CMH 5-2-1 Fall of The Philippines

This Document is in the public
domain and may not be copyrighted.
PDC
Foreword
The soldier reading these pages would do well to reflect on the wisdom of the
statement exhibited in a Japanese shrine: "Woe unto him who has not tasted
defeat." Victory too often leads to overconfidence and erases the memory of
mistakes. Defeat brings into sharp focus the causes that led to failure and
provides a fruitful field of study for those soldiers and laymen who seek in the
past lessons for the future.
The statesman and the informed citizen reading these pages will realize that
our military means as well as our estimates and plans must always be in balance
with our long-range national policy. This lessonsignposted by the Battle of
Manila Bay; the Treaty of Paris, signed in December 1898 when we decided to
keep the Philippines; the Washington Conference of 1921-22; and the Manchurian Crisis of 1931we ignored before Pearl Harbor. The result was defeat
on the field of battle and the loss of the Philippine Islands.
The author of The Fall of the Philippines, Louis Morton, served overseas as
a historical officer in the South Pacific area and in the Philippines during World
War II. Since 1945 he has been chief of the Pacific Section, Office of the Chief
of Military History, Department of the Army. He holds a Doctor of Philosophy
degree from Duke University, is the author of a volume on American colonial
history, and has written a number of articles dealing with military affairs.
Work on this volume was begun in early 1947. The reader may gain some
idea of the size of the task of writing this history by an appraisal of The Sources.
ORLANDO WARD
Maj. Gen., U. S. A.
Chief of Military History

Washington, D. C.
26 June 1952
vii
Preface
The author's debts for aid in preparing this volume are numerous and heavy.
The largest is to those officers who survived the campaign and the ordeal of prison
camp. Their memories, and the precious notes they had hidden so carefully
during the bitter days of Japanese imprisonment, provided material without
which the record of this campaign would have been forever lost. These officers
gave freely of their time and their contribution is apparent on every page and
in almost every footnote. In a sense, they are as much the authors as the writer
of this preface.
Special acknowledgments must be made to Mr. Stanley L. Falk and Dr.
George C. Groce who, with ingenuity and perseverance, aided the author in his
search for the materials needed for this work. The search was an exciting and
rewarding adventure and is described in full at the end of the book. Both men
also labored long and mightily to mold the fragmentary materials thus assembled
into a form which greatly eased the author's work and performed cheerfully the
many other arduous and time-consuming tasks which are the lot of every author.
Without Mr. Falk's special knowledge of the enemy's records and operations,
reinforced by information willingly furnished by the enemy himself, this volume
would have been less precise and far longer in preparation.
The author owes a large debt also to many individuals who directly and
indirectly gave him much valuable assistance: to Dr. Kent Roberts Greenfield,
Chief Historian and General Editor of this series, for his wise counsel and
guidance, for encouragement and never-failing support; to Mr. Wsevolod
Aglaimoff and his staff who spent many months at the drafting boards to provide
the maps to guide the reader through the jungles and mountains of the Philippines;
to Miss Margaret E. Tackley who searched diligently and in remote corners for the
pictures with which to illustrate this volume; to Miss Ruth Stout, the editor, and
Mr. Ronald Sher, the copy editor, who edited the manuscript and guided it
through the printers; to Mr. Leonard B. Lincoln, the indexer; to Mr. Israel Wice
and his aides who patiently filled the author's numerous requests for aid in
securing records; and to those of his colleagues, in and out of uniform, who read
this volume in manuscript and made numerous and helpful suggestions. All these
and others placed their special knowledge and skill freely and generously at the
disposal of the author, but he alone is responsible for any shortcomings this volume
may possess.
L. M.
Washington, D. C.
26 June 1952
Contents
PART ONE
Prewar Plans and Preparations

Chapter
Page
I . T H E PHILIPPINE ISLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T h e Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T h e Philippine Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
8
II. U.S. ARMY FORCES, FAR EAST . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Recall of General MacArthur . . . .
The Organization of USAFFE
. . . . .
U. S. Army in the Philippines . . . . . .
Philippine Army: Mobilization and Training
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III. THE REINFORCEMENT OF THE PHILIPPINES . . . . .

Ground Forces
A i r Forces . .
Naval Forces .
Summary . .
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14
15
19
21
25
31
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32
37
45
48
IV. PREWAR PLANS, JAPANESE AND AMERICAN . . . . .
51
T h e Japanese Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Plan of Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Last Days of Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
61
71
PART TWO
The Isolation of the Philippines and the Japanese Landings

V. THE FIRST DAYS OF WAR
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Attack on Clark Field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Fleet Moves South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Japanese Gain Air and Naval Supremacy . . . . . . . . . .
77
79
90
92
CONTENTS
Chapter
Page
V I . T H E FIRST LANDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Batan Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Landings on North Luzon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T h e Legaspi Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Landings in the South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
100
100
109
112
VII. THE IMPACT OF WAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
115
VIII. T H E MAIN LANDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
T h e Lingayen Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Consolidating the Lingayen Beachhead . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Lamon Bay Landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
125
132
138
I X . STRATEGY A N D LOGISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
145
T h e Pensacola Convoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Far East and Pacific Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Base in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
145
148
152
PART THREE
The Withdrawal to Bataan

X. THE WITHDRAWAL BEGINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
"WPO-3 Is In Effect".
. . .
The North Luzon Force Plan .
To the Tarlac-Cabanatuan Line
Supply . . . . . . . . . .
The Tarlac-Cabanatuan Line .
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XI. WITHDRAWAL IN THE SOUTH . . . . . . . . . . . .

Withdrawal From Mauban . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Withdrawal From Atimonan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Out of South Luzon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XII. HOLDING THE ROAD TO BATAAN
161
161
166
169
179
180
190
191
195
199
. . . . . . . . . .
203
The Defense of Calumpit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The D-5 Line: Bamban-Arayat . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Escape Through San Fernando . . . . . . . . . . . .
205
210
214
XIII. INTO BATAAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

T h e Guagua-Porac Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Behind t h e Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
216
216
223
CONTENTS
Chapter
Page
XIV. T H E E N D O F A N E R A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Occupation of Manila . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strategic Views on the Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
232
235
238
PART FOUR
The Siege of Bataan

X V . SETTING T H E STAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
245
T h e American Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T h e Status o f Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Enemy and His Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
247
254
261
XVI. THE FIRST BATTLE OF BATAAN .

Attack Against II Corps: The Abucay Line
Attack Against I Corps: The Mauban Line
The Abucay Line Is Turned . . . . . .
T h e Withdrawal . . . . . . . . . .
XVII. THE BATTLE OF THE POINTS
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The Service Command Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Longoskawayan and Quinauan Points . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anyasan a n d Silaiim Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XVIII. TRAIL 2 AND THE POCKETS
265
266
278
285
290
296
296
300
312
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325
T h e Orion-Bagac Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Fight for Trail 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T h e Pocket Fights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
325
330
336
XIX. T H E JAPANESE WITHDRAWAL
. . . . . . . . . . . .
X X . COMMAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Evacuation of MacArthur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wainwright Assumes Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XXI. T H E BATTLING BASTARDS
347
353
353
360
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
367
Food a n d Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Morale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
367
376
384
XXII. "HELP I S O N T H E WAY". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
390
Running t h e Blockade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Last Efforts
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
390
401
xiii
CONTENTS
Chapter
Page
XXIII. PREPARATIONS F O R BATTLE . . . . . . . . . . . . .
405
T h e American Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Japanese Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prelude t o Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
405
411
417
THE
421
XXIV.
FINAL
JAPANESE
OFFENSIVE...........
Capture o f M t . Samat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 April: The Day of Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
421
431
XXV. T H E DISINTEGRATION O F I I CORPS . . . . . . . . .
442
7 April: Disintegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8 April: Chaos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
442
448
XXVI. SURRENDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
454
PART FIVE
Corregidor and the Southern Islands

XXVII. T H E SIEGE O F CORREGIDOR . . . . . . . . . . . . .
471
The Harbor Defenses of Manila Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The First Aerial and Artillery Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . .
T h e Second Aerial Bombardment . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
471
479
493
XXVIII. T H E SOUTHERN ISLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
498
The Islands and Their Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

T h e Visayas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mindanao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
498
502
507
XXIX. JAPANESE PLANS A N D AMERICAN DEFENSES . . . . .
520
T h e Japanese Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T h e American Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
521
527
XXX. T H E LAST TWENTY-SEVEN DAYS . . . . . . . . . . .
536
T h e Preliminary Bombardment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Health a n d Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T h e Preassault Bombardment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
536
541
546
XXXI. T H E FALL O F CORREGIDOR

XXXII. T H E E N D O F RESISTANCE
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General
Wainwright
's
Orders
...............
T h e Surrender o f Corregidor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surrender i n t h e South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xiv
552
562
562
564
574
CONTENTS
T H E SOURCES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BASIC MILITARY M A P SYMBOLS
585
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603
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
607
Tables
No.
Page
1. Strength of Philippine Division, 31 July 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. Strength and Composition of U. S. Army Troops in the Philippine Islands,
3 1 July 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Aircraft in Philippines and Hawaii, 1 December 1941 . . . . . . . .
4. Strength and Composition of U. S. Army Troops in Philippine Islands,
3 0 November 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Organization and Disposition of Japanese Army, 1 December 1941 ...
6. Assignment of Forces, USAFFE, 3 December 1941 . . . . . . . . . .
7. Weapons and Equipment Captured by 14th Army, 20 February 1942 . .
8 . Rations, 2 5 March 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 . Armament o n Corregidor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10. Armament on Forts Hughes, Drum, and Frank . . . . . . . . . . .
11. Strength, Harbor and Beach Defenses, April 1942 . . . . . . . . . .
22
24
42
49
55
70
349
368
474
476
529
Maps
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Japanese Plan and Disposition of the Armies, November 1941 . .

Disposition of U. S. Army Forces, Far East, 8 December 1941 . .
Advance Japanese Landings, 8-20 December 1941 . . . . . . .
Lingayen Gulf Landings, 22-24 December 1941 . . . . . . . .
Lamon Bay Landings, 24 December 1941 . . . . . . . . . . .
Withdrawal in the North, 25-31 December 1941 . . . . . . .
Withdrawal in the South, 25-31 December 1941 . . . . . . .
Holding the Road to Bataan, 31 December 1941-1 January 1942
Through Layac Junction, 2-6 January 1942 . . . . . . . . . .
Situation on Bataan, 8 January 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Abucay Line, 9-23 January 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Mauban Line, 18-25 January 1942 . . . . . . . . . . .
Japanese Landings on Bataan, 23 January-1 February 1942 . . .
Longoskawayan Point Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quinauan Point Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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53
68
99
124
140
167
192
204
217
246
267
278
297
301
303
CONTENTS
No.
Page
16. Anyasan and Silaiim Points Area . . . . . . .

1 7 . T h e Orion-Bagac Line . . . . . . . . . . .
18. Fight for Trail 2, 27 January-2 February 1942 .
1 9 . T h e Pockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20. Japanese Plan of Attack, 3 April 1942 . . . . .
21. Japanese Penetration, 3-6 April 1942 . . . . .
22. Japanese Advance, 7-9 April 1942 . . . . . .
23. Corregidor Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24. The Fight for Mindanao, 29 April-9 May 1942 .
25. Japanese Landings on Corregidor, 5-6 May 1942
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313
325
333
336
415
423
443
471
509
554
Illustrations
T h e Philippine Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Signing the Constitution of the Philippine Commonwealth . . . . . .
Manila Harbor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Philippine Scouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ceremony a t Camp Murphy, Rizal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aircraft in the Philippines, December 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clark Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General MacArthur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Japanese Air Attack on 10 December 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Luzon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
155-mm. G u n Emplacement Near Dagupan . . . . . . . . . . . .
26th Cavalry (PS) Moving into Pozorrubio . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lt. Gen. Masaharu Homma, 14th Army Commander . . . . . . . .
Villasis-Carmen Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Agno River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tarlac Railroad Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bicycle-Mounted Japanese Troops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motorcycle Messenger Catnapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Camouflaged 155-mm. Gun M1917 (GPF) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mount Arayat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calumpit Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
San
Fernando
...........................
T h e Open City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Japanese Light Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fortifications
on
Bataan
.......................
Bridges
on
Bataan
.........................
Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Brig. Gen. Maxon S . Lough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xvi
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2
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5
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8
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20
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25
. . 40, 41
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44
66
93
101
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130
137
143
171
172
175
185
193
198
205
209
211
233
237
253
260
268
292
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CONTENTS
Page
USAFFE Headquarters on Bataan, February 1942 . . . . . . . . . . .

351
Standing Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
374
Medical Care o n Bataan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
382
Japanese Propaganda Leaflets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
386
"Voice
of
Freedom"
........................
388
Seeking Cover in a Trench Near Lamao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
419
Surrender
on
Bataan
.......................
462,
463
Discussing Surrender Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
465
Corregidor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
472
Malinta Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
473
Diagram o f Malinta Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
475
Fort
Drum.............................
477
Gun
Emplacements
on
Corregidor
..................
483
USAFFE Headquarters i n Malinta Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
492
Maj. Gen. William F. Sharp and His Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
500
Cebu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
504
Heavy Clouds Over Corregidor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
520
Marine Sergeant Teaching Filipinos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
530
Life i n Malinta Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532, 5 3 3
Battery Crockett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
539
Battery
Way
...........................
541
Japanese Bombers Over Corregidor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
548
Searchlight o n Corregidor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
556
T h e Meeting o f Wainwright a n d Homma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
568
General Wainwright Broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
573
American
Generals
in
Captivity.
...................
583
Photographs are from the Department of Defense files, except for that on page 533, the Japanese photographs on pages 143, 233, 465, 539, 548,
568, and 573, and the photograph on page 583,
reproduced through the courtesy of Col. William
C. Braly.
xvii
PART ONE
PREWAR PLANS AND PREPARATIONS
THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
CHAPTER I
The Philippine Islands

Since the third century, the Philippine
Islands had been under foreign influence,
first from Hindu-Malayan empires in Sumatra, Indochina, and Borneo, and then
from the Chinese beginning with the early
Ming dynasty. Shortly after 1400 Mohammedanism was introduced, and for more
than one hundred years all of the islands
south of Luzon, and the southern portion
of that island, were subject to the Mohammedans of Borneo. During this period, the
Japanese established a loose control over
northern Luzon and maintained a trading
post at Aparri, on the north tip of the island.
influence and control gave to the Philippines a strange mixture of Oriental and Occidental institutions. The original inhabitants were pushed back into the mountains
and the Malayans became the dominant
racial type. From later invasions came the
Mohammedan religion and the Moslem customs prevalent in the south; from China
came the impetus to trade and commerce,
still largely controlled by the Chinese; and
from Spain came the dominant religion,
Christianity, the Roman law, and other features of Western civilization.
The United States seized the Philippine
Islands from Spain in May 1898 after AdEuropean interest in the Philippine Armiral Dewey's victory in Manila Bay, durchipelago began with the visit of a Spanish
ing the Spanish-American War. Formal
expedition under Ferdinand Magellan in
title to the Islands was granted the United
1521. But it was not until 1565 that the
States by the Treaty of Paris in December of
Spaniards established a permanent settlethat year. By the acquisition of the Philipment in the Islands, on Cebu. Five years
pines the United States at one step advanced
later they conquered Manila and then gradits frontiers nearly 7,000 miles across the
ually extended their control over many of
Pacific Ocean and "gave hostages to forthe Islands. Late in the sixteenth century
tune in a sense which the American people
the military ruler of Japan, Hideyoshi,
have never fully realized." 1 Possession of
claimed suzerainty, over the Islands. This
the Islands made the United States an
claim was apparently neither intended nor
Asiatic power, with full responsibility for
taken seriously, but the Spanish did pay
maintaining the peace and status quo in
"tribute" for a short time to avoid trouble,
that area.
secure trading rights in Japan, and protect
The government of the Islands was placed
the Jesuit missionaries there. Until 1898,
in the hands first of a Philippine commission
despite unsuccessful efforts by the Portuand later of a governor general, both apguese and Dutch and one successful effort
pointed by the President of the United
by the British (1762-1764) to wrest the Islands from her, Spain ruled the Philippines.
The impress of these centuries of foreign
1
Hector C. Bywater, Sea Power in the Pacific
(rev. ed., Boston and New York, 1934), p. 254.
THE FALL OF THE PHILIPPINES
States. The Filipinos, once their opposition then "the matter of naval reservations and
ended, were allowed an increasingly large fueling stations," the Act provided, "shall
measure of self-rule and elected the members remain in its present status." 3
of the lower house of the legislature, the
A year after the passage of the TydingsPhilippine Assembly. In 1913, they were McDuffie Act, the Filipinos adopted a libgranted free trade with the United States, eral constitution based on the American
and three years later, in the Jones Act, were model and established an interim governpermitted a limited autonomy.
ment known as the Commonwealth. ElecA succession of able American governors tions in which Manuel Quezon was chosen
established a happy relationship between the as president followed soon after, and before
two countries, and a steadily increasing the end of 1935 the Philippine National
sentiment for Philippine independence Assembly met to draft plans for local defound ready support in the American Con- fense.
gress. A bill for Philippine independence
The Islands
was passed by Congress, over President
Comprising almost 7,100 known islands
Hoover's veto, in January 1933, but vetoed
by the Philippine legislature. It was passed and islets, the Philippine Archipelago lies
again, with some changes, as the Tydings- approximately 500 miles off the Asiatic
McDuffie Act, on 24 March 1934, and this mainland and extends 1,150 miles almost
time approved by the Philippine legislature.
due north and south from Formosa to
The Tydings-McDuffie Act provided for Borneo. Strategically situated in the geothe recognition of Philippine independence graphic heart of the Far East, the Islands
after a ten-year transitional period. Dur- are centrally located in relation to Japan,
ing these ten years the United States would China, Burma, French Indochina, Thaibe allowed to "maintain military and other land, Malaya, and the Netherlands Indies.
reservations and armed forces" in the Is- They lie athwart the trade routes leading
lands, and the President of the United from Japan and China through the South
States would have the power "to call into China Sea to southeast Asia and the rich
the service of such armed forces all military supplies of oil and minerals in the Indies.
forces organized by the Philippine Govern- Vital areas in Japan and along the Chinese
ment." 2 When the transitional period was coast are within quick striking distance
over, the United States would abandon all by sea and air of the Philippines. Over
military installations in the Islands.
5,000 miles from Honolulu and 7,000 miles
The Tydings-McDuffie Act left open the from San Francisco, Manila, the chief city
question of naval reservations, but author- and capital of the Islands, is only 1,800
ized the President to negotiate with the miles from Tokyo. Formosa and Hong
Philippine Government for American naval Kong are less than 700 miles distant, Singabases in the Islands. The closing date for pore 1,500 miles, and Truk in the Caroline
such negotiations was set at two years after Islands 2,100 miles.4 The Caroline, Marithe recognition of independence. Until anas, and the Marshall Islands, stretching
across the Central Pacific, lie along the
2
48 U.S. Statutes at Large, H.R. 8573, pp. 456-
65, The Philippine Commonwealth and Independence Law, P.L. 127, Sec 2 ( a ) 12, approved 24
Mar 34.
3
4
Ibid., Secs 10(b) and 11.

All distances are in airline statute miles.
SIGNING THE CONSTITUTION OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMONWEALTH, 23 MARCH 1935. Seated, left to right: George H. Dern, Secretary of
War; President Franklin D. Roosevelt, signing the Constitution of the Philippine
Commonwealth; Manuel L. Quezon, President, Philippine Senate; standing, left to
right: Brig. Gen. Creed F. Cox, Chief, Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Department;
Frank Murphy, Governor General of the Philippine Islands; Cordell Hull, Secretary
of State; Key Pittman, Chairman, Foreign Relations Committee, U. S. Senate;
Pedro Guevara, Philippine Resident Commissioner; Miguel Cuaderno, Vice President,
Philippine National Bank, Manila, P. I.; Manuel Roxas, Representative, Philippine
Legislature, Delegate, Constitutional Assembly; Francisco A. Delgado, Philippine
Resident Commissioner.
United States lines of communication with
the Philippines.
The land area of the archipelago totals
about 115,000 square miles. Only 460 of
the Islands have an area greater than one
square mile, and only eleven boast an area
greater than 1,000 square miles. These
eleven islands account for 94 percent of the
total land area in the archipelago. The
largest and most important is Luzon
(40,420 square miles) in the north, where
Manila is located. Next in size to Luzon

is Mindanao (36,527 square miles) in the
south, followed by the islands in the central group, the Visayas: Samar, Negros,
Panay, Leyte, Cebu, and others.5
The climate of the Islands is tropical,
with an average yearly temperature be5
Unless otherwise noted, this description of the

Philippine Islands is based upon Civil Affairs Handbook: Philippine Islands, 12 vols., Army Service
Forces (ASF) Manual M 365-1 to 12.
tween 78 and 80 F. The year may be

divided generally into dry and wet seasons,
which come at different times on the east
and west coasts because of shifts in the seasonal winds or monsoons. From June to
September, when the monsoon blows from
the southwest, the weather offers little difficulty to the landing of a hostile military
force on the favorable beaches along the
east coasts. The period of the northeast
monsoons, October through April, is the
best time for landings along the western
China Sea coasts. Most of Mindanao, a
portion of the Visayas, and southern Luzon
have no dry season and no pronounced
maximum rainy season.
The people of the Philippines are mostly
of Malayan stock, and in 1941 numbered
17,000,000. In that year, Cebu and central Luzon were the most heavily populated
areas, and Manila, with 684,000 inhabitants, was the largest city. There were
nearly 30,000 Japanese nationals in the
Islands, more than two-thirds of whom
were concentrated in Davao, the chief port
of Mindanao. The 117,000 Chinese constituted the largest foreign group in the
Islands; on Luzon there were almost 9,000
American civilians.
Over sixty-five dialects are spoken in the
Islands. When the United States acquired
the Islands, a small percentage of the people
spoke Spanish; after forty years of American occupation about 27 percent spoke
English and 3 percent Spanish. Of the
many native dialects, Tagalog, the language
of the wealthy and influential residents of
central Luzon, was chosen as the basis for
a national language in 1937, although twice
as many people spoke the Visayan dialect.
While the many dialects have certain similarities, it is not possible for the natives in
different parts of the Islands to understand

each other readily. This fact made the recruitment of Filipinos for military service
on a national scale difficult, since troops
recruited from one island often could not
understand their American or Tagalog
officers, or troops from other islands.
The Philippines are predominantly agricultural, the principal crops being rice (the
chief element in the Filipino diet), copra,
sugar, hemp, tobacco, and corn. The farranging mountain areas are a source of gold
and silver, and of the more important base
metals, such as iron, chrome, manganese,
copper, and lead. Sixty percent of the
Philippines is covered by forest, much of it
hardwoods. The fishing banks off Manila
Bay and the Sulu Archipelago supplement
the Filipino diet and are the basis of one of
the more important industries in the Islands. Even after many years of American
occupation there was little manufacturing
in the Philippines, most of the inhabitants
being engaged in home industries or in the
processing of agricultural products such
as sugar, hemp, and coconuts.
With interisland and coastal shipping
carrying the bulk of Philippine products,
there was no great need for roads and railroads. Only on Luzon was there a road
and rail net adequate to support largescale military operations. Of the 14,270
miles of highway in the archipelago in
1940, more than half were in central and
southern Luzon. There were only 50,000
motor vehicles in the Islands; the Filipinos
relied on the powerful carabao, or water
buffalo, for transportation as well as labor.
The two railway systems in the Islands, the
government-owned Manila Railway Company on Luzon and the American-owned
Philippine Railway Company on Panay
and Cebu, had a total of 840 miles of narrow gauge track.

Most of the principal towns and cities
were linked by telephone, telegraph, or
radio, and all parts of the archipelago by
the government postal system. The American-owned Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company connected Manila with
most important towns on Luzon, as well as
the principal population centers on Panay,
Negros, Cebu, and Mindanao. In addition,
forty provincial governments operated their
own telephone systems so that many small
towns and villages had at least one telephone joining them with Manila. Cable
connected Manila with Guam, Shanghai,
and Hong Kong, and four transoceanic
radio stations provided communication with
the outside world.
The Philippine Islands are largely mountainous, with elevations as high as 10,000
feet. Narrow coastal plains can be found
on most of the islands,-and there are numerous short, swift-running streams. Large
plain areas and navigable rivers are few.
On every island are sand beaches, some of
them extensive, but few open on lowlands
where there is space for military maneuver.
Luzon, with one tenth of its total area a
large plain, and another 5,000 square miles
forming a magnificent river valley, is the
one island in the Philippines whose terrain
permits military operations on a large scale.
In the north, closed in by mountains on the
east and west, is a valley extending southward for over 120 miles and with an average width of 40 miles. Flowing north
through the valley is the Cagayan River.
Along the west coast is a narrow plain offering only limited opportunities for military
operations. A road runs along this coast
from the tip of Luzon towards Manila.
Southern Luzon is a volcanic region, part
plain and part mountain, with numerous
deep indentations forming bays and gulfs,
7
and with many beaches suitable for the
landing of a military force.
The central portion of Luzon is composed of a plain extending north about 120
miles from Manila Bay to the Lingayen
Gulf. With mountains to the east and

west, the plain is well protected from invasion except at its two extremities. It is
the most highly developed economic area
in the Philippines and the one most suitable
for mobile warfare.6
The three most important military highways on Luzon are Routes 1, 3 and 5twolane, all weather roads with concrete or asphalt surface. Each enters the capital and
each has numerous access roads linking
Manila with all parts of the island. Of the
704 miles of railroad on Luzon in 1941,
about half were in the central plain, which,
in addition, contained 250 miles of private
railway lines. All of the road, with the exception of a short stretch above Manila,
was single track.
From the South China Sea the southern
entrance to the central plain is through
Manila Bay, one of the finest natural harbors in the Far East. Opening out from a
12-mile-wide entrance between high headlands, the bay expands toward the low-lying plain to a width of thirty miles. Thirty
miles from the entrance lies Manila, and to
its north and south are other harbors large
enough to shelter seagoing vessels. Mariveles, just inside the northern entrance, is
an excellent and easily reached anchorage,
and the headland of Sangley Point, where
the Cavite naval base was located, has always been recognized as one of the finest
ports in the bay.
6
Data on the central Luzon plain comes from
Terrain Study 94, Philippine Series: Central Luzon,
I, prepared by the Allied Geographical Sec, GHQ
Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA), 18 Oct 44.
MANILA HARBOR. The Bataan peninsula, partly shrouded in fog and clouds, is
visible twenty-five miles across Manila Bay.
On either side of the entrance to Manila

Bay are high volcanic peaks covered with
luxuriant tropical foliage. North of the entrance is the Bataan peninsula; to the south
is Cavite Province. From a military point
of view, the more important and more easily
defended of the headlands is the Bataan
peninsula, a rocky extension of the Zambales Mountain range which separates the
central plain of Luzon from the China Sea.
Across the entrance to Manila Bay are
several small islands. The largest and
most important, Corregidor, lies two miles
off Bataan and, with Caballo, separates the
entrance into the North and South Channels. Shaped like a tadpole with its tail
to the east, Corregidor measures three and
one half miles in length and one and one
half miles at its widest point. One mile
south of the tip of the tail is Caballo, less

than one third the size of Corregidor. In
the South Channel, about a mile from the
southern headland, lies El Fraile, a rock
about 200 by 100 yards jutting up into the
entrance of Manila Bay. Just outside and
to the south of the entrance is Carabao, the
fourth of the small islands whose location
in Manila Bay gave them a strategic importance out of all proportion to their size.
In the history of American plans for the
defense of the Philippines, these islands
loom large.
The Philippine Army

Before the establishment of the Commonwealth Government in 1935, no effort was
made to prepare the Philippines for their

own defense. The United States had assumed all obligations for national defense
and maintained a garrison in the Islands for
that purpose. This garrison numbered
about 10,000 men, half of whom were
Philippine Scouts, a U.S. Army unit in
which the enlisted men, with some exceptions, were native Filipinos and most of the
officers American. After 1913 the Philippine garrison was called the Philippine Department, a regular U.S. Army establishment commanded by an American general
officer. The Philippine Constabulary, first
organized in 1901, was the national police
force, but by training and organization had
a military character. Thus, except for their
experience with the Constabulary, the Filipinos had had no military tradition upon
which to build a national army.7
One of the first problems of the newly
established Commonwealth Government
was to make provision for the defense of the
archipelago. Such a task required a man
with proven military and executive ability,
and, since there was no likely candidate in
the Philippines, the President-elect Manuel
L. Quezon turned to the United States for
help. In the summer of 1935, he induced
his friend, Gen. Douglas MacArthur, then
Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army, to become
the military adviser to the new government
in its effort to organize a national army.8
President Roosevelt's consent was readily
obtained and arrangements quickly concluded.
7
The Philippine Army: Its Establishment, Organization, and Legal Basis, prepared by Phil Research and Info Sec, U.S. Army Forces in the Far
East (USAFFE), 26 Jan 45, p. 1, copy in Office of
the Chief of Military History. A large number of
the sources used in the preparation of this volume
are on file in that office, hereafter referred to as
OCMH.
8
Manuel L. Quezon, The Good Fight (New York,
1946), pp. 153-55.
MacArthur's title in his new assignment

was Military Advisor to the Commonwealth
Government; his mission, to aid in the "establishment and development of a system of
National Defense." The authority given
him was unusually broad. He was authorized to deal directly with the Secretary of
War and the Chief of Staff and, "in all cases
not specifically covered," to use his own
judgment. "Your mission must be accomplished," he was told, "ways and means
are largely left to you." 9 Although there
was no official connection between the
Philippine Department, the U.S. Army
command in the Islands, and the Office of
the Military Advisor, the department commander, Maj. Gen. Lucius R. Holbrook,
was informed that assistance to General
Mac Arthur was "the most important peacetime mission of your command." 10
General MacArthur selected Majs.
Dwight D. Eisenhower and James B. Ord
as his principal assistants. With the aid of
a special committee from the Army War
College, they prepared a plan to provide
the Philippine Commonwealth with a system of national security by 1946, the date
the Islands would become independent.
This plan called for a small regular army, a
conscription system, a ten-year training program of two classes a year to build up a reserve force, a small air force, and a fleet of
small motor torpedo boats to repel an enemy
landing. The tactical organization of this
army was to be based on divisions of approximately 7,500 men. Armament and
9
Ltr of Instructions to Gen MacArthur, signed

by the Acting Adjutant General, 18 Sep 35, in War
Plans Division, War Department General Staff
(WDGS), file 3389-31. At the time this letter was
prepared General MacArthur was still Chief of Staff,
U.S. Army. This file is hereafter referred to as
WPD with appropriate file number.
10
Ltr of Instructions to CG Phil Dept, signed by
Actg TAG, 18 Sep 35, WPD 3389-31.
10
equipment for the new army was to be of a
type suitable to the economy and terrain in
the Philippines.11
The staff of the Military Advisor was always small. In addition to the officers he
took with him, General MacArthur secured
the services of four other officers from the
Philippine Department when he reached
Manila. He also employed as a civilian
assistant a retired naval officer, Sidney L.
Huff, to advise in naval matters. On the
death of Colonel Ord in an airplane accident in 1938, Lt. Col. Richard K. Sutherland was brought into the staff, and when
Colonel Eisenhower returned to the United
States the next year, Lt. Col. Richard J.
Marshall was chosen to replace him. In
October 1937, Capt. Hugh J. Casey joined
MacArthur's staff to advise in engineer matters, and later Maj. William F. Marquat
was designated antiaircraft officer. All
of these men remained with General MacArthur through the war years.12
The first legislative measure of the Philippine National Assembly was the passage, on
21 December 1935, of the National Defense
Act, which embodied the plan proposed by
General MacArthur. In explaining the bill
to the Assembly, President Quezon emphasized that the defense program must be carried out economically and should be "passively defensive." It would be impossible
11
Memo, Maj Gen Dwight D. Eisenhower for
President Quezon, 22 Jun 42, Operations Division,
WDGS, Executive Office files (hereafter cited as
OPD Exec O). This memorandum with accompanying notes is included in an article by Louis
Morton, "The Philippine Army 1935-1939: Eisenhower's Memorandum to Quezon," Military Affairs,
XII (1948), 103-07.
12
Intervs, author with Maj Gen Richard J. Marshall, ret., 7 Apr 48, and with Col LeGrande A.
Diller, formerly aide to Gen MacArthur, 28 Apr 48.
The author's notes on these and certain other interviews are on file in OCMH. Interviews on which
no notes were taken have no file designation.

for reasons of economy, he declared, to
develop an adequate fleet in the short time
allotted and with the money available.13
The National Defense Act provided for
a regular force of 10,000 men and a reserve force which was expected to reach
400,000 by the middle of 1946. The regular establishment was also to include the
Philippine Constabulary, then consisting of
about 6,000 men, so that more than half of
the regular army from the start consisted
of partially trained men. All Filipinos between the ages of twenty-one and fifty were
liable for military service. After a 5month training period Filipinos would become a part of the reserve force. There
were to be two classes a year, each to consist of 20,000 men with the regulars serving as training cadres. For the training
of junior officers a military academy patterned after West Point was to be established
at Baguio on Luzon. It was expected to
graduate about 100 officers each year.14
For military purposes the Commonwealth was divided into ten military districts with functions comparable to those of
the prewar corps areas in the United States.
Each district had an approximately equal
population, and each was to provide initially one reserve division and ultimately three.
Luzon, together with several outlying islands
(Mindoro, Palawan, Masbate), had five
military districts; Mindanao and the Sulu
Archipelago together constituted another;
and the Visayas four more. In each district the military commander was responsible during peacetime for training and for
13
Message to the First National Assembly on National Defense, 25 Nov 35, in Joseph R. Hayden,
The Philippines, A Study in National Development (New York, 1942), p. 738.
14
The Philippine Army: Its Establishment, Organization, and Legal Basis, pp. 4, 18. The Constabulary was separated from the Army in 1938,
but again made a part of it late in 1941.
11
a 13-foot beam, three 12-cylinder engines,

and a speed of 41 knots. Armament would
consist of two torpedo tubes, depth charges,
and light antiaircraft guns.17 "A relatively
small fleet of such vessels," said General
MacArthur, "... will have distinct effect in
compelling any hostile force to approach
cautiously and by small detachments." 18
The National Defense Act also made
provision for an air force, to be utilized
primarily for coast defense. By 1946 the
Commonwealth expected to have a fleet of
approximately 100 fast bombers, supported
by other tactical types. They would be used
with the Off Shore Patrol to keep hostile
craft away from the Philippine coast.
The basic concepts which determined
the nature and organization of the Commonwealth military establishment are perhaps best explained by MacArthur himself. The underlying principle, he said in
a speech in 1936, was to create a defensive
force of such strength as to make an invasion so costly in lives and money that "no
Chancellory in the World, if it accepts the
opinions of the military and naval staffs,
will ever willingly make an attempt to willfully attack the Philippines . . . ." The
Islands, MacArthur pointed out, had
"enormous defensive advantages" in their
geographical separation from possible enemies, mountainous character, heavy fortions that called for a boat 65 feet long, with ests and jungles, narrow beaches and
limited communications. Luzon, the prob15
The National Defense Act, Commonwealth Act
able objective of an enemy, he reminded his
No. 1, Titles II and III, Secs 17 to 59, in The
listeners,
had only two areas in which "a
Philippine Army: Its Establishment, Organization,
and Legal Basis, App. I, p. 12.
hostile
army
of any size could land."
16
Ltr, Maj. Gen William C. Dunckel, ret, to
"Each
of
these,"
he added, "is broken by
author, 11 May 48, OCMH. General Dunckel
strong
defensive
positions,
which if properly
was on Mac Arthur's staff, and was responsible for
the preparation of defense plans; in time of

war for the defense of his district. The provincial governor was responsible for the enforcement of the recruitment and mobilization laws.15
Although the district commanders were
responsible for defense plans, the Office of
the Military Advisor drew up the plans for
all the major islandsLuzon, Cebu, Negros,
Panay, Leyte, Mindanao, Bohol, Mindoro
as well as many of the smaller ones. Since
these plans were to be employed by the
Philippine Government after that nation
had received its independence, they were
based on the assumption that there would
be no U.S. Army forces in the Islands and
that all forces would come from the Philippine Army. The plans of the Military Advisor also called for the establishment of
seacoast defenses along the seven straits
which give access to the inland waters of the
Philippine Islands.16
The defense of the coast linelonger than
that of the United Statesposed an extremely difficult problem. The National
Defense Act made no provision for a navy
but established in the army an Off Shore
Patrol. This organization was to consist
of fast motor torpedo boats of a British
design. Contracts for thirty-six of these
vessels, to be completed by 1946, were placed
with British shipbuilders under specifica-
the preparation of the plans. In all, he prepared

about seventy documents including estimates of
the situation, general and special staff annexes, and
the like. Interv, author with Lt Gen Richard K.
Sutherland, ret., formerly chief of staff to Gen
MacArthur, 12 Nov 46, OCMH.
17
Catherine Porter, "Preparedness in the Philippines," Far Eastern Survey, April 7, 1941, pp. 6566.
18
Philippines Herald, January 26, 1940, quoted
in Hayden, The Philippines, pp. 740-41.
12
manned and prepared would present to
any attacking force a practically impossible
problem of penetration."

ministration of the program. By the end of
the year instructors had been trained and
camps established.
When the development of the Philippine

The first group of 20,000 men was called
Army was completed, MacArthur believed up on 1 January 1937 and by the end of
it would be strong enough to oppose suc- 1939 there were 4,800 officers and 104,000
cessfully "any conceivable expeditionary men in the reserves. Infantry training was
force." It would have a great advantage given at camps scattered throughout the
also in being assigned only one mission: de- Philippines; field artillery training was
fense of the homeland. Each unit of the concentrated in the vicinity of the U.S.
army would operate over ground it knew Army's Fort Stotsenburg near Angeles,
well and which had been "deliberately about fifty miles north of Manila, and
selected and organized for defense."
specialized training was given at Fort WilThe absence of a battle fleet in the plan liam McKinley just south of Manila.
of defense, MacArthur explained, was due Coast artillery instruction was carried on at
to the defensive mission of the military es- Fort Stotsenburg and at Grande Island in
tablishment. The major duty of a large Subic Bay by personnel supplied largely by
navy, he pointed out, was to protect over- the American commander at Corregidor.20
seas possessions. For the Philippines,
One of the greatest difficulties encounwhich had no colonies, the only naval task tered in the organization of the Philippine
was that of inshore defense. This defense Army was the creation of a satisfactory
would be provided by "flotillas of fast tor- officer corps. In the Constabulary were
pedo boats, supported by an air force," Filipino officers with excellent training and
whose task would be to deny the enemy an experience, but their interests lay in law
opportunity to bring its forces close enough enforcement rather than military training.
to Philippine shores to debark his troops Some of the best officers came from the
and supplies. All these preparations, he Philippine Scouts; these men rapidly bebelieved, would, by 1946, place the came senior officers in the Philippine Army.
Islands "in a favorable posture of defensive The great problem was to train junior offisecurity." 19
cers to command the training camps and
The development of the Philippine Army reserve units once these were formed.
was slow. The year 1936 was devoted to Since no graduates could be expected from
the building of camps, organization of the projected military academy at Baguio
cadres, and the special training of instruc- for four years the most promising men in
tors, drawn largely from the Constabulary. each semiannual class of reservists were
The commander of the Philippine Depart- selected for an additional six months' trainment provided Philippine Scouts as instruc- ing as noncommissioned officers. The best
tors and detailed U.S. Army officers to as- of these were chosen for officer training and
sist in the inspection, instruction, and ad19
The quotations in this and the preceding two

paragraphs are from the speech delivered in 1936
and printed in Cornejo's Commonwealth Directory
of the Philippines (1939 ed.), pp. 759-84.
20
Notes on the Philippine Army, 1941-1942, a
typescript, undated and unsigned, evidently prepared in Hq USAFFE during the war, pp. 1-3,
OCMH; memo, Eisenhower for Pres Quezon, 22
Jun 42, OPD Exec O.

became 3d lieutenants upon graduation
from Officer Candidate School. Senior
ROTC units in colleges and universities
were established to provide additional junior reserve officers.
The air program of the Philippine Army,
though its development was slow, met with
few serious obstacles. The first Philippine
Army airfield was built just outside of Manila, and by the time the first runway was
completed three trainers were available for
pilot training. This course was supplemented by courses in military flying and
technical training given in the United States
to selected air force students. By 1940 the
Philippine Army Air Corps had about forty
planes and one hundred trained pilots.
Practice in light bombing and gunnery had
been given, and the entire instructional system, General Eisenhower observed later,
was "on a very sound basis." 21
The program for the building of a fleet
of motor torpedo boats did not progress well.
Only two had been delivered by the end
of 1939 when the war in Europe destroyed
any hope of securing additional boats from
England. An effort was made to produce
the torpedo boats locally by purchasing the
engines and the right to build from the British design, but by October 1941 only one
21
Memo, Eisenhower for Pres Quezon, 22 Jun 42,
OPD Exec O.
13
boat had been completed. Meanwhile,
with the assistance of the U.S. Navy, the
training of boatmen and mechanics continued.22
No military plan for the defense of an
archipelago such as the Philippine Islands
could have had serious prospects of success
against a determined enemy with a powerful fleet without great reliance on more effective naval support than that provided by
patrol boats. The Philippine Government
had neither the industrial capacity nor the
wealth to build and support a navy which
could compete with that of a first class naval
power. President Quezon had frankly admitted this in November 1935. Such naval
support could come only from the United
States. No provision, it is true, had been
made in the Tydings-McDuffie Act for the
use by the U.S. Navy of naval bases in the
Islands after 1946. But such a possibility
had not been specifically denied and it was
undoubtedly believed that arrangements for
their use would be made at a later date.
Certainly, the Philippine Government did
not anticipate that the United States would
stand idly by if the security of the Philip,
pines was threatened.
22
Porter, "Preparedness in the Philippines,"
Far Eastern Survey, April 7, 1941, p. 66; interv,
author with Gen R. J. Marshall, 7 Apr 48; ltr,
MacArthur to Gen George C. Marshall, Chief of
Staff, U. S. Army, 28 Oct 41, WPD 4477-2.
CHAPTER II
U.S. Army Forces, Far East

By the middle of 1941 international developments had heightened the tension between the United States and Japan and
made the defense of the Philippines an urgent problem. The Nazi-Soviet pact, followed by the German Army's march into
Poland in September 1939, had destroyed
completely any hope for a peaceful settlement in Europe. The events of the following year made it evident that the United
States might soon be involved in war with
the Axis in Asia as well as Europe. Denmark and Norway had been invaded by
Hitler's armies in April, Holland and Belgium were conquered in May, and on 21
June France surrendered. Not long after,
Japanese troops, with the acquiescence of
the Vichy Government, moved into French
Indochina. In September, Germany, Italy,
and Japan concluded the Tripartite pact,
and the following April, Russia and Japan
reached agreement and signed a neutrality
pact, thus freeing the latter for extension
of her empire southward.
American efforts to halt Japanese aggression in Asia had met with little success.
On 26 July 1940 Japan was notified that
the commercial treaty of 1911 would be
abrogated. On the same day Congress
granted the President authority to control
exports to Japan. Immediately he put the
export of oil and scrap iron under government license and banned the shipment of
aviation gasoline to that country. By the
early part of 1941 shipments of scrap iron,
steel, gasoline, and other important war
material from the United States to Japan

had practically ceased.
While the United States market was
being closed to Japan, American economic
support to China was increased. In November 1940 Chiang Kai-shek's government was lent $50,000,000 through the Export-Import Bank; by the end of that year
loans to China had reached a total of
$170,000,000. Despite these moves, perhaps because of them, Japan continued to
exert pressure on the French and Dutch
colonies in Southeast Asia to "co-operate"
in economic matters.
The possibility of war in the Far East was
too real to be ignored and a reluctant Congress began to, loosen the purse strings. But
the years of neglect could not be remedied
quickly. The demand for planes and
weapons was great and the supply was limited. The Philippines was only one of
many bases that had to be protected.
Hawaii, Alaska, and Panamawhich
formed a strategic triangle whose defense
was considered essential to the safety of the
continental United Stateshad also been
neglected and their needs had to be filled
first. "Adequate reinforcements for the
Philippines at this time," wrote Gen. George
C. Marshall, "would have left the United
States in a position of great peril should
there be a break in the defense of Great
Britain." 1
1
Biennial Report of the Chief of Staff of the
United States Army, July 1, 1941 to June 30, 1943
to the Secretary of War (Washington, 1943), p. 6.
U.S. ARMY FORCES, FAR EAST

What the United States needed more
than anything else was time. But Japan's
occupation of naval and air bases in southern Indochina on 22 July 1941 gave warning that time was short. The Philippine Islands, already almost entirely surrounded,
were now further threatened and America's
position in the Far East rendered precarious.
Measures to strengthen the defense of the
Philippines could be put off no longer.
The Recall of General Mac Arthur

The establishment of a new American
command in the Far East and the recall of
General MacArthur to active duty in the
U.S. Army were already under consideration when Japan moved southward in July
1941. A month earlier Joseph Stevenot,
a prominent American businessman in
Manila and president of the Philippine
Long Distance Telephone Company, in an
interview with Secretary of War Henry L.
Stimson in Washington, had urged a closer
relationship between the Military Advisor
and the commander of the Philippine Department. Stimson had relayed this suggestion to General Marshall at a meeting
during which both men discussed Mac Arthur's status and agreed he was the logical
man to command in the Far East in the
event of an emergency.2
2
Henry L. Stimson, Diary, entry of 21 May
41; memo, Brig Gen Leonard T. Gerow for Chief
of Staff, 29 May 41, sub: Consultation with Mil
Advisor . . . , WPD 3251-49; ltr, Marshall to
MacArthur, 20 Jun 41, OCS 20850-15. Chief of
Staff is hereafter referred to as CofS and the Office
of the Chief of Staff as OCS. General Gerow
was at the time acting chief of WPD. The relevant portion of Mr. Stimson's diary was made
available to the author by Mr. Rudolph A. Winnacker, formerly historian of the Office of the Secretary of War and the author of a forthcoming
volume in this series on the history of that office.
15
By a coincidence, on the same day that
Stimson talked with Stevenot, Maj. Gen.
George Grunert, the Philippine Department
commander, asked permission from the War
Department to include representatives of
the Commonwealth Government in conferences then being held in Manila. The purpose of these meetings was to formulate
plans, based on the expected use of $52,000,000 in sugar excise funds, for improving the defenses of the Islands. The reason
for Grunert's request was to permit him to
work more closely and directly with General
MacArthur without going through official
government channels. Close contact between the department commander and the
Military Advisor, he pointed out, was an
obvious necessity in making defense plans.
General Marshall approved Grunert's request without question, adding that "MacArthur's support will be invaluable to you
in the accomplishment of the difficult task
with which you are confronted." 3
The first direct bid for the recall of General MacArthur came from the former Chief
of Staff himself and was contained in a letter to General Marshall.4 In this letter
Frazier Hunt, in his book MacArthur and the
War Against Japan (New York, 1944), page 12,
states that MacArthur offered his services to President Roosevelt early in the spring of 1941. The
author has been unable to find the documentary
evidence in the files of the Department of the
Army to support this assertion.
3
Ltr, Marshall to Grunert, 29 May 41, WPD
3251-49.
4
The author has been unable to find a copy of
this letter in the files of the War Department but
its contents are summarized in a memorandum
written by General Gerow and addressed to the
Chief of Staff on 6 June 1941 (WPD 3251-50).
From internal evidence it appears that MacArthur
on the same day wrote a letter covering the same
subjects to the President and the Secretary of War.
See also ltr, Marshall to MacArthur, 20 Jun 41,
WPD 3251-50.
16
MacArthur stated that since the Philippine
Army was to be absorbed by the U.S. Army
in the near futurea step not yet contemplated by the War Departmenthe intended to close out the office of Military
Advisor. A new American military command embracing all U.S. Army activities in
the Far East, comparable to the British command in that area, should be established, he
told the Chief of Staff, and he, MacArthur,
be named commander.
The idea of creating a high command in
the Far East had been broached before, but
never by so influential a source. In January 1941 the intelligence officer of the
Philippine Department had recommended
to his superior in Washington that such a
command be established. This proposal
differed from MacArthur's in that the department commander was to be designated
commander in chief of such a command,
while MacArthur put forward his own nomination.5 The Philippine Department G-2
continued to urge this move during the first
six months of 1941, but there is no evidence
that it was ever considered by the General
Staff in Washington until June of that year,
after General MacArthur's letter to the
Chief of Staff.6
MacArthur's proposal was sent to the
War Plans Division of the General Staff for
study. On 6 June Brig. Gen. Leonard T.
Gerow, acting chief of the division, sent his
recommendations to the Chief of Staff. He
agreed that the British had created such a
command, but pointed out that their situation was quite different from that faced by

the Americans. The British had accepted
strategic direction of naval forces in the Far
East, and their troops were scattered
throughout the area. U.S. Army forces
were concentrated in the Philippines and
had responsibility only for the defense of
the Islands. Gerow therefore recommended
against the establishment of a new command in the Far East. If MacArthur
was called to active service, he wrote, it
should be as commander of the Philippine
Department.7
Despite the recommendations of the
chief of War Plans, the official reply to MacArthur's letter expressed a sentiment entirely favorable to the proposal. This reply
was contained in a letter dated 20 June from
the Chief of Staff to General MacArthur.
In it Marshall told the Military Advisor that
the War Department's plans for the Philippine Army were not as broad as MacArthur
believed, but that the decision to close out
his office rested with him. All that the U.S.
Army planned to do at the present time, he
said, was to train about 75,000 Filipinos
for a period of from three to nine months,
contingent upon the appropriation by Congress of the sugar excise and currency devaluation fund.
Both the Secretary of War and I [Marshall

continued] are much concerned about the
situation in the Far East. During one of our
discussions about three months ago it was decided that your outstanding qualifications and
vast experience in the Philippines make you
the logical selection for the Army Commander
in the Far East should the situation approach
a crisis. The Secretary has delayed recommending your appointment as he does not feel
5
Ltr, G-2 Phil Dept to G-2 WD, 18 Jan 41,
the time has arrived for such action. Howsub: Comments on Current Events, 8-18 Jan 41,
ever, he has authorized me to tell you that,
Military Intelligence Division 10641-374-50. Miliat the proper time, he will recommend to the
tary Intelligence Division is hereafter referred to
as MID with appropriate file number.
6
Ibid.; see also ltrs, 13 and 26 Mar 41, MID
10641-374-58, -59.
50.
Memo, Gerow for CofS, 6 Jun 41, WPD 3251-
17

