of sludge because of the deinking process. This has created a disposal problem that generally has been solved by depositing the sludge in a landfill. Landfills, however, are becoming filled, as well as costly (see Chap. 13), and new landfills are becoming more difficult to locate because of permitting and environmental problems. Therefore, the use of sludge as a fuel has become a viable alternative. The available combustion technologies all have certain limitations for the burning of sludge, and the characteristics of the sludge must be carefully evaluated for such things as quantity, heating value, and moisture content in order to select the proper technology. Typical sludges from pulp mills are very good fuels because they have heating values between 8000 and 10,000 Btu/lb (dry) and ash contents of approximately 10 percent. However, sludges from the deinking process are less suitable fuels, having heating values between 4000 and 6000 Btu/lb (dry) and ash contents from 20 to 50 percent. Therefore, for a deinking sludge having a moisture content of 50 to 60 percent, the heating value is only about 2800 Btu/lb. The combination of high moisture content and low heating value makes it difficult to burn. The burning of this high-moisture sludge on a stoker presents some significant problems because the removal of the moisture in the fuel results in a lower furnace temperature, which, in turn, affects combustion. High air temperatures are limited on both a traveling-grate stoker and a water-cooled hydrograte stoker because of limitations on stoker grate materials. Therefore, on stokers, sludge is generally fired in combination with another fuel such as bark. This has led to the successful use of fluidized bed combustion technology as a viable solution and in particular the bubbling bed technology (see Sec. 2.15). Not only can the bubbling bed boiler handle this

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high-moisture, low-heating value fuel, it also can burn sludge alone, which eliminates the need for high-cost dewatering equipment. Sludge is also a product of treating sewage. Rather than disposal into a landfill, this high-moisture product also can be burned in a boiler using the fluidized bed boiler technology. As with sludge from the pulping process, not only does this save on fuel costs, but it also lowers disposal costs, and reduced landfill requirements result, which provide significant benefits to the overall process. 4.8 Control of the Combustion Process Each unit of fuel contains a given amount of heat in the form of chemical energy. The amount of this energy is readily determined in the laboratory and is expressed in Btus per unit (i.e., Btu/lb or Btu/ft3). The burning of fuel and the subsequent operation of the boiler make it necessary to convert the chemical energy into heat, apply it to the water in the boiler, and thereby generate steam. Fuel supplied to the furnace of a power boiler may be rejected unburned, lost as heat, or absorbed by the boiler. The effectiveness of the process can be determined by noting the losses. When the losses have been reduced to a practical minimum, the highest efficiency is being maintained. When solid fuel is burned, a certain portion of the combustible carbon becomes mixed with the ash and is removed without being burned. It is called unburned combustible, and its efficiency loss is called unburned carbon loss. The mixture of carbon and ash discharged from a furnace is referred to as residue. This term has now replaced refuse as the term for solid waste products resulting from combustion. (Today, refuse most commonly refers to municipal solid waste, as discussed in Chap. 13.) The magnitude of this unburned carbon loss is determined by noting the reduction in weight when a sample of residue is burned completely in a laboratory muffle furnace. There are two possible sources of unburned carbon loss. The first, and most important, is the one due to the carbon in a solid fuel being trapped in the ash found in the ash hoppers and in the collected fly ash. This loss varies with different coals because of the differences in the volatile matter and ash content of coals. It also can vary as a result of the design of the burning equipment and the furnace. To have optimal efficiency, the designer must minimize this unburned carbon loss. The second source of unburned carbon loss is found in the incomplete combustion of the fuel, as determined by the presence of CO in the flue gas. In well-designed boilers, this loss is negligible, and it should be assumed as zero. In design calculations, liquid and gaseous fuels generally are presumed to burn without any unburned carbon loss. When high carbon loss is indicated by a boiler efficiency test, a few areas can be concentrated on to correct the problem. High levels of

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unburned combustibles in the ash indicate that adjustments must be made in the fuel preparation and burning equipment. For example, improperly sized fuel particles on a pulverized-coal-fired unit or improperly atomized oil in an oil-fired unit will result in high carbon loss. Improperly adjusted fuel-air mixing equipment will result in high carbon loss, and improper fuel-air ratios also will contribute to unburned carbon loss. By the continuous monitoring of flue gas temperatures and flue gas constituents, and by periodic analysis of ash samples, both bottom and fly ash, an operator can determine whether the expected boiler efficiency is being met. For a modern pulverized-coal-fired boiler, unburned carbon loss (UCL) is approximately 0.5 percent. In order to illustrate the importance of minimizing unburned carbon loss, assume a coal-fired boiler produces 250,000 lb/h of steam at 450 psig and 650F when supplied with feedwater at 220F. Assuming an efficiency of 86.9 percent, the boiler input is 328.6106 Btu/h. Assume the coal heating value is 13,000 Btu/lb.
328.6 106 0.005 Additional fuel required with 0.5 percent UCL 13,000 126 lb/h or 3033 lb/day or 1.5 tons/day

If the UCL were to increase to 2.0 percent, then the additional fuel would increase to 6 tons/day, with significantly increased fuel costs. A utility boiler with, say, 10 times the steam output and boiler input requirements would increase its coal input proportionately. It has been shown that water is formed during the combustion of hydrogen. In the conventional boiler, the gases are discharged to the stack at a temperature in excess of the boiling point of water (212F), and the water therefore leaves in the form of vapor or steam. A part of the heat produced by the combustion of the fuel is utilized in vaporizing the water and is therefore lost with the stack gases. This heat loss is high when fuels (such as natural gas) containing large amounts of hydrogen are burned. A similar loss occurs in the evaporation of moisture contained in solid fuels. The operator cannot do much to reduce the loss except to have the fuel as dry as possible. By far the largest controllable or preventable loss occurs in the heat rejected from the stack in the dry products of combustion. These losses occur in three different ways as follows: 1. Combustible gases, mainly carbon monoxide, contain undeveloped heat. This loss can be determined by the following formula: 10,160 CO h2 C CO2 CO

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where h2 heat loss (Btu/lb of fuel burned as a result of carbon monoxide in flue gases) CO percentage by volume of carbon monoxide in flue gases CO2 percentage by volume of carbon dioxide in the flue gases C weight of carbon consumed per pound of fuel 2. The temperature of gases discharged from the boiler is higher than that of the incoming air and fuel. The heat required to produce this increased temperature is lost. The magnitude of this loss can be decreased by maintaining the lowest possible boiler exit gas temperature consistent with economics and with the potential for corrosion. 3. The amount of gases per unit of fuel discharged from the boiler depends on the percentage of excess air used. The more gas discharged, the greater will be the heat loss. In the interest of economy, the excess air should be kept as low as practicable. The relation of the carbon dioxide content of flue gases to heat loss for several flue-gas temperatures is given in Fig. 4.14. The heat carried to waste by the dry gases may be calculated by using the following formula: h3 w(ts t)0.24 where h3 w ts t 0.24 heat loss (Btu/lb of fuel) weight of dry gases (lb per pound of fuel) temperature of boiler exit gases (F) temperature of air entering furnace (F) specific heat of flue gases

Figure 4.14

Dry flue gas loss for various flue gas temperatures and percentages of carbon dioxide (CO2 ).

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This heat loss therefore can be reduced by lowering the boiler exit gas temperature or by decreasing the quantity of gases discharged, thus lowering the percentage of excess air used. (Note that it is important to use the boiler exit gas temperature. With many units requiring flue gas scrubbers to reduce the acid gases, the stack temperatures will be lower.) Conventional oil and gas burners controlled by standard systems require 3 to 15 percent excess air for complete combustion. However, low-excess-air burners and accessory control equipment are available for reducing the air necessary for combustion to nearly the theoretical requirement. Advanced methods of atomizing oil are used. The temperature of the oil supplied to the burners is carefully controlled. Both the fuel and air supplies to the burners are metered. This lowexcess-air operation can be obtained with a clear stack to meet stringent air pollution ordinances and with not more than a trace of carbon monoxide. The necessary equipment for low-excess-air operation is more costly to install and requires more precise adjustment and care in operation than standard equipment. The reduction in excess air results in an improvement in efficiency, a reduction in the corrosive effect of the products of combustion on the heating surfaces, and a reduction in objectionable contaminants (including nitrogen oxides). The measure of stack losses is based on analysis of the products of combustion and a determination of the exit temperature of the flue gases. A commercial portable flue gas analyzer is shown in Fig. 4.15.