President that you be so appointed. It is my
impression that the President will approve his
recommendation.8
The appointment of General MacArthur

as commander of all Army forces in the Far
East was part of the larger problem of
mobilization and training of the Philippine
Army. By July 1941 it was clear that some
decision on the use of the Philippine Army
would soon have to be made. On 7 July
MacArthur presented his views on the mobilization and training of the Philippine
Army in a personal letter to the Chief of
Staff, adding that the creation of a high
command for the Far East "would result
in favorable psychological and morale reactions." 9 A week later General Gerow
summarized for the Chief of Staff the steps
being taken for improving the defenses of
the Philippine Islands, and on 17 July made
the following specific recommendations:
1. That the President, by executive order,
call into the service of the U.S. for the period
of the emergency all organized military forces
of the Commonwealth.
2. That General MacArthur be called to
active duty in the grade of Major General
and assigned as commander of Army Forces
in the Far East.
3. That $10,000,000 of the President's
Emergency Fund be allotted to cover the costs
of mobilization and training of the Philippine Army for a period of three months.
4. That the training program of the Philippine Army for an additional six to nine
months be financed from the sugar excise
8
Ltr, Marshall to MacArthur, 20 Jun 41, OCS
20850-15; see also unused draft of this letter in
WPD 3251-50.
The last paragraph of the copy
sent stated: "This letter is also an acknowledgment of your letters to the President and to the Secretary of War. Please keep its contents confidential for the present."
9
The writer has been unable to find a copy of
this letter. A summary of its contents can be
found in a memo, Gerow for CofS, 14 Jul 41, sub:
Philippine Islands [P.I.], WPD 3251-52.
fund, or from other funds appropriated for

this purpose.
5. That 425 Reserve officers be sent to the
Philippines to assist in the mobilization and
training of the Philippine Army.10
Within a week these recommendations

had been approved by the Chief of Staff
and the Secretary of War. The Secretary
immediately requested President Franklin
D. Roosevelt to issue the necessary executive
order, already drafted and approved, for
calling the military forces of the Commonwealth into active service of the United
States. "Due to the situation in the Far
East," Stimson wrote, "all practical steps
should be taken to increase the defensive
strength of the Philippines Islands." One
of the most effective measures to accomplish this would be to call the Philippine
Army into active service for a year's training. Such a program, Stimson estimated,
would involve about 75,000 men and would
cost about $32,000,000, which would be
met by the sugar excise fund. Pending appropriation by Congress, the funds to initiate the program could be met from the
President's emergency fund.11
Stimson's recommendations reached the
President at a time when he was thoroughly
aroused by Japan's occupation of air and
naval bases in Indochina on 22 July. Already he had broken off negotiations with
Japan for a settlement of Far Eastern problems and was considering economic reprisals in the form of a freeze on Japanese assets in the United States. On 26 July, the
day after Stimson made his recommendations, the President put the freeze into effect
and issued the military order which would
10
Ibid.; memo, Gerow for CofS, sub: Emergency
Mobilization and Tng of Phil Army, 17 Jul 41,

WPD 3251-52.
11
Ltr, Stimson to President, 25 Jul 41, OCS
18136-34.
18
bring into the service of the United States

the armed forces of the Philippines.12
The President's military order did not
mention General MacArthur by name; it
was carefully worded so as to place the
forces in the Philippines under a general
officer of the United States Army, "to be
designated by the Secretary of War from
time to time." The actual induction of
Philippine Army units was to be accomplished by orders issued by that general
officer.
The War Department immediately followed up the President's action by establishing, that same day, a new command in
the Philippines, with headquarters in
Manila. This command, to be called U.S.
Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE),
would consist of the Philippine Department, those military forces of the Commonwealth ordered into active service for the
period of the emergency, and such other
forces as might be assigned. At the same
time, MacArthur was recalled to active
duty, effective on 26 July, with the rank of
major general, designated as the general
officer referred to in the military order, and
put in command of U.S. Army Forces in
the Far East.13 With the establishment of
USAFFE and the simultaneous induction
of the military forces of the Commonwealth Government, the two separate military establishments which had existed in the
Philippine Islands since 1935 were placed
for the first time under one command.
experienced senior officers. Son of General Arthur MacArthur of Philippine fame,

he had graduated from the Military Academy in 1903 as a second lieutenant of engineers. Since then his record had been
one of rapid advancement and brilliant
achievement. His first assignment had
been in the Philippines as a construction
officer and he had been aide to his father
when the senior MacArthur was chief military observer with the Japanese Army in
the war against Russia. In 1907 he served
as aide-de-camp to President Theodore
Roosevelt. After various assignments in
the United States he was ordered to Washington in 1913 for duty with the Chief of
Engineers. The following year he accompanied the Mexican expedition to Vera
Cruz as assistant engineer officer.
In World War I Douglas Mac Arthur's
record was outstanding. Transferring to
the infantry, he served as chief of staff of
the 42d Division, the Rainbow Division,
and as commander of the 84th Brigade of
that division. He was wounded twice,
served briefly in the occupation and returned to the United States in 1919 as a
brigadier general of the National Army.
That year, at the age of 39, he was appointed Superintendent of the Military
Academy at West Point over a number of
senior generals. From West Point he went
to the Philippines where he commanded in
turn the District of Manila and the 23d
Brigade. In January 1925 he was apThe recall of Douglas MacArthur to pointed a major general and returned to
active duty at the age of 61 brought back the United States the following month.
For the next three years General Macinto the U.S. Army one of its most able and
Arthur commanded a corps area in the
12
The military order and other material relating
United States. In 1928 he returned to
to this subject are filed in WPD 3251-52.
Manila
as commander of the Philippine De13
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, 26 Jul 41, OCS
partment.
Upon completion of this as18136-35; ltr order, CofS to MacArthur, sub:
Active Duty, Tab C, Incl 4, WPD 3251-52.
signment he was brought back to the United
19
at the time USAFFE was organized and had

already served under MacArthur for several years. All the officers on the general
staff were under 50 years of age, and of the
three special staff officers who had been requested specifically by name, the youngest
was 43 and the oldest 52.
For his chief of staff, General MacArthur
selected the senior officer of the military
mission, Lt. Col. Richard K. Sutherland.
Entering the army as a private after his graduation from Yale in 1916, Sutherland rose
to the rank of captain before the end of
World War I. During the peace years, he
attended the Infantry School, Command
and Staff School, Ecole Superieure de
Guerre, and the Army War College. Conceded by most to be a brilliant, hard-working officer, he was selected for MacArthur's
staff in 1938 after a tour of duty in Shanghai.
The Organization of USAFFE
Gen. George C. Kenney, who served with
The immediate tasks facing General Mac- him for four years, remarked, "He knew so
Arthur were, first, to establish his headquar- many of the answers that I could underters and organize his command on an ef- stand why General MacArthur had picked
ficient basis; second, to induct and train the him for chief of staff." But he also noted
Philippine Army; and third, to secure the that among Sutherland's traits were egotism
necessary supplies and reinforcements to put and "an unfortunate bit of arrogance." 14
Promoted directly to brigadier general in
his forces on a war footing.
The first task was quickly accomplished. August 1941, Sutherland remained MacFrom the small group of Army officers who Arthur's chief of staff until 1946, rising
had been detailed to the Office of the Mili- finally to the rank of lieutenant general.
tary Advisor and from U.S. Army organizaFor the next important post in USAFFE,
tions in the Philippines, MacArthur secured the deputy chief of staff, MacArthur chose
enough officers to form a nucleus for his Lt. Col. Richard J. Marshall who had ocheadquarters. By mid-August he had a cupied a similar position in the Military
small and highly efficient staff in Headquar- Advisor's office. Promoted rapidly, first
ters, USAFFE, located at No. 1, Calle Vic- to colonel and in December 1941 to brigtoria, in the walled city in Manila. His adier general, Marshall had, in MacArthur's opinion, "no superior as a supply ofprincipal staff officers were men who had
15
been with him for some time. For the most ficer in the Army."
14
Gen. George C. Kenney, General Kenney Repart they were men in the prime of their
ports (New York, 1949), p. 26.
15
lives. The chief of staff and deputy chief
Rad MacArthur to Marshall, No. C-62, 10 Jul
of staff were 47 and 46 years old respectively 42, OPD Strategy File, III.
States where he commanded the Ninth

Corps Area on the west coast for a month
and on 1 November 1930 was appointed
Chief of Staff, U.S. Army. He held this
post five years before going to the Philippines as Military Advisor to the Philippine
Commonwealth. On 31 December 1937,
after thirty-eight years' service, eighteen of
them as a general officer, MacArthur retired from the Army with the rank of general, to become field marshal in the Philippine Army a short time later. His return
to active duty on 26 July 1941 was as a
major general, his permanent rank before
retirement. The next day action to promote him to the rank of temporary lieutenant general was initiated and approved two
days later, effective 27 July.
PHILIPPINE SCOUTS at Fort McKinley firing a 37-mm. antitank gun in training,

above; below, engineers preparing sections for a pontoon bridge.
21
U.S. Army in the Philippines
and men, and for the 31st, 1,729. In July

1941 the former were slightly below strength
When General MacArthur assumed com- and the latter was 402 overstrength in offimand of U.S. Army Forces in the Far East, cers and enlisted men.18
the Philippine Department consisted of 22,Field artillery components of the Philip532 men, 11,972 of whom were Philippine pine Division consisted of the two-battalion
Scouts.16 Of the 1,340 officers, 775 were 24th Regiment (truck-drawn British 75reservists on active duty. The largest group mm. guns) with 843 officers and enlisted
of men7,293was assigned to the in- men, and one battalion of the 23d, with 401
fantry, and the Coast Artillery Corps was men and armed with 2.95-inch mountain
next with 4,967. Almost the entire strength guns (pack). Plans existed for the organiof the command was stationed on Luzon. zation at a later date of the 26th Field ArThe largest single U.S. Army unit in the tillery and a separate battalion of 155-mm.
Philippines was the Philippine Division, guns for use with the division. The division
commanded by Maj; Gen. Jonathan M. also included the standard engineer, ordWainwright. Theoretically, it was a square nance, signal, military police, medical, and
division, but was not equipped as such, and quartermaster units. The total strength of
lacked a brigade organization and some of the Philippine Division on 31 July was 10,its organic elements. All of the enlisted 473 men, distributed as shown in Table 1.
men in the division, except those in the 31st
The Philippine Division rarely functioned
Infantry and a few military police and head- as a division, for its elements were scattered.
quarters troops, were Philippine Scouts; the Headquarters and the bulk of the division
31st was the only American infantry unit were at Fort William McKinley, just south
in the Islands composed entirely of Ameri- of the city. The 31st Infantry was stationed
cans. In addition to this regiment, the at the Post of Manila, in the city itself, and
Philippine Division contained the 45th and a battalion of the 12th Quartermaster Regi57th Infantry (PS).17 Authorized strength ment was located in the Manila port area.
for these Scout regiments was 2,435 officers The 1st Battalion, less one company, of the
45th Infantry was stationed at the Post of
16
Unless otherwise noted, this and subsequent
Limay on the southeast coast of the Bataan
material on the strength of American and Philippeninsula.
The rest of the division, includpine troops is taken from Phil Dept., Machine Rcds
ing the artillery components, the 12th
Unit Station Strength Rpts, 31 Jul 41, Strength
Accounting Branch, and from Phil Dept War Plan
Ordnance Company, and a platoon of the
ORANGE, 1940 Revision (Short title HPD WPO-3).
quartermaster regiment, was at Fort StotFlyleaf of Copy No. 6 has an AG strength report of
senburg, about fifty miles north of Manila,
21 Jul 41 attached.
Up to January 1941 the Scouts had had a
close to Clark Field.
strength of 6,500; at that time the President of the
The major nondivisional U.S. Army
United States had authorized an increase in their
ground
elements in the Philippines in July
strength to 12,000. Telg, TAG to CG Phil Dept,
No. 635, 28 Jan 41, AG 320.2 Phil Dept (1-1918
HPD WPO-3, G-1 Annex, Exhibit F.
41).
Strength figures in this source were computed from
17
The 43d Infantry (PS) is also listed in some tables and are the estimated strengths as of Mobilireports.
Actually, this unit consisted of 329 men,

formerly part of the 45th Infantry, who had been
detached for duty at Zamboanga in Mindanao and
at Camp John Hay, near Baguio on Luzon.
zation (M) Day. Those figures are close to the

actual strength at the beginning of 1941 when the
plan was prepared, but some of the units listed in
Table 1 were not yet organized.
22
TABLE 1STRENGTH OF PHILIPPINE DIVISION, 31 JULY 1941
a
Includes 15 Philippine Scout Officers: 2 Hq, 2 Sp Trs, 3 45th Inf, 1 57th Inf, 5 24th FA Regt, 1 12th QM Regt. and
1 14th Engr.
Source: Phil Dept, Machine Rcds Unit Station Strength and Misc., Officers and Enlisted Men, Jul 41.
1941 included the Harbor Defenses of

Manila and Subic Bays, a cavalry regiment,
two field artillery regiments, and quartermaster, signal, and military police units.
The Harbor Defenses were commanded by
Maj. Gen. George F. Moore, who had his
headquarters at Fort Mills on Corregidor.
They included not only the defenses of Corregidor, but also those-on Caballo Island
(Fort Hughes), El Fraile (Fort Drum), and
Carabao (Fort Frank)all at the entrance
to Manila Bayand Fort Wint on Grande
Island at the entrance to Subic Bay.
The 26th Cavalry was a Philippine Scout
organization with two squadrons of three
troops each. It was considerably smaller
than a similar regiment in the United States
and had a strength of 784 enlisted men and
54 officers. The home station of the regi-
ment, except for one troop, was at Fort

Stotsenburg; Troop F was stationed at
Nichols Field, south of Manila.19 Also at
Fort Stotsenburg were two Philippine Scout
field artillery regiments, the 86th and 88th,
the first with a strength of 388 and the second with 518 men.
Service and supply elements in the Philippine Department at the end of July 1941
totaled approximately 2,500 officers and
men, exclusive of those serving with the Air
Forces. The largest part of these troops
were assigned to quartermaster and medical
units, stationed at the various posts on
Luzon, and at Pettit Barracks in Zamboanga
19
Lt. Col. William E. Chandler, "26th Cavalry
(PS) Battles to Glory," in three parts, Armored
Cavalry Journal, LVI, Nos. 2-4 (March-August
1947).

(Mindanao). A military police company,
the 808th, was stationed in Manila, as were
the headquarters of the Philippine Department and of USAFFE. (See Table 2.)
On 4 August, the air forces in the Philippines were brought under the control of
MacArthur's headquarters, "except for
routine administration and supply," and
redesignated the USAFFE Air Force. It
was only a token force. Of the 210 aircraft in the Islands, only the thirty-one
P-40B's could be considered modern aircraft; the others, consisting of P-26's, P35's, B-10's, B-18's, A-29's, C-39's and
observation planes, were largely obsolescent.
One field alone, Clark Field near Fort
Stotsenburg, could accommodate heavy
bombers.20
Air Forces headquarters was located at
Nielson Field on the outskirts of Manila;
the majority of the planes were based at
either Nichols, also near Manila, or Clark
Field. The 4th Composite Group at Clark
Field had under it a headquarters squadron,
three pursuit squadrons, one bombardment
squadron, and an observation squadron.
The 20th Air Base Group at Nichols Field
contained miscellaneous supporting units,
including the 27th and 28th Materiel
Squadrons, and the 19th Air Base Squadron. Total strength of the air forces was
254 officers and 2,049 men.21
With the establishment of USAFFE, the
Philippine Department became a subord20
USAFFE GO 4, 4 Aug 41, copy in History of
Fifth Air Force (and Its Predecessors), Air Hist
Off; Army Air Action in the Philippines and the
Netherland East Indies, p. 11, prepared by the
Asst Chief of Air Staff Intel, Hist Div, and filed in
Air University Hist Off.
21
Army Air Action in Phil and NEI, p. 11. The
aircraft in the 4th Composite Group at this time
were as follows: 21 P-26's, 56 P-35's, 31 P-40B's,
10 O-46's, 3 O-19E's, 10 A-9's, 1 C-39, 9 A-27's,

14 B-10Bs, and 18 B-18's.
23
inate command. The headquarters staff
was left largely intact, although General
MacArthur designated some of its members
to serve on his staff in addition to their regular duties, but the mission of the Department was narrowed until its principal task
became the training and supply of the
Philippine Army. In effect, it became a
service command, "an administrative echelon," MacArthur explained, "analagous to
a Corps Area." 22 Planning and the tactical control of field troops, organized into
task forces, were now centered in USAFFE.
Under the circumstances, there seemed
little need for the services of so senior an
officer as General Grunert, and MacArthur recommended that he be relieved and
another officer "who had not enjoyed such
high command" be appointed to the position. Pointing out that Grunert would
complete his tour of duty in less than four
months, MacArthur declared, "It would be
advantageous to relieve him, as I am loath,
as long as he is here, to contract the functions of the Department Commander.
..."23TheWarDepartment accepted
this suggestion and on 23 October named
MacArthur commander of the Philippine
Department, relieved Grunert, and ordered
him back to the United States.24 Thus, the
Philippine Department, which had been for
so long the highest Army command in the
Far East, became, in fact first and later in
name, a service command. The headquar22
Extract of rad from CG USAFFE in memo,
Maj Gen William Bryden, DCofS for ACofS G-1,
13 Oct 41, OCS 18136-78; see also memo, Bryden
for WPD, 7 Oct 41, OCS 18136-71.
23
Extract of rad from CG USAFFE in memo,
Bryden for ACofS, G-1, 13 Oct 41, OCS
18136-78.
24
Memo, Bryden for TAG, n.d., sub: Order for
Gens Grunert and MacArthur, AG 210.311. Note
on memo: "Action taken, October 23, 1941."
24
TABLE 2STRENGTH AND COMPOSITION OF U.S. ARMY TROOPS IN PHILIPPINE ISLANDS,

31 JULY 1941
Includes 26 Philippine Scout Officers.

U.S. Army Mine Planter.
Includes officers and enlisted men for which no specific unit was indicated.
Source: Phil Dept, Machine Rcds Unit Station Strength and Misc., Officers and Enlisted Men, Jul 41.
25
CEREMONY AT CAMP MURPHY, RIZAL, 15 August 1941, marking the induction of the Philippine Army Air Corps. Behind Lt. Gen. Douglas MacArthur, from
left to right, are Lt. Col. Richard K. Sutherland, Col. Harold H. George, Lt. Col.
William F. Marquat, and Maj. LeGrande A. Diller.
ters which had made the plans and preparations for war had no tactical control when
war came.
Philippine Army: Mobilization and

Training
The major task of the hurriedly assembled staff of Headquarters, USAFFE, was
to work out a plan for the mobilization,
training, and supply of the Philippine Army.
Within a few days of his appointment, General MacArthur had selected 1 September
as the day when mobilization of the Philippine Army would start. This left thirty
days in which to select camp sites, enlarge
and improve existing camps for the first reservists, and build new camps.
The integration of the armed forces of

the Philippine Commonwealth into the service of the United States was to be gradual.
Elements of the ten reserve divisions were
to be called into service at regular intervals
until 15 December 1941, when the mobilization would be complete. The Philippine
Army Air Corps would be inducted separately. Reserve units engaged in their normal yearly training were not to be inducted
unless war came. It was hoped in this way
to continue the development of the Commonwealth's defense program and at the
same time mobilize and train the Philippine
Army. Commonwealth forces coming under United States control would retain their
national integrity; they would have their
own uniforms, rations, military law, scale
26
of pay, and promotion list; would requisition through their own supply channel until
1 December; but would be paid by the U. S.
Army. The Regular Army of the Philippine Commonwealth and the Constabulary
were not to be inducted immediately.
A construction program was to be started
immediately since there was only enough
housing for about one third of the 75,000
men scheduled for induction. Camp sites
would have to be selected and facilities for
training built. The first units called would
use existing or temporary quarters and, as
camps were completed, additional units
reserve divisionsand the cadres of most

of the other divisional units.26
As housing facilities became available,
USAFFE brought other elements of the
Philippine Army into service. Early in November the second infantry regiment of
each of the divisions was called up, to be
joined before the end of the month by the
division headquarters and the service elements. But time was running out. When
war came not a single division had been
completely mobilized and not one of the
units was at full strength. None of the
antitank battalions was ever organized bewould be inducted. By 15 December, when cause of the lack of equipment, and the
the last units would be mobilized, the en- shortage of organic artillery forced many of
tire construction program would be com- the divisions to go into battle without full
pleted.25
artillery components.27
On 15 August, less than three weeks after
To each division were assigned about
he had assumed command of USAFFE, forty U.S. Army officers and twenty AmeriGeneral MacArthur incorporated into the can or Philippine Scout noncommissioned
American forces the Philippine Army Air officers who served as instructors. The ofCorps of six squadrons and approximately ficers were usually attached to division and
500 men. A few days later he issued orders regimental staffs; the enlisted men served in
calling into the service by 1 September ten battalions and companies. The position of
infantry regimentsone from each of the the instructor was an anomalous one.
When one instructor asked for a clarification
25
Notes on the Philippine Army, 1941-1942, p.
of his status he was told: "You have no
2; Sixth Annual Report of the U.S. High Comcommand status. You have no authority.
missioner to the Philippine Islands, 1 July 1941-30
But you are directly responsible for the sucJune 1942 (Washington, 1943), p. 16; Admin Plan
for Ten Reserve Divs . . ., Hq USAFFE, 10 Aug 41,
cess or failure of the regiment."28
OCMH; Report of Operations of USAFFE and
While it is not possible to state definitely
USFIP [U.S. Forces in the Philippines] in the Philippine Islands, 1941-1942, pp. 3 ff. This last rethe strength of the Philippine Army by midport with its eighteen annexes constitutes the basic
December 1941, an estimate of the number
Army report on the various aspects of the Philipof Filipinos available for combat can be
pine campaign and was prepared in 1946 by a staff
under General Wainwright, formerly commander of
USFIP. Each of the annexes is separately titled
and paginated and was prepared by officers in the
relevant headquarters. The basic report is cited
hereafter as USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns; its annexes will be referred to by their own titles, listed
in The Sources, page 588, below.
This report was prepared in five copies, one of
which is on file in AG and another in OCMH. The
author has used throughout this volume the copy
in OCMH.
26
USAFFE GO 6, 19 Aug 41, copy in OCMH;

Sixth Annual Report of High Commissioner, p. 15.
27
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, pp.. 13, 14.
28
Col Richard C. Mallone, senior instructor of
21st FA(PA), Bataan Diary, 2 vols., I, 23. The
diary was borrowed by the author and a photostat
copy is on file in OCMH. See also South Luzon
Force (SLF) and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 4, Annex
V, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns.

made. On the basis of the authorized
strength of a Philippine division (7,500
men), the total divisional strength of the
Philippine Army reserve would be 75,000
men. To this figure must be added the
strength of the 1st Regular Division, a part
of the regular establishment, and the Constabulary, plus nondivisional and provisional
units formed after the start of war. A rough
estimate of the number of men in the Philippine Army, therefore, would be approximately 120,000, a figure which is confirmed
by later reports on the number of men surrendered and by postwar claims for back
pay and pensions.29
Upon mobilization of the first elements of
the ten reserve divisions, schools were established to provide special training for officers
and selected enlisted men of the Philippine
Army who in turn would train other Filipinos as the mobilization progressed. At
Baguio a command and staff school was
established to train a few American colonels
and senior Philippine officers who were to
command Philippine Army divisions, as
well as certain key officers slated for the
staffs of these divisions. Schools for the
training of infantry cadres were established
in each division mobilization district.
Americans and Philippine Scouts served as
instructors, and the students consisted of the
cadres of the infantry elements of the divisions, regimental and battalion staffs, com29
Memo, CofS for Secretary of War (SW), n.d.,

sub: Reinforcement of the Philippines, OGS 18136124; memo, Col Joseph K. Evans, Chief, SE Asia
Sec, for Maj Thomas R. Clarkin, SW Pacific Sec,
OPD, 5 Aug 42, sub: US and PA Divs in Phil
Campaign, OCMH; memo, Col John R. Deane for
Admiral Harold R. Stark, 7 Feb 42, OCS 18136232; intervs, author with numerous officers on the
division and corps level who served in the Philippine
campaign. The author had been unable to find
any strength reports of the Philippine Army by
USAFFE after 31 October 1941.
27
pany commanders, platoon leaders, first
sergeants, cooks, and company clerks. In
addition to specialized training, each student took the basic infantry course.30
Coast artillery schools were established at
Fort Mills (Corregidor) and Fort Wint
(Grande Island), and field artillery cadres
were trained at the Philippine Army training center at Camp Dau, near Fort Stotsenburg. Two engineer schools were established, with instructors from the 14th Engineer Regiment (PS), the engineer component of the Philippine Division. A signal
and a medical school were organized at Fort
William McKinley; a second medical
school was established for the training of
nondivisional cadres; and in the port area
of Manila was a quartermaster motor transport school.31
The training of the Philippine Army was
beset with numerous difficulties. In many
units there was a serious language barrier,
not only between the American instructors
and the Filipinos but also among the Filipinos. The enlisted men of one division
spoke the Bicolanian dialect, their Philippine officers usually spoke Tagalog, and the
Americans spoke neither.32 In the Visayas
the problem was even more complicated
since most of the officers were Tagalogs from
central Luzon and the men spoke one or
more of the many Visayan tongues. Transfers were made to alleviate the situation, but
no real solution to the problem was ever
found.33
30
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, pp. 3-4; interv,
author with Brig Gen Clifford Bluemel, 14 Apr
48, OCMH. General Bluemel commanded the 31st
Division ( P A ) .
31
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 8.
32
SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 6.
33
Visayan-Mindanao Force (V-MF) Rpt of
Opns, p. 17, Annex XI, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of
Opns.
28
Discipline in Philippine Army units left
much to be desired, according to U.S. Army
officers. Until war was declared there were
no courts-martial. Since the Philippine
Army retained its national integrity after
induction, Philippine Army headquarters
was responsible for discipline and punishment. Many of the officers and noncommissioned officers were untrained and unqualified for their assignments. There
were some first sergeants and company
clerks who could neither read nor write.
Training facilities and equipment were
almost nonexistent. Target ranges had
been hurriedly improvised but many units
went into battle without ever having fired
their weapons. There was a serious shortage in almost all types of equipment. The
clothing was old and much of it not fit for
use; shoes were rubber soled and quickly
wore out. The uniform usually consisted
of the blue fatigue suit, and when that wore
out, anything that could be found. There
were serious shortages in personal equipment, blankets, mosquito bars, and shelter
halves. The supply of Enfield and Springfield '03 rifles was adequate but that of
many other weapons, entrenching tools, gas
masks, and steel helmets was not. After
the outbreak of war, units secured supplies
wherever and whenever they could, and the
amount was usually dependent upon the
initiative and energy of the individual supply officers.34
The difficulties of mobilizing and training
the Philippine Army can best be shown by
following the experiences of a single division.
The 31st Division (PA) was organized on
18 November at a camp near San Marcelino
34
Ibid., pp. 17-20; SLF and II Corps Rpt of

Opns, pp. 6-7; USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, pp.
19-20.

in Zambales Province, Luzon.35 An American Army officer, Col. Clifford Bluemel,
who had commanded the 45th Infantry
(PS) and later the staff and command
school at Baguio, was assigned as division
commander with a staff consisting of Philippine Army and Scout officers.
When the division was organized, its
camp was still under construction. The
buildings were about 80 percent complete,
and in the absence of a water system a few
shallow wells were used. Work on sanitary
installations had just begun.
One of the division's regiments, the 31st
Infantry (PA), had been mobilized on
1 September and was already in camp when
Colonel Bluemel arrived. The 32d Infantry had been inducted on 1 November but
did not join the division until 6 December.
Starting on 25 November the third infantry
element of the division, the 33d Infantry,
began arriving in camp. Between 18 and
30 November, the medical battalion, motor
transport, service, and division headquarters companies were mobilized. The signal
company was organized on 1 December
when a cadre which had been in training
at Fort McKinley for three months arrived
at camp. The 31st Field Artillery Regiment began mobilizing on 12 December,
after the outbreak of war, and was finally
organized with two battalions on 26 December, after the division had already
moved to Bataan.
The 31st Division, like the other Philippine Army divisions, suffered from shortages in personal and organizational equip35
This account is drawn from the Report of General Bluemel on the 31st Division Philippine Army.
It was borrowed from the author and a copy is on
file in OCMH. Cited hereafter as Bluemel, 31st
Div (PA) Rpt of Opns.

ment. Every man was equipped with a
rifle, the .30-caliber Enfield rifle used by
American troops in World War I. The
stock was too long for the small Philippine
soldier and the weak extractor often broke
and could not be replaced. Of the other
infantry weapons, there was one Browning
automatic rifle for each infantry company
and eight .30-caliber Browning watercooled machine guns for each machine gun
company. Each infantry regiment had two
.50-caliber machine guns and six 3-inch
trench mortars, 70 percent of the ammunition for which proved to be duds. Artillery equipment for the division consisted
of eight World War I model 75-mm. guns
which were delivered to the division on the
evening of 7 December, without sights Or
fire control equipment. The 31st Field Artillery, therefore, could only organize two of
the six firing batteries it was authorized.
Organic transportation was virtually
nonexistent. Division headquarters and
the motor transport company could muster
only one sedan, one command car, one
bantam car, one 1-ton truck and one
-ton truck. The 31st Infantry had only
one command car and eight 1-ton trucks,
which was more than the other regiments
had. The division was deficient also in
communications and engineer supplies,
office equipment, spare parts, and tools.
The personal equipment of the Philippine soldier in the 31st Division left much
to be desired. His uniform consisted of
shorts, short-sleeved shirt, and cheap canvas shoes with a rubber sole that wore out
in about two weeks. Some of the men were
fortunate enough to draw leather shoes.
For warmth and protection against mosquitoes, the Filipino wore his blue fatigue uniform. There were no surplus stocks for is-
29
sue or replacement. The division received
no steel helmets, but did have gas masks.
Rations were purchased by the individual organizations with funds furnished the
unit commanders by the Philippine Army.
Zambales Province, where the 31st Division
was located, did not produce enough food
for its own needs, and as additional units
joined the division the procurement of food
became a difficult problem. The division
railhead scheduled to open on 1 December
did not begin operations until a week later,
after the war had started, because of the inexperience of Filipino supply officers.
The training program of the division
began theoretically on 1 September, when
the 31st Infantry was mobilized, but it was
not until 24 November that the men first
fired their rifles on the target range at the
Olongapo Naval Station. One battalion
fired fifty rounds per man, and another
twenty-five rounds. The third battalion
never fired at all, for permission to use the
range was withdrawn by the Navy when the
4th Marine Regiment arriving from China,
was stationed at Olongapo. No other
range was available for the division, and the
one under construction was not completed
when war came.
The men in the 31st Infantry were more
fortunate than those in the other regiments,
many of whom never even fired a rifle before entering combat. Nor had their previous five and a half months' training under
Philippine Army supervision been of much
value, according to Colonel Bluemel. Practically none of the men, he observed, had
fired as many as five rounds with the rifle or
the .30-caliber machine gun. None had
fired the .50-caliber-machine gun or the
mortar. Bluemel's judgment of the value of
the early training program was borne out
30
by the experience of other Philippine Army

division commanders.36
The field artillery units received even less
training than the infantry. As soon as the
two batteries were organized, they fired two
rounds per gun. Most of the men had never
fired a 75-mm. gun and many had never
even seen one fired. The engineer battalion
had been constructing a road since its arrival in camp and received no other training. The cadre of the signal company was
commanded by a Filipino who had received
inadequate training at Fort McKinley.
36
In addition to General Bluemel's report, see
Col. Clyde A. Selleck, Notes on the 71st Division,
pp. 2-8, and Col. Ray M. O'Day, History of the
21st Division (PA), 2 vols., I, 1-5. Colonel Selleck
commanded the 71st Division (PA) and Colonel
O'Day was the senior American instructor with the
21st Division (PA). Both documents were borrowed from the authors and copies are on file in
OCMH.

This man, who was to be division signal
officer, was unable to establish radio communication with units a mile away in the
same camp.
All officers in the division, with few exceptions, were Filipinos with little or no
knowledge of tactics or of the method of
training troops for combat. In some cases,
their understanding of English was inadequate. As the war progressed, it became
necessary to replace many of the Filipino
battalion commanders with American officers. The enlisted men seemed to the division commander to be proficient in only
two things: "one, when an officer appeared,
to yell attention in a loud voice, jump up
and salute; the other, to demand 3 meals
per day." 37
37
Bluemel, 31st Div (PA) Rpt of Opns, p. 4.
CHAPTER III
The Reinforcement of
the Philippines
When General MacArthur assumed command of U.S. Army Forces in the Far East,
there was no program in the War Department for any immediate large-scale reinforcement of the Islands. As a matter of
fact, the War Department specifically told
MacArthur that he could have "no additional forces, except approximately 400 reserve officers to assist in training the Philippine Army. . . ." 1 Within a few days,
there was a complete reversal of policy in
the War Department. The first sign of
this change came on 31 July when General
Marshall approved a proposal by the War
Plans Division to reinforce the Islands' defense "in view of the possibility of an attack." 2 The next day MacArthur was informed that he would receive substantial reinforcements and Marshall told his immediate staff, "It was the policy of the
United States to defend the Philippines."
This statement so impressed the Chief of the
War Plans Division that he entered it in
his office diary.3
The reasons for this change of policy are
nowhere explicitly stated. Undoubtedly
1
Rad, TAG to CG USAFFE, No. 1712, 28 Jul
41, OCS 18136-39.
2
Memo, WPD for CofS, 31 Jul 41, sub: Additional Armament for Phil, OCS 18812-61.
3
many factors both political and military contributed to the American Government's
firm stand in July and August 1941. One
of these was recognition of the potentialities
of air power and especially of the Army's
new heavy bomber, the B-17, called the
Flying Fortress. In Stimson's opinion, the
success of B-17 operations in Europe was
responsible for creating an optimistic view
in the War Department that the Philippines
could be successfully held.4 A striking force
of such heavy bombers, it was argued, would
act as a deterrent to Japanese advances
southward and would strengthen the United
States position in the Far East.
Another cause for optimism was the recall
of General MacArthur to active duty. No
one knew as much as he about the Philippines and no one believed more completely
that it could be held if the Japanese allowed
sufficient time for reinforcement.
The possibility of establishing an effective
defense against Japan in the Philippines
and thereby preventing Japanese domination of the Western Pacific without altering
the major lines of strategy already agreed
upon "had the effect," Stimson said, "of
making the War Department a strong proponent of maximum delay in bringing the
Gen Gerow's Off Diary, entry of 31 Jul 41,
OPD Exec O; rad, TAG to CG USAFFE, No. 1197,

31 Jul 41, AG 320.2 (7-28-41) Orgn and Reinf
for USAFFE.
4
Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On
Active Service in Peace and War (New York:
Harper & Brothers, 1948), p. 388.
32
Japanese crisis to a climax. ... In their

[Stimson's and Marshall's] eyes the Philippines suddenly acquired a wholly new importance and were given the highest priority on all kinds of military equipment." 5
Ground Forces
The first official War Department program for a large-scale reinforcement of the
Philippines during this period was proposed
by War Plans on 14 August. In a memorandum for the Chief of Staff, General
Gerow argued that those reasons which had
limited the size of the Philippine garrison
lack of funds, personnel, and equipment,
plus the inability of the Navy to support a
large forcewere no longer entirely valid.
With its present strength, he pointed out,
there was a real doubt if the Philippine garrison could resist a Japanese attack, a contingency which he considered probable in
view of Japan's attitude. To strengthen
the garrison and increase its chances of holding Luzon and especially Manila Bay, General Gerow recommended that the Philippines be reinforced by antiaircraft artillery,
modern combat planes, and tanks. The
amount that could be sent, Gerow admitted,
would be limited by the number of ships
available for transport duty to the Far East.
"The best that can be done at the moment,"
therefore, would be "to adopt a definite plan
of reinforcement and carry it forward as
availability of shipping permits." 6
Gerow's recommendations were approved and two days later, on 16 August,
General MacArthur was notified that the
following units would sail from San Francisco between 27 August and 5 September:
5
Ibid., pp. 388-89.
Memo, Gerow for CofS, 14 Aug 41, sub: Reinf
of Phil, WPD 3251-55.
the 200th Coast Artillery Regiment (AA)

consisting of 76 officers and 1,681 enlisted
men; the 194th Tank Battalion (less Company B), with 54 tanks, 34 officers, and 390
enlisted men; and one company (155 men)
of the 17th Ordnance Battalion.7
There had been some mention earlier of
the possibility of sending a division to the
Philippines, and on 5 September the Chief
of Staff asked MacArthur if he wanted a
National Guard division (probably the
41st). MacArthur replied that he did not
need this division since he already had one
U.S. Army division (the Philippine Division) and was mobilizing ten Philippine
Army divisions. He asked instead for authority to reorganize the theoretically
square Philippine Division into a triangular division, adding, "Equipment and supply of existing forces are the prime essential." "I am confident if these steps are
taken with sufficient speed," he said, "that
no further major reinforcement will be
necessary for accomplishment of defense
mission." 8
The reinforcement of the Philippines
now enjoyed the highest priority in the
War Department. MacArthur's request
for permission to reorganize the Philippine
Division was approved immediately. He
was promised additional aircraft as well as
the funds needed for airfield construction
and the antiaircraft guns and equipment
to protect the fields once they were built.
"I have directed," wrote General Marshall,
"that United States Army Forces in the
7
Rad, TAG to CG USAFFE, No. 56, 16 Aug 41;
memo, Brig Gen Harry L. Twaddle for TAG, 15
Aug 41, sub: Augmentation of Phil Dept. Both in
AG 370.5 (8-1-41), Part I.

8
Rads, Marshall to MacArthur, No. 121, 5 Sep
41 and MacArthur to Marshall, No. 277, 7 Sep 41,
both in AG 320.2 (7-28-41) Orgn and Reinf for
USAFFE.
THE REINFORCEMENT OF THE PHILIPPINES
33
Philippines be placed in highest priority pelled mounts for 75-mm. guns were to be
11
for equipment including authorized de- sent.
9
fense reserves for fifty thousand men."
These reinforcements reached MacArAs a result, General MacArthur's re- thur before the end of September. The
quests for men and supplies during the next
arrival of the 200th Coast Artillery Regifew months received almost instant ap- ment (AA) gave him 12 additional 3-inch
proval by the War Department. "I wish guns, 24 37-mm. guns, and a similar numto express my personal appreciation for the ber of machine guns. Armored reinforcesplendid support that you and the entire ment consisted of the 192d and 194th Tank
War Department have given me along Battalions each with 54 tanks. And he
every line since the formation of this com- could count on 25 more 75-mm. guns on
mand," he told the Chief of Staff in a per- self-propelled mounts (SPM) already en
sonal letter. "With such backing the de- route and due to arrive in Manila on 15
velopment of a completely adequate de- October.12
fense force will be rapid." 10
The arrival of the two tank battalions
Through no fault of the War Depart- with their 108 light tanks, M-3, were a welment or a lack of desire on the part of the come addition to the Philippine garrison.
Chief of Staff, General MacArthur's confi- On 21 November a Provisional Tank
dence in the rapid development of an ade- Group consisting of the 192d and 194th
quate defense for the Philippines was not Tank Battalions and the 17th Ordnance
entirely justified. The task was a heavy Company (Armored) was established, with
one and limited by many factors beyond Col. James R. N. Weaver in command.
the control of the military. The industrial
As Military Advisor, MacArthur had procapacity of the United States was only just posed a plan to protect the inland seas by
beginning to turn to the production of war emplacing heavy coastal guns at the enmaterial; the needs of a rapidly expanding trance to the key straits leading into these
citizen army had to be met; Great Britain waters. The War Department had apand Russia were in critical need of supplies; proved this plan and sent 24 155-mm. guns
and shipping space was extremely limited. (without fire control equipment) to the
The reinforcements promised MacAr- Philippine Commonwealth to carry out this
thur on 16 August were dispatched with program, scheduled for completion in April
the greatest speed and by 12 September
1942. MacArthur now proposed to extend
General Marshall was able to report consid- this plan to include northern Luzon and
erable progress. The antiaircraft artillery asked the War Department for 4 12-inch
regiment, the tank battalion of 54 tanks, and 4 8-inch railway guns, 22 more 155and reserve supplies had already been mm. guns, and 30 searchlights. When emshipped from San Francisco. During the
11
Memo, Marshall for Stark, 12 Sep 41, OCS
month, 50 more tanks, and 50 self-pro- 18136-56-1/2.
12
9
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, No. 137, 9 Sep

41, AG 320.2 (7-28-41) Orgn and Reinf for
USAFFE.
10
Memo, CofS for President, 9 Sep 41, OCS
18136-48.
Memo, Gerow for SW, 2 Oct 41, sub: Person-
nel and Supplies for Phil, OCS 18136-70; memo,
Brig Gen George F. Moore for CofS, 28 Oct 41,

sub: Shipment of Tanks and SPM's, OCS 1813665B; interv, author with Brig Gen Charles G. Sage,
formerly CO 200th CA, 28 Feb 51.
34
placed, he argued, these guns would present

an enemy advancing on Manila with "fixed
position gunfire, the lightest of which will
be of sufficient proportions to interfere with
troop landings and the operations of lightly
armored vessels." 13 The letter was received
in Washington at the beginning of December, too late to result in action.14
General MacArthur's request for authority to reorganize the Philippine Division as
a triangular division had been readily
granted. To accomplish this reorganization, MacArthur said he needed an infantry
regiment, a field artillery headquarters and
headquarters battery, two field artillery battalions, a reconnaissance troop, and a military police platoon for the division.15 The
War Department agreed to provide these
units and the staff began the detailed work
necessary to select and ship them.
MacArthur's plans for the Philippine Division were explained in a letter he wrote to
the Chief of Staff on 28 October. He
wished, he said, to have the division at war
strength and trained intensively for combat. "It would be impolitic," he thought,
"to increase the number of Philippine Scouts
above the authorized 12,000, for all recruits
would be taken from Philippine Army reservists to serve at higher rates of pay than
the Philippine Army can pay." The only
way, then, to increase the strength of the
division was to secure an additional infantry regiment and two battalions of artillery
from the United States. With these units
and the American 31st Infantry, he could
form two American combat teams in the

Philippine Division. The Scouts thus released could be used to bring the 91st and
92d Coast Artillery Regiments of the Harbor
Defenses up to strength, retain several small
units already in existence, and provide station complements for Forts McKinley and
Stotsenburg.
The Philippine Division
would then be free to train for combat and
would be available "for instant use." "The
entire plan," he told General Marshall,
"will be placed in effect upon the arrival of
the new regiment." 16
MacArthur's plans included also the establishment of four major tactical commands, directly subordinate to USAFFE.
On 2 October he requested authority, which
was readily granted, to activate a headquarters and headquarters company for each
"with average strength approximately those
of Army Corps." 17 He also asked for army
and corps troops to establish a balanced
force, and for a field artillery brigade, a
chemical company, three signal battalions,
a medical supply depot, and a military police company, all at full strength and with
complete organization and individual equipment. By the end of October he had requested almost 12,000 men: for the Philippine Division, 209 officers and 4,881 enlisted men; for army and corps troops, 340
officers and 6,392 enlisted men.
During the next month MacArthur continued to ask for additional units and individual specialists, and by the middle of November the War Department had approved
for transfer to Manila 1,312 officers, 25
nurses, and 18,047 enlisted men belonging
to units. Individual specialists totaled 200
officers and 2,968 enlisted men. The units
13
Ltr, MacArthur to Marshall, 17 Nov 41, WPD
3251-69.
14
Ltr, Marshall to MacArthur, Dec 41 (not
16
Ltr, Mac Arthur to Marshall, 28 Oct 41, WPD
sent), WPD 4477-2.
15
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 354, 17 Sep 4477-2.
17
Rad, MacArthur to TAG, No. 465, 2 Oct 41,
USAFFE.
AG 320.2 (7-28-41) Orgn and Reinf of USAFFE.

selected for this overseas movement, including the 34th Infantry for the Philippine
Division, were scheduled for shipment, first
for January 1942, but later, ironically, on
8 December 1941.18
These reinforcements and supplies were
all intended for the regular U.S. Army establishment; requisitions for the Philippine
Army were made and considered separately.
His plan of induction had hardly been completed when Mac Arthur began to request
from the War Department large amounts
of supplies for his Philippine troops. During August alone he called for 84,500
Garand rifles (M1), 330 .30-caliber machine guns, 326 ,50-caliber antiaircraft machine guns, 450 37-mm. guns, 217 81-mm.
mortars, 288 75-mm. guns with high-speed
adapters, and over 8,000 vehicles of all types
for the ten Philippine Army divisions he
planned to mobilize.19 On 18 September
he was told that because of lend-lease commitments and production schedules it would
not be possible to send most of these items.
Especially unwelcome was the news that
Garand rifles were not available and that
the Philippine Army divisions would have
to continue to use the Enfield and '03's with
which they were equipped.20
MacArthur nevertheless continued to
request equipment for the Philippine Army,
asking, on 10 September, for 125,000 steel
18
Ltr, MacArthur to Marshall, 28 Oct 41, WPD
4477-2; rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 354, 17
Sep 41, and memo, Twaddle for CofS, 4 Nov 41,
sub; Reinf for Phil Dept, both in AG 320.2 (7-2841) Orgn and Reinf for USAFFE.
19
Rads, MacArthur to TAG, Nos. 122, 184, and
236, dated 15, 23, and 28 Aug 41, AG 400 (8-1241) Supplies and Equip for USAFFE.
20
Rad, TAG to CG USAFFE, No. 181, 19 Sep
41, and ltr, TAG to CG USAFFE, 23 Sep 41, sub:
Supplies for Phil Army and Phil Dept, both in AG
400 (8-12-41) Supplies and Equip for USAFFE.
35
helmets, as well as chemical, engineer, and

signal equipment. A month later, the request for the helmets was approved. They
would be shipped immediately and the
other equipment would be shipped at a
later date.21
Since the Philippine Army was not limited in size by law as was the U.S. Army,
MacArthur was in the unique position of
being able to raise as many troops as the
War Department could equip. On 20
September he asked for "complete organizational equipment" for a number of army
and corps units to be formed principally
of Philippine Army personnel. Included
were 2 155-mm. and 3 105-mm. howitzer
regiments, a motorized battalion of 155-mm.
guns, 3 antitank gun battalions, and service,
signal, and medical units.22 These requests
were approved and a shipping schedule
established.
Most disturbing was the shortage of light
artillery and machine guns in the Philippine Army divisions. By the end of September the Philippine Army had only 48
75-mm. guns. At least 240 were required
to equip the artillery regiments of the ten
reserve divisions and another 36 for field
artillery training centers. Also needed were
37-mm. guns for the antitank battalions
and .50-caliber machine guns. Realizing
that the supply of these guns was limited,
MacArthur expressed a willingness to accept as substitutes obsolete models or
smaller weapons. "Strongly recommend,"
he appealed to the Chief of Staff, "improvisation to the extent of providing substi21
Memo, Actg ACofS for TAG, 6 Oct 41, sub:
Issue of Equip to USAFFE, G-4 27573-18.
22
Rad, CG USAFFE to TAG, No. 378, 20 Sep
41, AG 400 (8-12-41) Supplies and Equip for

USAFFE.
36
USAFFE.
24
Rad, TAG to CG USAFFE, No. 506, 12 Nov
sets of regimental infirmary equipment.26

An early requisition for 500,000 C rations
and enough 55-gallon drums to hold
1,000,000 gallons of gasoline was filled during the summer. Strangely enough, the
drums arrived filled although the gasoline
had not been requested. This unexpected
windfall proved extremely fortunate. A
large portion of the gasoline was stored on
Bataan and was most welcome during the
campaign.27
The approval of requisitions and orders
for shipment did not result in any immediate
increase in the supplies of the Philippine
Army. Time was required to order the
stocks from depots and factories, pack and
ship them to the port of embarkation, find
the vessels to transport them, and finally
get them to the Islands. In September, the
Navy began sending cruiser escorts with
Army transports and merchant ships on
their voyages between Hawaii and Manila.
This procedure frequently meant that the
transports had to stop at Honolulu, sometimes reload, and then sail west at a speed
equal to that of the slowest vessel in the
convoy.
The shipment of supplies was dependent
upon the number of cargo vessels available
to the Army. This number was never large
and the Navy, for a time, threatened even
this limited supply. In September the Navy
announced its intention to convert three
transports to escort carriers. General Marshall protested this decision vigorously,
41; memo, WPD for CofS, 12 Nov 41, sub: Machine Guns, 37-mm. Guns and 75-mm. Guns for
Ten Phil Army Div; rad, TAG to CG USAFFE,
26
Rad, QM USAFFE to TQMG, no number, 1
Oct 41; memo, SGO for G-4, 9 Oct. 41, sub:
tute arrangement in spite of lowered efficiency for any types available in the United
States."23
By mid-November, the War Department
had taken action to ship 40 105-mm.
howitzers to the Philippines.
These
weapons were to be given to U.S. Army
units and would release to Philippine Army
units a like number of 75's. In addition,
10 75-mm. pack howitzers were to be taken
from the vital Canal Zone and 48 British
75-mm. guns and 123 .30-caliber machine
guns from the equally important Hawaiian
garrison for the Philippine Islands, an indication of the importance which the defense
of the archipelago had acquired in the eyes
of the War Department. From the United
States itself would come 130 75-mm. guns,
35 37-mm. guns (M1916) and 14 .30-caliber machine guns.24
No action was taken until October to
supply the thousands of vehicles MacArthur had requested. During that month
a large number of jeeps, ambulances, trucks,
and sedans became available and on the
15th the War Department released these
vehicles for the Philippine Army, "subject
to the availability of shipping." 25 A request for clothing for the Philippine Army
was also approved, as was the equipment
for ten 250-bed station hospitals and 180
23
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 430, 27 Sep

41, AG 400 (8-12-24) Supplies and Equip for
No. 541, 15 Nov 41.
All in AG 400 (8-12-41)
Supplies and Equip for USAFFE.
Medical Supplies and Equip for Phil Army; ltr,
25
Ltr, TAG to QMG, 15 Oct 41, sub: Issue of
Equip to USAFFE, AG 400 (8-12-41) Supplies
TAG to SGO, 19 Nov 41, same sub. All in AGO

400 (8-12-41) Supplies and Equip for USAFFE.
27
QM Rpt of Opns, p. 4, Annex XIII, USAFFE-
and Equip for USAFFE.
USFIP Rpt of Opns.
37
pointing out to the Chief of Naval Opera- ters in Washington had been urging for
tions that it would delay the delivery of some time that additional planes be sent to
much-needed reinforcements to MacArthur the Philippines and the Joint Board, early
by over two months.28 Despite the favor- in 1940, had proposed an increase in air
able outcome of this protest, a large back- strength for the island garrison.31 The follog of troops and approximately 1,100,000 lowing July 1941 Maj. Gen. Henry H.
tons of equipment destined for the Philip- Arnold, chief of the newly created Army Air
pines had piled up in U.S. ports or depots by
Forces, came forward with the strongest
November. A group of shipping experts,
proposal yet made for the reinforcement of
including representatives from the War Dethe Philippines. This proposal called for
partment General Staff, Office of the Quartermaster General, the Navy, and Maritime the transfer to the Philippines of four heavy
Commission, met on 10 November to dis- bombardment groups, consisting of 272 airand two pursuit
cuss ways of breaking the shipping block. craft with 68 in reserve, 32
groups
of
130
planes
each.
These planes,
As a result of this meeting a shipping schedwrote
Brig.
Gen.
Carl
Spaatz,
chief of the
ule was established which recognized the
Air
Staff,
would
not
be
used
for
an
offensive
priority of the Philippines over Hawaiian
defenses and advanced the troop movements mission, but to maintain "a strategical descheduled for mid-January to 17 and 20 De- fensive in Asia.33
cember. Altogether, nine vessels were asGeneral Arnold's recommendations, apsigned to the Manila route, to sail in No- proved in August, were not easily carried
vember and December. They would bring out.34 To have raised that number of
to MacArthur one light and one heavy bomplanes in the summer of 1941 would have
bardment group, a pursuit group, one meant stripping the fields in the United
reconnaissance squadron, a regiment of in- States as well as all other overseas bases.
fantry, a brigade of field artillery, two bat- Moreover, many of the heavy bombers were
talions of light artillery, together with still on the production lines. What could
ground and air service units.29 Had these be scraped together was shipped immediatevessels, the last of which was to leave the ly and by mid-August General Gerow reUnited States on 20 December, reached the
30
F. Craven and James L. Cate, eds., The
Philippines the Japanese would have faced ArmyWesley
Air Forces in World War II, Vol. I, Plans and
a far stronger force when they landed on Early Operations: January 1939 to August 1942
(Chicago, 1948), 177.
Luzon.
31
Mark Skinner Watson, The Office
Air Forces
of the Chief
of Staff: Prewar Plans and Preparations, UNITED

STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II (Washington, 1950) p. 416.
In July 1941 the air force in the Philip32

Memo, Arnold, for CofS, 19 Jul 41, cited in
pines was still a token force, unable to Craven and Cate, The Army Air Forces in World
II, I, 178.
withstand "even a mildly determined and War
33
Memo, Spaatz for Maj Gen George H. Brett,
30
ill-equipped foe." Air Corps headquar- 26 Aug 41, cited in Army Air Action in Phil and
NEI,
28
Memo, Marshall for Stark, 25 Sep 41, sub:

Conversion of Troop Transports, OCS 17396-56B.
29
Memo, Gerow for ASW, 10 Nov 41, sub: Ship-
ping for Phil, OCS 18136-121.
p. 12.
MacArthur on 31 July had already been told
of plans to send him a squadron of B-17's. Rad,
TAG to CG USAFFE, No. 1197, 31 Jul 41, AG
320.2 (7-28-41) Orgn and Reinf for USAFFE.
34
38
ported to the Chief of Staff that thirty-one

modern fighters of the P-40 type were on
their way. Meanwhile General Arnold
made arrangements to send fifty more directly from the factory. These, too, were
soon on their way and by 2 October had
arrived in the Philippines.35
Some weeks earlier a historic flight of
nine Flying Fortresses had reached Manila
by air. These planes were part of the 19th
Bombardment Group ( H ) , which had been
selected for transfer to the Far East. After
a flight from Hamilton Field near San Francisco, the Group's 14th Squadron, under
Maj. Emmett O'Donnell, Jr., left Hickam
Field in Hawaii on 5 September for Clark
Field via Midway, Wake, Port Moresby,
and Darwin. This pioneering 10,000-mile
flight, almost all of it over water, was successfully concluded a week later, establishing the fact that the Philippines could be
reinforced by air.36 But the Midway-Wake
route could not be considered safe in the
event of war with Japan since it passed over
the mandated islands and work was begun
after October to develop a South Pacific
ferry route.37
35
Memo, Gerow for CofS, 14 Aug 41, sub: Reinf
of Phil, WPD 3251-55; rad, TAG to CG USAFFE,
No. 56, 16 Aug 41, and memo, Twaddle for TAG,
15 Aug 41, sub: Augmentation of Phil Dept, both
in AG 370.5 (8-1-41), Part I; memo, CofS for
Stark, 12 Sep 41, OCS 18136-56-1/2; memos,
Gerow for SW, 2 Oct and 10 Nov 41, subs: Personnel and Supplies for Phil and Shipping for Phil,
OCS 18136-70 and 121.
36
The arrangements made for this flight and the
details of the trip are described in Army Air Action
in Phil and NEI, pp. 12-20. A readable account of
the flight can be found in Walter D. Edmonds,
They Fought With What They Had (Boston, 1951),
pp. 1-13.
37
For a full discussion of this important route,
which later became the chief link between the
United States and New Zealand and Australia,
see Development of the South Pacific Air Route,
AAF Hist Study 45, Air University Hist Off.

Once the pioneering flight had been successfully concluded, all heavy bombers sent
to the Philippines went by air via the Central Pacific route. On 9 September, General Marshall told MacArthur that two
additional squadrons of the 19th Group
the 30th and 93dwould leave the next
month. At that time the ground echelon
of the two squadrons and the headquarters
sailed from San Francisco. The air echelon
of twenty-six B-17's followed soon after.
By 22 October these planes had arrived at
Hickam Field in Hawaii. After a short
stopover they flew on to Clark Field where
all but two reported on 4 November; the
other two followed soon after.
The flight of the 30th and 93d Squadrons
was one in a scheduled series which called
for the shipment of 33 heavy bombers in
December, 51 in January 1942, and 46
more in February. By March 1942 the
War Department planned to have 165
heavy bombers in the Philippines.38
Scheduled for shipment after the 19th
Bombardment Group was the 7th. The
ground echelon reached Hawaii late in November and was held there until naval escort could be secured. The air echelon,
scheduled to fly to the Philippines via the
Midway route during late November and
early December, had completed only the
first leg of the journey before war came.39
In addition to heavy bombers, MacArthur was also promised a light bombardment group of three combat squadrons.
Selected for shipment was the 27th Bom38
Army Air Action in Phil and NEI, pp. 24,

29. Estimated production of B-17's and B-24's
for the period was 220 aircraft, thus demonstrating
the importance which the War Department attached to the defense of the Philippines at this
time.
39
Ibid.

bardment Group (L). The Air Corps experienced some difficulty in securing the 52
A-24's for this group but by early November the planes had been collected. The
pilots and ground personnel reached the
Philippines during November but the A24's, loaded on a separate transport, were
held at Hawaii with the ground echelon of
the 7th Bombardment Group and failed to
reach their destination.40
At the end of November General Marshall summarized for the Secretary of War
the air reinforcements already shipped or
scheduled for shipment to the Philippines.
At that time, he noted, there were 35
B-17's already in the Islands and 52 A-24's
were due therethey never arrivedon
the 30th. Fifty P-40's had reached MacArthur in September, Marshall explained
to Stimson, thus giving him a total of 81
modern fighters. In addition, 24 P-40's
had left San Francisco on 19 October, and
40 more on 9 November. By 31 December,
General Marshall estimated, the Philippines should have a total of 240 fighters of
the latest type.41
By now the War Department was fully
committed to an all-out effort to strengthen

the air defense of the Philippines. General
Arnold, in a letter to the commander of the
Hawaiian Air Force on 1 December, expressed this view when he wrote: "We must
40
41
Ibid.
Memo, Marshall for SW, 25 Nov 41, sub:

Reinf of Phil, OCS 18136-124. A detailed account of the air reinforcements sent to the Philippines can be found in Army Air Action in Phil and
NEI, Chs. I and II. A condensation of this account has been published in Craven and Cate, The
Army Air Forces in World War II, I, 175-85.
For training and state of readiness of the Far East
Air Force, see Edmonds, They Fought With What
They Had, pp. 43-56.
39
get every B-17 available to the Philippines

as soon as possible." 42 His statement was
not an exaggeration. On the outbreak of
war there were 913 U. S. Army aircraft
scattered among the numerous overseas
bases. This number of aircraft included
61 heavy, 157 medium, and 59 light bombers and 636 fighters. More than half of
the total of heavy bombers and one sixth of
the fighters were already in the Philippines.43 (See Table 3.) Within a few
months this number would have been
raised considerably.
The arrival of the bombers and additional pursuit planes, with the promise of
more to come, led to a reorganization of
the air forces in the Philippines. Early in
the fall of 1941 General MacArthur had
asked for Maj. Gen. Lewis H. Brereton, a
senior air officer, as his air commander.
This request was approved and early in
October Brereton was relieved of command
of the Third Air Force and called to Washington. There, in a series of conferences at
Army Air Force headquarters, the form of
a new air organization, to be called the Far
East Air Force, was drawn up.44
General Brereton arrived in the Philippines on 3 November. He saw MacArthur
that same day, and gave him the latest
views about reinforcements and developments within the War Department. By
the middle of the month the reorganization
of the air forces had been accomplished and
a short time later MacArthur told Marshall,
42
Ltr, Arnold to Maj Gen Frederick L. Martin,
1 Dec 41, quoted in Craven and Cate, The Army
Air Forces in World War II, I, 193.
43
Craven and Cate, The Army Air Forces in
World War II, I, 193; Army Air Forces in the War
Against Japan, 1941-1942, (HQ AAF, 1945), pp.

2ff.
44
Army Air Action in Phil and NEI, p. 31.
AIRCRAFT IN THE PHILIPPINES, DECEMBER 1941
Douglas B-18A
Martin B-10B
Republic P-35
AIRCRAFT IN THE PHILIPPINES, DECEMBER 1941
Boeing B-17D
Curtiss P-40E
Boeing P-26A
42
TABLE 3AIRCRAFT IN PHILIPPINES AND
HAWAII, 1 DECEMBER 1941

"Brereton has taken hold in an excellent
manner."45
The newly activated Far East Air Force,
with headquarters at Nielson Field in Manila, included the V Bomber Command, the
V Interceptor Command, and the Far East
Service Command. The main element of
the bomber command, led by Lt. Col.
Eugene L. Eubank, was the 19th Bombardment Group with its thirty-five B-17's.
Only two squadrons of the original group,
the 30th and 93d, were in the Philippines.
On 16 November, the 28th Squadron, a
medium unit, was also assigned to the group
and equipped with B-17's and on 2 December the 14th Squadron joined the group.
In addition to heavy units, the bomber command also contained the ground echelon of
the 27th Bombardment Group, whose fiftytwo A-24's were delayed at Hawaii and
never reached the Philippines.46
The V Interceptor Command, first under
Brig. Gen. Henry B. Clagett and later Col.
Harold H. George, consisted initially of the
24th Pursuit Group with the 3d, 17th, and
20th Squadrons. When, in November, the
45
Lt. Gen. Lewis H. Brereton, The Brereton
Diaries, 3 October 1941-8 May 1945 (New York:
William Morrow & Company, Inc., 1946), p. 18;
ltr, MacArthur to Marshall, 29 Nov 41, WPD
Modern combat aircraft.

There is disagreement in all sources on the figure of 107
P-40's. Some writers place the figure at 90 and Walter D.
Edmonds estimates that there were "only 54 first-line, combatworthy fighter planes to throw against the Japanese on the
morning of December 8." They Fought With What They
Had, p. xii.
b
Sources: For the Philippines, memo, Gerow for CofS,

Nov 41, sub: Airplanes in P. I., Incl 1, 19 Nov 41, WPD
3633-20. The P-40 strength is from memo, CofS for SW,
25 Nov 41, sub: Reinf of Phil, OCS 18136-124; Craven and
Cate, The Army Air Forces in World War II, I, 191-92.
For Hawaii, Craven and Cate, The Army Air Forces in World
War II, I, 171.
3489-21; USAFFE GO 28, 14 Nov 41, copy in

History of the Fifth Air Forces (And Its Predecessors), App II, Doc 3, Air University Hist Off.
46
Pearl Harbor Attack, Hearings Before the Joint
Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack (Washington, 1946), Part 11, pp. 531739. This source will be hereafter cited as the
Pearl Harbor Attack Hearings. The Joint Committee hearings produced altogether 39 volumes, 11
of which contain the hearings themselves and 18
the exhibits presented during the course of the
hearings. A separate volume, the 40th, contains
both the majority and minority reports.

21st and 34th Squadrons arrived in Manila,
they were attached to the group, pending
arrival of their own organization (which
never arrived). The Interceptor Command was considerably modernized during
the fall of 1941 and by 7 December all but
one of its pursuit squadrons were equipped
with P-40's.47
The prerequisites for an effective air force
are not only modern and sufficiently numerous attack and interceptor aircraft, but
adequate fields, maintenance and repair facilities, and the antiaircraft artillery and air
warning service to defend these installations. The lack of fields in the Philippines
was recognized early. Within eighty miles
of Manila there were six fields suitable for
pursuit planes and only one, Clark, for
heavy bombers. Outside of Luzon were
six additional Army fields, useful principally
for dispersal. More were needed to base
the large number of modern aircraft due to
arrive before the end of the year. In August General MacArthur was allotted $2,273,000 for airfield development and in
October $7,000,000 more. The largest
part of these funds was to be expended on
Luzon, at Nichols and Clark Fields, with
auxiliary fields at Iba, on the Zambales
coast west of Clark, and various points on
northern Luzon.48
In mid-November. MacArthur decided
to establish a heavy bomber base in northern Mindanao at Del Monte, which since
September had had a strip capable of landing B-17's. This decision was based on
the belief that heavy bombers on Luzon
would be subject to attack and that they
47
Army Air Action in Phil and NEI, pp. 33, 43.

48
Ibid., pp. 11, 22.
43
should therefore be moved south, out of

reach of the enemy. His plans, MacArthur
told the Chief of Staff on 29 November,
called ultimately for a bomber base in the
Visayas, but until such a base was completed he expected to use the field at Del
Monte.49 Work on Del Monte Field was
rushed and by the beginning of December
it was able to accommodate heavy bombers.50
Despite the arrival of reinforcements and
the airfield construction program, the air
defense system remained inadequate because of the shortage of antiaircraft artillery and aircraft warning equipment.
MacArthur had requested warning equipment in September and had at that time
presented a plan for the establishment of
an air warning service. The War Department had approved the project and by midSeptember three radar sets had been
shipped with three more scheduled for shipment in October. In addition, $190,000
was allotted for aircraft warning construction, with an additional $200,000 to be
included in the supplemental estimate for
the fiscal year 1942 for the construction of
three detector stations and one information
center.
The one air warning service company of
200 men in the Philippines was entirely
inadequate to the needs of the Far East Air
Force. In November General Arnold recommended, and the Chief of Staff approved, the shipment of an aircraft warning
49

3489-21.
50
Army Air Action in Phil and NEI, p. 47;
Craven and Cate, The Army Air Forces in World
War II, I, 188; Edmonds, They Fought With What
They Had, pp. 53-56.
44
CLARK FIELD looking westward. In the upper left center, abutting the foothills
of the Zambales Mountains, lies Fort Stotsenburg. The rectangular, tree-lined
area is the parade ground.
service battalion to the Philippines.51 The

557th Air Warning Battalion was organized in the United States and on 6 December 1941 arrived in San Francisco, too late
for shipment to the Philippines.
When war came there were seven radar
sets in the Islands, but only two had been
set up and were in operation. In the absence of the necessary equipment and personnel, USAFFE had organized a makeshift air warning service. Native air watchers stationed at strategic points reported
plane movements by telephone or telegraph
to the interceptor command at Nielson
Field, which in turn relayed the information to Clark. It was this primitive system,
51
Memo, Spaatz for CofS, 13 Nov 41, sub: Equip

for Phil AWS, OCS 18136-112.
augmented by the radar sets established at

Iba and outside Manila, that was in operation when war came.52
That other prerequisite for a balanced
air force, antiaircraft artillery, was also
slow in reaching the Far East. In the Islands when MacArthur assumed command
was the 60th Coast Artillery ( A A ) . In
anticipation of heavy reinforcements he organized in August the Philippine Coast Artillery Command with Maj. Gen. George F.
52
Army Air Action in Phil and NEI, p. 45;
War II, I, 186. On the basis of interviews and
other evidence, and despite the statement of the
aircraft warning officer, Walter Edmonds concludes that only one set, the one at Iba, was in
operation. They Fought With What They Had,
p. 59n.

Moore in command. Plans provided for an
area defense of the four fortified islands in
Manila Bay (Corregidor, El Fraile, Caballo, and Carabao) and the southern tip
of Bataan. One antiaircraft gun battery
with a platoon of searchlights was stationed
at Fort Wint in Subic Bay. When the
200th Coast Artillery (AA) arrived in September it was ordered to Fort Stotsenburg
to protect Clark Field. Both antiaircraft
units were equipped with 3-inch and
37-mm. guns, .50-caliber machine guns,
and 60-inch Sperry searchlights. The 3inchers were an old model with a vertical
range of 27,000 feet.53
The two antiaircraft units alone obviously could not defend the fields of the rapidly growing Far East Air Force, let alone
meet civilian defense requirements. Of
necessity, therefore, the air defenses included only the Manila Bay area and Clark
Field; all other installations were left virtually without defense against air attack.
General Brereton was rightly concerned
about the lack of antiaircraft defense and
observed, even before he left Washington,

that sending heavy bombers to the Philippines without providing proper antiaircraft
protection would probably be suicide. But
there was little that could be done in the
short time available. Maj. Gen. Joseph A.

Green, Chief of Coast Artillery, suggested
that elements of the Harbor Defenses be re53
Rad, TAG to CG USAFFE, No. 1197, 31 Jul
USAFFE; Rpt of Phil CA Command and Harbor
Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays, pp. 1-10,
Annex VIII, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns.
An attempt was made after 7 December 1941 to
provide the city of Manila with additional protection from air attack by splitting the 200th and
forming another regiment, the 515th Coast Artillery
(AA).
45
assigned to antiaircraft duty, but the proposal was rejected.54

The War Department and the Air Forces
continued to show concern over the antiaircraft defenses of the Islands, about which
they did not have too clear a picture. A
radio to General MacArthur for information elicited the reply on 27 November that
an increase in armament was required and
that detailed plans were being forwarded
by mail.55 These plans were sent on 1 December but even before then War Plans
had recommended the dispatch of three
antiaircraft regiments and two antiaircraft
brigade headquarters to the Philippines.
These units were to utilize the equipment
then in the Islands, thus reducing shipping
requirements. Action on this proposal was
begun at the end of November, when time
had almost run out. When war came, the
antiaircraft defenses in the Philippines were
little better than they had been three months
earlier.56
Naval Forces
Naval forces assigned to the defense of

the Philippines were organized into the U.S.
Asiatic Fleet. Normally stationed in Asiatic
waters, this fleet by mid-1941 was based in
54
Memos, Green for CofS, 5 and 7 Nov 41,
sub: AAA Defenses in Phil, AG 320.2 (7-28-41)
Orgn and Reinf for USAFFE; Army Air Action in
Phil and NEI, p. 44.
55
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 991, 27 Nov
USAFFE.
56
Ltr, MacArthur to Marshall, 1 Dec 41, WPD
3489-21; ltr, Gen Moore to CG USAFFE, 29 Nov
41, sub: Modification of Armament, AG 320.2 (728-41) Orgn and Reinf of USAFFE; memo, Gerow
for CofS, 29 Nov 41, sub: AAA Personnel for
Phil, WPD 4559-8.
On 29 November permission was requested and
secured to convert one battery of the 59th Coast
Artillery (US) and two batteries of the 91st (PS)
to antiaircraft.
46
Manila with headquarters in the Marsman

Building. Admiral Thomas C. Hart commanded the fleet and reported directly to
the Chief of Naval Operations in Washington. The 16th Naval District headquarters was at Cavite on the south shore
of Manila Bay.
Hart's fleet consisted of the flagship, the
heavy cruiser Houston; 1 light cruiser; 3
destroyer divisions with 13 overage fourstack, flush-deck destroyers of World War I
vintage; and 17 submarines. The underwater craft were organized into Submarine
Squadron 20, supported by tenders and 1
rescue vessel. Air elements of the fleet were
under Patrol Wing 10, composed of 24
PBY's and 4 seaplane tenders. Patrol and
miscellaneous craft included 7 gunboats, 1
yacht, 6 large minesweepers, 2 tankers, and
1 ocean-going tug. Also a part of the fleet
but stationed in Shanghai was the U.S.
Marine Corps' regiment, the 4th Marines.57
Obviously such a force was not capable
of withstanding even momentarily the Jap-
anese Combined Fleet, and Admiral Hart

had authority to retire to bases in the Indian Ocean if necessary. From the small
detachments of sailors in the 16th Naval
District little more could be expected than
assistance in protecting local naval installations. The 4th Marines could be of considerable help in the defense of the Philippines if it could be taken out of China in
time.
Although Allied naval forces in the Far
East were not expected to provide direct
support for the Philippine Islands in case of
war with Japan, they would, if Japan attacked them, fight the common enemy.
The British, in May 1941, had in Far East57
Navy Basic War Plan, RAINBOW 5, 26 May
41, in Pearl Harbor Attack Hearings, Part 18, Ex-
hibit 129, p. 2932.
ern waters 1 battleship, 1 aircraft carrier,

4 heavy and 13 light cruisers, and a few
destroyers. The Dutch could contribute 3
light cruisers, 7 destroyers, and 15 submarines. By December of that year the
British Fleet in the Far East had been augmented by 3 battleships and 3 destroyers.58
The bulk of American naval strength in
the Pacific was assigned to the Pacific Fleet.
Before 1940 the main body of the Pacific
Fleet had been based on the west coast of
the United States. In May 1940 the Navy
announced that the fleet, which had sailed
to Hawaiian waters for war games, would
be based at Pearl Harbor indefinitely. This
decision had been made by President Roosevelt in the belief that the presence of the
fleet would act as a deterrent to Japan.59 A
year later the Pacific Fleet, now based at
Pearl Harbor and commanded by Admiral
Husband E. Kimmel, consisted of 9 battleships, 3 aircraft carriers, 12 heavy and8
light cruisers, 50 destroyers, 33 submarines,
and 100 patrol bombers. The strength of
this fleet was substantially the same on 7

December 1941 when the attack on Pearl
Harbor came.60
58
Ibid., Part 15, Exhibit 86, pp. 1901-06, and
Exhibit 49 (The United States-British Staff Con-
versations report of 27 Mar 41), pp. 1485-1550.

The short title of this second report is ABC-1.
59
Ibid., Part 16, Exhibit 106, pp. 2161-69; Samuel E. Morison, History of United States Naval
Operations in World War II, Vol. III, The Rising
Sun in the Pacific, 1931-April 1942 (Boston, 1948),
pp. 56-58.
60
Navy Basic War Plan, RAINBOW 5, in Pearl
Harbor Attack Hearings, Part 18, Exhibit 129,
p. 2932. The vessels in the Southeast Pacific Force
were added to those of the Pacific Fleet in these
computations. These figures should be compared
with those presented at the Joint Congressional
Investigation and published in Part 15, Exhibit 86,

pp. 1901-06. The latter figures show more light
cruisers and destroyers than are listed in the RAINBOW plan.
47
Although Admiral Hart had been told in
ponent of the Philippine Army, with its two
May 1941 that he would receive no additional surface ships for his fleet, he was able
to do much to put his force in readiness for
action before the outbreak of war. Beginning in July, three to six PBY's maintained
constant watch along the southern boundary
of the archipelago and later linked with the
Dutch Navy's air patrol north of Borneo.
The mining of Manila and Subic Bays was
pushed through to completion, in co-operation with the Army, by the end of August
and provided security against all but sub-
motor torpedo boats, whenever Hart

desired.63
Early in November the Navy Department directed Hart to withdraw the
marines and the gunboats from China, a
move which the admiral had proposed earlier. Five of the gunboats made the trip
from China to Manila successfully, leaving
the Wake, stripped and ready for demolitionit was later seized by the Japanese
and the Tutuila for the Chinese. Two
President liners were chartered and sent to
marines and shallow-draft surface craft.
Shanghai where the majority of the 4th
The Navy's base at Mariveles, on the southern tip of Bataan, was rapidly built up and
on 22 July the drydock Dewey was moved
there from Olongapo. By the end of the
month the base at Olongapo was being used
by the navy only as an auxiliary air base and
as a station for Marines and some naval personnel.61
In the six months before war the Asiatic
Fleet was reinforced strongly in underwater
craft. On 8 November 8 large submarines
of the Pacific Fleet arrived in Manila and
Marines was stationed; the detachments at

Pekin and Tientsin were to load at Chinwangtao. On 27 and 28 November the
regiment, with attached naval personnel
and civilian refugees, embarked on the two
vessels for the Philippines. Arriving on 30
November and 1 December, the regiment
on the 24th 4 more, accompanied by the

tender Holland, joined the fleet. Together
with those already assigned, Admiral Hart
now had 29 submarines.62
The fleet was further reinforced in September by six motor torpedo boats, considered ideally suited for operation in Philippine waters. Twelve had been allocated
but the remainder were never received. In
addition, General MacArthur told Admiral
Hart that he would mobilize the naval com61
Admiral Thomas C. Hart, Narrative of Events,
Asiatic Fleet Leading up to War and from 8 December 1941 to 15 February 1942 (hereafter cited
as Hart, Narrative of Events, Asiatic Fleet), pp.
16-18.
62
Ibid., pp. 27, 31.
was assigned the mission of guarding the

naval stations on Luzon, particularly the
new base at Mariveles. One of the vessels,
the President Harrison, started back to

Chinwangtao to embark the remaining
marines but fell into Japanese hands. With
its weapons and equipment, and consisting
of long service men and a full complement
of regular officers, the 4th Marines

(strength, 750 men) formed a valuable addition to the infantry force in the Islands.64
63
Ltr, MacArthur to Marshall, 28 Oct 41, WPD
4477-2; William L. White, They Were Expendable
(Cleveland, 1944), pp. 4-6.
64
Hanson W; Baldwin, "The Fourth Marines at
Corregidor," in four parts, Marine Corps Gazette
(November 1946-February 1947), Part 1, p. 14;
Hart, Narrative of Events, Asiatic Fleet, pp. 32-33;
Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, p. 155; Brig
Gen Samuel L. Howard, Rpt on 4th Marines, Sep
41-6 May 42, 26 Sep 45, USMC Hist Sec. This

last report was written from memory and notes by
Howard after his release from prison camp in 1945.
48
Summary
In a letter prepared on 5 December 1941
The last vessels carrying supplies to the

Philippines were assembled in convoy in
Hawaii and on 7 December were still on
but never sent, General Marshall outlined
the high seas. In the convoy were the 52
for General MacArthur what had been and

was being done to strengthen USAFFE.
"Reinforcements and equipment already
approved," he said, "require over 1,000,000
ship tons." Fifty-five ships had already
been obtained and approximately 100,000
ship tons of supplies were en route, with
twice this amount ready for immediate
dive bombers of the 27th Bombardment

Group, 18 P-40's, 340 motor vehicles, 48
75-mm. guns, 3,500,000 rounds of .30- and
.50-caliber ammunition, 600 tons of bombs,
9,000 drums of aviation fuel, and other
heavy equipment and supplies. Also
aboard were the two light field artillery battalions and the ground echelon of the 7th
shipment to ports of embarkation. Requests for equipment for the Philippine

Army, except those for the Ml rifle, had
Bombardment Group ( H ) .
The military force in the Islands at the
beginning of December, while not as large
been approved, and uncontrolled items of

supply were being shipped as rapidly as
they could be assembled and loaded on
ships. "Not only will you receive soon all
your supporting light artillery [130 75-mm.
guns]," Marshall told MacArthur, "but 48
155-mm. howitzers and 24 155-mm. guns
for corps and army artillery." Except for
certain types of ammunition, the defense
reserve for the U.S. Army forces in the
as MacArthur soon hoped to have, was considerably larger than it had been five months
earlier. The air force had been reorganized, modern bombers and fighters had
been brought in, and a start made on the
creation of a balanced force. The strength
of air force troops on 30 November was
5,609, more than double the July strength.
The Far East Air Force had more than 250
aircraft, concentrated largely on Luzon.
Philippines would be completed in April
Less than half of these planes were suitable
1942, and for the Philippine Army by July

of that year. Three semimobile antiaircraft artillery regiments were scheduled to
leave the United States soon, but the 90mm. antiaircraft gun could not be sent
since it had not yet been fully tested. A sum
of $269,000,000 had been requested from
for combat, and much of the equipment was

still in ports of embarkation. There were
Congress for the support of the Philippine
Army, and early passage of such legislation

was expected. "I assure you," Marshall
closed, "of my purpose to meet to the fullest extent possible your recommendations
for personnel and equipment necessary to
defend the Philippines."65

65
Draft ltr, Marshall to MacArthur, Dec 41
(not sent), WPD 4477-2. Memorandum attached

states letter was prepared 5 December, but WPD
on 11 December recommended it not be sent.
35 B-17's at Clark Field and 107 P-40's at

various fields on Luzon. A primitive aircraft warning system was in operation, and
an antiaircraft artillery regiment was stationed at Clark Field. Much remained to be
done, but the Philippines could boast a
stronger air complement of modern combat
aircraft on 7 December than any other base,
including Hawaii and Panama.
Naval forces assigned to the Asiatic Fleet

had also been considerably strengthened.
By 7 December this fleet consisted of 1
heavy and 2 light cruisers, 13 old destroyers,
32 PBY's, 6 gunboats, 6 motor torpedo
boats, and miscellaneous vessels.
Its
49
TABLE 4STRENGTH AND COMPOSITION OF U.S. ARMY TROOPS IN PHILIPPINE ISLANDS,

30 NOVEMBER 1941
Includes 31 Philippine Scout Officers.

Includes officers for which no specific unit was indicated.
Source: Phil Dept, Machine Rcds Unit Station Strength and Misc., Officers and Enlisted men, Nov 41.
50
strongest element was the submarine force

of 29 underwater craft.
Ground forces in the Philippines had been
considerably reinforced, too, in the few
months since General MacArthur had assumed command. The ten reserve divisions
of the Philippine Army had been two-thirds
mobilized and although poorly equipped
and trained represented a military force of
some size. Within a week after the outbreak
of war it numbered over 100,000 men. The
U.S. Army garrison in the Islands had been
increased by 8,563 men since 31 July. The
number of Philippine Scouts, fixed by law,
remained the same, approximately 12,000.
The number of American enlisted men increased by 7,473 and officers by 1,070. (See
Table 4; compare with Table 2.) The
largest proportionate increase was among
service troops. As of 31 July, 1,836 men
were assigned to service detachments; four
months later the number had increased to
4,268. During this same period, the number of Air Corps troops had increased from
2,407 to 5,609.66 Total strength of the en66
This strength is from a Machine Records Unit

report dated 30 November 1941. The strength of

tire U.S. Army garrison on 30 November
1941 was 31,095 officers and enlisted men.
In the four months since General MacArthur's assumption of command, the flow
of men and supplies to the Philippines had
increased tremendously and all preparations
for war had been pushed actively and aggressively. Time was running out rapidly,
but at the end of November many still
thought it would be several months before
the Japanese struck. The month of April
1942 was commonly accepted as the critical date and most plans were based on that
date. By 1 December MacArthur had organized his forces, but still needed much to
place them on a war footing. Most of
his requests had been approved by the War
Department and men and supplies were already on their way or at San Francisco
awaiting shipment. The record of accomplishment was a heartening one and justified the optimism which prevailed in Washington and in the Philippines over the capacity of the Philippine garrison to withstand a Japanese attack.
the air forces as of 7 December 1941 was 754 officers and 6,706 enlisted men. Craven and Cate,
The Army Air Forces in World War II, I, 170.
CHAPTER IV
Prewar Plans,
Japanese and American
By the summer of 1941, as the United
States was beginning to strengthen the
Philippines, Japan had reached "the crossroads of her fate." l The economic sanctions imposed by America, Great Britain,
and the Netherlands had cut her off from
the strategic materials necessary to support
the war in China and threatened eventually
to so weaken the Japanese economy as to
leave Japan defenseless in a struggle with
a major power. The leaders of Japan were
faced with a difficult choice. They could
either reach agreement with the United
States by surrendering their ambitions in
China and southeast Asia, or they could
seize Dutch and British possessions by force.
The second course, while it would give
Japan the natural resources so sorely needed,
almost certainly meant war with Great Britain and the Netherlands. In the view of
the Japanese planners, the United States
would also oppose such a course by war,
even if American territory was not immediately attacked. Such a war seemed less
dangerous to Japan in the fall of 1941 than
1
History of the Army Section, Imperial General

Headquarters, 1941-45, p. 9. This volume is No.
72 in the series, Japanese Studies in World War II,
of which 113 are now available in OCMH in both
the original and translated versions. Although
both versions have been used in the preparation of
this volume, reference throughout is to the translated version unless otherwise noted. For a description of this series see below, The Sources,
pp. 595-96.
ever before and, if their calculations proved

correct, the Japanese had an excellent
chance of success. The British Empire was
apparently doomed and the menace of Russian action had been diminished by the German invasion of that country and by the
Japanese-Soviet neutrality pact.
The major obstacles to Japan's expansion
in southeast Asia was the United States.
But Japanese strategists were confident they
could deprive the United States of its western Pacific base in the Philippines and neutralize a large part of its Pacific Fleet at the
start of the war. In this way they hoped
to overcome America's potential superiority
and seize the southern area rapidly.
The Japanese Plan

Japanese strategy for a war with the
United States, Great Britain, and the Netherlands was apparently developed in about
six months by Imperial General Headquarters.2 Although this strategy was never em2
Statement of Lt Gen Masami Maeda, CofS
14th Army, 7 Mar 50, Allied Translator and Interpreter Section (ATIS), Document 56234, in
Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers, Philippines-Japanese Invasion, Mil Hist Div, GHQ
Far East Command (FEC) and Supreme Commander Allied Powers (SCAP), 2 vols., II. Joint
Statements of Col Takushiro Hattori and Capt
Sadatoshi Tomioka, chiefs of the Army and Navy
Operations Sections, respectively, of Imperial GHQ,
3 May 49, ATIS Doc 50459, and of Lt Gen Shinichi Tanaka and Col Hattori, 3 May 49, ATIS
Doc 52361, both in Statements of Japanese Officials on World War II, GHQ FEC, Mil Intel Sec,
4 vols., I, 352-53, IV, 196.
52
bodied in one document, it can be reconstructed from separate Army and Navy
plans completed by the beginning of November 1941. Thereafter it was modified
only in minor respects.3
Strategic Concepts
The immediate objective of Japanese
strategy was the capture of the rich Dutch
and British possessions in southeast Asia,
especially Malaya and the Netherlands
Indies. (Map 1) To secure these areas
the Japanese believed it necessary to destroy
or neutralize the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl
Harbor, deprive the United States of its
base in the Philippines, and cut America's
line of communications across the Pacific
by the seizure of Wake and Guam. Once
the coveted area to the south had been secured, Japan would occupy strategic positions in Asia and in the Pacific and fortify
them immediately with all the forces available, chief reliance being placed on mobile
3
The plan of operations worked out by Imperial
GHQ about the middle of November 1941 was
destroyed by fire. Certificate of Yozo Miyama,
Chief, Archives Sec, 1st Demobilization Bureau,
Defense Doc 2726, International Military Tribunal
for the Far East (IMTFE).
The description of Japanese strategic concepts
is derived from the following documents: (1)
Central Agreement Between the Japanese Navy
and Army, (2) The Imperial Navy's Course of
Action in Operations Against U.S., Great Britain,
and the Netherlands, (3) Combined Fleet Top
Secret Operation Order 1, 5 November 1941, and
(4) Comments of Former Japanese Officers regarding The Fall of the Philippines. The first
two are reproduced in United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS), The Campaigns of the Pacific War (Washington, 1946), Apps. 13 and 14,
pp. 43-49; copies of the last two are in OCMH.
The orders and plans of the Army General Staff
can be found in Hist Army Sec, Imperial GHQ;
History of Southern Army 1941-1945, Japanese
Studies in World War II, No. 21; 14th Army Opns,
2 vols., Japanese Studies in World War II, Nos. 1
and 2.

naval and air forces. These positions were
to form a powerful defensive perimeter
around the newly acquired southern area,
the home islands, and the vital shipping
lanes connecting Japan with its sources of
supply.
The area marked for conquest formed a
vast triangle, whose east arm stretched from
the Kuril Islands on the north, through
Wake, to the Marshall Islands. The base
of the triangle was formed by a line connecting the Marshall Islands, the Bismarck
Archipelago, Java, and Sumatra. The
western arm extended from Malaya and
southern Burma through Indochina, and
thence along the China coast. The acquisition of this island-studded area would give
to Japan control of the resources of southeast Asia and satisfy the national objectives in going to war. Perhaps later, if
all went well, the area of conquest could be
extended. But there is no evidence that it
was the intention of the Japanese Government or of the Army and Navy to defeat
the United States, and so far as is known no
plan was ever drawn up for that purpose.
Japan apparently planned to fight a war of
limited objectives and, having gained what
it wanted, expected to negotiate for a favorable peace.
Operations to secure these objectives and
others would begin on the first day of war
when Japanese military and naval forces
would go into action simultaneously on
many fronts. Navy carrier-based aircraft
would attack Pearl Harbor. Immediately
after, joint Army and Navy air forces would
strike American air and naval forces in the
Philippines, while other Japanese forces hit
British Malaya. After these simultaneous
attacks, advance Army units were to be
landed at various points in Malaya and the
Philippines to secure air bases and favor-
MAP 1
54
able positions for further advances. The

results thus obtained were to be immediately exploited by large-scale landings in the
Philippines and in Malaya and the rapid occupation of those areas. At the same time
Thailand was to be "stabilized," Hong
Kong seized, and Wake and Guam occupied. The conquest of the Bismarck Archipelago would follow the seizure of the last
two islands.
The occupation of Java and Sumatra was
to begin after this initial period. While Java
was being attacked from the air, Singapore
was to be taken under fire from the land
side by Japanese forces moving down the
Malay Peninsula. Once that fortress was
reduced these forces were to move on to
northern Sumatra.
Meanwhile, other
Japanese forces moving southward through
the Netherlands Indies were to join those
in Sumatra in the final attack on Java.
Japanese planners anticipated that certain events might require an alteration of
these plans and accordingly outlined alternative courses of action. The first possibility was that the Japanese-American negotiations then in progress would prove successful and make war unnecessary. If this
unexpected success was achieved all operations were to be suspended, even if the final
order to attack had been issued.4 The second possibility was that the United States
might take action before the attack on Pearl
Harbor by sending elements of the Pacific
Fleet to the Far East. In that event, the
Combined Fleet would be deployed to intercept American naval forces. The attacks
against the Philippines and Malaya were
to proceed according to schedule.
If the Americans or British launched lo4
Hist Army Sec, Imperial GHQ, pp. 10, 15; 14th
Army Opns, I, 15.

cal attacks, Japanese ground forces were
to meet these while air forces were brought
into the area to destroy the enemy. These
local operations were not to interrupt the
execution of the grand plan. But if the
United States or Great Britain seized the
initiative by opening operations first, Japanese forces were to await orders from Imperial General Headquarters before beginning their assigned operations.
The possibility of a Soviet attack or of a
joint United States-Soviet invasion from
the north was also considered by the Japanese planners. If such an attack materialized, operations against the Philippines and
Malay would be carried out as planned
while air units would be immediately transferred from the home islands or China to
destroy Russian air forces in the Far East.
Ground forces were to be deployed to Manchuria at the same time to meet Soviet
forces on the ground.
The forces required to execute this ambitious plan were very carefully calculated
by Imperial General Headquarters. At the
beginning of December 1941 the total
strength of the Army was 51 divisions, a
cavalry group, 59 brigade-size units, and
an air force of 51 air squadrons. In addition, there were ten depot divisions in
Japan.5 These forces were organized into
area commands widely scattered throughout
the Far East. (See Table 5.) The largest
number of divisions was immobilized in
China and large garrisons were maintained
5
Data on the strength of the Japanese Army and
Navy are derived from Hist Army Sec, Imperial
GHQ, p. 30. A mixed brigade at this time consisted of three to six infantry battalions in addition
to supporting and service troops. Strength varied

from 3,000 to 10,000 men. An air regiment was
generally composed of three squadrons and was the
basic operational unit in the Japanese Army Air
Force.
PREWAR PLANS, JAPANESE AND AMERICAN
55
TABLE 5ORGANIZATION AND DISPOSITION OF JAPANESE ARMY, 1 DECEMBER 1941
Remarks:
a
Brigades include all brigade size units, i. e., garrison forces in China and Manchuria, South Seas Det., etc.
Command of the General Defense Command over each district army and the 1st Air Army in the Homeland was
limited to only the matters pertaining to defense of the Homeland.

c
Although the 21st, 33d and 56th Divisions were assigned to the Southern Army, they were still in North China,
Central China and Kyushu, respectively, on 1 December 41. Their departures from the above areas were 20 January 1942
13 December 1941 and 16 February 1942, respectively. 56th Division was placed under the command of 25th Army on
27 November 1941.
Source: Compiled by the Reports and Statistical Division of the Demobilization Bureau, 14 January 1952.
56
in Manchuria, Korea, Formosa, Indochina,

and the home islands. Only a small fraction of Japan's strength, therefore, was
available for operations in southeast Asia
and the Pacific.
In the execution of this complicated and
intricate plan, the Japanese planners
realized, success would depend on careful
timing and on the closest co-operation between Army and Navy forces. No provision was made for unified command of the
services. Instead, separate agreements
were made between Army and fleet commanders for each operation. These agreements provided simply for co-operation at
the time of landing and for the distribution
of forces.
The Plan for the Philippines
The Japanese plan for the occupation of

the Philippines was but part of the larger
plan for the Greater East Asia War in
which the Southern Army was to seize
Malaya and the Netherlands Indies while
the Combined Fleet neutralized the U.S.
Pacific Fleet. The Southern Army was organized on 6 November 1941, with Gen.
Count Hisaichi Terauchi, who had been
War Minister in 1936, as commander.
His orders from Imperial General Headquarters were to prepare for operations in
the event that negotiations with the United
States failed. Under his command were
placed the 14th, 15th, 16th and 25th
Armies, comprising ten divisions and three
mixed brigades. Southern Army's mission
in case of war would be to seize American,
British, and Dutch possessions in the "southern area" in the shortest time possible.
Operations against the Philippines and
British Malaya were to begin simultane-

ously, on orders from Imperial General
Headquarters.6
Southern Army immediately began to
prepare plans for seizure of the southern
area. To 14th Army, consisting of the 16th
and 48th Divisions and the 65th Brigade,
was assigned the task of taking the Philippine Islands. The campaign in the East
Indies was to be under the control of 16th
Army; the 15th Army would take Thailand. The 25th Army was assigned the
most important and difficult mission, the
conquest of Malaya and Singapore, and
was accordingly given four of the Southern
Army's ten divisions. Air support for these
operations was to be provided by two air
groups and an independent air unit. The
5th Air Group was assigned to the Philippine campaign.7
Beginning on 10 November a number of
meetings attended by the senior army and
navy commanders were held in Tokyo to
settle various details in the execution of the
plans. The commanders of the 14th, 16th,
and 25th Armies, in session with the Premier (who was also the War Minister), the
Army Chief of Staff, and General Terauchi,
were shown the Imperial General Headquarters operational plans, given an outline of the strategy, and told what their
missions would be in the event of war. In
the discussions between Army and Navy
commanders that followed this meeting a
few modifications were made in the general
strategy and the specific operational plans
6
Southern Army Opns, p. 6. The operations
order given by the commander of the Southern
Army was destroyed by fire. Certificate of Yozo
Miyama, 1st Demob Bureau, Defense Doc 2726,

IMTFE.
7
Southern Army Opns, pp. 4-6. An air group
was roughly the equivalent of a U.S. numbered
air force, and was the largest tactical unit in the
Japanese Army Air Force at that time.

were put into final form.8 On the 20th
Southern Army published its orders for the
forthcoming operations, omitting only the
date when hostilities would start.
Specific plans for the seizure of the
Philippine Islands were first developed by
the Japanese Army's General Staff in the
fall of 1941. As the plans for the southern
area were developed, the Philippine plan
was modified to conform to the larger
strategy being developed and to release
some of the forces originally assigned 14th
Army to other, more critical operations.
The final plan was completed at the meetings between the 14th Army commander,
Lt. Gen. Masaharu Homma, and the commanders of the 5th Air Group (Lt. Gen.
Hideyoshi Obata), the 3d Fleet (Vice
Adm. Ibo Takahashi), and the 11th Air
Fleet (Vice Adm. Nishizo Tsukahara),
held at Iwakuni in southern Honshu from
the 13th to the 15th of November.
The general scheme of operations for
the Philippine campaign called for simultaneous air attacks starting on X Day, the
first day of war, against American aircraft
and installations in the Philippines by the
5th Air Group (Army) and the 11th Air
Fleet (Navy). While the air attacks were
in progress, advance Army and Navy units
were to land on Batan Island, north of
Luzon; at three places on Luzon: Aparri,
Vigan, and Legaspi; and at Davao in Mindanao. The purpose of these landings was
to seize airfields. The air force was to move
to these fields as soon as possible and continue the destruction of the American air
and naval forces from these close-in bases.
57
When the major part of American air

strength had been eliminated, the main
force of the 14th Army was to land along
Lingayen Gulf, north of Manila, while another force would land at Lamon Bay, southeast of the capital. These forces, with close
air support, were to advance on Manila
from the north and south. It was expected
that the decisive engagement of the campaign would be fought around Manila.
Once the capital was taken, the islands defending the entrance to Manila Bay were to
be captured and Luzon occupied.
Imperial General Headquarters and
Southern Army expected General Homma
to complete his mission in about fifty days;
at the end of that time, approximately half
of the 14th Army, as well as the Army and
Navy air units, were to leave the Philippines
for operations in the south.9 The remaining elements of the 14th Army were then to
occupy the Visayas and Mindanao as rapidly as possible. Little difficulty was expected in this phase of the operations and
detailed plans were to be made at the appropriate time. The Japanese considered
it essential to the success of Southern Army
operations to gain complete victory in the
Philippines before the end of March 1942.
Forces assigned to the Philippine campaign,
small as they were, were required in other
more vital areas.
The Japanese plan was based on a detailed knowledge of the Philippine Islands
and a fairly accurate estimate of American
and Philippine forces.10 The Japanese were
aware that the bulk of the American and
9
Ibid., pp. 6-8; 14th Army Opns, I, 14. Unless

otherwise specified, this account of the 14th Army's
plan for the conquest of the Philippines is taken
from the 14th Army Opns, I and II. The translation has been checked against the original Japanese
study prepared by the 1st Demob Bureau.
Statement of Col Hattori, 2 Nov 47, ATIS Doc

49125, Statements of Japanese Officials on World
War II, GHQ FEC, Mil Intel Sec, IV, 315.
10
Japanese estimates of the strength and composition of the Philippine garrison, military installations, terrain, and weather, are discussed in 14th
Army Opns, I, 5-8, 10-14.
58
Philippine forces was on Luzon and that the

U.S. Army garrison had been increased
since July 1941 from 12,000 to 22,000.
Eighty percent of the officers and 40 percent of the enlisted men were thought to be
Americans and the rest, Filipinos. American troops were regarded as good soldiers,
but inclined to deteriorate physically and
mentally in a tropical climate. The Filipino, though inured to the tropics, had little
endurance or sense of responsibility, the
Japanese believed, and was markedly inferior to the American as a soldier. The
American garrison was correctly supposed
to be organized into one division, an air
unit, and a "fortress unit" (Harbor Defenses
of Manila and Subic Bays). The division

was mistakenly thought to consist of two
infantry brigades, a field artillery brigade,
and supporting services. The Japanese
knew that Mac Arthur also had one battalion of fifty-four tankswhich was true
at that timeand believed that there was
also an antitank battalion in the Islands.
The harbor defenses were known to consist
of four coast artillery regiments, including
one antiaircraft regiment.
The Japanese estimated that the American air force in the Philippines was composed of one pursuit regiment of 108 planes,
one bombardment regiment of about 38
planes, one pursuit squadron of 27 planes,

and two reconnaissance squadrons of 13
planes. American aircraft were based on
two major fields on Luzon, the Japanese believed. They placed the pursuit group at
Nichols Field, in the suburbs of Manila, and
the bombers at Clark Field. Other fields
on Luzon were thought to base a total of
20 planes. The Japanese placed 52 Navy
patrol and carrier-based fighter planes at
Cavite and 18 PBY's at Olongapo.

The strength of the Philippine Army and
the Constabulary, the Japanese estimated,
was 110,000 men. This strength, they
thought, would be increased to 125,000 by
December. The bulk of the Philippine
Army, organized into ten divisions, was
known to consist mostly of infantry with
only a few engineer and artillery units. This
army was considered very much inferior to
the U.S. Regular Army in equipment,
training, and fighting qualities.
Though they had a good picture of the
defending force, Japanese knowledge of
American defense plans was faulty. They
expected that the Philippine garrison would
make its last stand around Manila and when
defeated there would scatter and be easily
mopped up. No preparation was made for
an American withdrawal to the Bataan
peninsula. In October, at a meeting of the
14th Army staff officers in Tokyo, Homma's

chief of staff, Lt. Gen. Masami Maeda, had
raised the possibility of a withdrawal to
Bataan. Despite his protests, the subject

was quickly dropped.11 Staff officers of the
11
Interrog of Gen Maeda, 10 May 47, Mil Hist
Div, GHQ FEC; statement of Gen Maeda, 2 Mar
50, ATIS Doc 56234; statement of Lt Col Yoshio
Nakajima, 6 Feb 50, ATIS Doc 56349; statement
of Lt Col Monjiro Akiyama, 2 Mar 50, ATIS Doc
56232; statement of Lt Col Hikaru Haba, 2 Mar
50, ATIS Doc 56233; statement of Col Motoo Nakayama, 21 Mar 50, ATIS Doc 56640. Colonel
Nakajima was, at the beginning of the Philippine
Campaign, Intelligence Officer, 14th Army, and
subsequently its Operations Officer. When Colonel Nakajima was made Operations Officer, Colonel Haba, formerly Assistant Intelligence Officer,
14th Army, was promoted to Intelligence Officer.
Colonel Akiyama was 14th Army Air Officer, and
Colonel Nakayama, Senior Operations Officer, 14th
Army. Copies of these ATIS documents and interrogations are in Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers, Mil Hist Div, GHQ FEC, I and II.