Figure 4.15 Portable Orsat flue gas analyzer.

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This Orsat flue gas analyzer has been used for a long time, and it remains a trusted standard for the verification of sophisticated electronic equipment. The Orsat uses chemicals to absorb the CO2, SO2, CO, and O2, and the amount of each is determined by the reduction in volume from the original flue gas sample. A sample of flue gas is obtained by inserting a sampling tube into the flue gas stream in the boiler, economizer, or air heater, depending on the information required. A 14-in standard pipe is satisfactory if the temperature of the flue gases in the pass does not exceed 1000F. Care must be exercised to locate the end of the sampling pipe to obtain a representative sample of flue gases. It is advisable to take samples with the pipe located at various places in the pass to make certain that the analysis is representative. The procedure for operating the flue gas analyzer in Fig. 4.15 is shown diagrammatically by steps in Fig. 4.16. Step 1. The inlet tube is carefully connected to the sampling tube to prevent air leakage from diluting the sample. The flue gas is then drawn into the measuring burette by means of the rubber bulb. The excess is expelled through the level bottle. The aspirator bulb is operated long enough to ensure a fresh sample of flue gas in the burette. Step 2. The handle of the three-way cock is then moved to a vertical position, closing off the sampling line and opening the burette to the atmosphere. The sample is measured by bringing the water level in the measuring chamber exactly to zero. The excess flue gas is discharged through the three-way valve to the atmosphere, and the amount remaining is measured at atmospheric pressure to ensure accuracy. Step 3. The handle of the three-way cock is next moved away from the operator to a horizontal position, entrapping the sample of flue gas in the measuring chamber. The valve above the absorption chamber is now opened and the leveling bottle raised to force the flue gas sample into contact with the chemical that absorbs the carbon dioxide. Care must be exercised in this operation to prevent the chemical and water from becoming mixed. It is necessary to raise and lower the leveling bottle and expose the flue gas to the chemical from two to four times to ensure complete absorption of the carbon dioxide. Step 4. The remainder of the flue gas sample is drawn back into the measuring chamber, and when the chemical level in the absorption chamber has been restored to zero, the valve closes. The leveling bottle is held with the water at the same level as that in the measuring chamber. The percentage of carbon dioxide in the sample is then read directly on the etched wall of the measuring chamber.

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Figure 4.16

Operation of an Orsat gas analyzer.

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To obtain the percentage of oxygen and carbon monoxide, respectively, the same sample of flue gas is exposed to the chemicals in the second and third absorption chambers of the flue gas analyzer. See Fig. 4.16 for the step-by-step procedure. To determine the percentage of excess air, as explained in Sec. 4.2, and for heat-balance calculations, it is necessary to make a complete flue gas analysis. For a routine check on operation, when there is no change in the character of the fuel, carbon dioxide determination is sufficient for comparison with established satisfactory readings. The carbon monoxide absorption chamber has been omitted from the gas analyzer shown in Fig. 4.15. The solutions have a limited gas absorption ability and must be replaced after continued use or long periods of storage. They may be purchased mixed ready for use or compounded using standard chemicals. There are disadvantages with the use of an Orsat. It lacks the accuracy of more refined devices, it requires an experienced operator, and the results do not lend themselves to electronic recording unless input separately by hand. As stated before, however, it is used often as a trusted verification of electronic equipment or when specialized equipment is not available at a particular plant. The use of automatic recording equipment for such areas as steam and airflow is recommended, as well as automatic analyzers to record the carbon dioxide, oxygen, sulfur oxides, and other substances that are present in the flue gases. They are valuable aids to the operator in maintaining the optimal combustion conditions at all times and ensuring compliance with any permit requirements. Not only does this equipment provide continuous emission monitoring, but also the data can be recorded for immediate access and evaluation. Continuous emission monitoring (CEM) and associated reporting systems are absolutely essential to the compliance tracking of many power plants. New pollution regulations have forced plants to evaluate their use of various fuels to produce electricity. A CEM analyzer can continuously measure up to six gases simultaneously such as HCl, NO, NO2, N2O, NH3, SO2, HC, CO, CO2, etc., as well as opacity, dust loading, and flue gas flow. Applications for operating permits include environmental compliance monitoring plus combustion and process control for industrial and utility boilers. (Refer to Chap. 6 for a description of a CEM system.) Questions and Problems
4.1 What is combustion? Describe the four major conditions to ensure good combustion. 4.2 What are the typical gases that are released from combustion of a solid fuel?