48th Division also claimed to have discussed
the question of Bataan before the division
embarked at Formosa. The consensus then
was that while resistance could be expected
before Manila and on Corregidor, Bataan
"being a simple, outlying position, would
fall quickly." 12
The Japanese originally planned to assign to the Philippine campaign six battalions for the advance landings, two full
divisions for the main landings, and supporting troops. So meager were the forces
available to Southern Army that General
Homma was finally allotted for the entire
operation only 2 divisions, the 16th and
48th. Supporting troops included 2 tank
regiments, 2 regiments and 1 battalion of
medium artillery, 3 engineer regiments, 5
antiaircraft battalions, and a large number
of service units. Once Luzon had been
secured, most of the air units and the 48th
Division, as well as other units, were to be
transferred to the Indies and Malaya. At
that time Homma would receive the 65th
Brigade to mop up remaining resistance and
to garrison Luzon. The 16th Division
would then move south and occupy the Visayas and Mindanao.
The 14th Army commander had also
counted on having the support of a joint
Army and Navy air force of 600 planes.
But one of the two air brigades of the 5th Air
Group and some of the naval air units
originally destined for the Philippines were
transferred to other operations. The addition of the 24th Air Regiment to the 5th
Air Group at the last moment brought the
combined air and naval strength committed
12
Statement of Col Moriji Kawagoe, CofS 48th
Div, 9 Mar 50, ATIS Doc 56354; statement of
Maj Makoto Nakahara, Opns Officer, 48th Div, 13
Mar 50, ATIS Doc 56372, ibid.
59
to the Philippine campaign to about 500

combat aircraft.
Air and Naval Plans

Air operations against the Philippines
would begin on the morning of X Day when
planes of the Army's 5th Air Group and the
Navy's 11th Air Fleet, would strike American air forces on Luzon. These attacks
would continue until American air strength
had been destroyed. For reasons of security,
there was to be no aerial or submarine reconnaissance before the attack, except for highaltitude aerial photographs of landing
sites.13
By arrangement between the Japanese
Army and Navy commanders, Army air
units were to operate north of the 16th degree of latitude, a line stretching across
Luzon from Lingayen on the west coast to
the San Ildefonso Peninsula on the east.
Naval air units were made responsible for
the area south of this line, which included
Clark Field, the vital Manila area, Cavite,
and the harbor defenses. This line was
determined by the range of Army and
Navy aircraft. The Navy Zero fighters
had the longer range and were therefore
assigned missions in the Manila area. Carrier planes of the 4th Carrier Division,
originally based at Palau, were to provide
13
The material on naval plans is taken from
Naval Operations in the Invasion of the Philippines, Japanese Studies in World War II, No. 13,
2d Demob Bureau, pp. 1-6. Like other studies in
this series, it is filed in OCMH and has been
checked against the original. Morison, Rising Sun
in the Pacific, pp. 161-63, is useful for the organization of Japan's naval forces. See also Combined
Fleet Top Secret Operations Order 1, in Pearl
Harbor Attack Hearings, Part 13, Exhibit 8, pp.
432-84.
60
the 3d Fleet into numerous special task

forces. For the landing on Batan Island
the Third Surprise Attack Force of 1 destroyer, 4 torpedo boats, and other small
of the 5th Air Group was to move up to the craft was organized. The naval escort for
fields at Aparri, Laoag, and Vigan, while the landing of the advance units on Luzon
naval air units would base on the fields at consisted of the First, Second, and Fourth
Legaspi and Davao. The airfield near Surprise Attack Force, each composed of 1
Aparri was mistakenly believed to be suit- light cruiser, 6 or 7 destroyers, transports,
able for heavy bombers and the bulk of the and other auxiliary craft. The Legaspi
5th Air Group was ordered there. It was Force (Fourth Surprise Attack Force) was
anticipated that the forward displacement to be staged at Palau, and since it could not
of the air forces would be completed by the be supported by the planes of the 11th Air
sixth or seventh day of operations. During Fleet it included the South Philippines Supthis week a naval task force from the 3d port Force, comprising the 4th Carrier DiFleet was to provide protection for the con- vision and 2 seaplane carriers with 20
voys and carry out antisubmarine measures planes each. The units landing at Davao
in the Formosa area and in Philippine were to be covered by this same force.
To support the main landings Admiral
waters.
Naval surface forces assigned to the Takahashi created the Close Cover Force,
Philippines operations were under the 3d which he commanded directly, composed
Fleet. This fleet, commanded by Admiral of 1 light and 2 heavy cruisers, and 2 conTakahashi, was primarily an amphibious verted seaplane tenders. Two battleships
force with supporting cruisers and destroy- and 3 heavy cruisers from Vice Adm. Noers. Its principal mission was to support butake Kondo's 2d Fleet, then operating in
the landings in the Philippines by mine- Malayan and East Indian waters, were also
laying, reconnaissance, escorting the troops to support the landings, which would be
during the voyage to the targets, and pro- additionally supported by 3 of the escort
tecting them during landing operations. groups. The Lamon Bay Attack Group,
No provisions was made for surface bomb- in addition to 1 light cruiser and 6 destroyardment of shore objectives, presumably in ers, included 6 converted gunboats and 1
battalion of naval troops.
the interests of secrecy.15
Because of the many landings to be made
at widely scattered points in the Philippine Concentration of Forces
archipelago it was necessary to organize
Early in November the forces assigned to
14
The 11th Air Fleet had originally planned to
the Philippine campaign began to move to
use carrier-based fighters to neutralize southern
their designated jump-off points. The 5th
Luzon, but the pilots trained for this mission were
Air Group arrived in southern Formosa
transferred with their planes to the Pearl Harbor
from Manchuria during the latter part of
operation. During the fall of 1941 the improvement of the Zero fighters and the rapid advancethe month. On 23 November two of the
ment in pilot training made it possible to utilize
advance detachments stationed in Forland-based fighters on Formosa for long-distance
mosa boarded ship at Takao and sailed to
sorties against Luzon.
15
Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, p. 166.
Mako in the Pescadores. Between 27
air support for the landings at Davao and
Legaspi.14
Once the advance units of 14th Army had
landed and secured airfields, the main force
61
November and 6 December the 48th Division (less detachments) concentrated at
WPO-3
Mako, Takoa, and Kirun, and made final

preparations for the coming invasion. The
first units of the 16th Division sailed from
Nagoya in Japan on 20 November, followed five days later by the remainder of
the division. Part of this division concentrated at Palau and the main body at
Amami Oshima in the Ryukyus. On 1
December, when General Homma established his command post at Takao, he received final instructions from Southern
Army. Operations would begin on 8
December (Tokyo time).
In War Plan ORANGE it was assumed

that the Japanese attack would come without a declaration of war and with less than
forty-eight hours' warning so that it would
not be possible to provide reinforcements
from the United States for some time. The
defense would therefore have to be conducted entirely by the military and naval
forces already in the Philippines, supported
by such forces as were available locally.
The last category included any organized
The Plan of Defense
elements of the Philippine Army which

might be inducted into the service of the
United States under the Tydings-McDuffie

Act.
An analysis of Japanese capabilities, as of
Plans for the defense of the Philippine

Islands had been in existence for many
years when General Mac Arthur returned
to active duty. The latest revision of these
plans, completed in April 1941 and called
send an expedition of about 100,000 men to

capture Manila and its harbor defenses in
order to occupy the Philippines, sever the
War Plan ORANGE-3
(WPO-3), was
American line of communications, and
based on the joint Army-Navy ORANGE

plan of 1938, one of the many "color" plans
developed during the prewar years. Each
color plan dealt with a different situation,
ORANGE covering an emergency in which
only the United States and Japan would be
involved. In this sense, the plan was strategically unrealistic and completely outdated
by 1941. Tactically, however, the plan was
an excellent one and its provisions for defense were applicable under any local
situation.16
deny the United States a naval base in the

Far East. It was expected that this operation would be undertaken with the great-
16
Unless otherwise noted, this section is based
on the Philippine Department Plan ORANGE, 1940
Revision. (Short title: HPD WPO-3), AG 326.
The author has also had the benefit of conversations with the Philippine Department Commander,
General Grunert, with Generals Sutherland and
Marshall, and with various division commanders
and staff officers who participated in the planning
and execution of the plan.
1 July 1940, led the Philippine Department
planners to believe that the enemy would
est secrecy and that it would precede or

coincide with a declaration of war. The
garrison therefore could expect little or no
warning. The attack would probably come
during the dry season, shortly after the rice
crop was harvested, in December or January. The enemy was assumed to have extensive knowledge of the terrain and of
American strength and dispositions, and

would probably be assisted by the 30,000
Japanese in the Islands.
Army planners in the Philippines expected the Japanese to make their major
attack against the island of Luzon and to
employ strong ground forces with heavy air
and naval support. They would probably
62
land in many places simultaneously in order

to spread thin the defending forces and assure the success of at least one of the landings. Secondary landings or feints were
also expected. It was considered possible
that the Japanese might attempt in a surprise move to seize the harbor defenses with
a small force at the opening of hostilities.
Enemy air operations would consist of longrange reconnaissance and bombardment,
probably coming without warning and coordinated with the landings. The Japanese would probably also attempt to establish
air bases on Luzon very early in the campaign in order to destroy American air
power and bomb military installations.
Under WPO-3 the mission of the Philippine garrison was to hold the entrance to
Manila Bay and deny its use to Japanese
naval forces. There was no intention that
American troops should fight anywhere but
in central Luzon. U.S. Army forces, constituting the Initial Protective Force, had
the main task of preventing enemy landings. Failing in this, they were to defeat
those forces which succeeded in landing.
If, despite these attempts, the enemy proved
successful, the Initial Protective Force was
to engage in delaying action but not at the
expense of the primary mission, the defense
of Manila Bay. Every attempt was to be
made to hold back the Japanese advance
while withdrawing to the Bataan peninsula.
Bataan was recognized as the key to the control of Manila Bay, and it was to be defended to the "last extremity."
To reinforce the Initial Protective Force,
Philippine Army units were to be mobilized
immediately upon the outbreak of war and
would be ready to participate in the defense of Bataan. If used as anticipated in
WPO-3, which was prepared before July

1941, the Philippine Army would be under
the command of the Philippine Department
commander and would be utilized to defend
Manila Bay. The plan did not contemplate using Philippine Army units for the
defense of the entire archipelago.
WPO-3 divided Luzon, the principal
theater of operations, into six sectors with
a mobile reserve. Detailed plans for the
defense of each sector were made by the
sector commanders. The commander of the
Philippine Division, the only U.S. Army
division in the Philippines, in addition to
conducting operations in the sector or sectors assigned to him, was to organize the
defenses of Bataan and to command operations there if necessary.
Air support was to be provided by the 4th
Composite Group, the predecessor of the
Far East Air Force. This group was to obtain information of enemy location, strength,
and disposition by continuous reconnaissance, attack the Japanese whenever conditions were favorable, and support ground
operations. In order to keep this air force
in operation as long as possible, its planes
were to be employed "conservatively" and
every effort was to be made to supplement
the strength of the group by taking over the
Philippine Army Air Corps and commercial
planes.
The navy was to set up defensive coastal
areas at the entrances to Manila and Subic
Bays. At the first sign of an attack a defensive area was to be set up around Manila to control all shipping and a patrol system established for Manila and Subic Bays.
The Army, through the Department quartermaster, would control all shore facilities at the port of Manila.
The supply plan in WPO-3 was a complicated one. Provision had to be made to

supply the six sectors during the initial phase
of operations and to withdraw supplies into
Bataan where a base would be established to
support a prolonged defense. Supply officers estimated that they would probably require enough supplies for 31,000 men (the
Bataan Defense Force)later raised to 40,000 mento last 180 days. The defense
reserve already on hand, except for ammunition, was considered by the planners
sufficient to supply such a force for the
period required in a defensive situation.
The bulk of the supplies was stored in the
Manila area which lacked adequate protection from attacking aircraft. In the event
it became necessary to move the supplies to
Corregidor and Bataan, the enemy would
have to be delayed long enough to carry out
this operation.
Prior to the start of operations on Bataan,
supplies were to be moved rapidly to the
peninsula. At the same time the Corregidor reserves, set first at a 6-month supply
for 7,000 men and then for 10,000 men,
were to be brought up to the authorized allotment. Philippine Department depots
and installations in the Manila area were
to be maintained just as long as the tactical situation permitted. Depots at Fort
Stotsenburg, Fort William McKinley, Tarlac, San Fernando, Manila, and elsewhere
would supply the various sectors. A Bataan
Service Area was to be established, initially to assist in organizing the final defense
positions and ultimately to supply the entire force after it had withdrawn to Bataan
for the last stand. All stocks in the Department, except those of the Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays, would
eventually be transferred to Bataan.
Plans for local procurement included the
exploitation of the Manila area with its
63
commercial warehouses, factories, and

transportation facilities. Procurement districts, coinciding roughly with the sector
boundaries, would be established later.
Troops would take the field with two
days of Class I supplies (rations), one emergency ration, and two days of fire. Glass
I and III supplies (gasoline and lubricants)
would be issued automatically thereafter at
rail or navigation heads; Class II, IV, and
V supplies (clothing, construction and other
heavy equipment, and ammunition) would
be requisitioned from depots as needed.
The issue of supplies to Philippine Army
units would depend upon the speed with
which they were mobilized and their location.
The transportation of troops and equipment, the planners realised, would be a difficult problem. There was a large number
of passenger buses on Luzon, centrally organized and operated. The 4,000 trucks
on the island were of varying type, size, and
condition and were mainly individually
owned. Passenger buses were to be requisitioned immediately by the Army for
use as personnel carriers. Since it would
take longer to requisition trucks, cargo requirements were to be kept to an absolute
minimum. In the initial move by the mobile forces toward the threatened beaches,
little difficulty was expected with motor
transportation. Later, as supply requirements rose and as troops moved back toward Bataan (if the enemy could not be repelled at the beaches), motor pools were to
be formed. When Philippine Army units
were mobilized the drain on the motor transport services was expected to increase
greatly since these units had no organic
motor transportation.
Nothing was said in WPO-3 about what
64
was to happen after the defenses on Bataan

crumbled. Presumably by that time, estimated at six months, the U.S. Pacific Fleet
would have fought its way across the Pacific,
won a victory over the Combined Fleet, and
made secure the line of communications.
The men and supplies collected on the west
coast during that time would then begin to
reach the Philippines in a steady stream.
The Philippine garrison, thus reinforced,
could then counterattack and drive the
enemy into the sea.
Actually, no one in a position of authority
at that time (April 1941) believed that anything like this would happen. Informed
naval opinion estimated that it would require at least two years for the Pacific Fleet
to fight its way across the Pacific. There
was no plan to concentrate men and supplies on the west coast and no schedule for
their movement to the Philippines. Army
planners in early 1941 believed that at the
end of six months, if not sooner, supplies
would be exhausted and the garrison would
go down in defeat. WPO-3 did not say
this; instead it said nothing at all. And
everyone hoped that when the time came
something could be done, some plan improvised to relieve or rescue the men
stranded 7,000 miles across the Pacific.17
The MacArthur Plan
General MacArthur had the answer to
those who saw no way out of the difficulty
in the Philippines. The defeatist and defensive WPO-3 was to be transformed into
an aggressive plan whose object would be
the defeat of any enemy that attempted the
17
Louis Morton, "American and Allied Strategy

in the Far East," Military Review, XXIX (December 1949), 22-40.

conquest of the Philippines. An optimist
by nature, with implicit faith in the Philippine people, MacArthur was able to inspire
the confidence and loyalty of his associates
and staff. His optimism was contagious
and infected the highest officials in the War
Department and the government. By the
fall of 1941 there was a firm conviction in
Washington and in the Philippines that,
given sufficient time, a Japanese attack
could be successfully resisted.
In pressing for a more aggressive plan,
enlarged in scope to include the entire archipelago, MacArthur could rely on having a
far stronger force than any of his predecessors. His growing air force included by
the end of November 1941 thirty-five B-17's
and almost 100 fighters of the latest type.
Many more were on their way. The performance of the heavy bombers in early
1941 justified the hope that the South China

Sea would be successfully blockaded by air
and that the Islands could be made a "selfsustaining fortress." 18
MacArthur could also count on the Philippine Army's ten reserve divisions, then
being mobilized and trained, and one regular division. During his term as Military
Advisor, he had worked out the general
concept of his strategy as well as detailed
plans for the use of this national army. As
commander of U.S. Army Forces in the
Far East he could plan on the use of the
regular U.S. Army garrison as well as the
Philippine Army. He was in an excellent
position, therefore, to persuade the War
Department to approve his own concepts for
the defense of the Philippines.
Almost from the date of his assumption
of command, MacArthur began to think
about replacing WPO-3 with a new
18
Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service, p. 388.

plan.19 From the first, as is evident from
his establishment of the Philippine Coast
Artillery Command, he apparently intended
to defend the inland seas and the entrances
to Manila and Subic Bays. By September
his plans had progressed sufficiently to enable him to inform General Wainwright of
his intention to reorganize the forces in the
Philippines and to give that officer his
choice of commands.20
The opportunity to request a change in
plans for the defense of the Philippines
came in October, after MacArthur received
a copy of the new war plan, RAINBOW 5,
prepared by the Joint Board some months
earlier. This plan, which was world-wide
in its provisions and conformed to arrangements with the British staff, called for a
defensive strategy in the Pacific and Far
East and recognized Germany as the main
enemy in the event of a war with the Axis.
Based on the assumption that the United
States would be at war with more than one
nation and would be allied with Great
Britain, RAINBOW accepted implicitly the
loss of the Philippines, Wake, and Guam.
Like ORANGE, it assigned Army and Navy
forces in the Philippines the mission of
defending the Philippine Coastal Frontier,
defined as those land and sea areas which
it would be necessary to hold in order to
defend Manila and Subic Bays. Also, as
in ORANGE, the defense was to be conducted entirely by Army and Navy forces
already in the Philippines, augmented by
65
such local forces as were available.21 No

reinforcements could be expected.
MacArthur immediately objected to
those provisions of RAINBOW relating to the
Philippines and called for the revision of
the plan on the ground that it failed to recognize either the creation of a high command for the Far East or the mobilization
of the Philippine Army. In a strong letter
to the War Department on 1 October, the
former Chief of Staff pointed out that he
would soon have a force of approximately
200,000 men organized into eleven divisions with corresponding corps and army
troops, as well as a strengthened air force.
There could be no adequate defense of
Manila Bay or of Luzon, he said, if an enemy was to be allowed to land and secure
control of any of the southern islands.
With the "wide scope of possible enemy
operations, especially aviation," he thought
such landings possible. He urged, therefore, that the "citadel type defense" of
Manila Bay provided in the ORANGE and
RAINBOW plans be changed to an active defense of all the islands in the Philippines.
"The strength and composition of the defense forces projected here," General MacArthur asserted, "are believed to be sufficient to accomplish such a mission." 22
The reply from Washington came
promptly. On the 18th General Marshall
informed MacArthur that a revision of the
Army mission had been drafted in the War
Department and was then awaiting action
by the Joint Board, "with approval ex-
19
Interv, author with Col Diller, 20 May 49.
Wainwright mentions also that as Philippine Di21
Joint Army and Navy Basic War Plan RAINvision commander he worked during May, June,
BOW
5, Joint Board (JB) 325, Serial 642-5, OPD
and July 1941 to secure revisions of WPO-3.
General Jonathan M. Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story, the Account of Four Years of Humiliating Defeat, Surrender, and Captivity (New
York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1946), p. 10.
20
Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story,
p. 21.
Reg Doc.
22
Ltr, MacArthur to TAG, 1 Oct 41, sub: Opns
Plan R-5, WPD 4178-18. MacArthur repeated
the same request, in virtually the same language, in
a personal letter to Marshall on 28 October 1951,
WPD 4477-2.
GENERAL MACARTHUR with Maj. Gen. Jonathan M. Wainwright on 10

October 1941.
67
pected within the next ten days." Mac- RAINBOW revisions requested by MacArArthur's recommendation that the Philip- thur was forwarded from Washington on
pine Coastal Frontier be redefined to 21 November. In the accompanying letter,
include all the islands in the archipelago, General Marshall made the significant obMarshall continued, would also be pre- servation that air reinforcements to the
sented to the Joint Board for approval. Philippines had "modified that conception
The assignment of a broader mission than [purely defensive operations] of Army acthat contained in RAINBOW, Marshall ex- tion in this area to include strong air operaplained, was made possible because of the tions in the furtherance of the strategic
26
He also told MacArthur to
increased importance of the Philippines "as defensive."
a result of the alignment of Japan with the go ahead with his plans "on the basis of
Axis, followed by the outbreak of war be- your interpretation of the basic war plan."
tween Germany and Russia." 23 General
In the revised joint RAINBOW plan, the
Marshall took advantage of the fact that Philippine Coastal Frontier, which had been
Brereton was just then leaving for the Far defined as consisting of Luzon and the land
East to send his reply to MacArthur by and sea areas necessary to defend that
personal courier.
island, was redefined to include "all the
Brereton arrived in Manila on 3 Novem- land and sea areas necessary for the defense
ber and was warmly greeted by his comof the Philippine Archipelago." 27 In effect,
mander in chief. After reading Marshall's this gave MacArthur authority to defend
note, MacArthur, in Brereton's words, all of the Philippine Islands.
The Army task originally assigned in
"acted like a small boy who had been
told that he is going to get a holiday from RAINBOW was simply to defend the coastal
school." He jumped up from his desk, frontier. The November revision not only
threw his arms around Brereton and ex- enlarged the coastal frontier but gave Macclaimed, "Lewis, you are just as welcome Arthur the following additional tasks:
as the flowers in May." Turning to his
1. Support the Navy in raiding Japanese
chief of staff, General Sutherland, he said, sea communications and destroying Axis
"Dick, they are going to give us everything forces.
we have asked for."24
2. Conduct air raids against Japanese
With this notice that his plans would soon forces and installations within tactical operatbe approved by the Joint Board, Mac- ing radius of available bases.
3. Co-operate with the Associated Powers
Arthur immediately organized his forces to
in
the defense of the territories of these
execute the larger mission. On 4 November
Powers in accordance with approved policies
he formally established the North and South and agreements.28
Luzon Forces, and the Visayan-Mindanao
26
Ltr, CofS to CG USAFFE, 21 Nov 41, sub:
Force, all of which had actually been in
25
U.S.-British
Co-operation in the Far East, WPD
existence for several months already.
4402-112. The first draft of this letter used the
Approval by the Joint Board of the phrase "strong offensive air action" in the place of
23
Memo, Marshall for MacArthur, 18 Oct 41,
sub: USAFFE, WPD 4175-18.

24
Brereton, Diaries, p. 19.
25
"strong air operations in the furtherance of the

strategic defensive."
27
Ibid., incl, extract copy of Changes in Joint
Army and Navy Basic War Plan, RAINBOW 5.

28
Ibid.

It also provided specifically for a defense
reserve for 180 days, instead of the 90-day
level originally granted to General Grunert.
These additional tasks recognized the existence of an effective air force in the Philippines capable of striking at Japanese lines of
communications and bases, such as Formosa, and the fact that the Philippine Army
had been inducted into federal service by
including it with forces available to accomplish the tasks assigned.
Once his plan to defend all of the islands
had been approved, General MacArthur
was able, on 3 December, to define the missions of the four major tactical commands
created a month earlier. (Map 2) The
North Luzon Force, which had been under
the command of Brig. Gen. Edward P.
King, Jr., from 3 to 28 November, now
came under General Wainwright. This
force had responsibility for the most critical
sector in the Philippines, including part of
the central plains area, Lingayen Gulf, the
Zambales coast, and the Bataan peninsula.
General Wainwright was instructed to protect airfields and prevent hostile landings
in his area, particularly at those points opening into the central plains and the road net
leading to Manila. In case of a successful
landing the enemy was to be destroyed. In
contrast to WPO-3, which provided for a
withdrawal to Bataan, MacArthur's plan
stated there was to be "no withdrawal from
beach positions." The beaches were to "be
held at all costs." 29
Immediately on receipt of these instructions General Wainwright was to prepare
detailed plans to execute his mission. Front29
Ltr Order, CG USAFFE to CG North Luzon
Force (NLF), 3 Dec 41, sub: Defense of Phil, AG
381 (12-3-41) Phil Rcds.
Brig. Gen. Maxon S.
Lough assumed command of the Philippine Division

when General Wainwright transferred to North
Luzon Force.
69
line units were to make a reconnaissance of

their sectors and emplace their weapons.
Positions four hours distant from the front
lines were to be selected for the assembly of
troops.
On 3 December, when Wainwright received his mission, his North Luzon Force
consisted of three Philippine Army divi-
sionsthe 11th, 21st, and 31stthe 26th

Cavalry (PS), one battalion of the 45th
Infantry (PS) on Bataan, two batteries of
155-mm. guns, and one battery of 2.95inch mountain guns. The 71st Division
(PA), though assigned to North Luzon
Force, could be committed only on the authority of USAFFE. Wainwright was
promised additional troops when they arrived from the United States or were mobilized by the Philippine Army.
The South Luzon Force, under Brig.
Gen. George M. Parker, Jr., was assigned
the area generally south and east of Manila.
Like the force to the north, it was to protect
the airfields in its sector and prevent hostile
landings. General Parker was also enjoined
to hold the beaches at all costs. The South
Luzon Force was much smaller than that
in the north. It consisted initially of only
two Philippine Army divisions, the 41st and
51st, and a battery of field artillery. Addi-
tional units were to be assigned at a later

date when they became available.30
The Visayan-Mindanao Force under
Brig. Gen. William F. Sharp was charged
with the defense of the rest of the archipelago. Its primary mission was to protect
the airfields to be built in the Visayas; its
secondary mission was to "prevent landings
of hostile raiding parties, paying particular
attention to the cities and essential public
utilities." Since landings in force south of
30
Ltr Order, CG USAFFE to CG SLF, 3 Dec 41,
sub: Defense of Phil, AG 381 (12-3-41) Phil Rcds.
70
TABLE 6ASSIGNMENT OF FORCES, USAFFE, 3 DECEMBER 1941
Source: Ltr Orders, CG USAFFE to CG NLF, SLF, V-MF, 3 Dec 4l, AG 381 (12-3-41) Phil Rcds; USAFFE-USFIP
Rpt of Opns, pp. 17-18.
Luzon would not have had any decisive results, no mention was made of the necessity
of holding the beaches.31
The Visayan-Mindanao sector would also
include the coastal defenses of the inland
seas when these were completed and General Sharp was to provide protection for
these as well. One battalion of the force
was to be prepared to move to Del Monte
in Mindanao with the mission of guarding
the recently completed bomber base there.
31
Ltr Order, CG USAFFE to CG V-MF, 3 Dec
41, sub: Defense of Phil, AG 381 (12-3-41) Phil
Rcds.
No American or Philippine Scout troops

were assigned to the Visayan-Mindanao
Force, except those in headquarters. For
the rest, the force consisted of the 61st, 81st,
and 101st Divisions, all Philippine Army.
(See Table 6.)
On Luzon, between the North and South
Luzon Forces was the reserve area, including the city of Manila and the heavily congested area just to the north. This area was
directly under the control of Mac Arthur's
headquarters and contained the Philippine
Division (less one battalion), the 91st Division (PA), the 86th Field Artillery (PS),

the Far East Air Force, and the headquarters of the Philippine Department and the
Philippine Army. The defense of the entrance to Manila and Subic Bays was left,
as it always had been, to Gen. Moore's Harbor Defenses augmented by the Philippine
Coast Artillery Command.32
During the last few months of 1941 the
training of both U.S. Army and Philippine
Army units progressed at an accelerated
pace. The strength of the Scouts, an elite
organization with a high esprit de corps, had
been brought up to its authorized strength
of 12,000 quickly. Membership in Scout
units was considered a high honor by Fil-
ipinos and the strictest standards were followed in selection. To provide the training
for the new Scout units, as well as Philippine Army units, a large number of officers
was authorized for USAFFE. By the fall of
1941 they began to arrive in Manila.
Training of U.S. Army units was also intensified during this period. By the beginning of December, General Wainwright
later wrote, "the American and Philippine
Scout organizations were fit, trained in combat principles and ready to take the field in
any emergency." The omission of Philippine Army units is significant.33
The Last Days of Peace

Already there had been warnings of an
approaching crisis. On 24 November the
Pacific and Asiatic Fleet commanders had

been told that the prospects for an agreement with Japan were slight and that Japanese troop movements indicated that "a
surprise aggressive movement in any direc32
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, pp. 17-18; Ltr

Order, CG USAFFE to CG Phil Div, 6 Dec 41,
sub: Movement Plans, AG 381 (12-3-41) Phil
33
Rcds.
71
tion, including attack on Philippines or

Guam was a possibility.34 Three days later
a stronger message, which the War Department considered a "final alert," went out to
Hawaii and the Philippines. The Army
commanders, MacArthur and Lt. Gen.
Walter C. Short, were told:

Negotiations with Japan appear to be terminated to all practical purposes with only
the barest possibility that the Japanese Government might come back and offer to continue. Japanese future action unpredictable
but hostile action possible at any moment. If
hostilities cannot, repeat cannot, be avoided
the United States desires that Japan commit
the first overt act. This policy should not, repeat not, be construed as restricting you to a
course of action that might jeopardize your
defense. Prior to hostile Japanese action you
are directed to undertake such reconnaissance
and other measures as you deem necessary. Report measures taken. Should hostilities occur
you will carry out the tasks assigned in RAIN-
BOW 5. . . .35
At the same time the Navy Department
sent to its Pacific commanders an even
stronger message, to be passed on to the
Army commanders in Hawaii and the Philippines. "This dispatch," it read, "is to
be considered a war warning. Negotiations with Japan . . . have ceased and
an aggressive move by Japan is expected
34
Rad, OPNAV to Comdrs Pacific and Asiatic

Fleets, 24005, 24 Nov 41 in Pearl Harbor Attack
Hearings, Part 14, p. 1405. This message was
given to MacArthur by Hart.
35
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, 27 Nov 41, OCS
18136-118; Report of the Joint Committee on the
Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack, 79th
Cong., 2d sess., Doc 244 (Washington, 1946), cited
hereafter as Pearl Harbor Attack Report, pp.
199-201. The message sent to Hawaii, Panama,
and the Western Defense Command included a
statement that the civilian population should not be
alarmed. Pearl Harbor Attack Hearings, Part 14,
p. 1389. Ibid., Part 39, p. 84, contains Mr.
Stimson's account of these events; Part 3, p. 1021,
includes a memo, Gerow for Marshall, 27 Nov 41,
sub: Far Eastern Situation, WPD 4544-13.
72
within the next few days." Navy commanders were alerted against the possibility
of a Japanese invasion of the Philippines,
Thailand, or Malaya, and were told to take
appropriate defensive measures,36
Immediately on receipt of the 27 November warning, MacArthur, Hart, and
the Hon. Francis B. Sayre, U.S. High Commissioner to the Philippine Islands, met
to discuss the measures to be taken. Sayre
presented the President's view to Mr. Quezon and told him that Roosevelt was relying upon the full co-operation of the Com-
monwealth.37 The next day MacArthur

reported to the Chief of Staff the measures
taken in the Philippines to prepare for a
Japanese attack. Air reconnaissance had
been extended and intensified "in conjunction with the Navy" and measures for
ground security had been taken. "Within the limitations imposed by present state
of development of this theater of operations," he said, "everything is in readiness
for the conduct of a successful defense." 38
The first week of December 1941 was a
tense one for those in the Philippines who
had been informed of the latest steps in the

negotiations with Japan. American planes
continued to notice heavy Japanese ship
movements in the direction of Malaya, and
unidentified aircraftpresumed to be Japanesewere detected over Luzon. On the
5th of December the commander of Britain's Far Eastern Fleet, Admiral Sir
Tom Phillips, came to Manila to confer
with Admiral Hart and General MacArthur about joint plans for defense. The
next day news was received that a Japanese
force had been sighted in the Gulf of Siam
36
Pearl Harbor Attack Hearings, Part 14, p. 1406.

Ibid.
38
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 1004, 28 Nov
41, OCS 18136-118.
37

heading westward. Admiral Phillips left
immediately by plane for Singapore where
his flagship, Prince of Wales, lay at anchor,
next to the battle cruiser Repulse.39
On 6 December, Saturday, MacArthur's

headquarters ordered North Luzon Force
to be ready to move promptly to its assigned
positions on beach defense, and Wainwright
noted that around his headquarters at Stotsenburg "the tension could be cut with a
knife." 40 In response to a warning against
sabotage, MacArthur told General Arnold
that a full air alert was in effect and all aircraft dispersed and placed under guard.41
Sunday, 7 Decemberit was the 6th in
Washingtonwas a normal day, "nothing

ominous in the atmosphere, no forebodings
or shadows cast by coming events." 42 Men
went about their work as usual. The only
excitement arose from the fact that the
Clipper, with its anxiously awaited mail
sacks, was due. The last letters from home
had reached the Islands ten days before.
That night the 27th Bombardment
Group gave a party, recalled as a gala affair
with "the best entertainment this side of
Minsky's," at the Manila Hotel in honor of
General Brereton.43 Brereton records conversations with Rear Adm. William R. Pur39
Hart, Narrative of Events, Asiatic Fleet, p. 36;
Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, pp. 156-57,
188-89. Specific instances of Japanese reconnaissance missions are noted in Edmonds, They Fought
With What They Had, pp. 61-63.

40
Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story, p. 17.
41
Rad, MacArthur to Arnold, 6 Dec 41, quoted in

Brereton, Diaries, pp. 36-37; Craven and Cate, The
Army Air Forces in World War II, I, 191.
42
Col James V., Collier, Notebooks, 4 vols., I, 42.
Colonel Collier was Assistant G-3, USAFFE and
later G-3, Luzon Force. He kept these notebooks
for his three sons while he was in prison camp.
They were loaned to the author, and a photostat
copy is on file in OCMH. They will be hereafter
referred to as Collier, Notebooks, with the appropriate number.
43

nell and Brig. Gen. Richard K. Sutherland,
Hart's and Mac Arthur's chiefs of staff, during the course of the evening. Purnell told
him that "It was only a question of days or
perhaps hours until the shooting started"
and that he was standing by for a call from
Admiral Hart. Sutherland confirmed what
Purnell had said, adding that the War and
Navy Departments believed hostilities might
begin at any time. Brereton then immediately instructed his chief of staff to place all
air units on "combat alert" as of Monday
morning, 8 December.44
Except for the few senior officers who had
an intimate knowledge of events, men went
to bed that night with no premonition that
the next day would be different from the

last. The Clipper had not arrived, and the
last thoughts of many were of family and
home, and the hope that the morrow would
bring "cheerful and newsy letters." 45 Many
listened to the radio before going to bed,
but the news was not much different from
that of previous days. Some heard American music for the last time. At Fort Stotsenburg a few officers of the 194th Tank
Battalion listened to the Concerto in B Flat
Minor before turning in. On the last night
of peace Tschaikowsky's poignant music
made an impression which was to be deep
and lasting.46
45
Collier, Notebooks, I, 42.

Col. Ernest B. Miller, Bataan Uncensored
(Long Prairie, Minn., 1949), p. 64.
46
44
Brereton, Diaries, pp. 37-38.
73
PART TWO
THE ISOLATION OF THE PHILIPPINES AND
THE JAPANESE LANDINGS
CHAPTER V
The First Days of War

coast of the Kra Isthmus, while one division crossed the Thailand-British Malay
border and moved down the west coast.
Thus began a two-month campaign which
ended with the fall of Singapore on 15 February.
On Guam the air attacks continued for
two days. Finally, at dawn on the 10th,
the South Seas Detachment and supporting
naval units landed on the island. A few
at Kota Bharu in British Malaya (0140), hours later, the garrison there surrendered.
Singora, just across the border in Thailand This was the first American possession to
(0305), Singapore (0610), Guam (0805), fall into Japanese hands. At Wake Island,
Hong Kong (0900), Wake, and the Philip- the Marine detachment under Maj. James
pines.1
P. S. Devereux was better prepared for the
Landing operations began almost imme- enemy and offered heroic resistance. The
diately. By dawn, Japanese forces were in first attempt to land was beaten off and the
possession of Shanghai. Even as the first Japanese returned to Kwajalein to lick
bombs were dropping on Hong Kong, Jap- their wounds and collect more troops for
anese troops were on their way into the the next attempt. They were back at Wake
leased territory. By the end of that day on the 22d and the next morning landed in
they were only a few miles from Kowloon, force. That same day the garrison surwhich they took on the 13th. Hong Kong rendered.2
fell on Christmas Day.
The fall of Wake and Guam cut the line
Within an hour after the first bombard- of communications between Hawaii and
ment of Kota Bharu, Japanese troops from the Philippines and left the United States
Indochina began to land on the beaches with no Central Pacific base west of Midagainst bitter opposition. The same day,
2
when the main force of the 25th Army arLt. Col. Robert D. Heinl, Jr., The Defense of
rived, the beachhead was secured. The Wake (USMG Hist Sec, 1947); Opns of South Seas
landings at Singora were unopposed. Detachment, 1941-42, Japanese Studies in World
War II, No. 36, p. 3. For operations at Hong Kong
There, the troops marched down the east and in Malaya, see Japanese Landing Operations,
For those on the west side of the international date line, the "date which will live
in infamy" came on 8 December 1941.
Few responsible military or naval men had
believed that the Japanese would be able to
strike in more than one place. The number
and diversity of their attacks took the Allies
completely by surprise. During the early
morning hours of the 8th, Japanese naval
and air forces struck almost simultaneously
All times are Tokyo time.
December 8, 1941-June 8, 1942, Military Intelligence Service (MIS) Campaign Study 3.
78
way, 4,500 miles from Manila. But even

before this, on the first day of war, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had destroyed
the Battle Force of the Pacific Fleet and
nullified all plans to come to the aid of the
Philippines.
East of the date line, Vice Adm. C. Na-
gumo's Pearl Harbor Striking Force of six

carriers reached its launching position 200
miles north of Oahu exactly on schedule, at
0600 on the morning of 7 December (0100
of the 8th, Tokyo time). Two Jakes (Zerotype reconnaissance planes), which had
taken off at 0530 to reconnoiter, returned
with the report that, except for the richest
prize, the three carriers, the entire Pacific
Fleet was in port. Pilots of the First Air
Fleet, amidst shouts of "banzai" from their
comrades, took off from the flight decks
and climbed above the overcast into a magnificent sunrise. At 0750, while "Pearl
Harbor was still asleep in the morning
mist," 3 the Japanese planes came in over
the island. Five minutes later, just an
hour before Nomura presented his government's reply to Mr. Hull, they dropped their
first bombs.4
The next two hours of that Sabbath
morning in Hawaii were a nightmare.
Bombs and torpedoes dropped everywhere,
on the ships in the harbor, on Army installations, on depots, and other targets. Dive
bombers machine-gunned planes on the
ground and men on the ships. Within a
3
The quotation is from an account by a Japanese
naval officer and is quoted in Morison, Rising Sun
in the Pacific, p. 94.
4
At 0800, Admiral Kimmel broadcast the message: "Air Raid on Pearl Harbor. This is no drill.."
Secretary Knox, when he read the message in Washington, exclaimed, "My God! This can't be true,
this must mean the Philippines." Pearl Harbor
Attack Report, p. 439.

half hour every battleship at Pearl Harbor
had been badly damaged.
Hickam and Wheeler Fields were
struck in the first attacks. The Army
planes, parked in close order, wing tip to
wing tip, made perfect targets. By ten
o'clock the raid was over and the last Japanese planes had returned to their carriers,
leaving behind them death and destruction.
Tactical surprise had been as complete as
strategical surprise.5
The Japanese pilots knew exactly what
to go after. Though there were ninetyfour naval vessels in the harbor they concentrated on the Battle Force, sinking 3
battleships, capsizing 1, and damaging 4
more. In addition to the battleships, 3 light
cruisers, 3 destroyers, and miscellaneous
vessels were badly damaged. Ninety-two
naval planes were lost and 31 damaged.
The Army lost a total of 96 planes, including
those destroyed in depots and those later
stripped for parts. Army and Navy installations were badly hit. Fortunately, the
Japanese failed to destroy the repair shops
at Pearl Harbor or the oil tanks, filled to
capacity. The carriers, then at sea, escaped
the attack altogether. American casualties
for the day were 2,280 men killed and 1,109
wounded. The Japanese lost only 29 aircraft and 5 midget submarines. "The astoundingly disproportionate extent of
losses," concluded the Joint Committee
which investigated the attack, "marks the
5
The best account of the attack on Pearl Harbor
has been written by Morison, Rising Sun in the
Pacific, Ch. V. For the Air Forces story, see

War II, I, 194-201. Much personal testimony and
first-hand accounts of the attack can be found scattered through the Congressional hearings on the
Pearl Harbor attack. A summary of the action can
be found in Pearl Harbor Attack Report, pp. 53-72.
79
THE FIRST DAYS OF WAR

greatest military and naval disaster in our
Nation's history." 6
With this smashing blow, the Japanese
made obsolete the carefully prepared plans
of defense in the event of war in the
Pacific.7 The RAINBOW plan called for the
progressive movement of the Pacific Fleet
across the Central Pacific by the capture of
the Caroline and Marshall Islands and the
establishment of an advanced base at Truk.
The fleet would thus open the line of communications, establish superiority in the
western Pacific, and come to the relief of
the Philippine Islands. Along this protected line of communications would flow
the supplies and men that would enable
the Philippine garrison to beat back any
Japanese effort to seize the Islands. By
1000 on the morning of 7 December, the
force required to put RAINBOW into effect,
the Battle Force of the Pacific Fleet, lay in
ruins in Pearl Harbor. The Philippines
were isolated, cut off from the nearest base
5,000 miles away, even before they had felt
the first blow of the war. Their only hope
now lay with the Far East Air Force and
the Asiatic Fleet.
The Attack on Clark Field
The duty officer at Asiatic Fleet headquarters in the Marsman Building in Ma6
Pearl Harbor Attack Report, p. 65.
down of casualties is as follows:
nila on the night of 7-8 December (Philippine time) was Lt. Col. William T. Clem-
ent, USMC. At 0230 of the 8th (0800,

7 December, Pearl Harbor time), the
operator at the Navy station intercepted
the startling message, "Air Raid on Pearl
Harbor. This is no drill." Recognizing
the technique of the sender, an old friend
stationed at Pearl Harbor, the operator
brought the message to Colonel Clement.
Within a half hour, it was in Admiral Hart's
hands. He broadcast the news to the fleet
immediately, and then, with his chief of
staff, hurried to his office.8
Shortly after 0330 General Sutherland
received the news of the Pearl Harbor attack, not from the Navy but from commercial broadcasts. He passed the news on to
MacArthur over the private wire to the
general's penthouse apartment in the Manila Hotel, then notified all commanders
that a state of war existed with Japan.
Troops were ordered to battle position immediately.9
At Clark Field the news flash about Pearl
Harbor was also picked up from commercial broadcasts. The operator immediately
notified headquarters at the field and all
units were alerted. "I knew," Brereton
later wrote, "we could expect an attack
from the Japs any time after daylight." Before leaving for MacArthur's headquarters, he ordered Colonel Eubank, the
The break-
In an earlier volume of this series, Watson, Chief

of Staff, page 517, the number of dead is placed at
2,403, including civilians. Mr. Watson's figures
are from Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, page
126, and are based on 1947 estimates.
7
Min, JB Mtg, 8 Dec 41, OPD Reg Doc.
8
Hart, Narrative of Events, Asiatic Fleet, pp.
36-37; Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, pp. 168-
69. Captain Morison secured additional information from Admiral Hart by interview after the war.
9
Hunt, MacArthur and the War Against Japan,
p. 27; Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story,
p. 18; intervs, author with Col Diller, 24 Aug
49, Gens Sutherland and Marshall, 12 Nov 46 and
7 Apr 48, OCMH. Admiral Hart states that
Colonel Clement, unable to "get response from
USAFFE Headquarters," passed the news "to one
of the staff duty officers at his home." Ltr, Hart
to Maj Gen Orlando Ward, 19 Dec 51, OCMH.
80
bomber commander at Clark Field, to come

down to Manila at once. At about 0500 in
the morning Brereton was waiting outside
MacArthur's office for orders.10
By breakfast, the news of the attack on
Pearl Harbor had reached all ranks. The
men had for so long accepted the fact that
war with Japan might come that the event
itself was an anticlimax. There was no
cheering and no demonstration, but "a
grim, thoughtful silence."11 War with
Japan was not, for the American and Philippine troops, a remote war across a wide
ocean. It was close and immediate.
Prologue to Attack
On Formosa airfields, 500 miles away,
Japanese Army and Navy pilots were standing by, their planes gassed and ready to
take off for Luzon, when the first news of
Pearl Harbor reached Manila. Around
midnight of the 7th dense clouds of heavy
fog had closed in on the island, blanketing
airfields and preventing the scheduled takeoffs at dawn.
This unforeseen development filled the
Japanese commanders with nervous apprehension. The timetable for the attack was
extremely close and left little leeway. As
the early morning hours rolled by, anxiety
increased. By this time, the Japanese believed, the American high command in the
Philippines would have received news of
Pearl Harbor and either sent the Far East
Air Force southward or set up an effective
defense against the impending raid. All
hope of surprise would be lost.
Even more frightening was the possibility
10
Brereton, Diaries, pp. 38-39. It is evident from
internal evidence that the diary for this period was
put in its present form at a later date and cannot
therefore be considered always a contemporaneous
record.
11
Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 34.

that this delay would enable the heavy
bombers of the Far East Air Force to attack
the planes lined up on Formosa fields. Indeed, at 0800, the Japanese intercepted an
American radio message which they interpreted as meaning that such an attack
would come off in two hours. At 1010 a
Japanese plane mistakenly reported B-17's
approaching Formosa and the frightened
Japanese began passing out gas masks.12
Japanese fears of an American attack
against Formosa were not without foundation. Such plans had already been made
and target data had been prepared. The
objective folders were far from complete,
however, and lacked calibrated bomb-target
maps and bomb release lines for given
speeds and altitudes. "But we had something complete enough," thought Capt. Allison Ind, a Far East Air Force intelligence
officer, "to make this bombing mission a
very far cry from the blind stab it would
have had to be otherwise." 13
12
Interrog of Capt Takahashi Chihaya, Imperial
Japanese Navy (IJN), 20 Oct 45, and of Comdr
Ryosuke Nomura, Opns Officer, 23d Air Flotilla,
11th Air Fleet, 28 Nov 45, in USSBS, Interrogations of Japanese Officials, 2 vols. (Washington
1946) I, 74-76; II, 531; 14th Army Opns, I, 41.
It is difficult to understand the origin of the 0800
message. While there was discussion of such a raid
at USAFFE, there was no need to send radios on
the subject. It is possible that orders sending
B-17's at Clark aloft to avoid being caught on the
ground were in some way intercepted and misunderstood by the apprehensive Japanese. 14th Army
Opns, I, 41, refers to the report as "intelligence
reports," but does not indicate its origin any further.
5th Air Gp Opns, Japanese Studies in World War II,
No. 3, p. 6.
13
Lt. Col. Allison Ind, Bataan, The Judgment
Seat (New York, 1944), p. 92. Material used with
the permission of The Macmillan Company, publishers.
The official air force account of the attack on

Clark Field is contained in Craven and Cate, The
Army Air Forces in World War II, I, 201-14.
General Brereton has a full account in his Diaries,
pages 38-44, which must be considered as the evidence of an interested party in the dispute which
81
About this time the Far East Air Force

commander received a transoceanic telephone call from his air force chief, General
Arnold. Brereton explained what he was
trying to do, and Arnold told him what had
happened at Pearl Harbor, so that, as he
later explained, Brereton would not be
caught in the same way and have his "entire
air force destroyed."15
By this time, reports of enemy flights
were being received at air force headquarters and planes of the Interceptor Command
were sent up. Around 0800 the heavy
bombers at Clark Field were ordered aloft
on patrol, without bombs, to avoid being
caught on the ground.
At 1000 Brereton renewed his request to
take offensive action. "I personally called
General Sutherland," he says, "and inlater arose over responsibility for the disaster.
Army Air Action in Phil and NEI, Chapter III, formed him . . . that if Clark Field was attacked successfully we would be unable to
covers the Clark Field attack and is substantially
the same as that given in the air force history.
operate offensively with the bombers." 16
Official records of the events surrounding the
Again the request was denied. Ten minattack are practically nonexistent. An effort has
been made by the author to supplement the existing
utes later, Colonel Eubank started back to
accounts with interviews with those participants
Clark Field with instructions to dispatch a
not interviewed by the air force historians. Persons
photographic
reconnaissance mission iminterviewed were Generals Sutherland and R. J.
Marshall, Colonels Diller, Collier, and Campbell,
mediately to southern Formosa.
On his first visit to USAFFE headquarters about 0500, General Brereton had been
unable to see MacArthur and had talked
with Sutherland. At that time he had requested permission to carry out a daylight
attack against Formosa. MacArthur's chief
of staff had told him to go ahead with the
necessary preparations, but to wait for MacArthur's authorization before starting the
attack. Brereton returned to his headquarters at Nielson Field, where he talked with
Colonel Eubank, who had just flown down
from Clark Field. Orders were issued to
get the B-17's ready. At about 0715 Brereton apparently went to MacArthur's headquarters again to request permission to attack Formosa. Again he was told by
Sutherland to stand by for orders.14
the last of whom was aircraft warning officer of

USAFFE.
Mr. Walter D. Edmonds, who was commissioned
by the air force to write the account of air operations
in the Philippines, interviewed General Sutherland
in Manila in June 1945, as well as a large number
of air force officers. A copy of his notes taken on
the Sutherland interview is included in Army Air
Action in Phil and NEI, Appendix 9, and a portion
is printed in Craven and Cate, The Army Air Forces
in World War II, I, 205. The information Edmonds secured is directly at variance with information the present author secured in two interviews
with General Sutherland. Edmond's findings are
embodied in an article entitled "What Happened at
Clark Field," The Atlantic (July 1951), pp. 20-33.
14
Summary of Activities, Far East Air Force,
entry of 8 Dec 41, in Air University Hist Off. This
document is evidently a transcription from notes
hastily made during December 1941. Errors in
dating the year of entry are explained as the result
of "harried field conditions." Despite the imperfections of this document it remains one of the few
written contemporary sources for the events of
8 December 1941. Ltr, Col Wilfred J. Paul, Air
University Hist Off, to Gen Ward, 7 Dec 51,
OCMH. The official air force account in Craven
and Cate, The Army Air Forces in World War II,
I, 206 note, takes cognizance of the mistakes in
dating in this document. Edmonds, "What Happened at Clark Field," pages 24-26, contains an
excellent account of the discussions at air force
headquarters that morning.
15
Gen. Henry H. Arnold, Global Mission (New
York: Harper & Brothers, 1949), p. 272.
16
Brereton, Diaries, p. 40. The author has also
used a letter written by Brereton to the AAF Hist
Off expanding the diary entries. 1st Ind, Brereton
to Paul, 30 Jan 43, Air University Hist Off. See
also Edmonds, "What Happened at Clark Field,"
p. 25.
82
No sooner had those orders been issued
than Brereton received a telephone call
from General MacArthur. He told MacArthur that since Clark Field had not yet
been attacked, he would hold the bombers
in readiness until he received reports from
the reconnaissance mission already authorized. They agreed that if no reports
were received, the bombers would attack
Formosa late that afternoon. MacArthur
left to Brereton "the decision for offensive
action."17
Brereton called in his staff and told them
of his conversation with MacArthur. Orders were then dispatched to Clark Field to
call in the heavy bombers. Three were to
be readied for the photo reconnaissance
mission; the others were to be briefed for
offensive missions. At 1120 Field Order
No. 1 of the Far East Air Force was sent
by teletype to Clark Field. It confirmed
Brereton's instructions to Eubank, given at
1045, to attack southern Formosa with two
heavy bombardment squadrons "at the
latest daylight hour today that visibility will
permit." By 1130 the bombers were
back on the field, being loaded with 100and 300-pound bombs; the fighters had
also returned to base for refueling. At 1156
Brereton gave Sutherland a full report of
the situation over the telephone, and informed him that he planned to attack Formosa fields late that afternoon.18
General Sutherland's account of the pro17
entry of 8 Dec 41. General Brereton omits entirely any mention of his conversation with General
MacArthur, and states that he received the authorization to attack Formosa at 1100 from General
Sutherland. In an interview with the present
author in June 1951, Sutherland declared that he
does not recall that Brereton spoke with MacArthur
that morning. Brereton, Diaries, p. 41.
18
Summary of Activities, Far East Air Force, entry
of 8 Dec 41.

posed raid on Formosa differs from the air
force story. On one occasion, Sutherland
recollected that there had been some plan
to bomb Formosa on 8 December but that
"Brereton said he had to have the photos
first." On another occasion Sutherland
took the opposite and more consistent position that when Brereton asked for permission to attack Formosa, he, Sutherland, had
ordered a reconnaissance first.19
General MacArthur's statements do not
throw any light on this question. He had
received word from Washington early that
morning (at 0530) that hostilities with Japan had begun, and that he was to carry
out the tasks assigned in RAINBOW.20
Brereton's surmise, therefore, that he was
not permitted at first to attack Formosa because MacArthur was under orders not to
attack unless attacked first and that the
Pearl Harbor attack "might not have been
construed as an overt act against the Philippines" must be dismissed.21 MacArthur had authority to act, and RAINBOW
specifically assigned as one of his missions
"air raids against Japanese forces and installations within tactical operating radius
of available bases."22
19
The first version was given in his interview
with Walter D. Edmonds in Manila in June, 1945.
The second version was given in an interview with
the present author in November 1946. This author
interviewed Sutherland a second time in June 1951
and on being presented with both versions, Sutherland was most emphatic in asserting that it was he
who had ordered the reconnaissance because
Brereton did not have sufficient information to
warrant an attack against Formosa. USAFFE and
air force records do not contain any material relating to this incident.
20
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, No. 736, 7 Dec
41, WPD 4544-20.
21
Brereton, Diaries, p. 39n; ltr, Brereton to Paul,
Air University Hist Off.
22
Ltr, CofS to CG USAFFE, 21 Nov 41, sub:
U.S.-British Co-operation, incl, War Plan RAINBOW 5, WPD 4402-112.

General Brereton's surmise, however,
was not entirely without foundation. It
was evidently based on the 27 November
warning from the War Department. That
warning had stated that "if hostilities cannot be avoided the United States desires
that Japan commit the first overt act." 23
The War Department had been careful,
however, not to restrict MacArthur's freedom of action, and had authorized him
in the same message to "undertake such
reconnaissance and other measures as you
deem necessary" prior to hostile Japanese
action. In the event of war he was to execute the tasks assigned in RAINBOW.
In the period between the receipt of this
message and the outbreak of hostilities, the
B-17's had flown reconnaissance missions
north of Luzon in the direction of Formosa. Their search sectors, according to
General Sutherland, reached to "the southern edge of Formosa with one segment of
the pie running up the east coast of the island a little way." 24 But General Brereton
declares that he was instructed by MacArthur to limit reconnaissance to "twothirds of the distance between North Luzon
and Southern Formosa." 25 Later, he says,
he secured permission to extend the northern limit of the search sector to the international treaty boundary between the Philippines and Formosa.26 On the basis of Sutherland's statement, then, it was possible to
conduct a partial reconnaissance of Formosa before the war; according to Brereton there was no prewar reconnaissance on
MacArthur's orders.
23
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, 27 Nov 41, No.
624, WPD 4544-13; see above, Ch. IV, p. 71.
24
Interv, Edmonds with Sutherland, Jun 45, and
confirmed in interv, Morton with Sutherland, 12
Nov 46.
25
26
Ibid.
83
On Brereton's proposal to bomb Formosa, General MacArthur expressed himself most clearly. When Brereton's diaries
were published in 1946, MacArthur released a statement to the press recounting
in full his recollection of the events of 8
December 1941. The press release, issued
on 27 September 1946, read:
General Brereton never recommended an
attack on Formosa to me and I know nothing
of such a recommendation having been
made. . . . That it must have been of a most
nebulous and superficial character, as no official record exists of it at headquarters. That
such a proposal, if intended seriously, should

have been made to me in person by him; that
he never has spoken of the matter to me either
before or after the Clark Field attack. That
an attack on Formosa with its heavy concentrations by his small bomber force without
fighter support, which because of the great
distance involved, was impossible, would have
had no chance of success.27
On 8 December, in summarizing the results of the Japanese attack, MacArthur had

told the War Department: "I am launching a heavy bombardment counterattack
tomorrow morning on enemy airdromes in
southern Formosa." 28 It is evident, then,
that MacArthur himself planned, by the
afternoon or evening of the 8th, to execute
an attack against Formosa with the remaining B-17's.
Faced with these conflicting accounts, the
historian can be sure only of five facts: (1)
That an attack against Formosa was proposed ; (2) that such an attack was deferred
in favor of a photo reconnaissance mission
requested either by Brereton or Sutherland;
(3) that about 1100 on 8 December a strike
27
NewYork Times, September 28, 1946, p. 6.

Rad, MacArthur to AGWAR, No. 1133, 8 Dec
41. The raid was canceled the next day. Rad,
MacArthur to AGWAR, No. 1135, 9 Dec 41. Both
in AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
28
84
against Formosa, to take place that day, ceeding north," apparently referred to these
30
was finally authorized; (4) that the heavy Japanese Army planes.
By the time the false report of approachbombers were back on Clark Field after
1130 on the morning of 8 December; and ing B-17's had been received on Formosa,
(5) that MacArthur planned an attack the fog had lifted sufficiently to permit the
against Formosa for the morning of 9 naval planes of the 11th Air Fleet to take
off. At 1015, a force of 108 twin-engine
December.
bombers escorted by eighty-four Zeros set
out for Clark and Iba. Only the very best
The Attack
and most experienced pilots had been asThe Japanese, fearing an air attack signed to this important mission.31
As the Japanese planes approached northagainst Formosa, had meanwhile made
haste to get their planes off the ground. The ern Luzon, the airborne American aircraft
fog, which had grounded the 11th Air received the all-clear signal and were inFleet, had lifted to the east at dawn, per- structed to land. By 1130 nearly all the
mitting twenty-five twin-engine Army planes were back at their bases. The two
squadrons of B-17's were on Clark Field,
bombers to take off for Luzon.29
Shortly before 0900 the Japanese Army loading with gas and bombs for the raid
against Formosa. The 20th Pursuit Squadbombers were reported by the aircraft warnron was also at Clark after its vain attempt
ing service on Luzon to be heading south
to intercept the last Japanese flight. At
over Lingayen Gulf in the direction of Nichols, the 17th Pursuit Squadron, which
Manila. It was probably this report that had been covering Clark, was landing to
sent the B-17's at Clark Field aloft without refuel. The 3d and 34th Pursuit Squadbombs. The 20th Pursuit Squadron at rons were standing by at Iba and Del CarClark took off to intercept the strike and
men.32
the 17th Pursuit Squadron rose from NichShortly before 1130, reports of an apols Field to cover Clark. But the Japanese proaching enemy formation began comArmy planes, limited to targets north of ing in to the plotting board at Nielson.
the 16th latitude, turned east as they ap30

proached Lingayen Gulf. One group
8 Dec 41; Craven and Cate, The Army Air Forces
struck Tuguegarao at about 0930 while an- in World War II, I, 207-08; Edmonds, "What
other concentrated on barracks and other Happened at Clark Field," p. 24; 5th Air Gp Opns,
16; USSBS, Japanese Air Power (Washington,
installations at Baguio, the summer capital p.
1946), p. 7.
31
of the Commonwealth, where Quezon was
Japanese Naval Opns in Phil Invasion, pp.
staying at this time. The Japanese bomb- 6-7; interrog of Capt Takahashi and Comdr
USSBS, Interrogations of Japanese Offiers returned to base without having sighted Nomura,
cials, I, 75; II, 531.
32
any American aircraft. Far East Air Force
The account of the attack is based, except where
reports between 1000. and 1030 of a flight otherwise noted, on Craven and Cate, The Army
of enemy bombers, first in the Cagayan Air Forces in World War II, I, 207-13; Brereton,
Diaries, pp. 38-44; History of the Fifth Air Force
valley, and then "turned around and pro- (and its Predecessors); Edmonds, "What Happened
29
5th Air Gp Opns, p. 16.
at Clark Field," pp. 28-31; Japanese Naval Opns

in the Phil Invasion, p. 6; 5th Air Gp Opns, p. 12.

In addition to radar reports, almost every
postmaster along the northwest coast of
Luzon reported the high-flying enemy bombers to the air warning center by telephone
or telegraph.33 Colonel George, chief of
staff of the Interceptor Command, was in
the plotting room when the reports were
coming in, and predicted "that the objective of this formidable formation was Clark
Field." 34
At about 1145, according to Col. Alexander H. Campbell, the aircraft warning
officer, a warning message went out to
Clark Field by teletype. If the message did
not get through, as is frequently asserted,
this fact was not known to the officers in
the plotting room at Nielson. It is asserted
also that an attempt to warn the field by
radio over the Far East Air Force net was
made, but with no success. The reason for
this failure can only be guessed. Col. James
V. Collier, a G-3 officer in USAFFE headquarters, later stated, "The radio operator
had left his station to go to lunch," and
another source states, "Radio reception was
drowned by static which the Japanese probably caused by systematic jamming of the
frequencies."35 Apparently other available means of communication, such as the
long distance telephone lines, telegraph, and
the command radio net to Fort Stotsenburg,
were not used or thought of. Colonel
Campbell did get a telephone message
through to Clark Field and talked with an
unknown junior officer there. This officer
intended, said Campbell, to give the base
commander or the operations officer the
message at the earliest opportunity.36
33

34
Ibid.
35
Ibid., 50; Army Air Action in Phil and NEI,
p. 55.
36
Interv, author with Col Campbell, Sep 46;
Collier, Notebooks, 1,50. Colonel Campbell's note-
85
Meanwhile, Colonel George at Nielson
had dispersed his fighters to meet the attack. The 34th Squadron was ordered to
cover Clark Field; the 17th, the Bataan peninsula; and the 21st, the Manila area. The
3d Squadron at Iba was dispatched to intercept a reported enemy formation over
the South China Sea.37 At Clark Field, two
squadrons of B-17's and the 20th Pursuit
Squadron were still on the ground. Sometime shortly before 1145 the fighters were
ordered aloft as soon as refueling was completed to cover their own base.38
The 3d Pursuit Squadron took off from
Iba to intercept the enemy flight over the
South China Sea. A thick haze of dust
prevented the 34th at Del Carmen from taking off, and at 1215 the 20th Pursuit Squadron at Clark, whose planes had just completed refueling, made ready to take off.39
At that moment the first formation of
Japanese bombers appeared over Clark
book contains the following entry: Sgt. Alfred H.
Eckles, Hopkinsville, Ky., was on duty with Maj.
Sam Lamb's communication detail Hqrs. F. E. A. F.
Dec. 8th and carried message to Teletype operator
re flight of planes heading toward Clark Field, saw
it sent and acknowledged as received by them.
This at about 11:45 (?) A. M., about 30-45 min.
before arrival of bombers and bombing of Clark
Field. I, together with Coyle, George and Sprague
watched this particular flight for considerable length
of time. I kept urging them to do something about
it, but they insisted on waiting until they reached
a certain distance from field. Sprague typed wrote
out message showed it to George and myself. I
asked what "Kickapoo" meant in message. Was
told it meant, "Go get 'em." Sprague then took
message into Teletype Room for transmission, about
15 minutes before bombing.
37
World War II, I, 209.

38
Hist of Fifth Air Force, p. 16. This statement
would imply that Colonel George was in communication with the pursuit squadron at Clark Field
after 1145, although the Bomber Command could
not be reached at this time.
39
Hist of Fifth Air Force, p. 16.
86
Field.40 All but one of the B-17's was lined

up on the field and the fighters were just
getting ready to take off. After the warning of the Pearl Harbor attack, and after
the loss of several valuable hours because of
bad weather, the Japanese pilots did not
expect to find so rich a harvest waiting for
them. But they did not question their good
fortune. The first flight of Japanese planes

consisted of twenty-seven twin-engine
bombers. They came over the unprotected
field in a V-formation at a height estimated at 22,000 to 25,000 feet, dropping
their bombs on the aircraft and buildings
below, just as the air raid warning sounded.
As at Pearl Harbor, the Japanese achieved
complete tactical surprise.
The first flight was followed immediately
by a similar formation which remained
over the field for fifteen minutes. The
planes in this formation, as in the first, accomplished their mission almost entirely
without molestation. American antiaircraft
shells exploded from 2,000 to 4,000 feet
short of the targets. After the second formation of bombers, came thirty-four Zeros
which the Americans believed were carrier basedto deliver the final blow with
their low-level strafing attacks on the
grounded B-17's, and on the P-40's with
their full gasoline tanks. This attack lasted
for more than an hour.
With the first high wail of the siren, the
men on the field below streamed from the
mess halls. As the bombers passed over,
40
It is not possible to state the exact time of this
attack. Like so many other matters, this question,
too, is controversial. The author has selected this
time, about 1220, since it is supported by the weight
of evidence. Walter D. Edmonds gives the time as
1240 in his account of the attack. They Fought
With What They Had, pp. 100, 102n.

the Americans could see the falling bombs
glistening in the sunlight. Then came the
explosions, hundreds of them, so violent that
they seemed to pierce the eardrums and
shake the ground. Throwing aside momentary disbelief and stupefaction, the men
rushed to their battle stations. The scene
was one of destruction and horror, unbelievable to the men who only a few minutes before had been eating lunch or servicing the
planes. Flash fires sprang up and spread
rapidly to the trees and long cogon grass
around the field "roaring and crackling like
an evil beast." 41 Dense smoke and a heavy
cloud of dust rose over the field.
Against such odds, the Americans could
offer little opposition. The 200th Coast
Artillery (AA) experienced considerable
difficulty with its 3-inch gun ammunition,
the most recent of which was manufactured
in 1932. The percentage of duds was abnormally high and "most of the fuses were
badly corroded." Only one of every six
shells fired, says one observer, actually exploded.42 Acts of personal heroism were
commonplace. Ground and combat crews
manned the guns of the grounded planes,
and men dashed into flaming buildings to
rescue their comrades as well as supplies
and equipment. Others braved the strafing
gunfire to aid the wounded. One private
appropriated an abandoned truck and made
seven trips with wounded men to the station
hospital.
During the attack, 3 P-40's of the 20th
Pursuit Squadron managed to get into the
air, but 5 more were blasted by bombs as
41
42
Miller, Bataan Uncensored, p. 67.
Ibid.; Prov CA Brig (AA) Rpt of Opns, p. 3,

Annex IX, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns; interv,
author with Gen Sage, 28 Feb 51.

they taxied for the take-off.43 A similar
number was caught in the strafing attack.
The 3 airborne fighters shot down 3 or 4
Japanese fighters.
The 34th Pursuit Squadron, still at Del
Carmen, could see the great clouds of smoke
rising from Clark. The old P-35's of the
squadron finally managed to take off and
were soon in action against the superior
Zeros over Clark. Though outclassed and
outnumbered, the squadron knocked down
three enemy fighters without loss to itself.
But few of its planes were without serious
damage. The 17th and 21st Pursuit Squadrons, on patrol over Bataan and Manila,
made no effort to attack the Japanese aircraft, presumably because the communications center at Clark had been bombed out
and news of the raid did not reach the Interceptor Command in time to dispatch
aid.44
The 11th Air Fleet's attack against Clark
was even more successful than the worried
Japanese had expected. The operation had
been well planned and executed. The first
flights of bombers had concentrated on the
hangars, barracks, and warehouses, and left
them a burning ruin. Some of the grounded planes had been damaged in these bombings but the greatest casualties were inflicted by the low-level attacks of the Zeros
which followed. Casualties in men were
fifty-five killed and more than one hundred
wounded.
Simultaneously with the raid against
Clark, other 11th Air Fleet planes were at43
This account of the operations of the 20th Pursuit Squadron is based on an interview with the
squadron commander, Col. Joseph H. Moore, 12
August 1949. It varies slightly from the official
air force account which places four planes in the
air before the attack.
44
It is strange that the pilots over Bataan and
Manila did not see the heavy columns of smoke and
dust rising from Clark, only fifty miles away.
87
tacking the fighter base at Iba. The 12

planes of the 3d Pursuit Squadron, which
had been patrolling over the China Sea,
low on gas, returned to base. As they were
circling to land, Iba was struck by 54 Japanese twin-motored naval bombers escorted
by 50 Zeros. Effective action by the P-40's
resulted in the loss of 2 Japanese fighters
(probables) and kept the Zeros from carrying out the low-level attacks which were so
successful at Clark. But the losses at Iba
were almost as great as at Clark. Barracks,
warehouses, equipment, and the radar station were destroyed. Ground crews suffered heavy casualties and all but 2 of the
3d Squadron's P-40's were lost.
The reaction from Washington headquarters of the Air Forces was delayed but
explosive, despite a radio from MacArthur
stating that the losses had been "due to
overwhelming superiority of enemy
forces."45 General Arnold, when he received the news of the losses in the Philippines, "could not help thinking that there
must have been some mistake made somewhere in my Air Force command," and he
decided "to tell Brereton so." 46 Brereton
had just returned from an inspection of
Clark Field when he received a transoceanic
telephone call from an irate General Arnold
asking "how in the hell" an experienced
airman like himself could have been caught
with his planes down. Apparently he felt
his explanation had not satisfied General
Arnold, for he immediately reported the
conversation to MacArthur and asked his
help in presenting the situation to the Army
Air Forces chief. According to Brereton,
MacArthur was furious. "He told me to
go back and fight the war and not to worry,"
45
Rad, MacArthur to Arnold, 10 Dec 41, AG 381

(11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
46
Arnold, Global Mission, p. 272.
88
Brereton recorded in his diary. "As I

walked out of his office he asked Sutherland
to get General Marshall on the phone." 47
Unfortunately, there is no record of the telephone conversation that followed.
Thus, after one day of war, with its
strength cut in half, the Far East Air Force
had been eliminated as an effective righting
force. Of the modern combat aircraft,
only 17 of the original 35 B-17's remained.
Fifty-three P-40's and 3 P-35's had been
destroyed, and an additional 25 or 30 miscellaneous aircraft (B-10's, B-18's, and
observation planes) were gone. In addition, many of the planes listed as operational
were heavily damaged. Installations at
Clark and Iba were either burned out or
badly hit. Total casualties for the day
were 80 killed and 150 wounded. The
total cost to the Japanese was 7 fighters.48
The conclusion of the Joint Congressional
Committee which investigated the Pearl
Harbor attack, that it was the greatest military disaster in American history, is equally
applicable to the Philippines.
Post-Mortem
The catastrophe of Pearl Harbor overshadowed at the time and still obscures the
extent of the ignominious defeat inflicted on
American air forces in the Philippines on
the same day. The Far East Air Force had
been designed as a striking force to hit the
enemy before he could reach Philippine
47
Ibid.; Brereton, Diaries, p. 50. General Sutherland has no recollection of such a telephone-call.
Interv, author with Sutherland, 12 Jun 51.
48
Japanese Naval Opns in Phil Invasion, p. 7.
An additional fighter of the 4th Carrier Squadron
was lost at Davao. Craven and Cate, The Army

Air Forces in World War II, I, 213. There is some
disagreement on the number of P-40's lost, some
sources placing the figure as low as 42. USSBS,
Japanese Air Power, p. 7.

shores. The heavy bombers were an offensive weapon, thought capable of striking
the enemy's bases and cutting his lines of
communication. Hopes for the active defense of the Islands rested on these aircraft.
At the end of the first day of war, such hopes
were dead.
The tragedy of Clark Field, where the
heavy bombers were caught like so many
sitting ducks, becomes even more tragic
when one considers the strange sequence of
events that preceded it. Even before the
war, the danger of basing the B-17's on
Clark Field had been recognized. General
Mac Arthur had written to General Marshall on 29 November, "The location of
potential enemy fields and types of aircraft
indicate that heavy bombers should be located south of Luzon where they would be
reasonably safe from attack." He intended
at the time to base the bombers in the
Visayas.49 Time did not permit the construction of fields there, but before the outbreak of hostilities he did order General
Brereton to move the heavy bombers from
Clark Field to Mindanao.50
During the first week in December,
Brereton had sent two squadrons of B-17's
to the recently constructed field at Del
Monte in Mindanao. The decision to move
only two squadrons, Brereton states, was
based on the expected arrival from the
United States of the 7th Bombardment
Group which was to be stationed at Del
Monte. Had all the heavy bombers on
Clark been transferred to Mindanao, there
would have been no room for the 7th when
it arrived.51
49
3489-21.
50
New York Times, September 28, 1946, p. 6;
interv, author with Sutherland, 12 Nov 46.
51
89

General Sutherland's version of the same
incident differs considerably from that of
the air force commander. It was at his insistence, he recollected, that even the two
squadrons were sent south. "General
Brereton," he says, "did not want them to
go." Sutherland says he had ordered all
the B-17's moved to Del Monte. On checking, he had found that only half of the
planes had been sent and that General MacArthur's orders had not been obeyed.52
Wherever the responsibility lies for failing to move all the B-17's south, there still
remains the question of why the remaining
bombers were caught on the ground.
Brereton argues that had he been permitted
to attack Formosa when he wished, the
planes would not have been on the field.
Implicit is the assumption that if the raid
had been successful, the Japanese could not
have made their own attack. MacArthur
denied knowledge of such a proposal in
1946, but in a radio sent on 8 December
1941 he stated that he intended to attack
Formosa the next morning. General Sutherland, in one interview, claimed that Brereton was responsible for deferring the
attack, and in another interview, that he
himself deferred the attack because the Far
East Air Force did not have sufficient target
data for such an attack. It is clear that
this project was discussed by Brereton and
Sutherland, that MacArthur mentioned it
in a radio that day, and that authorization
to execute the attack was delayed until 1100
that morning.
Whether such an attack would have
had a serious chance of success is not argued by either Sutherland or Brereton.
Knowing now what the Japanese had at
52
Intervs, author and Edmonds with Sutherland.
General Kenney was also told this story by Sutherland. General Kenney Reports, p.. 27.
Formosa, the possibility of a successful raid

by the B-17's seems extremely remote.
The Far East Air Force admittedly had
sketchy information on the strength and
disposition of the Japanese forces on Formosa. Had it been known that there were
over five hundred Japanese planes waiting
on Formosa, ready to take off, it is doubtful
that anyone would have considered the
project seriously. Moreover, the B-17's
would have had to fly to Formosa, out of
fighter range, unescorted. Once there,
they would have been greeted by swarms of
Zeros. "An attack on Formosa, with its
heavy air concentrations," MacArthur
later wrote, ". . . was impossible, would
have had no chance of success." 53 Sutherland's request for a photo reconnaissance
mission prior to an attack would appear,
therefore, to have been entirely justified.
The heavy bombers were indeed far too
valuable to risk in so hazardous a mission.
Another unresolved question is why the
warning of approaching Japanese aircraft
did not reach the bomber commander at
Clark Field in time to meet the attack. All
forces in the Philippines had knowledge of
the attack on Pearl Harbor hours before the
first Japanese bombers appeared over Luzon. A dawn raid at Davao had given
notice that the Japanese had no intention
of bypassing the archipelago. The early
morning bombings on Luzon gave even
more pointed warning that an attack
against the major airbase in the Islands
could be expected. Colonel Campbell testifies that Clark Field had received word of
the approaching Japanese aircraft before
the attack. Colonel Eubank states that no
such warning was ever received. Other officers speak of the breakdown of commu53
New York Times, September 28, 1946, p. 6.
90
nications at this critical juncture. There
is no way of resolving this conflicting
testimony.
Assuming that Colonel Eubank did not
receive the warning from Nielson Field,
there still remains one final question. Were
the aircraft on the field adequately dispersed for wartime condition? It is not
possible to state definitely how the aircraft
were dispersed when they came in at 1130.
There surely must have been some recognition of the danger of an enemy air attack at
any moment. The Japanese state that they
were "surprised to find the American aircraft lined up on the field." 54 And at least
one flight of four B-17's was lined neatly
on the field when the Japanese came over.
Captain Ind tells of finding photographs,
one of which was taken by an American
pilot flying over the field, showing the
planes inadequately dispersed for any but
high-level bombing attacks. "This entire
set of photographs," he says, "was removed
from my desk a few nights later, No one
seemed to know what had happened to
them." 55 This question, like the others,
remains unanswered.
The full story of the events which preceded the Japanese air attacks against the
Far East Air Force on the first day of the
war will probably never be known. There
was no time for reports, and if any records
ever existed they have since been lost. The
historian must rely on the memories of participants whose stories conflict at numerous
points. General Arnold, eight years after
the event, wrote that he was never able "to
get the real story of what happened in the
Philippines." Brereton's diary, in his opin-
ion, did not provide "a complete and accurate account," and General Sutherland's
story "does not completely clear it up, by
any means." 56
Whatever the answers to the questions
one may ask about the events of 8-9 December 1941 on Luzon, the significance of
these events is clear. As at Pearl Harbor,
the Japanese had removed in one stroke the
greatest single obstacle to their advance
southward. The Philippine garrison could
expect little help in the near future. It was
now almost entirely surrounded. The only
path open lay to the south, and that, too,
soon would be closed.
The Fleet Moves South

The mission of the Asiatic Fleet in the
event of war was to support the defense of
the Philippines "as long as that defense
continues." The actual employment of local naval defense forces was entrusted to
the commander of the 16th Naval District,
who was responsible for the joint tactical
and strategical employment of his forces in
co-operation with the Army. The commander of the Asiatic Fleet, at his discretion
and when the situation demanded, was authorized to "shift base to British and Dutch
ports." 57
The. force assigned for this task was pitifully small and deployed over a distance of
more than 1,500 miles, from northern Luzon to Borneo. In the Manila Bay area
were 5 destroyers, 2 of which were under
repair and 3 on patrol; 27 submarines with
their 3 tenders3 of the underwater craft
56
54
Interrog of Comdr Nomura, 28 Nov 45, USSBS,

Interrogations of Japanese Officials, II, 531; Japanese Naval Opns in Phil Invasion, p. 6.
55
Ind, Bataan, The Judgment Seat, p. 101.
Arnold, Global Mission, p. 272.

Navy Basic War Plan RAINBOW 5 (Short Title:
WPL-46), 26 May 41, Ch. III, reproduced in
Pearl Harbor Attack Hearings, Exhibit 129, Part
18, p. 2875.
57

were being overhauled; 28 Catalinas (twinengine patrol bombers or PBY's); 4 utility
planes; and 1 observation plane. The
planes were organized into Patrol Wing 10
under Capt. F. D. Wagner, with one full
squadron operating from Sangley Point,
Cavite, and the remainder from Olongapo.
In addition, there were 6 gunboats, a similar number of motor torpedo boats, 5 minesweepers, and other auxiliary craft in the
area. At Mariveles was the floating dry
dock Dewey. The installations of the 16th
Naval District, commanded by Rear Adm.
Francis W. Rockwell, were centered in Manila and Subic Baysat Cavite, Corregidor, and Olongapowith approximately
2,000 officers and men assigned. The reorganized and strengthened 4th Marines,
with a strength of 1,600 and commanded by
Col. Samuel L. Howard, was at Olongapo.58
The bulk of the surface strength of the
Asiatic Fleet, organized into Task Force
5, was based south of Manila Bay. The
flagship of the task force, the heavy cruiser
Houston, was at Iloilo, in Panay. The
light cruiser Boise, which belonged to the
Pacific Fleet, was also in the Visayas, off
Cebu, where she had gone after her arrival
in Manila on 4 December with an Army
convoy. At the Dutch Borneo port of
Tarakan was the light cruiser Marblehead
accompanied by 5 destroyers, and at Balikpapan were 4 more destroyers and a tender.59 The remaining 2 submarines of the
58
30 ff; Morison, The Rising Sun in the Pacific, pp.
158-60. Strength of the 16th Naval District and
4th Marines was obtained from papers lent to the
author by Admiral Rockwell, and from rad, COM
16 to OPNAV, 31 Dec 41, Off of Naval Rcds.
59
The deployment of the fleet southward had
been made as a result of the war warning of 27
November which ordered a "defensive deployment."
91
Asiatic Fleet were on patrol off the Luzon
coast, 1 in Lingayen Gulf and another in
Sorsogon Bay. Patrolling to the south and
linking up with the Dutch patrols from
Borneo were 2 small aircraft detachments,
1 at Davao and another on a small island
south of Palawan.60
On the morning of 8 December, the only
portion of the Asiatic Fleet to come under
fire was the small aircraft detachment at
Davao with the tender Preston. After the
attack from the Ryujo-based dive bombers
and fighters, Preston let pass four Japanese
destroyers, and then slipped out of Davao
Gulf to escape southward.
Before noon of the 8th, Rear Adm. William A. Glassford, commander of Task
Force 5 and recently arrived from China,
left by plane for Iloilo to hoist his flag
aboard the Houston. He was joined there
by the Boise from Cebu. That evening the
aircraft tender Langley, protected by two
destroyers, slipped out of Manila Bay under
cover of darkness to join the cruisers at
Panay. From there Glassford, on orders
from Admiral Hart, led his small fleet south
to Dutch Borneo to pick up oil and to assemble the rest of his force. He met no
enemy ships on the way, only a long line
of merchant vessels making good their escape.61 Thus, by the end of the first day
of war, the striking force of the Asiatic
Ltr, Hart to Ward, 19 Dec 51, OCMH. The destroyers at Balikpapan were ordered to Batavia on
6 December, and en route were redirected to Singapore. They were later recalled to Borneo to join
the rest of Task Force 5. Hart, Narrative of
Events, Asiatic Fleet, pp. 36, 41.
60
The disposition of the fleet is also covered in
The Java Sea Campaign, Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) Combat Narratives, pp. 1-6.
61
The Java Sea Campaign, ONI Combat Narrative,
pp. 4-6.
92
The air attack against Formosa which

General MacArthur had promised for the
9th never materialized.65 At 0800 one
B-17 took off from Clark Field for a photo
reconnaissance
mission over Formosa but
The Japanese Gain Air and Naval
was
forced
back
because of mechanical difSupremacy
ficulty. Army fighters flew reconnaissance
The Japanese followed up their successes missions over northern Luzon and the
of the first day of war with a series of air PBY's of Patrol Wing 10 continued their
attacks aimed at destroying or driving patrols to the west and northwest. NuAmerican air and naval power from the merous reports of enemy sightings were rePhilippines. Before dawn of the 9th 7 Japceived but on investigation proved to be
anese naval bombers struck Nichols Field unfounded. Such reports, Hart noted,
near Manila. The Japanese had planned a placed all Japanese vessels in one of two
larger attack but the fog had again rolled categories, "either a Transport or a Battlein over Formosa during the early morning ship !" 66 The Japanese also searched north
hours. The 7 bombers were enough to do Luzon during the day for evidence of Amerthe job. The loss of 2 or 3 P-40's, as well ican air activities.67
as other planes, and the destruction of
On the 9th, the thirteen heavy bombers
ground installations completed the havoc on Mindanao moved forward to Luzon.
begun at noon the previous day.62
Six of the Flying Fortresses landed at illOn the 9th ground crews worked des- fated Clark Field at 1430; the rest reached
perately to patch up the damaged planes, San Marcelino, an emergency field along
and units were reorganized. Antiaircraft the west coast of Luzon, later in the afterdefenses, especially in the Manila area, noon. The B-17's at Clark refueled and
were strengthened, and one battery of the took off immediately after their arrival, re60th Coast Artillery (AA) which had left maining in the air until dark to avoid being
Corregidor after dark on the 8th was in po- caught on the ground as had the others the
day before.68
sition on the morning of the 9th to furnish
local protection for the port area, Nichols
65
Field, and the oil storage and railroad
41,
AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
63
66
yards.
About five hundred men of the
200th Coast Artillery (AA) from Clark Brereton, Diaries, p. 45; interv, Edmonds with
Sutherland, Jun 45.
67
Field were dispatched to Manila during the
68
day, supplied with equipment from the
World War II, I, 214. There seems to be some
Philippine Ordnance Depot, and organized confusion as to the number of B-17's at Del Monte.
into a provisional antiaircraft regiment, later The History of the Fifth Air Force states that only
12 heavy bombers were based there. Brereton
designated the 515th.64
Fleet, Task Force 5, was steaming south,
and on 10 December had left Philippine
waters.
states that 16 B-17's had gone to Mindanao on
62

World War II, I, 213; Japanese Naval Opns in
Phil Invasion, pp. 6-7.
63
Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, p. 18.
64
Prov CA Brig Rpt of Opns, p. 1.
the 5th, and Craven and Cate, as well as Brereton,

state that 13 flew up from Mindanao to Clark Field
on the 9th. Brereton, Diaries, pp. 36, 44-45;
War II, I, 214. The author has accepted these
last figures.
JAPANESE AIR ATTACK ON 10 DECEMBER 1941 left warehouses on fire at

Nichols Field, above; below, at Cavite Navy Yard, small-arms shells explode (left)
as the torpedo-loaded barge (center) burns.
94
The weather over Formosa on the morning of 10 December was threatening, but
the Japanese, anticipating a change for the
better, decided to press their advantage.
Naval planes took off about 1000 to strike
Luzon again. This time the target was the
Manila Bay area.69 First warning of the
approach of Japanese planes reached the
Interceptor Command at Nielson Field at
1115, and fighters were immediately dispatched to cover Manila Bay, the port area,
and Bataan. A half hour later, the enemy
aircraft hit the Del Carmen Field near
Clark, and the Nichols and Nielson Fields,
near Manila. So severe was the attack
against Nichols and so great the number
of bombs dropped that the men at Nielson,
nearly two miles away, thought the bombs
were falling on their own field. The pattern set at Clark Field two days earlier was
repeated. High-level bombers came in first
and hit the barracks, offices, and warehouses. The fighters then came in at low
level to strafe the grounded planes and installations. American planes returning to
refuel were attacked by Zeros and destroyed.
There was no antiaircraft fire and no fighter
protection over the field; all the pursuits
were engaged over Manila Bay.70
The naval base at Cavite received no
less attention than Nichols Field. The
Japanese force had divided north of Manila,
and part had turned east toward the army
installations. The rest, 54 bombers, had
continued south toward Cavite on the south
shore of Manila Bay. Half of these bombers attacked ships and small craft in the
bay and the remainder went on toward the
69
Japanese Naval Opns in Phil Invasion, pp. 7-8.

Ind, Bataan, The Judgment Seat, pp. 119-20;
War II, I, 218; Diary of Cpl L. Arthutick, 17th
Pursuit Sq, OCMH; Japanese Naval Opns in Phil
Invasion, p. 7.
70

naval base. With maddening deliberation,
the bombers flew over Cavite, dropping
their bombs from a height of 20,000 feet,
above the range of the 9 3-inch antiaircraft
guns protecting the base. Almost every
bomb fell within the navy yard. After the
first run, the first flight withdrew and the
other 27 bombers, having completed their
attack against ships in the bay, flew in to
strike the target.71
The attack lasted for two hours. As at
Clark and Nichols, the opposition was feeble
and the damage extensive. The entire yard
was set ablaze; the power plant, dispensary,
repair shops, warehouses, barracks, and
radio station received direct hits. Greatest
damage was done by the fire which spread
rapidly and was soon out of control. Admiral Rockwell estimated that five hundred
men were killed or seriously wounded that
day.72 The large submarine Sealion received a direct hit, but Seadragon was
pulled away in time by its tender. The
most serious loss to the submarine force,
however, was the destruction of well over
two hundred torpedoes.73
Throughout the attack, Admiral Hart
had watched the destruction of Cavite from
atop the Marsman Building. That night,
after receiving an account of the damage
done, he reported to the Chief of Naval Operations in Washington that he regarded
Manila untenable as a naval base since the
71
Admiral Rockwell, Narrative of Naval Activities in Luzon Area, 1 Dec 41-19 Mar 42, p. 4, Off
of Naval Rcds; Japanese Naval Opns in Phil Invasion, p. 7; Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific,
p. 171.
72
Rockwell, Naval Activities in Luzon Area, p. 4.
73
Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, p. 172; The
Java Sea Campaign, ONI Combat Narrative, p. 6.
Admiral Hart states that the submarine torpedoes
had been moved to Corregidor and that the torpedoes lost were destroyer torpedoes. Ltr, Hart to
Ward, 19 Dec 51, OCMH.
95
enemy had control of the air, but promised Cavite were burning more fiercely than
to "continue submarine and air operations ever. Evidently there was no chance of
as long as possible." 74 He then sent 2 de- saving the yard. When Rockwell reported
stroyers, 3 gunboats, 2 submarine tenders, to Hart in Manila that day the two men
and 2 minesweepers south to join Task agreed to salvage as much as possible from
Force 5. "It is unfortunate," he noted in the ruins. Remaining supplies were to be
his report, "that two or three additional distributed among the installations at
small ships were not sent south at this Manila, Corregidor, and Mariveles. The
base at Sangley Point was to be maintained
time." 75
as long as possible, and when no longer
The naval vessels were not the only ships
to move south. At the start of the war tenable the radio station and fuel supply
were to be moved to Corregidor.78
there had been about forty large merchant
Meanwhile, the Japanese air force conships, many with valuable cargoes, in Matinued the systematic destruction of the air
nila Bay. The Navy had promptly closed
and naval forces remaining in the Philipthe bay to all outbound traffic, and had
pines. There had been no raids on the
extinguished the lighthouses on Corregidor
11th, largely because the weather over
and two other outlying islands.76 FortuFormosa had been bad. The planes renately the merchant vessels had escaped
attack during the first day of operations. turning from the raid on the 10th had been
In the next two days, many commercial forced to set down wherever they could,
thus scattering units among the many Forvessels sought protection in Manila Bay and
mosan fields. The next day was spent in
were guided through the mine fields by the
79
On the 12th
inshore patrol. During the attack of the reassembling the units.
and
13th
the
Japanese
again
attacked
10th, the Japanese had dropped a few
in
force.
On
these
two
days
hundreds
of
bombs among these ships, scoring one hit.
Japanese
Army
and
Navy
planes
struck
Admiral Hart had told the shipmasters on
targets on Luzon at will in a final effort to
the 11th that their vessels would be safer
in Visayan ports, and that evening the com- destroy the remnants of the Far East Air
Force and the Asiatic Fleet.
mercial vessels began to steam out of Manila
By this time American air power was at
Bay. All but one finally escaped.77 The
a low ebb. There were only 22 P-40's in
Japanese had missed a golden opportunity
commission, with 6 more promised if they
to cripple Allied shipping.
could be repaired in time. In addition,
On the morning of the 11th the fires at
between 5 and 8 P-35's and a handful of
74
Rad, GINCAF to OPNAV, 10 Dec 41, 101330,
the obsolete P-26's were operational. SixWar Diary of 16th Naval Dist, Off of Naval Rcds.
teen heavy bombers were still in commisThe Navy Department approved Hart's action and
sion but 5 of these were suitable only for
at a meeting of the Joint Board on 10 December
informed the Army of Hart's decision. Min, JB
low-altitude flights and another 4 were not
Mtg, 10 Dec 41, OPD Reg Doc.
fit for tactical missions. With the Far
75
Hart, Narrative of Events, Asiatic Fleet, p.. 39.
76
East Air Force thus reduced in strength it
Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, p. 17. Later,
on 16 December, limited use of the lighthouse on
Corregidor was allowed.
77
Ibid.; Hart, Narrative of Events, Asiatic Fleet,
pp. 39-40.
78
Rockwell, Naval Activities in Luzon Area, pp.
5-6,
79
Japanese Naval Opns in Phil Invasion, pp. 7-8.
96
was decided to use the remaining planes
for reconnaissance in order to conserve them
thur reported at the end of the day that "the

crescendo of enemy air offensive was rapidly
as long as possible. The pursuit planes

were based at Clark and Nichols, and the
heavy bombers were withdrawn to Del
Monte. On the morning of the 12th few
rising," with attacks by at least 113 planes.

"Pilots have been ordered to avoid direct
combat," he explained, in order to make a
"show of strength and to have air reconnaissance."83
American planes remained to hinder the

Japanese.80
The enemy attack on the 12th came at
noon, the hour when Clark and Cavite had
been hit. Sixty-three naval bombers from
Takao in Formosa arrived over Central Lu-
The next day almost 200 Japanese planes

were over Luzon. The first attack came at
dawn against Del Carmen. At 1030 and
zon between 1130 and 1200 and struck Iba

and Clark Fields. Only a small number of
at 1100 Clark Field was attacked. About

the same time Baguio and Tarlac were hit.
These early strikes were made by Army
planes. At 1230 the naval bombers put in
planes flew over Clark; the remainder delivered the main attack against Iba, reporting the destruction of ten planes on the
ground.81
That morning, the PBY's at Olongapo
had been dispatched on a fruitless search
for a nonexistent Japanese carrier reported
an appearance. During the afternoon, Del

Carmen, Clark, Nichols, Cabanatuan, and
Batangas were hit at least once. The fields,
already strewn with wrecked planes, received further damage. Over Subic Bay
additional PBY's were destroyed, leaving
less than a full squadron in Patrol Wing 10.
They were followed
By the end of the day, American Army and
in by a Japanese force of Zeros which had

been escorting a large number of bombers
in a scheduled strike against one of the
Manila fields. When the mission was canceled on account of poor weather over the
target, the Zeros sought targets elsewhere.
The returning PBY's offered an opportunity too good to be missed. Unseen by the
Americans, the Japanese planes waited for

the seven Navy patrol bombers to land, and
Navy air power in the Philippines had been

virtually destroyed.84
One thing was clear to Admiral Hart by
this time: the United States forces in the
Philippines were on their own. With the
loss of air power the possibility of effective
naval support was extremely limited and the
sea lanes along which reinforcements could
be expected to travel were closed. He felt,
therefore, that he must salvage what he
then destroyed them at leisure.82 These

same planes then went on to attack Batangas before returning to Formosa. MacAr-
could of the Asiatic Fleet for later operations in the defense of the Malay Barrier.
On 14 December he sent out the remaining
off the Luzon coast.
80

World War II, I, 218-19; Brereton, Diaries, p. 51;
Ind. Bataan, The Judgment Seat, p. 124; Hist of
Fifth Air Force, p. 22.
81
American sources do not mention an attack at Iba.
82
Ibid.; Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, p. 173.
bombers of Patrol Wing 10, together with

three tenders and such extra personnel
83
Rad, Mac Arthur to AGWAR, 12 Dec 41, AG

381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
84
5th Air Gp Opns, p. 22; Japanese Naval Opns
in Phil Invasion, p. 8; The Java Sea Campaign,
ONI Narrative, p. 7.

and spare parts as could be carried southward.85 Staff officers, including the chief
of staff of the Asiatic Fleet, followed by
plane and by boat. All that remained of
the Asiatic Fleet in Philippine waters were
2 destroyers (1 under repair), 6 motor torpedo boats, 2 tenders, 3 gunboats, and various small craft, in addition to the 27 submarines. Admiral Hart himself decided to
remain in Manila as long as the underwater
craft could be operated and serviced from
there.86
The position of the heavy bombers in
Mindanao had by now become precarious.
The Japanese were flying extensive reconnaissance missions in an effort to discover
the remaining American aircraft. Thus far
they had been unable to find the Del Monte
field, but it was only a question of time before this last haven would be discovered and
destroyed. Moreover, it was becoming increasingly difficult to service the B-17's with
the inadequate facilities at Del Monte.
There were no spare parts, engines, or propellers for the B-17's in the Philippines;
B-18's and damaged B-17's had to be cannibalized to keep the bombers flying. The
only tools were those in the possession of
the crews. The men who worked on the
planes all night often got no rest the next
day because of air alerts. On some days the
heavy bombers had to remain aloft during
the daylight hours to avoid destruction on
the ground. They dodged back and forth
97
between Mindanao and Luzon, playing "a
game of hide-and-seek that wore out men
as well as planes." 87
Under these conditions, it was evident
that the remaining heavy bombers could
not operate efficiently in the Philippines.
General Brereton therefore requested authority on 15 December to move the B-17's
to Darwin in northwest Australia, 1,500
miles away, where they could be based
safely and serviced properly. His intention
was to operate from fields near Darwin, using Clark and Del Monte as advance bases
from which to strike enemy targets in the
Philippines. Sutherland approved the plan
the same day and secured General MacArthur's concurrence. The planes were immediately prepared for the long flight
southward, and two days later the first group
of B-17's left Del Monte airfield. By the
following evening ten of the bombers had
reached Batchelor Field outside Darwin.
They had left Mindanao none too soon,
for on the 19th the field at Del Monte received its first major air attack from Japanese planes based on the carrier Ryujo88
By 15 December the air strength of the
Philippines had been reduced to a handful
of fighters. All hopes for preventing the
main Japanese landings soon to come and
for keeping the supply routes open rested
now on these few planes and on the submarines of the Asiatic Fleet.
87
Brereton, Diaries, p. 55.

Hist of Fifth Air Force, p. 21; Brereton, Diaries,
pp. 55, 57, 59; Craven and Cate, The Army Air
Forces in World War II, I, 221-22. The Darwinbased B-17's flew missions against the Japanese in
Mindanao on 22 and 24 December.
88
85
Hart, Narrative of Events, Asiatic Fleet, p. 41.