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4.3 Describe the purpose of primary and secondary air. 4.4 Discuss the causes of smoke. 4.5 What are the three Ts of combustion, and describe their importance? 4.6 What are the forms of matter? What is condensation? What is vaporization? 4.7 What is absolute pressure, and how is it determined? 4.8 What is the absolute temperature on the Fahrenheit and Celsius scale? 4.9 State the three principal laws that govern the behavior of gases. 4.10 The ultimate analysis of coal is as follows: carbon, 60 percent; H2, 7 percent; N2, 3 percent; O2, 12 percent; S, 5 percent; and ash, 13 percent. How many pounds of O2 would be required to burn this fuel? How many pounds of air (theoretically) would be required? 4.11 What is incomplete combustion? What is the heat loss that results from the incomplete combustion of carbon? 4.12 Why is sulfur in a fuel considered undesirable? 4.13 Define perfect, complete, and incomplete combustion. 4.14 What is meant by excess air? 4.15 If the flue gas analysis shows CO2, 15.2 percent, O2, 4.7 percent, and N2, 80.1 percent, what is the percentage of excess air? 4.16 What two methods are used to analyze flue gas and the results used to calculate the percentage of excess air? 4.17 How many pounds of air would be required to burn a pound of coal with the analysis given in Problem 4.10 if 50 percent excess air were used? 4.18 Using the analysis in Problem 4.10 and Dulongs formula, determine the heating value of the fuel. 4.19 Excess air is important to ensure complete combustion. Why, then, should it be minimized? 4.20 In a boiler design, what is draft, and what is its purpose? 4.21 What is draft loss? In what units is it normally defined?

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4.22 Define boilers that are balanced draft as compared with pressurized. Provide the advantages and disadvantages of each. 4.23 Define and describe the various classifications of coal. 4.24 Describe the proximate and ultimate analyses of coal. 4.25 Name the three ways that can express coal analyses. 4.26 Why are the fusion characteristics of ash so important to a boiler design? 4.27 What are soft and hard coals? What types of coal fall into these categories? 4.28 Discuss the characteristics to be considered when buying coal. Is coal size a consideration? Why? 4.29 Define the grindability of coal. Why is this important? 4.30 A fuel oil has a specific gravity of 0.92. What is its specific gravity on the API scale? 4.31 Define the various classifications of fuel oils. Provide examples of those oils which are used as a fuel oil. 4.32 What are important characteristics to be considered when selecting fuel oil for a particular plant? 4.33 When must fuel oils be heated? 4.34 What fuel oil is used most often for the production of steam? Why? 4.35 Why is natural gas the most desirable gas for steam generation? What are the disadvantages for its use? 4.36 Name some of the major by-product fuels that are burned in boilers. Provide the major advantages for the burning of these fuels. 4.37 Sludges are a common by-product. What combustion technology is often used to burn this fuel, and what advantages does this provide? 4.38 What is unburned carbon loss? Why should it be minimized? 4.39 What is the purpose of an Orsat gas analyzer? Name its advantages and disadvantages. 4.40 What is a continuous-emission monitoring (CEM) system?