Ibid.; rad, CINCAF to Naval Observer, Singapore, 16 Dec 41, 160755, War Diary of 16th Naval
Dist, Off of Naval Rcds.
86
CHAPTER VI
The First Landings

The Japanese did not wait for the destruction of American air and naval forces
to begin landings in the Philippine Archipelago. Hours before the first Japanese
plane had taken off to attack targets in the
Philippine Islands, three task forces had
sailed south from Formosa ports under cover
of darkness on the evening of 7 December
(Tokyo time). Their destination was the
Philippine Islands; two were to land on
northern Luzon, and the third was headed
for the tiny island of Batan about 150
miles to the north. The next day another
task force left Palau and steamed toward
Legaspi, near the southeast tip of Luzon.
At the same time, a fifth task force, scheduled to seize Davao, the principal port in
Mindanao, was assembling at Palau.
(Map 3)
Altogether, the Japanese planned six advance landings: Batan Island, Aparri, Vigan, Legaspi, Davao, and Jolo Island. All
but the last two were on or near Luzon
and were designed to provide the Japanese
with advance bases from which short-range
fighters could attack the fields of the Far
East Air Force and support the main landings to follow. A base at Legaspi, the Japanese believed, would, in addition to providing an airfield, give them control of San
Bernardino Strait, between Luzon and
Samar, and prevent the Americans from
bringing in reinforcements. The landings
at Davao and Jolo Island were designed to
secure advance bases for a later move southward into the Netherlands Indies. The
Japanese hoped also, by landing in Mindanao, to isolate the Philippine Archipelago

from Allied bases to the south and to cut
the American route of withdrawal and
supply.
The forces assigned to these landings were
small, even for such limited objectives. But
to secure so many detachments for the advance landings, General Homma had had to
weaken seriously the two combat divisions
Imperial General Headquarters had allotted to him for the Philippine invasion. Not
one of the advance landing detachments was
strong enough to withstand a determined
counterattack; the largest was only about
as large as a regiment, and the smallest was
hardly stronger than a company. Moreover, the timetable for invasion was a complicated one and could easily be upset by
any unexpected event.
It has been claimed that the preliminary
landings were part of a clever Japanese
scheme to draw the American forces toward widely separated points and then cut
them off by later landings.1 There is no
evidence for such a view. General Homma
had no intention of drawing the American
troops to the landing points and was not
naive enough to hope to deceive the Americans by so obvious a ruse. Nor did he have
the troops to spare for such an effort. The
size of the forces assigned to the preliminary
1
Japanese Land Opns, 8 Dec 41-8 Jun 42, Campaign Study 3, 18 Nov 42, MIS; Wainwright, The
Wainwright Story, p. 27; Hunt, MacArthur and the
War Against Japan, p. 36.
100
landings and the places selected for the

landings revealed their true purpose almost
immediately to the American command.
The Americans did not oppose the Batan

Island landing and seem to have been entirely unaware of it. In fact, General MacArthur reported on the 9th after the
Batan Island landing, that the enemy had
Batan Island
not yet landed.3 It is extremely unlikely
The first Japanese invaders on Philip- that even if USAFFE had been warned of
pine soil went ashore on Batan Island in the assault any effort would have been made
Luzon Strait, midway between Formosa to meet it. On the morning of the 8th,
and Luzon, at dawn 8 December. The American planes were being sent aloft to
invasion force, which had left the For- intercept reported enemy flights over Luzon.
mosan ports of Takao and Hozan on the By the 10th the Far East Air Force had
evening of the 7th, consisted of 2 transports already been reduced to half strength, and
escorted by 1 destroyer, 4 torpedo boats, the Japanese had begun to land on the
and a large number of other small vessels. island of Luzon itself.
Aboard the transports was a naval combat
unit of 490 men as well as air corps troops
The Landings on North Luzon
who were to establish an airbase on the isLuzon is a curiously shaped island. The
land. The combat troops quickly seized
the airfield near Basco, and air force troops northern part of the island is about 125
came ashore! to inspect the field. It was miles wide, with only one major indentafound to be barely suitable for fighter and tion along the west coast, at Lingayen Gulf.
reconnaissance planes, but to require ex- Mountain ranges extend along the east and
pansion for large-scale operations. The west coasts to the central plains just above
next day, while construction crews worked Manila. The range on the east extends
on the field, planes of the 24th and 50th southward to Tayabas Bay. To the west of
Fighter Regiments began operations from the central plain are the Zambales Mounthe Basco base.
tains which face the South China Sea across
When the success of the attack on Clark a narrow coastal plain. The southern porField became known, the Japanese discon- tion of Luzon is narrow and irregular in
tinued work on the Batan Island field. shape, trailing away in a southeasterly diSuch a base was now unnecessary. Early rection for 180 miles.
North of Manila, the island of Luzon is
on the morning of the 10th, the men of the
3d Gunboat Division, part of the Batan At- shaped like a mittened, giant right hand,
tack Force, seized Gamiguin Island to the palm down, with the index finger pointing
south. A seaplane base was immediately directly at Formosa. Lingayen Gulf lies
established on the island by the naval base between the thumb and the forefinger.
force, thus providing the Japanese with an From Lingayen south across the top of the
airbase only thirty-five miles north of hand, like so many veins, are the highways
and roads leading to Manila. At the tip of
Aparri.2
the ring finger lies Aparri, and midway
2
14th Army Opns, I, 40; Japanese Naval Opns

in Phil Invasion, p. 11; 5th Air Gp Opns, pp. 12,
16; Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, pp. 161, 174.
3
41, AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
LUZON
102
along the forefinger is Vigan. Both were
next on the Japanese timetable for invasion.
Aparri was, before the war, a fairly large
port with a population of 26,500. Located
at the mouth of the Cagayan River and at
the head of the Cagayan valley, with
formidable mountain ranges to the east,
west, and south, Aparri could be reached
from the central plains only by way of
Balete Pass from the south or by the coastal
road around the northern tip of Luzon.
The most direct route from Manila to
Aparri, along Route 5 through the pass,
was 275 miles long; the more circuitous
route along the coast was 100 miles longer.
The Americans could safely assume that
any force landing at Aparri would not have
Manila as its destination. The Cagayan
valley was not the route of invasion.
Vigan, the capital of Ilocos Sur Province,
lies on the western shore of Luzon, about
220 miles north of Manila on Route 3. To
the east lie the Cordillera Mountains separating the Cagayan valley from the narrow
coastal plain. About three miles south of
Vigan is the mouth of the Abra River, one
of the five principal waterways of Luzon.
The port for Vigan is Pandan, on the north
bank of the river's mouth, linked to the
provincial capital by a hard-surface, allweather road.
Both Aparri and Vigan were in the area
defended by General Wainwright's North
Luzon Force. With only three Philippine
Army divisions, a Philippine Scout cavalry
regiment and infantry battalion, one battery of field artillery, and a quartermaster
troop, General Wainwright had to defend
an area about 625 miles long and 125 miles
wide at its widest point. The most he could
spare for the entire northern portion of

Luzon was one partially trained and
equipped Philippine Army division, the
11th, commanded by Col. William E.
Brougher. His task was made even more
difficult by the absence of headquarters personnel and corps troops necessary to direct
and support operations in so large an area.
The 11th Division, like the other Philippine Army reserve divisions, had begun to
mobilize in September. At the start of the
war, its infantry regiments were only at twothirds their authorized strength of 1,500
men per regiment; its artillery was in the
process of mobilization and had not yet
joined the division; service elements had
joined, but had not yet been organized or
trained as units. Transportation was practically nonexistent. The division suffered
from a serious shortage of equipment. Individual training, especially in rifle marksmanship, scouting, and patrolling, was inadequate. Only one regiment of the
division had begun to train in units larger
than company or battery size.4
The 11th Division, with responsibility for
the entire area north of Lingayen Gulf, was
spread butter thin. Most of the division
was in position along the gulf as far north
as San Fernando, La Union.5 Beyond that
point it maintained only small patrols. One
battalion of the division, the 3d Battalion,
12th Infantry, was assigned to defend all
of the Cagayan valley. This battalion had
its command post at Tuguegarao, with one
4
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 3-5, Annex

IV, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns; USAFFEUSFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 10.
5
There are two towns named San Fernando in
northern Luzon, both of which figure largely in the
campaign. One is in La Union Province, along
the shore of Lingayen Gulf. The other is in
Pampanga Province, and is the gateway to Bataan.
THE FIRST LANDINGS
103
company posted fifty miles to the north, at
two heavy cruisers, the Ashigara and Maya,
Aparri. There were no troops at Vigan.6

For the landings in north Luzon General
Homma organized two forces from the 48th
Division's 2d Formosa Infantry Regiment.
The force which was to land at Aparri
numbered approximately 2,000 men. Its
main infantry element was the regimental
headquarters, the 2d Battalion, and half of
the 1st Battalion. In command was Col.
Toru Tanaka, the regimental commander,
one light cruiser, two destroyers, and a converted seaplane tender. He left Mako on
8 December with his fleet, and on the morn-
ing of the 10th was about 200 miles west

of Vigan.9
The transports left Mako on the evening of 7 December, about the same time as
the Batan Island Attack Force. The 14th
Army staff watched them sail with misgivings. The success or failure of these
hence the name Tanaka Detachment. The preliminary landings would have a treunit scheduled to take Vigan was known as mendous effect upon the main landings to
the Kanno Detachment, after the com- follow, and the Japanese feared that the
mander of the 3d Battalion, 2d Formosa.7 Americans might discover and heavily
It was of approximately the same size and
damage, if not destroy, the two detachcomposition as the Tanaka Detachment, ments.10
and included the rest of the 2d Formosa
Careful provision had been made for
half of the 1st Battalion and the 3d Battal- air support. With the first light of day,
ion.8
planes of the 24th and 50th Fighter RegiThe Japanese attached a great deal of ments appeared overhead to protect the
importance to the success of the Vigan and convoy from air and naval attack. All
Aparri landings, and what they lacked in that day and the next, 5th Air Group planes
ground troops they made up in naval es- covered the two convoys.11 In the early
cort. As a cover force, Vice Adm. Ibo Tak- morning hours of the 10th, the convoys had
ahashi personally led a flotilla consisting of arrived at their anchorages. Not a single
American aircraft had been sighted during
6
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 6-8; Capt
the entire trip. "It was a miracle," stated
Wayne C. Liles, 12th Infantry (PA), p. 4, Chunn
Notebooks, OCMH. The notebooks of Capt Cal- the Japanese, "that it [the convoy] wasn't
vin E. Chunn, an officer of the 45th Infantry (PS), detected by the enemy." 12 Before dawn
contain a large number of brief unit histories.
the Tanaka Detachment was waiting off
These were compiled in prison camp where Captain
Chunn interviewed officers from many of the units
which had fought in the campaign and then wrote
the information in his notebooks. Copies of the
unit histories are on file in OCMH where they are
collected in a folder entitled Chunn Notebooks.
References to these histories throughout this volume
specify their location in Chunn Notebooks.
7
Full name and rank of Kanno is unknown. He
was either a lieutenant colonel or major.
8
14th Army Opns, I, 32-33. Interrogs, Col
Nakajima, 14th Army staff officer, 25 Apr 47; Col
Haba, 14th Army staff, Apr 47; Lt Gen Susumu
Morioka, comdr of 16th Div, 24 Apr 47; Maj
Kotoshi Doba, 5th Air Gp staff, 19 Apr 47, all in
Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers, Mil
Hist Div, GHQ FEC, I.
9
10-11; Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, pp. 161,
174; interrog of Capt Kawakita Ishihara, 3d Fleet
Staff, 22 Oct 45, USSBS, Interrogations of Japanese Officials, I, 83.
10
14th Army Opns, I, 43.

5th Air Gp Opns, pp. 9, 16. Captain Morison
states that the converted seaplane tender Sanyo
Maru provided air patrol for the Aparri landings.
Rising Sun in the Pacific, p. 176. There is some
evidence from 2d Demob Bureau, Interrogations of
Former Japanese Officers, G-2, FEC, that the
Sanyo Maru was still in port being fitted out at the
time of the Aparri landing.
12
11
104
Aparri; the Kanno Detachment was off

Vigan. The wind was strong and the seas
high. The next few hours would be the
most critical and hazardous of the entire
voyage.
G-3 Section noted that the Japanese "most

assuredly" were attempting to seize airfields
from which fighters could support Formosabased bombers.15 That night, the staff at
USAFFE prepared to take the field, and a
general plan for establishing an advance
headquarters at San Fernando, Pampanga,
The Landings at Aparri and Gonzaga
with a rear echelon in Manila, was disIn the first light of dawn, 10 December, cussed.16
the men of the Tanaka Detachment began
General Wainwright, the North Luzon
to transfer from the transports to the land- Force commander, first heard of the Aparri
ing craft. Under cover of fighter aircraft landing, this time estimated as a reinforced
from the recently captured field on Batan brigade of 3,000 men, while he was inspectIsland, two companies made the trip to ing the beach defenses of the 11th and 21st
shore successfully. But strong northeast- Divisions at Lingayen Gulf. Believing that
erly winds and rough sea threatened to do the landing was a feint "to pull some of my
what the Americans thus far had made no forces up to that point and weaken the aleffort to dofrustrate the landings. The ready weak defenses in the Lingayen Gulf
convoy commander therefore decided to region," Wainwright decided not to offer
land the remaining troops at Gonzaga, over any opposition to the Tanaka Detachment.17
twenty miles to the east, where Cape En- Since the only route south was down
gano offered partial protection from the the Cagayan Valley, and since he believed
heavy surf. The convoy sailed east along that a battalion at Balete Pass could stop "a
the coast, leaving the two companies at fairly considerable force," he made no disAparri, and on reaching the new anchorage position to meet the attack. He was certain,
the rest of the Tanaka Detachment began he later wrote, that the main Japanese
landings would come "in the areas where I
to debark immediately.13
The first report of the landing force, esti- had the chief weight of my troops"Lin18
But he did take the precaumated as a regiment in size, reached Mac- gayen Gulf.
Arthur's headquarters late in the day, and tion of sending several scout cars of the 26th
aircraft were ordered aloft immediately to Cavalry (PS) to the Cagayan Valley to proattack the landing force.14 The purpose of vide communication with the 11th Division
19
MacArthur's headthe landing was apparently well under- troops in that area.
stood. Lt. Col. James V. Collier of the quarters in Manila issued orders to destroy
13
Ibid., 42-43; 5th Air Gp Opns, p. 13. The

14th Army history states that the landing at Gon-
15

Ibid. This plan was never carried out and
USAFFE headquarters remained in Manila until
zaga was completed at 0550. This is extremely unthe move to Corregidor at the end of December.
likely in view of the change in plans made during
17
the Aparri landing, and the length of time it must
This decision may have been made by USAFFE.
have taken to reach the new anchorage.
14
Rad, MacArthur to AGWAR, No. 1148, 10 If made by Wainwright, it was undoubtedly confirmed by MacArthur's headquarters.
Dec 41, AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East;
18
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 36 ; Collier, NoteIbid.
19
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 6.
books, I, 69.
16
THE FIRST LANDINGS

bridges in the valley and to establish a block
at Balete Pass.20
The company of the 3d Battalion, 12th
Infantry, located at Aparri on the morning of 10 December was commanded by a
young reserve officer, Lt. Alvin C. Hadley.
When the two companies of the Tanaka
Detachment came ashore at dawn, Lieutenant Hadley reported the landing to battalion headquarters at Tuguegarao and was
ordered to attack immediately and drive the
enemy into the sea. Estimating the size of
the force as considerably larger than it was
he prudently withdrew south along Route
5, without, so far as is known, firing a shot.21
The reaction of the American air forces
was more spirited. As the Tanaka Detachment was unloaded at Gonzaga, two
B-17's appeared overhead. They had
taken off from Clark Field at about 0930
with orders to attack and sink the naval vessels and transports. The first plane, carrying eight 600-pound bombs, flew over the
transport area dropping its bombs. Before
being driven off by the Japanese fighter aircraft, the pilot reported a hit on one of the
transports. In the second plane was Capt.
Colin P. Kelly, Jr., the first war hero and
winner of the Distinguished Service Cross.
Under orders to attack a Japanese carrier
mistakenly supposed to be near Aparri,
Captain Kelly had taken off hurriedly in
the midst of an air raid with only three 600pound bombs. When he was unable to find
a carrier, Kelly decided to attack what he
20
Rad, MacArthur to AGWAR, 10 Dec 41, AG
381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
21
Col Glen R. Townsend, CO 11th Inf (PA),
The Defense of the Philippines, p. 10, OCMH.
The title of this document is misleading. Actually
it is an account of the operations of the 11 th Infantry. According to Colonel Townsend, Lieutenant Hadley told him that 10,000 Japanese landed at
Aparri that morning.
105
thought was a large battleship, later presumed to be the Haruna. Of the three
bombs, one is supposed to have been a direct
hit; two, near misses. As the B-17 flew
away, the vessel appeared to have stopped,
with black smoke rising in a heavy cloud
above it.22 On return to base, the plane was
jumped by two enemy fighters and shot
down. All of the crew except Kelly bailed
out safely. Captain Kelly's body was later
recovered in the wreckage.
Actually Captain Kelly had not attacked
a battleship, and certainly not the Haruna.
Nor had he sunk any vessel of the Japanese
fleet. There were no battleships in Philippine waters at this time; the Haruna was
hundreds of miles away supporting the
Malayan invasion. Only Admiral Takahashi's cover force, with the heavy cruisers
Ashigara and Alaya, was in the vicinity,
and it was 200 miles off the west coast of
Luzon. Kelly was nowhere near this force,
although the Japanese report it was attacked by heavy bombers that day.23
The air attacks did not seriously hinder
the Japanese landing at Gonzaga. Two
other attacks against shipping resulted in
the reported sinking of a transport. Actually, the Japanese suffered only minor damage ; one minesweeper run aground and another heavily damaged.24
22
Hist of Fifth Air Force, p. 18; Army Air Action
in Phil and NEI, pp. 63-65.
23
Japanese Naval Opns in Phil Invasion, p. 11;
Interrog of Capt Ishihara, 22 Oct 45, USSBS, Interrogations of Japanese Officials, I, 83. American
sources do not mention an attack against the cover
force.
24
Japanese Naval and Merchant Shipping Losses
During World War II, Joint Army-Navy Assessment
Committee, p. 1; interrog of Capt Mitsugo Ihara,
3d Fleet staff, 10 Nov 45, USSBS, Interrogations of
Japanese Officials, I, 275; Japanese Naval Opns in
Phil Invasion, p. 10.
106
The Tanaka Detachment was ashore and
in Aparri by 1300, when it reported the
capture of the airfield. In Aparri it was
joined by the two companies that had
landed there earlier. By evening elements
of the detachment had penetrated six miles
south to occupy the strip at Camalaniugan.25
Construction troops and air service units
moved in immediately and began to extend
the airfields, establish depots, and ready the
strip for operations. It had not been possible to bring much heavy equipment ashore
that day because of the air attacks, and
some supplies, such as drummed oil, had
been lost or floated ashore because of the
transport crews' anxiety to retire.26
Early the next morning the Tanaka Detachment began to march south toward Tuguegarao, along Route 5. Aircraft from the
50th Fighter Regiment and the 16th Light
Bombardment Regiment flew over the highway, bombing likely targets. The 3d Battalion of the 12th Infantry retreated quickly down the Cagayan valley, offering no opposition, and by 0530 on 12 December elements of the Tanaka Detachment had
reached Tuguegarao airfield, fifty miles to
the south.27
Far East Air Force readied five B-17's and

escorting P-40's and P-35's to bomb the
invaders. By 0600 the planes were airborne, flying north to the threatened area.28
The reception of the Kanno Detachment
promised to be a warm one.
As at Aparri, bad weather and heavy seas
upset the landing schedule. Only a small
portion of the Japanese force was able to
get ashore at Pandan that morning, but
these men quickly moved on to seize Vigan
by 1030. Meanwhile the convoy came under attack from American planes and suspended all efforts to land the rest of the
force.29 The five B-17's, each loaded with
twenty 100-pound demolition bombs, came
in for their first run over the target shortly
after 0600. They were covered by P-40's
of the 17th Pursuit Squadron. After the
B-17's had dropped their bombs, the P-40's
dived through the antiaircraft fire to strafe
the ships. The P-35's of the 21st Squadron
now arrived on the scene and, despite the
lack of armor and leakproof tanks, flew low
to strafe the invaders again and again. One
of the transports, hit by a B-17 bomb, exploded during the last P-35 run, destroying
the squadron commander's plane.30
Later in the day, three more heavy bombers
attacked the Vigan Attack Force. The
The Landing at Vigan
first B-17 to arrive over the target dropped
Simultaneously with the landing at Apar- its bombs on what was thought to be a carri, the Kanno Detachment of 2,000 men rier, with no observed effect. The second
began to debark at Pandan, near Vigan. attacked a cruiser unsuccessfully, but manA P - 4 0 pilot flying reconnaissance gave aged to score a direct hit on a transport.
The last plane had had time to load only
the first warning of the attack at 0513 of
one 600-pound bomb, and this the bomthe 10th. Alerted by this message, the
25
26
14th Army Opns, I, 42; 5th Air Gp Opns, p. 13.
Situation of Both Sides Prior to War, ATIS,

Current Translation 46, 2 Jun 43; Morison, Rising
Sun in the Pacific, p. 176.
27
Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, pp. 174-76.
28
World War II, I, 215 and n.. 60.
29
14th Army Opns, I, 43; 5th Air Gp Opns, pp.
13, 17-18.
30
World War
II,
I, 215; Brereton, Diaries, pp. 46-4
107
THE FIRST LANDINGS

bardier released over the water, near the
transports.31
Despite the presence of eighteen naval
fighters and planes of the Army's 24th
Fighter Regiment, the Japanese were unable to fend off the American attack. As
a result of the day's action, the enemy lost
the transports Oigawa Maru and Takao
Maru, both badly damaged and beached,
and one minesweeper, sunk. The Japanese
also suffered casualties aboard the destroyer
Murasame and the light cruiser Naka, Rear
Adm. Shoji Nishimura's flagship, which was
slightly damaged.32
The successful attacks of the 10th were to
be the last co-ordinated effort of the Far
East Air Force. On that day the Japanese
attacked Nichols, Nielson, and Cavite, completing the destruction begun two days earlier at Clark. Thereafter the American
fighters with few exceptions flew only reconnaissance missions over assigned areas; the
21st and 34th Squadrons covered south Luzon while the 17th and 20th patrolled the
northern part of the island.33
There was no activity near Vigan during
the night of the 10th, but from Lingayen
Gulf, 100 miles to the south, came reports
of another Japanese landing. Around midnight "several dark shapes" were observed
approaching the mouth of the Agno River.
When confirmation was received, one battery of the 3d Battalion, 21st Field Artillery
(PA), opened fire. "It was like dropping
a match in a warehouse of Fourth of July
fireworks," wrote the American instructor

assigned to the regiment. "Instantly Lingayen Gulf was ablaze. As far as the eye
could see the flashes of artillery, shell-bursts,
tracer machine gun bullets and small
arms. . . . Thousands of shadows were
killed that night." 34 When morning came,
all that was found of the supposed invasion
was one life preserver with markings which
may have been Japanese characters. The
absence of sunken ships did not prevent the
21st Division commander, Brig. Gen. Mateo Capinpin, from reporting to Manila that
an attempted hostile landing had been repulsed.35
What actually happened that night was
that the Japanese had sent one motor boat
into Lingayen Gulf on a reconnaissance mission. The Japanese had no force near Lingayen then and no plan for a landing in
the area at that time. Nevertheless, the
news of the frustrated enemy landing was
reported in the press as a great victory and
the 21st Field Artillery was officially credited with repulsing an enemy landing.36
Meanwhile, the Vigan Attack Force, unable to land troops and supplies in the face
of rough seas, had moved four miles to the
south. Protected by a squadron of fighters,
the Japanese were finally able to put the
Kanno Detachment ashore. A small force
was immediately dispatched north, along
Route 3, to Laoag, the capital of Ilocos
Norte Province, fifty miles away. By the
34

35
36
Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 52-53. Colonel
World War II, I, 215; Edmonds, They Fought With
Mallone
did not believe that the Japanese had
What They Had, pp., 121-25.
32
tried to land at Lingayen on that night or on the
succeeding two nights. Hunt mistakenly reported
in Phil Invasion, p. 7; Japanese Naval Merchant
that1,the
Japanese had twelve transports at Lingayen
Ship Losses During World War
II,
pp.
29;
that night, two of which were sunk, and that the
interrog of Capt Ihara, 10 Nov 45, USSBS, Interenemy was "bloodily repulsed." Hunt, MacArthur
rogations of Japanese Officials, I, 275.
33
Army Air Action in Phil and NEI, pp. 67-68.
and the War Against Japan, p. 36.
31
108
following evening that town and its airfield
had been occupied.37
The Japanese now had a firm foothold
in northern Luzon, with planes of the 5th
Air Group operating from fields, however
inadequate, at Aparri, Vigan, and Laoag.38
Originally Homma had intended to leave
the Tanaka and Kanno Detachments in
position, but the American reaction had
made it evident that there would be no
counterattack. He decided therefore to
leave only small garrisons to hold the seized
airfields and to send the bulk of the two detachments, forming substantially the 2d
Formosa Regiment, to Lingayen Gulf to
meet the main force of the 14th Army when
it came ashore. Colonel Tanaka was to
march around the north tip of Luzon along
Route 3 to Vigan, and there join forces with
Kanno. The combined force would then
move south along the coastal road to Lingayen Gulf. At the same time Homma sent
his chief of staff, General Maeda, to Luzon
for a personal inspection and to brief the
commanders on the change in plans.
Maeda arrived at Aparri on 14 December
and after talking with Colonel Tanaka
placed him in command of both detachments and gave him his new mission.39
By 20 December the Tanaka and Kanno
Detachments had joined and were ready to
move south toward Lingayen Gulf. At
1300 that day Colonel Tanaka led his reconstructed regiment (less three companies)
37
14th Army Opns, I, 42-43; 5th Air Gp Opns,
p. 18.
38
5th Air Gp Opns, pp. 18-20. The 5th Air
Group moved into Vigan on 11 December and into
Laoag the next day.
39
14th Army Opns, I, 39; On Phil Landing Opns
(Amphibious), prepared by 2d Demob Bureau in
answer to a series of questions by Lt Comdr Henry
Salomon, Jr., ATIS Doc 1989-6A.

out of Vigan, along Route 3. Repairing
destroyed bridges along the line of march,
forward elements of the regiment reached
Bacnotan the next evening. There they
made contact with the 11th Division troops,
but by a flanking movement to the left
(east) were able to force part of the defenders back, while cutting off others who
made their way eastward to the mountains.
Colonel Tanaka finally reached San Fernando, La Union, on the morning of the
22d.40
Just a few hours earlier the main strength

of the 14th Army had begun to land across
the beaches at Lingayen Gulf, a short distance to the south. Colonel Tanaka just
missed being on the beaches to greet his
comrades.
The advance landings on northern Luzon, seen in retrospect, accomplished little.
The fields seized were poor and, by the
time they were ready for operations, were
of small value. The detachments that
landed did not require close air support,
since in no case did the Americans offer any
determined resistance. The 5th Air Group
had planned to operate mainly from Luzon
bases by 17 December, and by the following day had placed a number of Japanese
air units on the recently seized fields. But
they were not needed. As events turned
out, Japanese misgivings were entirely unfounded; the dispersion of force entirely
unnecessary. But this was small comfort
for the Americans. In General Wainwright's words, "The rat was in the
house."41
40
14th Army Opns, I, 42; Capt Liles, 12th Inf

(PA), p. 5, and 1st Lt Raymond W. Bliss, 13th
Inf (PA), pp. 8, 9, both in Chunn Notebooks;
interv, author with Col Donald D. Blackburn, Apr
49; NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 10.
41
109
THE FIRST LANDINGS

The Legaspi Landing
The area held by General Parker's South
Luzon Force was ninety miles at its widest
point and stretched from the Rosario-Infanta line, southeast of Manila, sixty miles
to the Atimonan-Padre Burgos line. In
this region were five bays, all suitable for
landing operations, and two large lakes,
Laguna de Bay and Lake Taal. Altogether
there were 250 miles of possible landing
beaches. The area contained a good network of roads and one railroad which extended from Manila southeast to Daraga.
Along the west coast the terrain was rugged, restricting the defenders to the roads.
On the east coast, which was mountainous a
good part of the way to Atimonan, the terrain presented a formidable obstacle to any
military force. Below Atimonan was the
Bicol Peninsula, trailing away in a southeasterly direction like the tail of a downcast
dog. Near its tip, in Albay Gulf and only
one mile from the southern terminus of the
Manila Railroad, lay Legaspi, the next
Japanese objective.
To defend south Luzon, General Parker
had two Philippine Army divisions. On
the west was the 41st Division (PA) commanded by Brig. Gen. Vincente Lim, a West
Point graduate and former deputy chief
of staff of the Philippine Army. On the
east was Brig. Gen. Albert M. Jones's 51st
Division (PA), with its northern boundary
along the line Pililla-Infanta and its southern boundary at AtimonanPadre Burgos.
The 51st Division, like Colonel Brougher's 11th Division (PA), was poorly equipped and imperfectly trained. Presumably
all the men had had five and one half
months training some time during the past
five years, but, said General Parker, "this
was never apparent." 42 The enlisted men

of the division spoke the Bicolanian dialect,
and the majority of the officers, who were
from central Luzon, spoke Tagalog, making
training even more difficult than it would
otherwise have been. One infantry regiment had had thirteen weeks' training, another five weeks, and the last none at all. In
the opinion of General Jones, the only troops
in his division capable of offering any effective resistance were those of the 52d
Infantry.43
For the landing in south Luzon General
Homma had organized a force of approximately 2,500 men from the 16th Division.44
Led by Maj. Gen. Naoki Kimura, infantry
group commander of the division, this force
consisted of infantry group headquarters,
the 33d Infantry (less 1st Battalion), a battery of the 22d Field Artillery, and engineer
detachments. Accompanying the Kimura
Detachment was the Kure 1st Special Naval
Landing Force with 575 men.45
Two days before General Kimura's men
boarded their transports at Palau, Rear
Adm. Takeo Takagi sortied from that base
with an impressive naval force. By dawn
of the 8th he had reached a point about 120
42

Ibid., pp. 4-8. Diary of Maj Gen Albert M.
Jones, OPD 319,1 PTO (3 Oct 45). This diary
covers the operations of the South Luzon Force
during the period 24 December 1941-1 January
1942, when Jones was in command. The text of
the diary is reproduced as App. II to SLF and II
Corps Rpt of Opns. All references to this document are to the diary itself and not to the SLF and
II Corps Rpt.
44
Ltr, Chief, Hist Div SSUSA to G-2 GHQ FEC,
9 Nov 48, 3d Ind, 16 Aug 49, OCMH.
45
in Phil Invasion, p. 12. The infantry regiments of
a Japanese division are under an infantry group
headquarters whose commander, a major general,
controls the infantry elements of the division as
well as other elements that may be assigned for specific missions.
43
110
miles east of Davao. From here, the carrier
Ryujo launched the attack against Davao
which the Preston had evaded. Following this strike Takagi turned northeast and
early the next morning joined Kimura's
transports, which had left Palau at 0900 the
day before. Accompanying the transports
was the Legaspi Attack Force; to the rear,
en route from Palau, was the 17th Minelayer Division.46
By 1100, 11 December, this combined
force was 135 miles east of San Bemardino
Strait. Here the minelayers broke formation. Escorted by 2 destroyers, one column
headed for San Bemardino Strait; another
column, accompanied by 1 light cruiser
and 2 destroyers, turned south for Surigao
Strait. By midnight both groups had
reached their destinations and had begun
laying mines. The U.S. submarines S-39
on patrol in San Bemardino Strait, was
attacked and driven off by 2 Japanese
destroyers without inflicting any damage
on the Japanese force.47 From a point
about 100 miles offshore, planes of the
Ryujo covered the convoys as it moved
toward the shores of Albay Gulf. Admiral
Takagi's force remained behind to provide
distant cover. As the convoy approached
the beaches, the Japanese planes shifted
operations to the Legaspi area.48
The Kimura Detachment began to land
at Legaspi early on the morning of 12
December. No difficulty was experienced
and there was no opposition; the nearest
American and Filipino troops were 150
miles away. By 0900 the Japanese were in
control of the airfield and the terminus of
the Manila Railroad. A few hours later,

when he had a firm grip on Legaspi, General Kimura sent advance detachments to
the northwest and southeast. The next
day the huge cover force returned to Palau
to prepare for the next landing.49
The initial report of a Japanese landing
at Legaspi came from the railroad stationmaster there. The apocryphal story is told
that his call was switched from the railroad
central to USAFFE headquarters in Manila and the following conversation took
place:
STATION MASTER : "There are four Jap boats
in the harbor, sir, and the Japs are landing.
What shall I do?"
USAFFE OFFICER: "Just hang onto the
phone and keep reporting."
STATION MASTER: "There are about twenty
Japs ashore already, sir, and more are coming."
A pause. "Now there are about three
hundred Japs outside the station, sir, What
am I to do?"
USAFFE OFFICER: "Just sit tight."
STATION MASTER: "Sir, a few of those Japs,
with an officer in front, are coming over here."
USAFFE OFFICER: "See what they want."
STATION MASTER: "Those Japs want me to
give them a train to take them to Manila,
sir. What do I do now?"
USAFFE OFFICER: "Tell them the next
train leaves a week from Sunday. Don't give
it to them."
STATIONMASTER, hanging up: "Okay sir."50
The subsequent conversation between the

Japanese officer and the stationmasterif
it ever took placeis not recorded.
When South Luzon Force headquarters
received news of the landing, it considered
a proposal to send a strong force south to
surprise the Japanese and push them back
into the sea. There were many practical
difficulties in the way of such an expedi-
46

11-13.
47
Ibid.; Log of S-39, 11 Dec 41, cited by Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, p. 177.
48
49
Ibid.; 14th Army Opns, I,42.

Clark Lee, They Call it Pacific (New
50
York:
Viking Press, 1943), p. 73; interv, author with
Clark Lee, Apr 51.
111
THE FIRST LANDINGS

tion, the most serious of which was how
to surprise an enemy who had control of
the air and sea. The proposal was soon
dropped, but General Jones's 51st Division
(PA) was ordered to send units south into
the Bicol Peninsula to destroy highway and
railroad bridges and to evacuate as much
railroad rolling stock as possible.51 Two
companies of the 1st Battalion, 52d Infantry, each with an attached machine gun
platoon, were sent south to outpost Route
1 and the Manila Railroad, the only two
routes north from Legaspi, and a specially
trained detachment of the 51st Engineer
Battalion was ordered to prepare all bridges
for demolition in order to delay the enemy
advance.52
First American reaction to the Legaspi
landing came on 12 December when 2
fighters struck the Japanese-held airfield,
killing three and injuring two men. Two
days later 3 of a group of 6 Del Montebased B-17's, ordered to attack the landing
force, reached the area. They attacked a
Japanese minesweeper and a transport,
thought to be a destroyer, with meager results, and 9 naval aircraft based on the
Legaspi strip. The unescorted bombers
were no match for the Japanese fighters
and soon beat a hasty retreat. Only 1 of
the B-17's was able to make its way back to
Del Monte; the others had to crash-land
short of their base. The Japanese lost at
most 4 fighters.53
51
Supplement to Diary of Maj Gen Albert M.
Jones, OPD 319.1 PTO (20 Nov 45). This document, though unsigned, was prepared by Col. Stuart
C. MacDonald, Jones's chief of staff, and consists of
three separate documents: Important Dates, SLF;
Notes on Left Subsector, I Phil Corps; and Pocket
Fights. It will be cited hereafter as MacDonald,
Supplement to Jones Diary.
52
Jones, Diary, p., 5.
53
Brereton, Diaries, p. 54; Morison, Rising Sun in the
With Legaspi firmly in Japanese hands,

the Kimura Detachment moved northwest
along Route 1 toward Naga. Ground
units first made contact on 17 December
when a Japanese patrol ran into a demolition detachment of the 51st Engineer Battalion working on a bridge near Ragay. The
engineers managed to destroy the bridge
and establish themselves on the near bank
of the gorge, whereupon the Japanese patrol
withdrew. The next day the Kimura Detachment entered Naga.54
Pushing northwest from Naga, rebuilding bridges and repairing roads as they advanced, the Japanese reached Sipoco on
the 19th with an estimated force of one battalion of infantry. Patrols were still active
near Ragay, and reports reaching the
Americans mentioned other Japanese elements moving along Route 1 toward Daet.
By this time, the two outposted companies
of the 1st Battalion, 52d Infantry, were at
Aloneros and Sumulong, and had thrust
strong combat patrols forward. Luzon at
this point forms a very narrow neck only
seven miles wide, and any force from Legaspi must pass through one of the two barrios, Aloneros on the Manila Railroad or
Sumulong on Route 1. The position was
an excellent one.55
On 21 December, the division commander, recently promoted to brigadier
general, ordered Lt. Col. Virgil N. Cordero, the regimental commander, to move
on Sipoco with Companies B and C of the
52d Infantry. At 0500 the next morning, a
Japanese force estimated to be a company
attacked Company B at Timbuyo, just east
Pacific, p. 177. For a full account of the air attack against Legaspi, see Edmonds, They Fought
With What They Had, pp. 151-60.

54
14th Army Opns, I, 42; Jones, Diary, p. 6.

Jones, Diary, p. 6; MacDonald Supplement to
Jones Diary.
55
112
of the Negritos Camp along the highway.

The Filipino troops, under the command of
1st Lt. Matt Dobrinic, were in a well-organized position and drove off the Japanese,
chasing them down the road for about six
miles. They inflicted heavy losses on the
enemy, suffering about 15-percent casualties themselves.56
On 23 December General Jones ordered
his troops to withdraw from the Bicol Peninsula when a Japanese invasion force appeared off Atimonan. Part of the 1st Battalion, 52d Infantry, was cut off by the
Japanese landing at Atimonan that night,
but some of the men made their way back
into the American lines. The 51st Division had accomplished its objective. It had
delayed the enemy advance and prevented
an immediate juncture of the Kimura Detachment with the main elements of the
16th Division soon to land at Lamon Bay.57
Gen. Shizuo Sakaguchi, infantry group

commander of the 16th Army's 56th Division, were organized for these landings.
The first, originally scheduled to capture
Davao alone, was led by Lt. Col. Toshio
Miura and consisted of the 1st Battalion of
the 16th Division's 33d Infantry, plus engineer and service elements. To it was
later added the Sakaguchi Detachment,
composed of the 56th Division's 146th Infantry, an armored unit, and one battalion
of divisional artillery. The strength of the
entire force was about 5,000 men.58
This combined force was under 16th
Army control, although the date of departure from Palau was set by 14th Army
headquarters in Formosa. Once Davao
was seized, the Miura Detachment was to
revert to 14th Army control and the 16th
Army's Sakaguchi Detachment was to move
on to Jolo Island on its way to Tarakan in
Dutch Borneo. For the Jolo Island oper-
Landings in the South
ation, the Kure 2d Special Naval Landing

Force from Legaspi and a naval airfield
maintenance unit were to be added to the
Sakaguchi Detachment.59
The combined force left Palau at 1400
on 17 December in fourteen transports.
Admiral Takagi's force provided naval escort. Direct support was given by a destroyer squadron, while a cruiser squadron
and the carrier Ryujo constituted a close
covering force.60 On the afternoon of the
The Japanese landings in the southern

Philippines, in Mindanao and the Sulu
Archipelago, were intended primarily to
provide bases for the 16th Army's drive on
Borneo. They had no effect on Japanese
plans for Luzon, except to prevent reinforcements from reaching that island from Allied
bases to the south and to cut the American
route of withdrawal.
Two landings were scheduled in the
south, one at Davao in Mindanao, and another on Jolo Island in the Sulu Archipelago. Two detachments, both under Maj.
56
Jones, Diary, p. 6; ltr, Col John R. Boatwright,
formerly CO 53d Inf, to George Groce, research
asst to author, 22 Mar 49; Luzon Campaign of
16th Division, 24 Dec 41-3 Jan 42, ATIS, Enemy

Publications 355, p. 2. The Japanese claimed a
victory in this action.
57
MacDonald, Supplement to Jones Diary, p. 8;
ltr, Boatwright to Groce, 22 Mar 49.
58
14th Army Opns, I, 31-32; interrogs of Gen
Morioka, 24 Apr 47 and Col Nakajima, 25 Apr 47,
in Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers, Mil
Hist Div, GHQ FEC, I; Comments of Former Japanese Officers Regarding The Fall of the Philippines,
pp. 25-26, OCMH.
59
The Jolo Island Opns, Japanese Studies in
World War II, No. 23, p. 1, 1st Demob Bureau,
FEC; Japanese Naval Opns in Phil Invasion, p. 17.
60
in Phil Invasion, pp. 15-16; Morison, Rising Sun
in the Pacific, pp. 163, 182.
THE FIRST LANDINGS

19th, from a point about 200 miles east of
Davao, the Ryujo launched six planes to
attack the radio station at Cape San Augustin, the tip of the eastern arm of Davao
Gulf, while the seaplane carrier Chitose
launched its own planes to reconnoiter over
Davao. The transports arrived off the city
after midnight on the night of 19-20 December.61
At 0400 troops of the Miura Detachment, covered by carrier-based aircraft, began landing in the northern section of Davao while elements of the Sakaguchi Detachment came ashore along the coast southwest of the city. Defending this sector of
the island were about 2,000 Philippine
Army troops led by Lt. Col. Roger B. Hilsman, commander of the 2d Battalion, 101st
Infantry.62
The Miura Detachment was momentarily mistaken for an American naval or marine force when it was first sighted. When
a Japanese destroyer began shelling the
beaches, this misapprehension was quickly
removed. The only opposition offered to
the landing force came from a machine gun
squad which inflicted numerous casualties
on the enemy before it was knocked out by
a direct hit from a Japanese shell.63 Thereafter Colonel Miura's men met no further
opposition. The casualties suffered made
it necessary to commit those elements of the
Sakaguchi Detachment which the Japanese
were saving for the Jolo Island operation.
By about 1030 that morning, Colonel
Hilsman had pulled his men out of the city
61

15, 16.
62
Ltr, Col Howard N. Frissell, formerly CO 3d
Bn, 101st Inf, to author 5 May 49; statement of
Maj Charles I. Humber, Jr., 30 Jan 42, in Gen
Sharp's papers loaned by Mrs. Sharp to author and
in OCMH.
63
Humber Statement; Jolo Island Opns, p. 2.
113
along the road leading northwest into the
hills, leaving behind three of the eight 2.95inch guns which constituted the artillery of
the Visayan-Mindanao Force. The troops
remaining in Davao were directed to withdraw also and set up defensive positions
along the heights surrounding the city.64
The Sakaguchi Detachment apparently
met no resistance southwest of the city.
Moving northeast along the coastal road, it
entered the city and made contact with
Colonel Miura's force early in the afternoon. By 1500 the city and its airfield were
occupied. That evening a seaplane base
was established south of the city, and the
next morning naval shore units began bringing Japanese nationals into Davao.65
General Sakaguchi lost no time in dispatching the Jolo Force, consisting of one
infantry battalion (less two companies),
with attached artillery, engineer, and communications units, and the Kure 2d Special
Naval Landing Force. Its departure was
delayed first by the unexpected casualties
to the Miura Detachment and then by a
B-17 attack. Nine of the bombers had
come from Batchelor Field near Darwin,
Australia, and they hit the Japanese at sunset of the 22d. The raid came as a complete surprise to the Japanese. Fortunately,
for them, visibility was poor and the Jolo
Force suffered only minor damage. The
next morning the convoy set out from
Davao, reaching its destination on Christmas Eve.66
64
V-MF Rpt of Opns, p. 173; Humber Statement.

66
World War II, I, 223-24; Japanese Naval Opns in
Phil Invasion, pp. 16-17. Edmonds claims that the
B-17's sank a 10,000-ton tanker. They Fought
With What They Had, p. 180.
65
114
First warning of the approaching force
reached the defenders, 300 Constabulary
troops, at 1700 of the 24th. The landings
began three hours later. The Constabulary
were able to offer only slight resistance, and
by the following morning, the Japanese were

in the town of Jolo.67 From Davao and Jolo
the Japanese were in position to launch an
attack against Borneo.
67
Jolo Island Opns, p. 3; statement of 1st Lt

Jose V. Valera, Jan 42, in Sharp Papers; V-MF
Rpt of Opns, p. 575.
CHAPTER VII
The Impact of War

The transition from peace to war in the
Philippines was a sudden one. The civilian
population and the untrained Filipino soldiers were ill prepared to withstand the initial shock without displaying signs of nervousness and apprehension. Although a war
with Japan had been expected for some
time, bomb shelters had not been completed
and the Philippine Army was still in the
process of mobilization. A voluble and excitable people, the Filipinos saw danger
everywhere and their fertile imagination
produced reports of enemy activity that
kept the USAFFE staff busy searching for
the grain of truth in the wild tales that came
in over the wires.
The most fantastic reports were accepted
and widely circulated. During the first air
raids, the belief that the Japanese bombers
were "at least partially manned by white
pilots" was given sufficient credence to be
reported to the War Department.1 Dewey
Boulevard was supposed to be lined, the
planeless 27th Bombardment Group heard,
with A-20's ready to fly into combat. The
same unit also reported a telephone message
stating that its A-24's were at the docks
being unloaded. A frantic but unprofitable
rush to the water front followed.2
Many residents in Manila reported hearing short-wave messages to Japan, but the
most careful search by Army authorities
1
41, AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
2
failed to reveal a short-wave transmitter.

One day there was news that the fleet was
sailing across the Pacific to the rescue; another day that the water supply in Manila
had been poisoned and that poison gas had
been spread in the port area. Again, the
Japanese were supposed to have sailed into
Manila Bay and put ashore 1,000 men at
the mouth of the Pasig River.3 From 9
December on, Admiral Hart wrote, "An
extraordinary crop of incorrect enemy information flowed in over the warning net.
Too many reports came in of enemy sightings when nothing actually was sighted.
. . ." 4 "The Army," said one writer, "was
travelling as much on rumors as on its
stomach." 5
Each fresh rumor made the civilian population more uneasy. No one knew what to
believe. Numerous air raid alarms, all of
them false, and the blackout added to the
tense and foreboding atmosphere. The air
alarms in Manila became so frequent that
General Sutherland had to order wardens
to clear through the Army headquarters before sounding the sirens.
The blackout was rigorously enforced,
and the criminal element in the city took
full advantage of the darkness and confusion. They were unwittingly aided by
3
Charles Van Landingham, "I Saw Manila Die,"
Saturday Evening Post, September 26, 1942, pp.
13, 71.
4
Hart, Narrative of Events, Asiatic Fleet, p. 38.
Quoted in Craven and Cate, The Army Air

Forces in World War
II,
I, 222.
116
was added the squealing of the pigs and

the clucking chatter of the fowls. The skies
were watched anxiously for any sign of
Japanese planes. People began to hoard
food. Radio and cable offices were filled
and it was impossible to handle all the messages to the outside world.8
With the first bombs the people rushed
to the banks to withdraw their money.
Frantic mobs pushed and milled outside the
banks and swore at the tellers. Those banks
times at each other, the confusion became and commercial houses that had not already
even worse. Finally, USAFFE ordered all done so sent their gold to Australia and the
firearms turned in.
United States. After several days withManila showed all the signs of a modern drawals were limited to 200 pesos in paper
city under attack. Shop windows were cov- money weekly. Filipinos hoarded silver
ered with adhesive tape and entrances bar- money and the result was a shortage in
ricaded with sandbags. Improvised bomb change. Most merchants sold only for cash,
shelters appeared in shops and public build- thus increasing the difficulties of the busiings. Those fortunate enough to have cel- ness community.9
lars in their homes spent their nights there.
During these days of confusion, military
Transportation was commandeered by the and civilian authorities worked closely to
Army and gasoline was rationed. Those restore the confidence of the people. Bomb
who drove cars had to shade their headlights shelters were constructed and the people
in the approved fashion.7 Street traffic be- began to pay less attention to the air raid
came disorganized, and trucks, ambulances, warnings when the Japanese failed to attack
and official cars raced through the streets the city. The Commonwealth Assembly
at top speed with complete disregard for met in emergency session and made availtraffic signals.
able to President Quezon the sum of 20,Life in Manila during these days was 000,000 pesos for defense. The United
topsy-turvy. Residents fled the city to seek States contributed an equal sum for civilian
safety in rural areas, and their country relief. Government employees were given
cousins flocked to the city for the same three months' advance in pay so that they
reason. Main thoroughfares were blocked could move their families out of the city
with trucks, animal-drawn vehicles, and
to places supposedly safer than Manila.
handcarts moving in both directions. Vehi- But it never became necessary to establish
cles were loaded with household goods, martial law, and after a week or two the
trussed pigs, and chicken crates. To the Filipinos quieted down and life in the capirear trailed the dogs. To their barking tal became more normal.
The troops were just as nervous as the
6
civilians. Most of them were convinced
Collier, Notebooks, I, 75. See also Amea
guards, sentries, and air raid wardens, who

"popped up seemingly at every corner to
issue a nervous challenge." 6 If not answered promptly and satisfactorily, they
fired. In an effort to control crime and reported fifth-column activity, the police were
given orders to shoot if the reply to a challenge was not satisfactory. Many interpreted their orders narrowly, challenging
and firing at the same time. With sentries,
air raid wardens, and police shooting, some-
Willoughby, I Was on Corregidor
(New York,
1943), pp. 93-94.

7
Van Landingham, "I Saw Manila Die," p. 13.
Ibid., p. 12; Collier, Notebooks, I, 75.
Van Landingham, "I Saw Manila Die," p. 12.
THE IMPACT OF WAR

that a well-organized Japanese fifth column
existed in the Philippines. Flares, rockets,
strange lights, descending paratroopers, cut
wires, and interrupted communications
were all observed and cited as evidences for
this belief. Rumors circulated as widely
among the troops as the civilians and were
as firmly believed.
The assistant supply officer of USAFFE,
Maj. Frank F. Carpenter, Jr., on a visit to
a barrio about fifteen miles north of Manila,
heard stories of American convoys, shortages of ammunition, the landings at Aparri,
and other military matters, which the average American soldier did not know. He
was told that Germans wearing the American uniform had been seen and that 1,500
Japanese soldiers in civilian clothes were
living in Manila, "all set to take action at
the proper time." It was Major Carpenter's considered judgment that fifth columnists in the uniform of the American soldier
were spreading information and creating
dissatisfaction, and he asked the intelligence
officer to investigate.10
Almost all survivors of the campaign
agree that they saw flares or that they know
someone who did. These lights were apparently unlike signal flares; they were
small, orange in color, and could be seen
close to the ground or just above the trees.
Other observers noted rockets rising over
uninhabited areas, and series of lights forming a straight line pointing to an airfield or
military target just before an attack.
Colonel Collier tells this story of the predawn raid on Nichols Field on the morning of 9 December: As the sound of the
Japanese planes became audible, an old
automobile near Nichols burst into flames,
casting a glow over the field. At the same
10
Memo, Maj Carpenter, to G-2 USAFFE, 16

Dec 41, AG 383.4 Phil Rcds.
117
time, about a dozen fishing boats were observed in the bay, just outside the breakwater. They formed a circle with their
lights pointing toward the center. The
straight line from this point to the blazing
automobile formed a line which the Japanese bombers presumably followed to reach
the field.11
Similar stories are told about the raids on
Clark Field and Cavite. One witness states
that he learned from an unnamed cavalry
officersince killedthat a Filipino who
operated a bar near Clark Field was largely
responsible for the success of the Japanese
attack on 8 December. This Filipino is supposed to have had a powerful short-wave
transmitter with a beam director in a room
in back of the bar and to have informed
the Japanese when all the B-17's were on
the ground. He was discovered at the dials
of his transmitter after the raid and a "grim
sergeant from the 26th Cavalry went into
the place with a tommy gun." 12 The presence of collaborators at Clark is also mentioned by Lt. Joseph H. Moore, commander
of the 20th Pursuit Squadron, who states
that he found a mirror tied to a tree above
his quarters. Presumably the reflections
from the mirror guided the Japanese aircraft to the field.13
A variation of the Clark Field story was
told of the raid on the Cavite Navy Yard.
Here a secret radio transmitter was also
supposed to have been found. The operators, according to this account, were an
American with a Japanese wife, both later
discovered and arrested. At Cavite, also, an
attractive girl of Japanese ancestry, who was
11
Collier, Notebooks, I, 62-63; Ind, Bataan, The

Judgment Seat, pp. 107, 110-14.
12
Van Landingham, "I Saw Manila Die," pp.
12-13; Lee, They Call It Pacific, p. 45.
13
Interv, author with Col Moore, 12 Aug 49,

OCMH.
118
employed in a trusted position at the yard,
was "caught red-handed in act of treachery." Someone decided she had to be executed immediately and the officers drew
lots. The task fell, so the story goes, to a
young naval officer who was in love with the
beautiful spy. He led her outside and performed the sentence "without hesitation." 14
Official records do not support any of the
stories told about secret radio transmitters,
beautiful spies, or fifth columnist barkeepers.
Reports of paratroops were frequent also,
but upon investigation all proved to be
false. A drop of 20,000 paratroops about
ten miles east of Clark Field was reported
on 10 December.
USAFFE placed
enough reliability on the report to order
the Philippine Division there to meet and
destroy the enemy. When the reported
Japanese paratroopers failed to appear, the
division was ordered elsewhere.15
Interrogation of Japanese officers after
the war and a study of Japanese and American records fail to support the belief that
a Japanese fifth column existed in the
Philippines. There is not a shred of evidence to indicate that any organized effort
was made by the Japanese to utilize the
sympathies of the Japanese population in
the Islands or of Filipino collaborators. To
have done so would have involved knowledge by a Japanese organization in the
Philippines of the 14th Army's detailed
plans well in advance of the attack, communications with the airfields on Formosa,
and an elaborate organization to receive information from agents and relay it on to
Japanese headquarters on Formosa. Such
an organization did not exist. If an effort
14
15
Lee, They Call It Pacific (Viking), p. 46.

USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, pp. 27-29.
to assist the attacking Japanese was made, it

must have been sporadic and on an individual basis.
It is possible to explain some of the observed phenomena on grounds other than
fifth-column activity. The flares may have
been caused by American and Filipino
troops using faulty .30-caliber tracer ammunition of World War I vintage. No one
was ever able to find any person who fired
flares, and examination invariably revealed
that the strange lights and flares came from
an area where American troops were stationed. Sometimes those searching for the
origin of the flares used lights which others
reported as signs of fifth-column operations.
The reports of Japanese paratroopers can
be explained by parachuting pilots from
damaged aircraft, by the descending burst
of antiaircraft fire, or by jettisoned spare gas
tanks. The heated imagination of men during the first days of war is capable of conjuring up visions far more fantastic than
strange lights and descending paratroopers.
The possibility of sabotage and fifth-column activity had been anticipated in prewar
plans. The Philippine Department G-2
and the Commonwealth secret service had
listed enemy aliens and had kept many individuals under surveillance. Provision
had been made to secure information and
locate enemy agents in the event of a Japanese attack. Several FBI operators of
Japanese parentage (nisei) had been
brought from Hawaii before the war to circulate among the Japanese population.
Many American businessmen, engineers,
and planters had been enrolled secretly in
the intelligence organization and provided
a potential American fifth column in the
event of a Japanese occupation of the
Islands. The Philippine Constabulary also
THE IMPACT OF WAR

provided secret agents for counterespionage.16
At the outbreak of hostilities, all suspected
persons were quickly and quietly taken into
custody. Japanese civilians living in the
Japanese section of Manila were ordered to
remain in their homes, and the military
police took over the guard of this area.17 On
the first day of war, General Mac Arthur
reported to the War Department that 40
percent of the enemy aliens in Manila, and
10 percent of those in the provinces had
been interned.18 The Philippine Constabulary picked up aliens wherever foundin
homes, offices, clubs, and on the streets. On
13 December, two days after Germany and
Italy declared war on the United States,
German and Italian residents in the Philippines were also interned.19 The aliens were
first screened at Bilibid Prison in Manila and
those cleared were released at once. Those
not able to explain their business satisfactorily were then transferred to a camp south
of the city to await examination by a board
consisting of a representative of the High
Commissioner and several Army officers.20
Although the civilian population and the
untrained troops were nervous during the
first days of war, the task of mobilizing the
Philippine Army continued. According to
the prewar plan the last units were scheduled for induction on 15 December, a week
after the attack came. Some, such as the
43d Infantry, had already been brought in
and, as soon as hostilities opened, all re16
Brief Hist of the G-2 Sec, GHQ SWPA, pp.

1-2.
17
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 34; Van
Landingham, "I Saw Manila Die," p. 12.
18
41, AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
19
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 37; Collier,
Notebooks, I, 65.
20
119
maining units were immediately mobilized.
Those divisional elements not yet in service,
usually the third infantry regiment and the
field artillery regiment, were brought in immediately. A provisional Constabulary
regiment, later designated the 4th, was
formed and, with the 1st and 2d Regiments, became the basis for the 2d Regular
Division, organized early in January and
consisting entirely of Constabulary troops.
The 1st Regular Division (PA), which in
peacetime consisted mainly of cadres for
training reservists, was brought up to
strength and inducted, without an artillery
regiment, on 19 December. It was assigned to the South Luzon Force and its 1st
Infantry moved at once to the Mauban
area along Lamon Bay.21
In the Visayas and in Mindanao, mobilization was about one-half completed when
war came. On orders from MacArthur's
headquarters, the 72d and 92d Infantry
(PA) were sent to Luzon on 9 December.

Numerous provisional units were organized
and equipped by local commanders. These
units consisted of volunteers, ROTC cadets,
and reservists not yet called or who had
failed to report.22
All reservists were ordered to report to the
nearest unit or mobilization center on 8 December. As a result, some units found
themselves overstrength and additional
units were hastily organized. Men undergoing instruction and not yet assigned were
organized into separate units. Coast artillery personnel at Fort Mills (Corregidor),
for example, was organized into the 1st
Coast Artillery (PA), with a headquarters
battery of twenty-eight men and four gun
21
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 15;
USAFFE GO's 47 and 50, 19 and 21 Dec 41.
22
V-MF Rpt of Opns, p. 21; Notes on Phil
Army, 1941-42.
120
batteries of one hundred men each. The
coast artillery reservists at Fort Wint in
Subic Bay were similarly organized.23
In some cases, units were formed to utilize
armament or equipment lying in warehouses or elsewhere. At the suggestion of
General King, Mac Arthur's artillery officer,
the 301st Field Artillery (PA) was formed
from two groups of volunteers, altogether
700 men, and equipped with 24 woodenwheeled 155-mm. guns of World War I
type, and 2 155-mm. howitzers of the same
vintage. These were the 155's that had
been sent to the Philippines to protect the
straits leading into the inland seas and were
the only weapons of this caliber in the Philippines, outside of Corregidor. Col. Alexander S. Quintard was brought from Mindanao to command the unit.24 At about the
same time, three separate provisional battalions of field artillery of four 4-gun batteries each were formed. These units were
armed with 48 of the 50 75-mm. guns on
self-propelled mounts that had been shipped
to the Philippines in October. Personnel
was secured from the Philippine Scouts,
Philippine Army reservists, and the 200th
Coast Artillery (AA). Two of the battalions were assigned to the North Luzon
Force, and one to the South Luzon Force.25
Immediately upon the outbreak of war,
USAFFE ordered all procurement agencies
to fill their needs by purchase in the local

markets. The quartermaster bought all
the new and used automobiles and trucks
he could find, as well as large quantities of
clothing and food. Several motor transport companies were taken over by the
Army, lock, stock, and barrel. The Signal
Corps purchased all available photographic,
radio, and telephone equipment, and took
control of the Manila Long Distance Telephone Company, commissioning its president, Joseph Stevenot, a lieutenant colonel.
The Medical Corps gathered up all the
medicine, bandages, and surgical equipment it could find in the Islands. Buildings
of all kinds were occupied by the Army
the Jai Alai Club became a hospital; Rizal
Stadium, a medical depot.26 The officers
assigned to the former inherited the food,
chefs, and service of the club, and for a few
days dined sumptuously on onion and mushroom soup, steak, broiled lobster, and Viennese pastry, served on snowy linen gleaming with silver by waiters in natty green and
white uniforms. After headquarters heard
of this arrangement, the medics ate Army
fare.27
Manila, the commercial center of the
Islands, was exploited for supplies to supplement existing stocks. On orders from
General MacArthur the quartermaster took
over from the large oil companies all their
bulk petroleum products stored in the vicinity of Manila. He sought especially to
procure food from local sources, for it was
evident already that there would be a
shortage should the campaign last long.
From Chinese merchants in Manila, the
Army secured thousands of 125-pound
sacks of polished rice, and from ships in the
23
Notes on Phil Army, 1941-42. For a list of
units inducted with dates and stations, see Plan
of Induction of Phil Army; Arrival of Units from
the United States, Annex II, USAFFE-USFIP
Rpt of Opns.
24
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, pp. 8, 22;
USAFFE GO's 45 and 49, 17 and 21 Dec 41;
Collier, Notebooks, II, 13-18; Col Quintard, CO
26
Ibid., pp. 3-6; QM Rpt of Opns, pp. 13-23.
301st FA (PA), Diary, entries of 8-12 Dec 41.
27
Alfred A. Weinstein, Barbed-Wire Surgeon,
This diary was borrowed from Colonel Quintard
(New York, 1948), pp. 5-6; Brig Gen Charles C.
and a photostat copy is on file in OCMH.
Drake, Comments on Draft MS, Comment 5,
25
Collier, Notebooks, II, 18-23.
OCMH.
121
THE IMPACT OF WAR

harbor large quantities of food. The quartermaster took over from Armour, Swift,
and Libby large quantities of canned meats
and other foods.28
Within a few days after the opening of
hostilities, the port area in Manila had become crowded with rapidly expanding military installations. Fort Santiago, headquarters of the Philippine Department, was
on the edge of this area, as was the mouth of
the Pasig River, now jammed with interisland freighters and other craft. The supply services that had warehouses and depots in the area decided it would be safest
to move out, although Manila had not yet
been bombed. The engineers were the first
to go; they moved to the University of the
Philippines. The quartermaster took over
Santo Tomas University, and the other
services followed. By 20 December most of
the service installations in the port area had
quietly moved to safer quarters.29
An unexpected addition to the tanks of
Col. James R. N. Weaver's Provisional
Tank Group was received shortly after the
start of war. The Japanese attack left
marooned in Manila Harbor the Don Jose,
a vessel belonging to the Canadian Government and carrying a cargo of motor equipment for two Canadian motor battalions in
Hong Kong. MacArthur immediately requested that this matriel be released for
use in the Philippines, and the War Department secured the Canadian Government's
consent. The cargo included fifty-seven
Bren gun carriers, forty of which were made
available to Colonel Weaver. Unfortunately, the guns for the carriers were not
28
Alvin P. Stauffer, Quartermaster Operations
in the War Against Japan, Ch. I, p. 45, a forthcoming volume in this series. This excellent manuscript was made available by the author before
publication.
29
included in the cargo, and they had to be

armed by the Manila Ordnance Depot.30
The immediate reaction at Headquarters, USAFFE, to the first Japanese landings was one of calm. General MacArthur optimistically reported that the Philippine people had withstood the shock of
war "with composure," and that there were
"no signs of confusion or hysteria." 31 The
Japanese moves were correctly analyzed
but a counteroffensive was not launched to
drive off the invaders. "We did not disperse forces," says General Sutherland, "but
waited for what we felt would be the main
attack."32
More concern was felt during the first
days of the war over the rapid dissolution
of the Far East Air Force than over the
Japanese landings. "The present phase of
enemy action," MacArthur told the War
Department on 12 December, "involves a
series of concentric thrusts probably intended to confuse and demoralize northern
movement. Probably has the additional
objective of securing airdromes for operation of land based aircraft." 33 The next
day he declared that the enemy's intent was
clearly revealed. The Japanese, he said,
were seizing airbases outside the heavily defended area of central Luzon, and ground
action could be considered sporadic and
unimportant.34
30
Memo, Asst QMG for G-4, 20 Dec 41, sub:

Canadian Supplies, G-4 33817; memo for rcd,
Brig Gen Brehon B. Somervell for TAG, n.d., approved by DCofS, OCS 18136-165.
31
Rad, MacArthur to AGWAR, No. 1135, 9
Dec 41, AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
32
Interv, author with Sutherland, 12 Nov 46,
p. 4, OCMH.
33
381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
34
381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
122
This view was expressed also in Col.
Charles A. Willoughby's intelligence estimate to the War Department on 13 December 1941. He expected the Japanese
forces at Aparri, Vigan, and Legaspi to be
reinforced, but pointed out that the landing areas were not suitable for the employment of strong forces in offensive operations. The purpose of the landing, he
correctly analyzed, was to establish advance airbases. "As soon as air support
is established," he warned, "a major landing effort can be expected; it is estimated
after 15 days."35
The only change in plans made by MacArthur as a result of the Japanese landings
was the new mission given the North Luzon
Force on 16 December. Before that time
General Wainwright had been charged
with the defense of all northern Luzon, and
his orders were to meet the enemy at the
beaches and drive him back into the sea.
The main line of resistance was the beach.
Such a mission was impossible of execution
with the available means and in the absence of air and naval support. On the
16th the North Luzon Force was relieved
of responsibility for the defense of that por35
Rad, Willoughby to War Dept G-2, 13 Dec
41, AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.

tion of Luzon north of San Fernando, La
Union, and required only to hold the enemy north of an east-west line through that
city.36
Within a few days after the landings the
pattern of the Japanese plan had become
clear to the American command. First,
Japanese air and naval forces were to cut
off the Philippine Islands from all possible
aid. Then, Japanese aircraft could destroy
or neutralize the defending air and naval
forces and gain superiority in the air and
on the sea. At the same time, Japanese
ground forces would secure advance bases
at the northern and southern extremities of
the island of Luzon and on Mindanao
where the opposition was negligible or nonexistent. The major enemy effort, it was
clear, was still to come. That it would
come soonColonel Willoughby thought
28 Decemberthere was no doubt, and
when it did the objective would be Manila,
the capital. Before the year was out, the
worst fears of the early pessimists were to
be realized. Even before the advance
landings were completed, the main elements
of General Homma's 14th Army were
already nearing the Luzon coast.
36
CHAPTER VIII
The Main Landings

The first part of Imperial General Headquarters' plan for the conquest of the Philippines had been successful beyond the hopes
of the most optimistic. American air and
naval power had been virtually destroyed.
Five landings had been made at widely
separated points and strong detachments
of Japanese troops were already conducting
offensive operations on Luzon and Mindanao. The 5th Air Group was established
on Luzon fields, and the Navy had its own
seaplane bases at Camiguin Islands, Legaspi, and Davao. Army short-range fighters
were in position to support Japanese ground
troops when required. All this had been
accomplished in less than two weeks.
The main landings, to be made on Luzon
north and south of Manila, were still to
come. There would be two landings: the
major effort at Lingayen Gulf, and a secondary effort at Lamon Bay. (Map 4) The
forces assigned to these landings had begun
to assemble late in November. The 16th
Division (less the 9th and 33d Infantry)
left Osaka in Japan on 25 November and
arrived at Amami Oshima in the Ryukyus
on 3 December. Three days later all of the
48th Division less the Tanaka and Kanno
Detachments) was concentrated at Mako,
in the Pescadores, and at Takao and Kirun,
on near-by Formosa. The major portion of
the shipping units was in Formosa by the
end of November and began to load the
convoys soon after.
There was much confusion during the
concentration and loading period. The
greatest secrecy was observed, and only a

small number of officers knew the entire
plan. These men had to travel constantly
between units and assembly points to assist
in the preparations and in the solution of
detailed and complicated problems. Unit
commanders were given the scantiest instructions, and worked, for the most part,
in the dark. Important orders were delivered just before they had to be executed,
with little time for study and preparation.
Such conditions, the Japanese later regretted, "proved incentives to errors and confusion, uneasiness and irritation." 1 Moreover, after 8 December, the Japanese lived
in fear of an American bombing of Formosa ports, where the vessels were being
loaded with supplies and ammunition.
Despite fears, confusions, and mistakes,
the separate convoys were finally loaded and
ready to sail by 17 December. The uneasiness arising from ignorance and secrecy
persisted aboard ship. Even now the men
were not told where they were going. Adding to the nervousness was the restriction
placed on the use of maps. Only a few
officers were allowed to see them. "All the
units," the Japanese later observed, "were
possessed of a presentiment, arising from the
general atmosphere, that they were on their
way to a very important theater of operations." 2 The 14th Army staff, which did
know the destination, shared the nervous1
Phil Landing Opns (Amphibious), ATIS Doc
1989-6A.
Ibid.
THE MAIN LANDINGS

ness of the troops. Everything depended
upon the success of this operation. All that
had gone before was but a preliminary to
these landings. If they did not succeed, the
plans of the Southern Army and of Imperial General Headquarters would fail.
"During all my campaigns in the Philippines," said General Homma when he was
on trial for his life, "I had three critical
moments, and this was number one."3
125
Gulf and dropped anchor.
sault was on.
The main as-
The Landing Force
Aboard the transports was the main

strength of General Homma's 14th Army,
altogether 43,110 men.5 The major combat strength of the Lingayen Force was
drawn from Lt. Gen. Yuichi Tsuchibashi's
48th Division. Activated in Formosa in
late 1940 and as yet untried in battle, this
The Lingayen Landing
division was composed of the 1st and 2d
On the morning of 21 December, Fili- Formosa Infantry Regiments, the 47th Inpinos near Bauang along the shores of fantry, and artillery, reconnaissance, enLingayen Gulf observed a Japanese traw- gineer, and transport regiments. Attached
ler cruising leisurely offshore. Unmo- to it for the landing was a large number of
lested, it took soundings and then serenely combat and service units, but the 2d Forsailed off to the north.4 Late that night, mosa had been lost by the establishment of
seventy-six heavily loaded Army trans- the Tanaka and Kanno Detachments. Alports and nine Navy transports, all under though probably the best motorized divistrong naval escort, steamed into Lingayen sion in the Japanese Army at this time, the
48th by American standards could hardly
3
Proceedings of the trial, United States of
be said to have sufficient motor transportaAmerica vs. Masaharu Homma Before the Military
Commission Convened by the Commanding Gen- tion. One battalion of each infantry regieral, United States Army Forces Western Pacific,
ment was equipped with bicycles. Divip. 3050, testimony of Homma.
sional
artillery consisted of the 48th MounThe transcript of the trial includes 30 volumes
of testimony before the military tribunal, 5 vol- tain Artillery, similar to a standard field arumes of exhibits, and 1 volume of the trial review
tillery regiment except that the basic weapby Lt. Gen. Wilhelm D. Styer. The volumes of
6
testimony are numbered 1 through 30each vol- on was the 75-mm. mountain gun (pack).
ume covering one day of the trial, held during the
period December 19, 1945, to February 11, 1946
and are paginated seriatim. They will be hereafter referred to as USA vs. Homma with appropriate page. The 5 volumes of exhibits include
3 kinds of documents: Prosecution Exhibits,
5
Ltr, Chief, Hist Div SSUSA to G-2 GHQ
FEC, 9 Nov 48, 3d Ind, 16 Aug 49. The breakdown of the troops landing between 22 and 28
December 1941 is as follows:
1-425, Defense Exhibits, A-Y, and Commission

Exhibit 1, and will be hereafter cited as USA vs.
Homma, Prosecution, Defense, or Commission Exhibits with appropriate number or letter. When
used, the transcript of the proceedings of this tribunal and the exhibits were on file in the War
Crimes Division of the Office of the Judge Advocate General.
4
Interv, author with Col Blackburn, 11th Div
(PA), 13 May 49. Colonel Blackburn was stationed near Bauang at this time.
Order of Battle of the Japanese Armed Forces,
WD G-2, 1 Mar 45, p. 108; USA vs. Homma, p.

3054-55, testimony of Homma; Handbook of Japanese Military Forces, TM-E-30-480, 15 Sep 44,
p. 37.
126
In addition to the 48th Division, the

Lingayen Force contained the 16th Division's 9th Infantry, and part of the 22d Field
Artillery with 8 horse-drawn 75-mm. guns.
of landing craft, altogether 63 small landing

craft, 73 large ones, and 15 others, which
the Japanese called "extra large." In addition, there were 48 small craft, best deLarger caliber pieces were provided by the scribed as powered sampans. The smallest
9th Independent Field Artillery Battalion of the landing craft weighed 3 tons and was
(8 150-mm. guns), the 1st Field Artillery apparently used as a personnel carrier. The
Regiment (24 150-mm. howitzers), and the large landing craft, Daihatsu Model A
8th Field Artillery Regiment (16 105-mm. (Army), was probably the one that saw
guns). Included in the Lingayen Force most service in the Pacific war. Resembling
were between 80 and 100 light and heavy a fishing barge in appearance, it weighed 5
tanks distributed between the 4th and 7th tons, was 50 feet long, was capable of 6 to
Tank Regiments.7 A large number of 10 knots, and had a draft of 3 to 4 feet
service and special troops completed the and a capacity of 100 to 120 men for short
hauls.9 The "extra large" landing craft,
force.
The vessels that reached Lingayen Gulf or Tokubetsu Daihatsu, weighed 7 to 8 tons
on the night of 21 December were organ- and was capable of carrying the later model
ized in three separate convoys. The first to tanks. Its end could be dropped, enabling
leave had come from Kirun in northern the tanks to climb in and out under their
10
Formosa and had sailed at 0900 of the own power.
In addition to the direct support provided
17th. It contained twenty-one transports
by the naval escorts with each convoyaland had been escorted by the Batan Island
Attack Force, which had returned to For- together 2 light cruisers, 16 destroyers, and
a large number of torpedo boats, minemosa after the landing on 8 December.8
The convoy loaded at Mako in the Pes- sweepers and layers, patrol craft, and miscadores, being second farthest from the cellaneous vesselsa large naval force led
Philippines, was the next to depart. At by Vice Adm. Ibo Takahashi, 3d Fleet
noon on 18 December, the twenty-eight commander, moved into position to furnish
transports of this group, accompanied- by distant cover. On 19 December this force
the Vigan Attack Force, left port. The last sortied from Mako and sailed to a point
convoy left Takao in Formosa at 1700 on about 250 miles west of Luzon. There it
the 18th, escorted by the naval force which was joined by units of Vice Adm. Nobutake
Rondo's 2d Fleet, detached from support of
had supported the Aparri landing.
With each convoy went a large number the Malayan invasion. Altogether, the
Japanese had a force of 2 battleships, 4
7
One of these was a heavy tank regiment, whose
heavy cruisers, 1 light cruiser, 2 seaplane
tanks were the equivalent of the U.S. 13-ton light
tank; the other was light. The Japanese do not
indicate which is the heavy and which is the light
tank regiment, but it appears that the 4th contained the light tanks.
8
14th Army Opns, I, 46; II, 8, Untranslated
Chart 5; Japanese Naval Opns in Phil Invasion,
p. 14; Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, p. 162.
9
14 Army Opns, II, 1-5, 8, Untranslated Charts
1 and 5; Handbook of Japanese Mil Forces, pp.
327-30.
10
Answers by 1st Demob Bureau to Questionnaire on Phil Campaign prepared by author, 5
Aug 49, ATIS Doc 49692.
127
THE MAIN LANDINGS
miles north of Damortis. Starting at 0500,

the troops, already loaded into the sixtynine landing craft assigned to this force,
were to head for the beach. The first wave
was scheduled to touch down at 0540. The
The Plan
round trip time of the landing craft in this
The Japanese plan called for landings at wave was to be two hours; thereafter it
three points along the shores of Lingayen would be one hour. Altogether each of the
Gulf, to begin at 0500 of the 22d.12 Each craft would make ten round trips during the
of the convoys constituted a separate task first day.
The landing craft of the Mako convoy,
force and each was to land at a different
point. The southernmost landing was to carrying the 1st Formosa and 7th Tank
be made by the Takao convoy carrying the Regiment, were to move out thirty minutes
47th Infantry (less one battalion), 4th Tank after the 47th Infantry, and at 0550 would
Regiment (less one company), and support- hit the shore at Caba, seven miles north of
ing elements. This force was to land at Agoo. To carry the troops of this force
Agoo, a small village just inland from the ashore, 57 landing craft and 19 powered
eastern shore of Lingayen Gulf, about five sampans were assigned. The third force,
consisting of the 9th Infantry and called the
11
Kamijima Detachment, was not to start
Interrogs of Vice Adm Kazutaka Shiraichi, CofS,
landing operations until 0700.13 At that
2d Fleet, 15 Oct 45, and of Capt Masamichi Futime the troops would be loaded into 20
jita, 2d Fleet staff, 20 Oct 45, USSBS, Interrogations of Japanese Officials, I, 26, 72; Morison, Ris- landing craft and 29 sampans and would
ing Sun in the Pacific, p. 178.
head for Bauang, about seven miles north
12
The landing plan was drawn up in Formosa on
of Caba, the first wave reaching shore at
1 Dec 41 and is reproduced in 14th Army Opns,
0730. Thus, 14th Army expected to hold
II, 1-5. The author used the untranslated
version.
a fifteen-mile stretch of beach, from Bauang
Unless otherwise noted, the account of the
on the north to Agoo on the south, along the
Lingayen landing and the consolidation of the
beachhead is based on the following sources: 14th narrow coastal plain between Lingayen
Army Opns, I, 46-48, 51-52; 5th Air Gp Opns,
Gulf and the Cordillera central range, by
pp. 31-37; Statement of Col Moriji Kawagoe,
0730 of D Day, 22 December.
former CofS, 48th Division, 30 Jun 49, ATIS Doc
62707, in Statements of Japanese Officials on
The position chosen for the landing was
World War II, GHQ FEC, Mil Intel Sec, II, 124an excellent one. Between the mountains
28; Japanese Naval Opns in Phil Invasion, pp. 8and the shore was a narrow level strip along
9, 13-14; Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, pp.
179-83; USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, pp. 31ff; which ran Route 3, an excellent hard-surNLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 7-10; Wainface, two-way highway. At Bauang was
wright, General Wainwright's Story, pp. 33-35;
Lt Col William E. Chandler, "The 26th Cavalry
a road intersecting Route 3 and leading
(PS) Battles to Glory," Armored Cavalry Journal,
eastward
through a mountain defile to
Nos. 2 and 3 (March-June 1947), Part 1, pp. 14Baguio, whence it turned south to join
16, Part 2, pp. 7-11; ltr, Col Clyde A. Selleck to
Board of Officers, 1 Feb 46, sub: Statement for
Route 3 again near Rosario. At Aringay,
Reinstatement of Rank, pp. 7-9, copy supplied
just above Agoo, was a river which formed
author by Col Selleck, and in OCMH; and ltr,
carriers, and some destroyers in position to

meet any Allied naval attempt to disrupt
the landing of the Lingayen Force.11
Col Halstead C. Fowler, formerly

FA (PA) to author, 30 Apr 49.
CO
71st
13
The name Kamijima also appears as Uejima.
128
a small valley through the mountains.
Through this valley ran a partially surfaced
road which led from Aringay to Rosario,
one of the key road intersections in this
area. South of the landing beaches was
the central plain of Luzon. Route 3 opened
directly on to the road network leading into
Manila.
Once ashore the troops were to destroy
any American forces in the vicinity and
move inland without waiting to consolidate
the beachhead. Later waves would perform that task. The Kamijima Detachment
at Bauang was to send one element north
to occupy San Fernando, La Union, and
another east along the Bauang-Baguio
Road, to seize the Naguilian airfield and
then press on to Baguio. By seizing Baguio,
the Japanese would prevent an American
counterattack from the east through the
defile. The occupation of San Fernando
to the north would effect a consolidation
with Colonel Tanaka's force moving south
from Vigan and would protect the rear of
the Japanese southward advance.
The forces landing at Caba and Agoo
were to press south toward Damortis and
Rosario. Two roads would be used: the
coastal highway to Damortis, and the partially surfaced road which paralleled the
Aringay River and led to Rosario. Once
at their objectives, these troops were to assemble and "prepare to advance" toward
the bank of the Agno River, the first formidable obstacle to a force moving south from
Lingayen Gulf to Manila.
The Landing
The voyage of the Lingayen Force to the
target was uneventful. In an effort to avoid
detection and to create the impression that

the destination was Indochina, the transports at first followed a southwesterly course.
Only a typhoon in the South China Sea
hindered the approach; no American planes
or ships appeared.
The combined invasion force was without air cover, such support no longer considered necessary, until the 21st when
twenty planes of the 24th and 50th Fighter
Regiments, based at Laoag, came out to
meet the ships and escort them during the
last leg of the journey. At the same time,
six light bombers struck Fort Wint on
Grande Island at the entrance to Subic
Bay, hoping thus to make the real landing site. Between 0110 and 0430 on
22 December, the three convoys, after a slow
voyage at an average speed of 8 knots, dropped anchor in Lingayen Gulf.14 The weather was chill, the skies were dark, and an
intermittent rain was falling.
At this point things began to go wrong.
The convoy leaders, warned against stopping short of their targets, went to the other
extreme. The initial anchorage was to have
been between San Fernando and the Aringay River, but the lead ship, unable to
locate the river in the darkness, overshot
the mark, and dropped anchor off Santo
Thomas, about four miles south of Agoo.
The other transports followed, dropping
anchor at intervals over a distance of fifteen
miles. As a result, the landing craft now
had to make a longer trip than anticipated
to reach their designated beaches.15
14
Answers to Questionnaire on Phil Campaign,
5 Aug 49, ATIS Doc 49692; Interrog of Gen

Maeda, CofS, 14th Army, 10 May 47, Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers, Mil Hist Div,
GHQ FEC, I; USA vs. Homma, p. 3049, testimony of Homma.
15
Interrog of Gen Maeda, 10 May 47; Phil
Landings Opns (Amphibious), ATIS Doc 19896A.
THE MAIN LANDINGS
129
Under cover of cruiser and destroyer gunfire, the troops began going over the side
shortly after 0200. By 0430 two battalions
of the 47th Infantry and one battalion of
the 48th Mountain Artillery were in the
landing craft, ready to strike out for shore.
At 0517 the first troops touched down on
the beach south of Agoo. Less than fifteen
minutes later, at 0530, the 1st Formosa Infantry, the main strength of the 3d Battalion, 48th Mountain Artillery, and tanks
began landing at Aringay, about two miles
south of Caba. Two hours later part of the
Kamijima Detachment came ashore near
Bauang; the rest of the Detachment landed
at Santiago, three miles to the south, at
0830.16
The transfer of the troops to the landing craft had proved extremely difficult
because of high seas. The light craft were
heavily buffeted on the way to shore and
the men and equipment soaked by the
spray. The radios were made useless by
salt water, and there was no communication with the first waves ashore. Even
ship-to-ship communication was inadequate. The men had a difficult time in the
heavy surf, and it proved impossible to
land heavy equipment. The high seas
threw many of the landing craft up on
the beach, overturning some and beaching
others so firmly that they could not be put
back into operation for a full day. The
northernmost convoy finally had to seek
shelter near San Fernando Point, where the
sea was calmer. The second wave could
not land as planned, with the result that
the entire landing schedule was disrupted.
The infantry, mountain artillery, and some
of the armor got ashore during the day, but
few of the heavy units required for support were able to land.
Luckily for the Japanese, they had been
able, by skillful handling of the transports,
to enter shoal waters before the American
submarines could get into action. Once
inside, however, the vessels were strung out
for fifteen miles, presenting a perfect target
for those submarines that could get into the
gulf. The S-38 pushed into shallow waters
and sank the Army transport Hayo Maru
while it was following the gunboats which
were preparing to lay mines a few miles
west of the anchorage. But on the whole
the results obtained by the submarines were
disappointing.17
To increase the Japanese worries, four
of the B-17's that had come up from
Batchelor Field to bomb the Japanese at
Davao flew on to Lingayen Gulf and
managed to slip through the covering
screen of the 24th and 50th Fighter Regiments that morning to strafe the cruisers and destroyers and inflict some damage
on the Japanese. Even Admiral Takahashi's cover force, now about 100 miles
northwest of Lingayen Gulf, came under
attack. PBY's and Army planes went for
the flagship Ashigara, mistaking it for the
Haruna. Although they scored no hits, the
planes reported the Haruna, sunk. The
cover force finally slipped away into a rain
squall.
Meanwhile, the rising sea had forced
many of the Japanese ships to shift anchorage and they moved into the inner bay.
There they ran into more trouble when they
came into range of the 155-mm. guns of the
86th Field Artillery Battalion (PS). This
battalion had two guns at San Fabian and
16
Interrog of Capt Ishihara, 3d Fleet staff, 22
Oct 45, USSBS, Interrogations of Japanese Officials, I, 83.
17
Apparently many of the transports were shallow draft, converted fishing vessels, presenting difficult targets for the undersea craft.
130
155-MM. GUN EMPLACEMENT NEAR DAGUPAN

two at Dagupan, and these apparently
opened fire on the southernmost elements
of the invasion force. Although claiming
to have sunk three transports and two destroyers, the coastal guns actually did no
damage except to give General Homma
many nervous moments.18
The Japanese landing at Lingayen did
not surprise the high command in the Philippines. It was the logical place to land a
large force whose destination was Manila.
On 18 December G-2, USAFFE, had received information of the movement of a
18

41, AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East; account of
86th FA Bn, from diary of an unidentified officer
who died at Cabanatuan as a prisoner of war,
OCMH.
hostile convoy of about eighty transports

moving toward the Philippines from the
north. This information had been relayed
to naval headquarters which already had
submarines in the area.19 At 0200 of the
20th, 16th Naval District headquarters reported to USAFFE that a large convoy had
been sighted forty miles north of Lingayen
Gulf. On the night of 20-21 December,
USAFFE, acting on information received,
warned the units stationed in that area
that a Japanese expedition "of from 100
to 120 vessels" was moving south and could
be expected off the mouth of the gulf by
19
Collier, Notebooks, II, 10. This information
is not corroborated by naval sources or by the
meager official accounts, but it corresponds with
the known facts.
THE MAIN LANDINGS

evening of the 21st.20 The first report of
the arrival of the invasion force came from
the submarine Stingray which had been on
patrol off Lingayen for several days. Before any action could be taken, the landings
had begun.
Despite the warning, the Americans
seem to have been ill prepared to drive off
the invaders. At this time the 120-milelong coast line of Lingayen Gulf was defended by two Philippine Army divisions,
only one of which had divisional artillery.
The southern edge of the gulf where the
landing was expected and where the bulk of
the artillery was emplaced, was in the 21st
Division sector. The eastern shore, as far
north as San Fernando, was held by the 11th
Division. The 71st Infantry (71st Division ), with only ten weeks' training, was attached to the 11th Division and posted in
the Bauang-Naguilian area. The 26th
Cavalry (PS), led by Col. Clinton A. Pierce,
had been moved from North Luzon Force
reserve at Resales to Pozorrubio on Route 3
about twelve miles south of Rosario, in the
path of the Japanese advance.
Only at Bauang were Filipino troops
waiting at the beach. Here the Headquarters Battalion, 12th Infantry (PA), with
one ,50-caliber and several .30-caliber machine guns, faced the oncoming Japanese.
As the Kamijima Detachment approached
the shore, the Filipinos took it under fire.
The .50-caliber gun caused heavy casualties
among the Japanese, but the .30's had
dropped out of the action early with clogged
firing mechanisms, due to faulty ammunition. Despite the casualties, the Japanese
20
Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 58. The author
has been unable to find a copy of this radio
message.
131
pushed ahead and established a foothold on
shore, whereupon the Filipinos withdrew.21
Behind the beach at Bauang was Lt. Col.
Donald Van N. Bonnett's 71st Infantry
(PA). On the 21st Bonnett had been given
orders to halt Colonel Tanaka's 2d Formosa
at San Fernando, La Union. One battalion, with a battery of 75-mm. guns
(SPM) attached, was to move up the coastal
road to meet the 2d Formosa head on. Another battalion was to advance along a secondary road to the east and attack
Colonel Tanaka on his left flank. This
maneuver, if well executed, might have destroyed the 2d Formosa, but the inexperienced and poorly equipped Filipinos were
not capable of a swift and sudden onslaught.22
Before the 71st Infantry could complete
its movement the Japanese landed. Patrols
from the Kamijima Detachment immediately moved north along Route 3 and at
1100 made contact with a 2d Formosa
patrol. By 1400 the main bodies of both
units had joined. Meanwhile, Colonel
Kamijima's 2d Battalion, 14th Army reserve, had pushed into Bauang immediately
after landing and by 1700 had secured the
town and surrounding area. The 3d Battalion, in accordance with the plan, moved
21
USA vs. Homma, p. 3054, testimony of
Homma; Interrog of Gen Maeda, 10 May 47; Phil
Landing Opns (Amphibious), ATIS Doc 19896A; interv, author with Col Blackburn, 13 May
49. The ammunition had been buried in the sand.
22
The remainder of the regiment was at Bauang.
71st Infantry (PA), extract from the diary of Maj
William J. Priestley, pp. 1, 2, copy on file in
OCMH.
This diary consists of a series of note-
books prepared by Major Priestley in prison camp

after talking with the officers and men of the various units whose contribution to the Philippine
campaign he describes.
132
out along the Bauang-Baguio road to the

east, toward the Naguilian airfield.
With Colonel Kamijima's 9th Infantry
ashore, the position of the 71st Infantry
units became untenable. One battalion
moved down the coastal road and the other,
Thus, by afternoon of the 22d, the Japanese had pushed ashore elements of three
infantry regiments, with supporting artillery and tanks; the main force of the 14th
Army was still aboard the transports. Hard
fighting lay ahead before the initial objec-
with elements of the 11th Division, fell back

to the east in the face of the Japanese ad-
tives of the Lingayen Force would be attained and the Japanese freed from the
vance. Bonnett's orders now were to with- danger of being driven back into the sea.
draw through Baguio to the south, clearing
the Philippine summer capital by dark.23
Consolidating the Lingayen Beachhead
Farther south Col. Hifumi Imai's 1st
Formosa and the 48th Mountain Artillery

(less 1st and 2d Battalions) had landed at
Aringay and by 1030 had concentrated for
the advance. Colonel Imai's mission was
to move his force south toward Damortis
and Rosario. Early in the forenoon the
regiment moved out, down the coastal road,
and by 1600 the column had joined the
48th Reconnaissance and the 4th Tank
Regiments, which had come ashore at 0730,
north of Damortis.
The landing at Agoo, where Col. Isamu
Yanagi's 47th Infantry with a battalion of
the 48th Mountain Artillery had come
ashore, was unopposed initially. Without
waiting for motor transportation, Colonel
Yanagi moved inland toward the Aringay
Road, thence south to Rosario. Meanwhile, Brig. Gen. William E. Brougher,
11th Division commander, had sent forward a battalion of infantry to meet the
Japanese coming down the coast and, if

possible, disrupt the landing at Agoo. By
this time the 48th Reconnaissance and 4th
Tank Regiments were ashore, and in the
brush that followed easily routed the Philippine Army troops who beat a hasty retreat
to Damortis.24
23
24
Ibid., p. 1.
Collier, Notebooks, II, 35.
While his troops at Lingayen were pushing ahead, General Homma remained
aboard ship in Lingayen Gulf. He had
done all he could in the planning and preparation for the invasion. Now his troops
were committed and their failure or success
was out of his hands. His anxieties, the lot
of any commander during the amphibious
stages of an operation, were increased by
lack of communications with the men
ashore and the confusion caused by high

seas and heavy surf. He had no knowledge
of the disposition of his troops, moving in
many columns in all directions, and no way
of controlling the action. He had pushed
his infantry and approximately half his
armor ashore between Bauang and Agoo,
but all the artillery save one regiment was
still aboard the transports in the gulf. Cut
off from his troop commanders, he had no
way to lessen his apprehension by assurances
that all was well.
There was some basis for General

Homma's fears. The position of the Japanese troops ashore, while generally favorable, might easily become precarious. The
landing had been made in a narrow corridor

crossed by numerous streams, each of which
afforded the defender an opportunity for

delaying action. Although the plain to the
south provided an excellent route to Manila,
THE MAIN LANDINGS

it could also be used by the Americans and
Filipinos as the base for a concerted counterattack against the Japanese as they
streamed out of the corridor. A vigorous
and well-timed attack by the four divisions
of the North Luzon Force, spearheaded by
the well trained and equipped Philippine
Division in USAFFE reserve, might well
"wipe out the invader." 25 If, at the same
time, sufficient air and naval forces could
be mustered to attack the transports and
naval escort lying at anchor in the bay, the
Japanese line of retreat would be cut and
all Homma's achievements and plans
brought to naught.
According to the Japanese plan, the
troops, once they had landed at Lingayen,
were to move on without waiting for the
concentration of the entire landing force.
But a difference of opinion now arose in
14th Army headquarters. The more cautious staff officers, believing it would be
suicidal to proceed with the advance as
planned, argued for the establishment of a
strong, well-organized beachhead before
moving further. Their troops, they reasoned, were at present confined to the long,
narrow coastal plain, and the Americans
from their positions along the commanding
heights to the east might well hold up any
Japanese advance long enough to allow
General MacArthur to send up his reserves.
The results would be disastrous.
The more aggressive wished to execute
the original plan. They argued that the
American commanders would not risk an
offensive in front of the Agno River line.
Even if the Americans decided to attack
25
Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 60. The four divisions were the 11th, 21st, 71st and 91st Divisions
(PA). With the state of training, lack of equipment and transportation, and the absence of communication, such an attack was impossible.
133
earlier, the bolder 14th Army staff officers
felt that the advantages gained from continuing the advance were great enough to
justify the risk. If the plan succeeded, the
Japanese would gain bridgeheads across the
Agno and would be in position to advance
rapidly on Manila. Also, it would assure
the safety of the beachhead. The views of
the more aggressive won out, and General
Homma agreed to continue the advance as
planned.26
As the first day passed and no word came
from the advancing troops, General Homma's fears increased. With no prospect of
a calm sea in which to land his artillery and
heavy equipment next day, and still fearing
an American counterattack, he determined
to shift anchorage. At 1730 of D Day he
ordered the convoy to move farther south
during the night, to a point off Damortis,
and continue landing operations there the
next day. Fearing artillery fire at the new
anchorage, he ordered General Tsuchibashi, the 48th Division commander, to
take San Fabian, where there were two
155-mm. guns, thus extending the Japanese
drive southward along the Lingayen coast.27
Damortis and Rosario

As the Japanese invasion force made
ready to land, the Americans made lastminute preparations to meet the attack.
USAFFE attached twelve 75-mm. guns on
self-propelled mounts to Wainwright's
North Luzon Force and ordered the 192d
Tank Battalion to his support, but did not
place them under his command. Wainwright in turn sent Colonel Pierce's 26th
26

1989-6 A.
27
USA vs. Homma, pp. 3053-54, testimony of
Homma.
134
Cavalry (PS) from Pozorrubio to Rosario
and by 0500 the Scouts were on their way.
While the main body of the 26th Cavalry
advanced toward Rosario, the Scout Car
Platoon (less detachments) moved ahead
quickly to Damortis. When it found the
town unoccupied it pushed northward along
the coastal road. A few miles to the north
the Scout platoon ran into the forward
elements of the 48th Reconnaissance and
4th Tank Regiments and fell back to
Damortis.
Meanwhile the rest of the 26th Cavalry
at Rosario had been ordered to Damortis
and directed to hold that town. Upon its
arrival the regiment established defensive
positions, which would permit a delaying
action in the event of a forced withdrawal.
At 1300 the cavalrymen came under attack
from Japanese ground units supported by
planes of the 5th Air Group.
Colonel Pierce, who now had, in addition
to his own cavalry, a company of the 12th
Infantry and one from the 71st under his
command, was hard put to hold his position
and called on General Wainwright for help.
At about the same time Wainwright received word that an enemy force mounted
on cycles or light motor vehicles was approaching Damortis. To meet this emergency, Wainwright requested a company of
tanks from Brig. Gen. James R. N. Weaver,
the Provisional Tank Group commander.
Because of a shortage of gasoline, Weaver
could furnish only a platoon of five tanks
from Company C, 192d Tank Battalion.
These moved out to the threatened area and
near Agoo met the enemy's light tanks. The
command tank, maneuvering off the road,
received a direct hit and burst into flames.
The other four, all hit by 47-mm. antitank
fire, succeeded in returning to Rosario but
were lost by bombing later in the day. At

1600 elements of the 1st Formosa and 48th
Mountain Artillery, which had landed earlier in the day at Aringay joined the attack.
Colonel Pierce, finding himself completely
outnumbered, withdrew to his first delaying position east of Damortis. By 1900, the
Japanese were in complete control of the
town.28
Earlier that afternoon Wainwright had
attached the 26th Cavalry to the 71st Division and had ordered Brig. Gen. Clyde
A. Selleck to take his 71st Division (less 71st
Infantry), then at Urdaneta, to Damortis,
a distance of about twenty-five miles, and
prevent the Japanese from moving south.
The 26th Cavalry was to cover the right
flank of the 71st Division and hold the junction of the Rosario-Baguio road, east of
Rosario, in order to permit Major Bonnett's
force, the 71st Infantry (less 1st Battalion),
then at Baguio, to clear that point and join
the North Luzon Force.
At about 1630 General Selleck, accompanied by the 72d Infantry commander and
Lt. Col. Halstead C. Fowler of the 71st
Field Artillery, arrived at Rosario, which
had by now become the focal point of American resistance. There he learned that Japanese troops were not only approaching
from the west along the Damortis road, but
also from the northwest where Colonel
Yanagi's 47th Infantry was advancing from
Agoo along the Aringay River valley. On
his way to Damortis, Selleck found Colonel
Pierce in his defensive position and learned
of the exhausted condition of the 26th Cavalry. Since 71st Division troops had not
28
Miller, Bataan Uncensored, p. 94; ltr, Weaver
to Wainwright, 20 Nov 45, copy made available to
author by General Weaver, and in OCMH;
Weaver, Comments on Draft MS, Comment 3,
OCMH; Prov Tank Gp, Rpt of Opns 1941-42,
p. 9, Annex X, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns.
THE MAIN LANDINGS

yet come up, he ordered the cavalrymen to
fall back slowly on Rosario.
The Japanese by this time had a sizable
force advancing along the Damortis-Rosario road. With the 48th Reconnaissance
Regiment in the lead and Colonel Imai's
1st Formosa supported by the 48th Mountain Artillery (less 1st and 2d Battalions)
forming the main body, the Japanese threatened to overwhelm Colonel Pierce's weary
cavalry. The tankers, Company C, 192d,
supporting the Scouts, claimed to have orders from General Weaver, the Provisional
Tank Group commander, to fall back at
2000 to Rosario, and at the appointed time
began to pull out. As the last of the tanks
passed through the American lines, the rear
guard of the 26th Cavalry was penetrated
by Japanese tanks. In the confused action which followed, the Japanese tanks,
merged in the darkness with the struggling
men and the terrified riderless horses, cut
up the defenders and exacted a heavy toll.
Only bold action by Maj. Thomas J. H.
Trapnell in blocking a bridge over a small
river a few miles west of Rosario with a
burning tank halted the Japanese and prevented a complete rout.
When the retreating cavalrymen reached
Rosario, they discovered that Troop F,
which had been defending the trails northwest of the town, had been forced back by
Colonel Yanagi's troops. It was now fighting a pitched battle in the town's public
square. Fortunately for the Scouts, part
of Colonel Yanagi's force had just been detached and ordered back to Agoo for the
drive on San Fabian. Troop F held until
the rest of the regiment had passed through
Rosario. Then it broke off the action and
followed, leaving the Japanese in possession. There was no pursuit; the 47th In-
135
fantry was content to wait for the 1st Formosa and the tanks, a few miles west of the
town on the Damortis road.
Things had gone no better for Major
Bonnett's force at Baguio. Busily tracking
down rumors of Japanese units approaching in every direction, Bonnett spent the
night at Baguio instead of pushing south
to Rosario. Lt. Col. John P. Horan, the
commander of Camp John Hay at Baguio,
kept MacArthur's headquarters informed
by radio of Japanese movements in the
area and of the predicament of the force
under Bonnett.29 A few minutes before
midnight of the 22d Horan radioed that
the Japanese were "reported in Rosario"
and that Bonnett desired "to move south at
once if way is clear." "Can you contact
Selleck by radio," he asked, "and inform
us?" 30
Although Horan received no reply,
Wainwright, about midnight of the 22d,
ordered Pierce to hold the junction of the
Baguio and Rosario roads. Bonnett, unaware of this effort and believing that the
Japanese held Rosario, remained at Baguio,
and the 26th Cavalry finally had to withdraw the next morning when the position
became untenable.31 Bonnett later moved
east over the mountains into the Cagayan
valley, but Horan remained at his post
throughout the 23d. The next morning,
with the Japanese advancing from all sides,
Horan pulled out after sending a final message to MacArthur: "My right hand in a
vise, my nose in an inverted funnel, con29
Colonel Horan's radios to MacArthur are in
AG 370.2 (19 Dec 41) Phil Rcds.
30
Rad, Horan to CG USAFFE, 22 Dec 41, AG
370.2 (19 Dec 41) Phil Rcds.
31
Interv, author with Col Blackburn, 13 May 49;

Liles, 12 Inf (PA), pp. 5-6; unsigned account of
13 Inf (PA), pp. 9-10.
136
stipated my bowels, open my south paw.
. . ." 32 So ended the American occupation
of the Philippine summer capital.
Thus, by the end of D Day, the Japanese
had secured most of their objectives. They
had landed safely along the beaches between
Bauang and Agoo, and, pushing north,
south, and east, had seized the defiles
through the mountains, effected a juncture
with Colonel Tanaka's force, and occupied
Damortis and Rosario. The Japanese were
now in position to debouch on to the central
plain. Only their inability to get artillery
and supplies ashore marred the day's
success.
All the honors in the first day's fight had
gone to the Japanese. Only the Scouts of
the 26th Cavalry had offered any serious
opposition to the successful completion of
the Japanese plan. The untrained and
poorly equipped Philippine Army troops
had broken at the first appearance of the
enemy and fled to the rear in a disorganized
stream. Many of them, moving back along
the coastal road, had passed through the
21st Field Artillery command post at the
bend of the gulf. Col. Richard C. Mallonee, American instructor with the regiment, thought, "Their presence presages
disaster." Although he reorganized them
and sent them back to division headquarters,
few of them, he felt sure, ever arrived.
Their stories were always the same.
Always they were subjected to terrible, hor-

for him; always he was suddenly surprised and
astonished to realize that he was absolutely
alone, all the others having been killed, or
despicable cowardsran away. Then and
only then, with the tanks a few feet away
had he flung himself to one side whereand
there the story has two variations, first he is
captured but escapes that night; second he
hides until night when he returns to our
linesbut doesn't stop there. But from there
on the threads of the story re-unite; they are
very tired, they seek their companions, they
are very hungry, and, Sir, could they be transferred to the Motor Transport Corps and
drive a truck.33
The Approach to the Agno
The morning of 23 December found the

71st Division (less 71st Infantry) in position astride Route 3 south of Sison, the 72d
Infantry and the 71st Engineers in the front
lines, with the 71st Field Artillery in support to the rear. The 26th Cavalry, which
had suffered heavily, was under orders to
fall back through the 71st Division line to
Pozorrubio to reorganize. The 91st Division, USAFFE reserve at Cabanatuan, had
been attached to the North Luzon Force,
and its 91st Combat Team had been ordered north to reinforce the 71st Division.
It was to arrive at noon and occupy a position north of Pozorrubio, along the road
leading south from Rosario.
The action on the 23d opened when two
battalions of the 47th Infantry, moving
south from Rosario, struck General Selleck's
rible mortar fire. Always the storyteller conline near Sison. Largely because of Colonel
tinued to bravely fire his rifle, machine gun
Fowler's artillery, the Japanese advance
or 75, as the case might be; always their officers ran awayor if the teller is an officer,
was held up until noon. During the early
then his superior officers ran first; always the
afternoon the 47th Infantry was joined by
enemy planes dropped many bombs and fired
the 48th Reconnaissance and 4th Tank
many machine guns; always there suddenly
appeared many hostile tanks, headed straight Regiments. Aided by planes of the 10th
32
Rad, Koran to CG USAFFE, 24 Dec 41, AG
370.2 (19 Dec 41) Phil Rcds.
33
Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 62-63.
See also
THE MAIN LANDINGS
137
26TH CAVALRY (PS) MOVING INTO POZORRUBIO pass a General Stuart

light tank, M3.
Independent and 16th Light Bombardment
Regiments, the Japanese now began a concerted attack.
The Filipinos of the 71st Division,
like those of the 11th, broke and fled
to the rear, leaving the artillery uncovered. The line might have held if the
91st Combat Team, en route from Cabanatuan, had reached Sison in time. But
the 91st had run into bad luck. Japanese
light bombers ranging far in advance of
the ground troops had knocked out a bridge
across the Agno River in the path of the
91st advance. The 91st Combat Team
was forced to detour and at this critical
moment was far from the scene of combat.
The situation was serious. A meeting of
the American commanders was hastily
called and it was agreed that the 71st Division would have to withdraw to a line just
north of Pozorrubio. The 91st Combat
Team, it was hoped, would reach that place
in time to set up a line there. The 26th
Cavalry in 71st Division reserve at Pozorrubio was to retire to Binalonan where it
would set up an outpost line through which
the remainder of the division could fall
back if necessary.
At 1900, as the Japanese entered Sison,
the 26th Cavalry began to move out toward
Binalonan and the 91st Combat Team
reached Pozorrubio. That night the enemy
attacked the 91st and drove it out of the
town. With its rout, all hopes of holding
a line at Pozorrubio came to an end.
Even before the Japanese had entered
138
Sison that afternoon, General Wainwright
had telephoned MacArthur's headquarters
at Manila. After explaining that further
defense of the Lingayen beaches was "impracticable," he requested permission to
withdraw behind the Agno River. This
request was readily granted. Believing that
he could launch a counterattack if he had
the Philippine Division, then in USAFFE
reserve, Wainwright also asked for the division and for permission to mount an attack
from the Agno. He was directed to submit his plans. "I'll get my plans there as
soon as possible," he replied, but asked for
an immediate answer on whether he would
get the Philippine Division. After a slight
delay, he was told that his chances of securing the division were "highly improbable."
Nevertheless he began to make his plans for
a counterattack.34
The action of 24 December placed the
Japanese in position for the final drive toward the Agno River. At about 0500, with
the 4th Tank Regiment in the lead, the
Japanese made contact with the 26th Cavalry outposts north and west of Binalonan.
Although the Scouts had no antitank guns,
they were able to stop the first attack. The
tanks then swung west to bypass the American positions, leaving the infantry to continue the fight for Binalonan. By 0700 the
26th Cavalry had blunted the assault and
inflicted many casualties on the enemy.
Pursuing their advantage, the Scouts counterattacked and the Japanese had to send in
more tanks to stop the 26th Cavalry. Even
with the aid of tanks, the Japanese made
no progress. Sometime during the morning
the 2d Formosa joined the attack, and the
cavalrymen found themselves in serious
trouble. Too heavily engaged to break off
34
Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story, pp.
35-36.
the action and retire, they continued to fight

on.
At this juncture, General Wainwright
arrived at Binalonan to see Selleck. He
found neither General Selleck, who had
gone to Wainwright's command post to report, nor any 71st Division troops, but did
find the 26th Cavalry, which now numbered
no more than 450 men. He ordered Pierce
to get his wounded men and supply train
out as quickly as possible and to fight a delaying action before withdrawing southeast across the Agno to Tayug. For more
than four hours the cavalrymen held their
position against overwhelming odds, and
at 1530 began to withdraw. By dusk the
last elements had reached Tayug and the
2d Formosa entered Binalonan. "Here,"
said General Wainwright, himself a cavalryman, "was true cavalry delaying action,
fit to make a man's heart sing. Pierce that
day upheld the best traditions of the
cavalry service." 35
Despite the heroic struggle by the 26th
Cavalry, the Japanese had secured their
initial objectives and had established a
firm grip on northern Luzon. They were
now in position to march south to Manila
along the broad highways of the central
plain of Luzon. Only the southern route
to the capital remained to be seized. That
task was the mission of the Lamon Bay
Force, already moving into position.
The Lamon Bay Landings

Simultaneously with the departure of
the Lingayen Force from Formosa, Lt. Gen.
Susumu Morioka, 16th Division commander, had left Amami Oshima in the
Ryukyus on 17 December to begin his six35
Ibid., p. 39.
THE MAIN LANDINGS
139
and when intelligence sources reported

American reinforcements in bombers and
submarines, the target had been changed
to Lamon Bay on the southeast coast.
The new landing site was undesirable on
two grounds. First, the line of advance to
Manila from Lamon Bay lay across the
Tayabas Mountains, and secondly, Lamon
Organization and Preparation
Bay offered poor landing sites during the
The Lamon Bay Force had a secondary winter months because of prevailing winds.
role in the seizure of Luzon and was conse- Despite these objections, Lamon Bay was
quently much smaller than the Lingayen chosen as the target of the 16th Division.
Force. Its combat elements consisted priThe final plan developed by Morioka
marily of General Morioka's 16th Division called for landings at three points along the
day voyage southward to Lamon Bay, 200
road miles southeast of Lingayen. With
the landing of his force, the Japanese plan
to place troops in position to attack Manila
from the north and south would be complete.
(less the 9th and 33d Infantry and some

supporting elements) and numbered 7,000
men. In addition, it contained a number
of attached service and supporting units.
General Homma did not expect much from
this force; in his opinion, the 16th Division,
which had seen action in China, "did not
have a very good reputation for its fighting qualities." 36
The plan for the Lamon Bay landing had
been prepared during November, while the
division was still in Japan. The original
objective had been Batangas Bay on the
southwest coast of Luzon, where the beaches
were suitable for landings and where a direct route led through favorable terrain
toward Manila to the north.37 (Map 5)
But when the number of aircraft assigned
to the Philippine operation was reduced,
shore of Lamon Bayat Mauban, Ati-
monan, and Siain. General Morioka expected to take the Americans by surprise,
but was ready, if necessary, to make an assault landing. His troops were to rout any
American forces on the beaches, rapidly
cross the Tayabas Mountains, and then concentrate in preparation for an expected
counterattack. In order to avoid congestion on the narrow beaches and during the
crossing of the mountains, the troops were
to move ahead rapidly in several columns
immediately after landing, without waiting for supporting troops or for the consolidation of the beachhead. The main force
of General Morioka's division was to advance west along Route 1, then sweep
around Laguna de Bay to drive on to Cavite
and Manila from the south.
The force scheduled to land at Mauban
36
was the 2d Battalion, 20th Infantry, and a
Homma. The strength of the division at this time
battery of the 22d Field Artillery under Lt.
is computed from Order of Battle information and
Col. Nariyoshi Tsunehiro. After landing,
from Japanese tables of organization.
37
Except as otherwise noted the account of the
it was to strike out to the west to Lucban,
Lamon Bay landings is based upon: 14th Army
where it would be in position to move southOpns, I, 28, 32, 54-55; II, 6-7; Luzon Campaign
of 16th Division, 24 Dec 41-3 Jan 42, ATIS east to support the Atimonan force. If such
Enemy Pub 355, pp. 1-3; Japanese Naval Opns in
support proved unnecessary, Tsunehiro was
Phil Invasion, p. 15; Jones, Diary, pp. 8-11; and
to turn northwest to Laguna de Bay, skirt
SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 12-15.
140
MAP5
the southern shore, then strike north along
Route 1 to Manila.
The main force of the 16th Division, under direct command of General Morioka,
was to make the assault on Atimonan. Included in this force were the 20th Infantry
(less than 2d and most of the 1st Battalion);
the way were, so far as possible, to be bypassed and mopped up later. The main advance was not to be held up.
Simultaneously with the landing at Ati-
monan, the 1st Battalion, 20th Infantry (less

one company), with artillery support, was
to land near Siain to the south, and cover
the 16th Reconnaissance Regiment, with the left flank of the main force. Having
one company of light armored cars; the fulfilled this mission, the Siain force was
16th Engineers; and the 22d Field Artil- to pass into division reserve.
The 24 transports carrying the invasion
lery (less 2d Battalion and one battery of
the 1st). Once ashore, these troops were force left the staging area at Amami Oshito move west across the mountains along ma in the Ryukyus at 1500 on 17 DecemRoute 1, then north along the shore of ber, six hours after the first Lingayen convoy
Laguna de Bay and on to Manila. Amer- pulled out of Kirun Harbor in northern
ican troops and positions encountered along Formosa. The transports were escorted ini-
141
THE MAIN LANDINGS
Parkerand General Jonesprotested the

order vigorously, and it was finally rescinded, but the movement of the 3d Battalion, 52d Infantry, was in progress when
the enemy landed.
That same evening the 51st Division
troops, who had moved south to delay the
movement northward of the Kimura Detachment from Legaspi, were pulled back
and were in the process of moving when
lowing morning, after the Lingayen Force the Japanese landed. The results for them
had already been ashore for two days, the were more tragic; many of them were cut
transports dropped anchor in Lamon Bay. off and never returned to the American
An hour later the troops were ready to lines.
Not only were the forces along the east
move to shore.38
coast dispersed at the moment of the landing, but those units in position were handThe Landing
icapped by the absence of artillery. The
From the American point of view, the South Luzon Force included two batteries
Japanese could not have landed at a more of the 86th Field Artillery with 6 155-mm.
inopportune moment. Maj. Gen. George guns, and a battalion of 16 75-mm. guns
M. Parker's South Luzon Force was badly on self-propelled mounts. But none of
dispersed. The 41st Division (PA) on the these pieces were emplaced in the Lamon
west coast was in position, but elements of Bay area. They were all on the west
the 51st Division along the east coast were coastat Batangas, Balayan, and Nasugbu
in the process of movement. The South Bays. General Jones had requested that
Luzon Force had been reinforced during at least 2 of the 155-mm. guns be moved to
the past few days by the recently inducted Atimonan, and Parker, concerned over this
1st Regular Division (PA), but only the lack of artillery along the east coast, had
1st Infantry of this division had actually twice asked Mac Arthur's headquarters for
moved into the area. Its orders were additional artillery. Both times he had
to relieve the 3d Battalion, 52d Infantry, been turned down, despite the fact that he
north of Mauban. By evening of the 23d used "the strongest arguments possible." 39
the relief had been accomplished, and one
The failure to move some of the guns from
battalion of the 1st Infantry was in posi- the west coast to Lamon Bay, especially
tion at Mauban, another at Infanta; the after the Japanese landing at Legaspi, can
remaining battalion was in reserve at a be explained only by the fact that MacArroad junction northeast of Lucban. This thur's headquarters feared to uncover the
move had just been completed when Mac- west coast beaches which offered a direct
Arthur's headquarters transferred the 1st route to Manila across favorable terrain.
Infantry to North Luzon Force. General
tially by 4 destroyers and 4 minesweepers,

but they had not gone far before they were
joined by Rear Adm. Kyuji Kubo's force
of 1 light cruiser, 2 destroyers, 2 minesweepers, and 1 minelayer from Legaspi.
The voyage from Amami Oshima was
smooth and uneventful until the 23d, when
the American submarine Sculpin forced
the convoy to adopt evasive tactics. No
damage was caused. At 0130 of the fol-
39
38
American sources do not confirm the attack

by the Sculpin.
SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 13; ltr,
Jones to Ward, 3 Jan 52, OCMH; ltr, Col S. C.

MacDonald to Jones, 21 Dec 51, OCMH.
142
By accepting the difficulties of a Lamon Bay
landing, the Japanese unconsciously gained
a great advantage.
Thus, during the night of 23-24 December, as the Japanese were loading into
the landing craft, the Lamon Bay area
was without artillery support and was the
scene of confusion, with several units in
the process of movement from one place to
another. Fortunately, the 1st Battalion,
1st Infantry, was in position at Mauban,
and Headquarters and Company A of the
1st Battalion, 52d Infantry were at
Atimonan.
News of the approach of the Japanese
reached the defenders at 2200 on the night
of the 23d, when the transports off Atimonan were sighted. Four hours later troops
were reported debarking there and at
Siain. First word of a landing at Mauban
was received by General Jones of the 51st
Division at 0400. All these reports greatly
overestimated the strength of the Japanese
force. The Atimonan force was thought
to be a reinforced division, and the troops
coming ashore at Mauban were estimated
as a reinforced brigade.
Under cover of aircraft from the seaplane
carrier Mizuho, Colonel Tsunehiro's 2d
Battalion, 20th Infantry, came ashore at
Mauban, northernmost of the three landing
sites, in the first light of dawn. Immediately
it ran into an effective crossfire from the 2d
Battalion, 1st Infantry, dug in along the
beach. At about this time, American planes
struck the Japanese, inflicting heavy casualties on the troops and causing considerable
damage to the ships.40 By 0800, after much
40

World War II, I, 224, states that 12 P-40's and
6 P-35's attacked a Japanese landing force at San
Miguel Bay, 85 miles from Lamon Bay, on the
morning of the 23d. There was no such landing,

heavy fighting, the Philippine Army regulars had been pushed back into Mauban.
Thirty minutes later Colonel Tsunehiro's
troops were in control of the village. The
2d Battalion, 1st Infantry, fell back five
miles to the west, where it set up a defensive
position. At 1430 the Japanese reached
this position and there the advance came to
a halt before the stubborn defense of the
Filipinos.
The 1st Battalion, 20th Infantry, landed

at Siain without difficulty. At 0700 one
company moved out to the southwest along
the Manila Railroad toward Tayabas Bay
while the rest of the battalion pushed southeast on Route 1 to effect a juncture with
General Kimura's troops moving northwest.
Both columns made satisfactory progress
during the day. By evening the company
moving toward Tayabas Bay was within
five miles of Padre Burgos. The rest of the
force ran into sporadic opposition from
Colonel Cordero's 52d Infantry troops in
the Bicol Peninsula, and it was not until
three days later that the 1st Battalion, 20th
Infantry, joined with the Kimura Detachment.
General Morioka's main force came
ashore on the morning of 24 December
about two and one half miles southeast of
its. target. The first troops landed were held
up by Company A, 52d Infantry. The next
wave containing the 16th Reconnaissance
Regiment, landed beside the infantry but
avoided action by moving off to the side,
in accordance with instructions not to delay
the main advance. The regiment then
and it is possible that Lamon Bay is meant. Japanese sources state that there was an American
air attack at the time of the Mauban landing.
General Jones denies that American aircraft hit
the Japanese at this time. Ltr, Jones to Ward, 3
Jan 52, OCMH.
THE MAIN LANDINGS
143
LT. GEN. MASAHARU HOMMA, 14TH ARMY COMMANDER, coming ashore

at Lingayan Gulf, 24 December 1941.
struck off into the mountains, bypassing

Atimonan. The town itself was secured by
1100, although the Philippine Army troops
fought stubbornly.
The 16th Reconnaissance Regiment

pushed along Route 1 toward Malicbuy,
where the 2d Battalion, 52d Infantry, was
frantically setting up defensive positions.
Planes of the 8th Air Regiment (light
bombers) provided cover for the advancing
Japanese and attacked Malicbuy several
times during the morning, destroying a
number of vehicles and impeding the efforts
of the troops to establish an adequate defense. When the 16th Reconnaissance
reached the town, the 2d Battalion, 52d
Infantry, already weakened by air attacks,

fell back after a short fight. The Japanese
entered Malicbuy without further interference.
The American forces set up their next
defensive position along a river near Binahaan, about four miles to the west. Here
they were joined by the 53d Infantry (less
two battalions) and the 3d Battalion (less
one company) of the 52d Infantry. Late
in the afternoon, when the Japanese at Atimonan had completed mopping-up operations in the town, they joined the main body
at Malicbuy. The entire force then struck
the delaying position at Binahaan. Under
cover of darkness the defenders withdrew
144
along Route 1 toward Pagbilao, the next
objective of the 16th Division.41
By the evening of 24 December the Japanese had successfully completed the first and
most difficult part of their plan for the conquest of the Philippines. In the south, at
a cost of 84 dead and 184 wounded, General Morioka had landed his reduced division of 7,000 men. American resistance
had held up the advance of some units, but
the main force of the 16th Division had
swept ahead, with the armored cars of the
16th Reconnaissance in the van. Unloading had progressed satisfactorily, and many
of the service and supporting units had already landed. The roads leading westward
through the Tayabas Mountains had been
secured, and the troops of the Lamon Bay
Force were in position to reach Tayabas
Bay the following morning. General Homma had not expected much from this force.
41
1st Lt John Shaw, 52d Inf (PA), p. 1, Chunn
Notebooks, OCMH.
Its success came, therefore, as "quite a surprise" to 14th Army headquarters at Lingayen Gulf, and, as the Japanese later confessed, "The result realized was more than
expected."42
North of Manila the Lingayen Force
stood ready to drive on to the Agno River.
After several days of difficulties, the beachhead had been organized and heavy supplies and equipment brought ashore. San
Fabian to the south had been occupied and
the American artillery there driven out.
The north and east flanks of the coastal corridor had been secured, and Japanese troops
were pouring out on to the central plain to
add their weight to the advance on Manila,
100 miles away. That day, 24 December,
General Homma brought his staff ashore at
Bauang, where he established 14th Army
headquarters. The Japanese were evidently in the Philippines to stay.
42
1989-6A.
CHAPTER IX
Strategy and Logistics

The success of the Japanese after 7 December had been phenomenal. Not only
had they won air and naval supremacy in
the western Pacific and landed a large number of troops on Luzon and Mindanao, but
they had taken Guam on 10 December and
Wake two weeks later; Hong Kong was to
surrender on Christmas Day. In the Malay
States, Gen Tomoyuki Yamashita's 25th
Army was advancing steadily in two parallel columns down the east and west coasts.
By 23 December it had reached a point
about 250 miles from the tip of the peninsula. Once there, the Japanese would be in
position to bring Singapore under assault.
On the 24th a small Japanese force landed
in the Philippines, and General MacArthur's name became a symbol of American resistance to a foe who was meeting
with success everywhere.
At the very start of the war there was a
general acceptance among military and
naval authorities in Washington of the
view that the Philippines would soon be lost.

Acceptance of this view did not mean, however, that every effort should not be made
to reinforce General MacArthur. The
President, the Secretary of War, and the
Chief of Staff all felt strongly, with the
American people, that the country had an
obligation, no matter what the risks, to do
all in its power to aid the Philippine people.
at Kuching and a week later another force
Only final defeat would end that obligation.
landed at Brunei in British Borneo, thus inaugurating the two-pronged offensive

against the Netherlands Indies. By the end
of the year the Japanese had established
themselves at Davao, on Jolo Island, and
on British Borneo, astride the Allied line of
supply between the southern Philippines
and northwest Australia.
The electrifying news of Pearl Harbor,
followed by the declaration of war by Germany and Italy, united the American people
as nothing else could have done. The attention of the country, until then centered on
the war in Europe, focused now on the
Pacific and Far East where American troops
were putting up a valiant defense. There
was a strong feeling that everything possible
should be done to aid the beleaguered forces
The question was what could be done and

how much could be spared from the more
important task, the defense of the United
States.
The Pensacola Convoy

The question of reinforcing the Philippines arose on the first day of war. Already on the high seas in the South Pacific
when the Japanese opened hostilities was a
convoy of seven ships, escorted by the heavy

cruiser Pensacola and the subchaser
Niagara, en route to Manila via the southern route. Aboard the vessels were badly
needed planes for the pilots of the 27th
Bombardment Group, two regiments of
artillery, and large quantities of ammuni-
146
tion and supplies.1 The convoy was immediately ordered to put in at Suva in the
Fiji Islands until a decision could be made
on its ultimate destination.
The decision was made on 9 December
at a meeting of the Joint Board. The chief
planners of the Army and Navy, General
Gerow and Rear Adm. Richmond K.
Turner, wanted the convoy brought back
the morning of the 10th, "concerned with

just what to say to General MacArthur,"
he discussed the Joint Board decision with
Mr. Stimson. He confessed that "he did
not like to tell him [MacArthur] in the midst
of a very trying situation that his convoy
had had to be turned back, and he would
like to send some news which would buck
immediately to Hawaii to reinforce that
General MacArthur up."
badly battered garrison.
At a White House meeting later that day,

the question of the Pensacola convoy was
again discussed, and the President indicated
his desire that the vessels should continue to
the Far East. He referred the matter back
to the Joint Board, and at its meeting that
General Gerow's
position was more extreme than that of his
naval counterpart. He suggested that if
the convoy was not sent to Hawaii it should
be brought back to the United States. Following discussion, the Joint Board approved
the plan to recall the Pensacola convoy to
Hawaii.2
While the safety of the Hawaiian Islands
was undoubtedly of prime importance, the
decision to bring back the Pensacola convoy
possible assistance within our power." 3 On
afternoon the Board decided to send the

convoy on to Brisbane, Australia. The
Army members reversed their stand of the
previous day and expressed the opinion that
Hawaii could be supplied from the United
was, in effect, an abandonment of the
States.
Philippine Islands. General Marshall was

willing to concede the importance of Hawaii, but felt keenly the obligation to send
help to General MacArthur. He had already assured the USAFFE commander on
the afternoon of 7 December that he had
"the complete confidence of the War Department," and that he could expect "every
make every effort to send aircraft, ammunition, and other critical material to the
Philippines.5
On 12 December the commander of the
Pensacola convoy was ordered to proceed to
Brisbane, his later movements to be determined "following arrival and depending
upon the situation." 6 At the same time,
the U.S. military attache in Melbourne, Col.
Van S. Merle-Smith, was notified of the
impending arrival of the vessels and given
instructions to be passed on to the senior
Army commander in the convoy, Brig. Gen.
Julian F. Barnes. In these instructions
1
The seven vessels were the Holbrook, Republic,
Meigs, Bloemfontetn, Admiral Halstead, Farmer,
and Chaumont. The vessels carried a field artil-
lery brigade with 20 75-mm. guns; the ground elements of the 7th Heavy Bombardment Group; 18
P-40's; and 52 A-24's, 500,000 rounds of 50-caliber armor-piercing and tracer ammunition; 9,600
rounds of high explosive for 37-mm. antiaircraft
guns; 2,000 500-pound and 3,000 30-pound bombs;
and miscellaneous vehicles and equipment. The
total number of U.S. troops aboard was 4,600.
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, No. 776, 12 Dec 41,
WPD 4628.
2
They now wished, they said, to
41, WPD 4544-20.

4
Min, mtg in OCS, 10 Dec 41, Notes on Conf,

WDCSA, CofS Confs, II.
5
Ibid., 12 Dec 41.

Ibid., 12 Dec 41.
STRATEGY AND LOGISTICS

General Barnes was ordered to place himself under MacArthur's command and told
that his principal task was to get the aircraft, men, and supplies in the convoy to
the Philippines as quickly as possible. Upon
arrival in Australia, he was to assemble the
A-24's immediately and send them north
to the Philippines. Before unloading the
other troops and supplies, he was to find
out from the Navy if the vessels could be
escorted northward. If they could not, they
were to be unloaded in Brisbane and used
"as the situation dictates," with first priority
given to the defense of the Philippines.7
General Mac Arthur received the welcome news that reinforcements were on the
way on 13 December.8 Immediately he
conferred with Admiral Hart on the possibility of escorting the ships from Brisbane
to Manila. He emphasized to Hart the
necessity for bringing in supplies and reinforcements and explained how limited were
the resources at his disposal. "I suggested,"
he reported to the Chief of Staff, "that he
[Hart] should endeavor with his own surface forces and with assistance of Australian
and Dutch naval and air forces to bring in
the present convoy and keep my line open."
But Admiral Hart's answer was extremely
discouraging. He pointed out that the British and Dutch were fully engaged trying
to hold Singapore and the Malay Barrier
and that he could not take the responsibility
of protecting the convoy with the weak
forces at his disposal. The Japanese, he
believed, would have established a complete
blockade of the Philippine Islands before
the convoy could arrive. "In effect," Mac7
Memo, CofS for Comdr D. H. Harries, RAN,
Australian Naval Attach", 12 Dec 41, sub: Msgs
for U.S. Mil Attach, WPD 4628-1; rad, OPNAV

to COM TF 15, 10 Dec 41, WPD Msg File.
8
41, WPD 4628.
147
Arthur reported, "he [Hart] seemed to be
of the opinion that the islands were ultimately doomed." 9 MacArthur's own view
was that there was no serious obstacle to the
safe convoy of vessels from Brisbane to
Manila "provided reasonable naval and
air protection are furnished." 10
While the matter of the Pensacola convoy was being settled in Washington, MacArthur made specific requests for reinforcements based upon his ideas for offensive action. On the recommendation of General
Brereton he asked for 300 pursuit planes, together with air warning equipment. If the
aircraft in the Pensacola convoy could be
ferried to Luzon and be ready for operations
by 1 January, he felt he could meet the immediate situation with 250 dive bombers.
At this time, 14 December, he first advanced the idea that the planes be brought
within operating distance of the Philippines
by means of aircraft carrier. He asked also
for additional .50-caliber ammunition and
suggested that it be brought in by the dive

bombers or by Pan American Airways
planes shuttling between Australia and the
Philippines. Altogether, he declared, he
had or would soon have fourteen airfields
capable of accommodating the aircraft he
was requesting.11
The receipt of these specific requests in
Washington resulted in immediate action.
General Gerow, in a personal note to General Marshall, pointed out that the Pensacola convoy was due in Brisbane very
shortly and an immediate decision on the
9
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, 13 Dec 41, OPD
Exec O; ltr, Hart to Ward, 19 Dec 51, OCMH.
10
Exec O.
11
Memo, Brereton for MacArthur, 14 Dec 41,
cited in Craven and Cate, The Army Air Forces

in World War II, I, 222; rad, MacArthur to Marshall, 14 Dec 41, OPD Exec O.
148
Navy's willingness to convoy the vessels
northward was necessary. "If the ships can
go directly to Manila, the supplies, except
aircraft, should not be unloaded in Australia," Gerow noted. "Admiral Stark is
the only one that can make the decision." 12
Marshall had already discussed this
problem with Stimson, who felt that to
abandon the Philippines would "paralyze
the activities" of the Allied forces in the Far
East. The question was discussed at the
White House, and the President instructed
the Navy to do all in its power to assist the
Army in reinforcing General Mac Arthur.13
General Marshall thereupon assured MacArthur that there would be "no wavering
in the determination to support you." Although naval losses had complicated the
problem of reinforcement, he declared that
fighters and bombers would be rushed to the
Philippines as quickly as possible.14
Quick action followed the President's instructions to send help to the Philippines.
Orders were issued to load the transport
Polk in San Francisco harbor and the
Coolidge, due in port soon, with pursuit
planes and ammunition and dispatch them
immediately to Australia. Two additional
shipments were scheduled to reach Brisbane
early in January. The arrival of these vessels would place in Australia 230 aircraft.15
At the same time, two Pan American clippers were loaded with .50-caliber ammunition and dispatched to Australia via the
12
Note, Gerow to Marshall on WPD copy of rad,

MacArthur to Marshall, 15 Dec 41, OPD Exec O.
13
Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service, pp.
395-96.
South Atlantic-Africa route. Fifteen heavy

bombers were also immediately diverted to
MacArthur, and a flight schedule was established which would give him three planes
a day until the new year. The sum of
$10,000,000 was made available to the future commander of the base in Australia to
enable him to carry out his mission of supporting the defense of the Philippines. By
18 December Marshall was able to inform
MacArthur that the War Department "is
proceeding with utmost expedition to provide necessary supplies at base with early
emphasis on most critical items." 16
On 22 December the Pensacola convoy
with its valuable cargo of aircraft, artillery,
and ammunition arrived in Brisbane. It
was still a long way from Manila, but the
first leg of the journey had been completed.
A way now had to be found to send the
planes and supplies from Australia to the
Philippines.
The program to reinforce the Philippines was in full swing. The necessity for
reaching a decision on the destination of
the Pensacola convoy had raised the question of reinforcement immediately on the
outbreak of war and brought the issues into
sharp focus. But the settlement of this
question had raised broader strategic problems. These were not so easily solved.
Far East and Pacific Strategy

The basic strategy of the war had been
established during staff talks with the British between January and March 1941 and
was embodied in the RAINBOW plan. This
14
41, WPD 4544-31.

15
Memo for Rcd by Gen Gerow, 15 Dec 41, OPD
Exec O; memo, Arnold for CofS, 15 Dec 41, sub:
Aerial Reinf for Hawaii and Phil, WPD Msg File;
rad, Marshall to MacArthur, No. 824, 18 Dec 41,
WPD 4622-28.
16
41, WPD 4622-28; ltr, Maj Gen Richard C. Moore,

DCofS, to Maj Gen George H. Brett, 19 Dec 41,
OCS 18136-161. The way in which the $10,000,000 was spent is described in Chapter XXII,
below.

strategy provided that the principal effort
of the Allies would be made against Germany and that the decisive theater would
be in the Atlantic and Europe. Except for
certain limited offensive operations assigned the Pacific and Asiatic Fleets, the
most important of which were the defense
of Hawaii and the Philippines and the capture of positions in the Japanese mandated
islands, operations against Japan were to be
defensive. The destruction of the Battle

Force of the Pacific Fleet and the attack
against the Philippines made it evident that
a different strategy for the Far East would
have to be evolved to meet the new situation.
As soon as the results of the Pearl Harbor
attack were assessed, the Navy knew that
it could not execute the missions assigned
in RAINBOW 5. At the 8 December meeting of the Joint Board, the Navy members
had pointed out that as a result of the losses
at Pearl Harbor the Pacific Fleet would not
be able to advance across the Central Pacific.17 Two days later, when the decision
was made to send the Pensacola convoy
on to Brisbane, Admiral Stark, Chief of
Naval Operations, told the Joint Board
that the Navy had decided that the Asiatic
Fleet should be withdrawn from the Philippines, "in view of the destruction at Cavite
and the untenability of Manila as a fleet
anchorage." Admiral Hart was to be left
free to execute the withdrawal and to select a future base of operations.18
The Navy Department's views on Far
East strategy did not include any strong
measures for the defense of the Philippines.
Admiral Stark declared that he was not
surprised by the success of the Japanese but
only by the vigor of the attack, which had
17
18
Ibid., 10 Dec 41.
149
resulted in such unexpectedly rapid advances. He expected that with the fall of
Singapore and Luzonwhich he seemed to
regard as inevitablethe Japanese would
move into the Netherlands Indies. To him,
the essential problem was to hold the Malay
Barrierthe line Malay Peninsula-Sumatra-Java-Australialong enough to
build up the defenses of northwest Australia. Apparently the defense of Luzon
did not, in his opinion, contribute to this
mission.19
Stark approved Hart's orders sending the
major surface units of the fleet to Borneo,
and cautioned the Asiatic Fleet commander not to delay his own withdrawal
lest the Japanese mine the exits of Manila
Bay. There was no indication in his messages to Manila of any intention to carry
out offensive operations against the Japanese Navy or of a determination to hold
the Philippines, although Hart was reminded of his obligation to support the
Army's defense of Luzon as long as it was
practicable.
On the all-important question of getting
reinforcements to the Philippines, Admiral
Stark merely told Hart what he already
knewthat a convoy was soon to arrive in
Brisbane and that he was to get in touch
with General MacArthur "as to present
orders for this force." The Chief of Naval
Operations pointed out that the convoy
carried aircraft and artillery which, he
added significantly, "may be very important for the defense of Port Darwin and
vicinity." He said nothing about the necessity of bringing the convoy to Manila.
This is a surprising omission, since the reinforcements were intended for MacArthur, and every effort was being made in
19
Rad, OPNAV to CINCAF, 14 Dec 41, copy in
AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
150
a solid base at Port

Washington to provide safe convoy of the taking steps to make
21
Darwin
in
Australia.
vessels northward from Australia. He furIt was admitted by Army and Navy planther suggested to Hart that the minesweepners
that the Philippines were no longer deers and small craft in Manila would be usefensible,
and some urged that the limited
ful at Darwin, and concluded by placing
resources
of the United States should be
the U.S. naval observer there under Hart's
20
used
to
"defend
the defensible." But the
command.
The Army planners shared the Navy's issue was not entirely a military one. "Popessimism about the fate of the Philippines litically," says Stimson, "it was still more
and on 9 December had been as anxious as important that this defense be supported as
the Navy members of the Joint Board to strongly as possible, for neither the Filipino
bring back the Pensacola convoy. While people nor the rest of the Far Eastern world
still feeling that there was little hope for the could be expected to have a high opinion
Philippine garrison, they reversed their of the United States" if it abandoned the
views after 10 December and supported Philippines at this critical moment.22 It
strongly the program for reinforcement. was because of these considerations that
Mr. Stimson, after the war, explained his Stimson and Marshall strongly supported
reasons for supporting General MacArthur
General MacArthur and firmly opposed
as follows:
any signs of a defeatist attitude in the GenI laid before them [his three civilian assist- eral Staff. In this effort they had the supants] the issue which was now pending before
port of the President.
us, namely as to whether we should make
In the Philippines there was strong disevery effort possible in the Far East or
whether, like the Navy, we should treat that agreement between the Army and Navy
as doomed and let it go. We all agreed that commanders. Admiral Hart agreed with
the first course was the one to follow; that we his Washington superiors that his fleet
have a very good chance of making a success- should be withdrawn and had already sent
ful defense, taking the southwestern Pacific
as a whole. If we are driven out of the Phil- the major portion of his surface forces southippines and Singapore, we can still fall back ward. He was still resolved, he told Adon the Netherlands East Indies and Australia; miral Stark, to use his submarines and small
and with the cooperation of Chinaif we can craft in the defense of the Philippines, but
keep that thing goingwe can strike good pointed out that the undersea craft could
counterblows at Japan. While if we yielded
not prevent enemy landings or the blockade
to the defeatist theory, it would have not only
of the Islands.23
the disastrous effect on our material policy of
MacArthur, unlike his naval colleague
letting Japan get strongly ensconced in the
southwestern Pacific . . . but it would psy- and many officers in Washington, refused
chologically do even more in the discourage- to accept the inevitability of the loss of the
ment of China and in fact all of the four
powers who are now fighting very well together. Also it would have a very bad effect
on Russia. So this theory goes. It has been
accepted by the President, and the Army is
20
Ibid.
21
Stimson's Diary, 17 Dec 41, cited in Stimson
and Bundy, On Active Service, pp. 396-97.
22
Ibid., p. 395.
Rads, CINCAF to OPNAV, 101330 and
131026, 10 and 13 Dec 41, War Diary, 16th Naval
Dist, Off of Naval Rcds.
23

Philippines.
Instead, he urged upon the
151
Chief of Staff, "the entire structure will col-
War Department an offensive strategy in

the Far East. The enemy, he asserted, was
overextended, presenting the Allies with a
"golden opportunity . . . for a master
stroke." The "master stroke" he had in
mind was a strong air attack against the
Japanese home islands from the north. If
successful such an attack would inflict great
damage on the enemy and force him to pull
in his widely dispersed air forces to protect
lapse over my head." 26

MacArthur's reaction to Hart's views
brought immediate results. The President
the homeland.24 The aircraft and carriers
cola convoy to Manila, the Chief of Naval
needed to carry out such a raid were not

available at this time, and Mac Arthur's
bold plan was shelved. But it is of more
than passing interest to note that the Halsey-Doolittle raid against Tokyo on 18 April
1942, five months later, conformed to
General MacArthur's suggested offensive
against Japan, although it came too late to
achieve the results he had hoped for.25
General MacArthur reacted strongly to
Hart's pessimistic attitude. After the meeting on 13 December, when MacArthur
Operations suggested an "effort when appropriate to pass through such support as

may be practicable." With this lukewarm
injunction, Admiral Stark also directed
Hart to "cooperate with the Army" in the
transportation by air of particularly needed
supplies "when practicable." His authority to transfer his headquarters farther
south was reiterated, but he was told to "assure MacArthur" that he would continue
his "full support" of the defense of the
Philippines. He was further instructed to
asked Hart to escort the Pensacola convoy
on the 14th told the Acting Secretary ot

the Navy that "he was bound to help the
Philippines and the Navy has got to help in
it." 27 Thus prodded by the White House,
the Navy was forced to modify its attitude
somewhat. Recognizing Hart's inability
to guarantee safe transport of the Pensa-
turn over all naval stores to the Army on
his departure from Manila and to place all

marines and bluejackets under MacArthur's
command.28
In the firm belief that the Philippines
could be defended successfully against the
Japanese, General MacArthur argued for
a review of the strategic situation "lest a
fatal mistake be made." Despite assurances of support from the War Department
he felt that the importance of the Islands
was not appreciated and that not enough
was being done to support him. "The
24
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 198, 10 Dec
Philippine theater of operations," he as41, WPD 4544-26.
to Manila, the general wrote that he was

greatly concerned over the Navy's estimate
since "he [Hart] is charged with the security of the Army's supply lines." The acceptance of the view that the Philippines
could not be reinforced, General MacArthur pointed out, meant the virtual abandonment of the Philippine Islands and the
Philippine people. "If the suspicion of such
action ever materializes," he warned the
25
Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, pp. 389-90,

credits Admiral King with the idea of proposing the
raid and initiating studies for its execution in January 1942. Actually, the President suggested the
raid at a White House meeting on 28 January.
WDCSA 334 Mtgs and Confs (1-28-42).
26
Exec O.
27
Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service, p. 396.
28
Rad, OPNAV to CINCAF, 170105, 17 Dec
41, War Diary, 16th Naval Dist, Off of Naval Rcds.
152
serted categorically, "is the locus of victory
or defeat." "If the Philippines and the
Netherlands East Indies go," he warned, "so
will Singapore and the entire Asiatic continent."29
MacArthur's solution was to concentrate the resources of the Allies against Japan and so reverse the basic strategic decision of the war. Japan, he pointed out,
was isolated from her Allies and "completely

susceptible to concentrated action." He
proposed therefore that the combined resources of the United States and its allies
should be employed in the Pacific to delay
Japan's advance. This delay, he argued,

could be accomplished by sending more
pursuit and bombardment aircraft to the
Philippines. The retention of the Islands,
he concluded, fully justified the diversion
of the entire air production and other resources of the United States to the Philippines.30
The final answer to MacArthur's plea for
a reversal of strategy and the concentration of Allied resources in the Far East was
provided by the first of the wartime U.S.British conferences, held in Washington between 24 December and 14 January. With
the Pacific Fleet in ruins at Pearl Harbor
and with the Philippines under strong attack, the British had good reason to fear
that the United States would now abandon
the earlier informal agreement to exert its
principal effort against Germany. Their

lantic and Europe.31 MacArthur's efforts
to secure a change in basic strategy had
failed.
The Base in Australia
The discussions over strategy did not interrupt the efforts to send supplies to the
Philippine garrison. These efforts inevitably involved the use of Australia as a base of
operations for American forces. With the
line of communications across the Central
Pacific cut by the Japanese, the only way

remaining to reach the Philippines was
northward from Australia. Such a possibility had not been anticipated in prewar
plans except as an air ferry route; the Australian, base developed simply as a result
of improvisation during the first days of the
war. Once the Pensacola convoy was
routed to Brisbane and it was decided to
support General MacArthur, American ef-
fort in the Southwest Pacific turned to the
build-up of supplies in Australia and the

establishment of a line of communications
northward.
To supervise the establishment of an advanced American base in Australia General Marshall selected Brig. Gen. Dwight D.
Eisenhower. Having served on MacArthur's staff for three years, Eisenhower
was peculiarly qualified for the task. He
knew the situation in the Far East well,
understood General MacArthur's plans and
requirements, and could be presumed to
fears were groundless. The Washington have the confidence of the USAFFE comconference reaffirmed the thesis that Ger- mander. From his post as Chief of Staff,
many was the main enemy and that the
31
major effort must be made in the North AtThis meeting, called the ARCADIA Conference,
29

Exec O.
30
Ibid.
is discussed in full in Maurice Matloff and Edwin

M. Snell, Strategic Planning for Coalition War-
fare, 1941-1942, UNITED STATES ARMY IN

WORLD WAR II (Washington, 1945).

Third Army, at Fort Sam Houston, Eisenhower was called to Washington on 12 December and reported to General Marshall
two days later. After outlining for Eisenhower the situation in the Far East, Marshall abruptly asked what our line of action
should be. Evidently his reply would determine his worth, and Eisenhower asked
for and secured time to prepare an answer.
He returned to his desk in the War Plans
Division to work out his reply, resolved that
it "should be short, emphatic, and based
on reasoning."32
After some hours of thought, Eisenhower
returned to the Chief of Staff with his answer. He admitted that there was little
chance that the garrison in the Philippines
could hold out for long, but declared that
everything possible should be done to support it. The risks and the money involved
should not deter the United States from
making a determined effort to help the
Philippine Commonwealth. The trust and
friendship of the people of Asia were
important to the United States; failure
might be excused, but never abandonment.
To aid General MacArthur, Eisenhower
believed, it would be necessary to convert
Australia into a military base from which
supplies might be ferried northward to the
Philippines.33
Eisenhower's views coincided exactly
with those of Marshall and Stimson and
had already been approved by the President. Eisenhower had passed the test, and
Marshall told him to do his best to save the
Philippines. During the next few months,
32
Gen, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe (New York, 1948), p. 18.
33
Ibid., p. 21-22. An unsigned and undated
paper entitled Assistance to the Far East, OPD
Exec O, is probably the one prepared by Eisenhower on 14 December.
153
first as head of the Pacific Section of the
War Plans Division and then as chief of the
division, he devoted himself almost exclusively to the task of reinforcing the Philippines.
By 17 December Eisenhower had developed and Marshall had approved a plan
for establishing the base in Australia.34 The
forces in the Pensacola convoy were to form
the nucleus for the new commands which
was to be essentially an air base. Barnes,
when he arrived in Brisbane, was to be relieved by Brig. Gen. Henry B. Claggett,
then commanding the Interceptor Command in the Philippines. Clagett was ordered to Australia immediately. Ultimately, the base, to be known as U.S. Army
Forces in Australia, was to be commanded
by Maj. Gen. George H. Brett, who was in
Chungking attending an Allied conference.
Col. Stephen J. Chamberlin, a highly qualified G-4 officer on duty with the General
Staff, was sent to Australia to serve as
Brett's chief of staff.
While the establishment of this new
command implied a larger purpose than
the support of the forces in the Philippines,
the War Department made it clear that the
primary mission of U.S. Army Forces in
Australia was to get vitally needed supplies
to General MacArthur. General Brett was
informed that his command was to be considered as an advanced base of a communications zone "for the support of
USAFFE" and that he would operate under the orders of General MacArthur. He
was further instructed to co-operate with
U.S. naval authorities "in assuring the
safety of sea routes used," and to fly the
planes in the Pensacola convoy northward
34
Memo, WPD for CofS, 17 Dec 41, sub: Plan
for Australian Base, WPD 4628-1.
154
MacArthur had been kept fully informed

of these measures. "The President has
seen all of your messages," Marshall told
him, "and directs Navy to give you every
possible support in your splendid fight."38
Despite these assurances and the efforts
of the men in Australia, the aircraft, reinforcements, and supplies failed to get
through. When the planes were brought
ashore and assembled, they were found to
lack parts such as trigger motors, gun sights,
and self-sealing gas tanks, all of which would
be required in combat.39 The field artillery brigade and the naval supplies were
placed aboard the two fastest ships in the
convoy, the Holbrook and Bloemfontein,
which sailed from Brisbane on 28 December. By that time the Japanese had established bases in Borneo, and it was realized
that the ships would not be able to get
through the blockade. General Brett, who
had arrived in Australia on 31 December,
therefore ordered the troops debarked.
Most of the artillerymen came ashore at
Darwin; the rest went on to Surabaja in
Java. None of the planes, men, or supplies of the Pensacola convoy ever reached
the Philippines.
But General MacArthur had not yet
given up hope that the planes might be
brought into the Philippines. On the 14th
he had suggested that air reinforcements be
brought in by carrier, thus eliminating the
problem of bases between Australia and Lu35
zon. On the 22d, the day on which the
Ltr, R. C. Moore to Brett, 19 Dec 41, OCS
18136-161; rad, Marshall to Military Attache,
Japanese landed at Lingayen Gulf, he obMelbourne for Brett, No. 31, 17 Dec 41, WPD
served that enemy air and naval forces were
4628-1. See also the Administrative Order dispatched to CG USAFIA, 20 Dec 41, AG 381 (12- threatening his line of communications
20-41) MSC-D-M.
southward and called for some American
36
with all the ammunition they could carry.

Any course that would achieve these results
was authorized.35
On 22 December, the same day the Pensacola convoy reached Brisbane, General
Claggett arrived from the Philippines. He
was immediately handed the instructions
for the new base by Colonel Merle-Smith,
the military attache. Already General
Mac Arthur had indicated that the convoy
should proceed to the Philippines and that
the aircraft should be assembled and flown
north. Every attempt was made to comply with these instructions, but the situation was changing rapidly and there were
numerous obstacles to be overcome in unloading and rerouting the ships.
General Marshall had done all he could
to assure the arrival of the supplies in the
convoy to MacArthur. He had reminded
both Claggett and Barnes repeatedly of the
urgent necessity of getting the planes and
.50-caliber ammunition to the Philippines
and told them to spare neither effort nor
expense to accomplish this task.36 The
Navy had also instructed its representatives in Australia to assist in every way, and
the Chief of Naval Operations asked Admiral Hart, still in Manila, to "impress
upon the Australian Naval Board the importance of their full cooperation" in keeping open Torres Strait as a route for U.S.
reinforcements to the Philippines and
northwest Australia.37
Rad, Marshall to Military Attache, Melbourne,

No. 36, 22 Dec 41, WPD 4630-2. General MacArthur received copies of the radios sent to Australia.
37
Rad, OPNAV to CINCAF, 222302, 23 Dec 41.
War Diary, 16th Naval Dist, Off of Naval Rcds.
38

41, AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
39
Hist of Fifth Air Force, Part I, p. 44 and App.
2, Doc 67; Arnold, Global Mission, p. 290.
155

naval effort to limit the enemy's freedom of
movement along the vital sea lanes. Pointedly he asked for "any inkling" of the strategic plans for the Pacific Fleet and reminded Marshall that carriers could bring
pursuit planes within operating radius of
the Philippines. "Can I expect anything
along that line," he asked.40
The answer was no. Admiral Stark asserted that the use of aircraft carriers as
transports was "impracticable in the existing strategic situation," and Marshall was
By the time Hart received this message

he had already determined to join his surface forces in the Indies.44 The next morning, 25 December, he turned over to Admiral Rockwell full command of all naval
activities in the Philippines and at 0200 of
the 26th left Manila aboard the submarine
Shark. The two remaining destroyers followed the next day, when General MacArthur reported to the War Department
that "Admiral Hart has left Manila to join
naval forces in the south, destination to be
forced to tell MacArthur that he would
reported later.
have to rely on the ability of cargo ships and

aircraft to make their way northward from
Australia by way of Torres Strait and the
Netherlands Indies.41
Apparently MacArthur's suggestion that
command of naval forces with headquarters

on Corregidor."45
Before he left, Hart made available to
General MacArthur all naval personnel, including the marines. The submarines were
to continue to operate in Philippine waters
as long as "practicable and profitable," and
then retire southward. All that was to remain in the Philippines were 3 gunboats, 3
minesweepers, 6 motor torpedo boats, and
a few tugs and yachts for inshore patrol.
Orders were issued for the destruction of
all oil and gasoline in storage in Manila, the
evacuation of the Cavite Navy Yard and
Sangley Point, and the shipment of all remaining stores to Corregidor and Mariveles,
at the southern tip of Bataan.46
a naval threat be made against Japan
brought an inquiry from the Chief of Naval

Operations to Admiral Hart. The Asiatic
Fleet commander explained that MacArthur had sent his message without consulting him, and that the reference "was meant
to apply forces other than this [Asiatic]
fleet." 42 The next day, 24 December, Hart
received another message from his chief in
Washington asking for a full report of his
operations in support of the Army, "as my

information on this subject is meager."
The Army, Stark explained, was "bringing

heavy pressure for greater naval activity in
Philippine waters."
43
40
Rads, MacArthur to Marshall, Nos. 22 and
40, 22 Dec 41, AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
41
Memo, Stark for Marshall, 23 Dec 41, sub:
Transportation of Aircraft to Phil, AG 381 (1127-41 Gen) Far East; rad, Marshall to MacArthur,
23 Dec 41, OPD Exec O.
42
Rad, CINCAF to OPNAV, 220830, 22 Dec 41,
War Diary, 16th Naval Dist, Off of Naval Rcds.
43
Rad, OPNAV to CINCAF, 231601, 23 Dec 41,
War Diary, 16th Naval Dist.
Hart's reply, dated the 24th, was that until he
received reports from the submarines still at sea he
Admiral Rockwell now in
The submarines began to withdraw after
Christmas and by the 31st the last one had

would be unable to give a full report.
Rad,
CINCAF to OPNAV, 241225, 24 Dec 41, War
Diary, 16th Naval Dist.
44
45-46; rad, CINCAF to OPNAV, 241225, 24 Dec
41, War Diary, 16th Naval Dist.
45
381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East; Rockwell, Naval
Activities in Luzon Area, pp. 6-8;ltr,Hart to
MacArthur, 25 Dec 41, sub: Move of Comd Post,
War Diary, 16th Naval Dist.
46
Rockwell, Naval Activities in Luzon Area, p. 7.
156
left Manila Bay.47 Thus ended the activities of the underwater craft in Philippine
waters. Constituting the largest single undersea force in the Navy, the submarines
were expected to exact an impressive toll
from any approaching Japanese fleet. In
the eight separate landings the Japanese
made in the period between 8 and 25 December, the submarines proved unable to
impede the enemy or even inflict any serious
damage. Their record, like that of the
B-17's, was most disappointing.
The withdrawal of the Asiatic Fleet coincided with the movement southward of
the Far East Air Force whose heavy bombers were already based in Australia. On
24 December, General Brereton was called
to MacArthur's office and told that he was
to go to Australia with his headquarters to
"organize advanced operating bases from
which . . . you can protect the lines of
communication, secure bases in Mindanao,
and support the defense of the Philippines." 48 Brereton offered to stay on, but
MacArthur told him that he would be more
useful in Australia.
Brereton closed his headquarters at Fort
McKinley at 1600 of the 24th, and in a
PBY left that evening to join his bombers
at Batchelor Field near Port Darwin. To
the War Department General MacArthur
radioed "Operations heavy bombardment
no longer possible from bases here. B-17's
have been moved to Australia and Netherlands East Indies bases. Brereton with skeleton staff departed on 24th." 49
47
Rpt, COMSUBS to COMINCH, War Activities, Submarines, U.S. Asiatic Fleet, 1 Dec 41-1
Apr 42, Off of Naval Rcds.
48
Ltr Order, USAFFE to CG FEAF, 24 Dec 41,
reproduced in Brereton, Diaries, p. 62.
49
381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.

With Brereton's departure, the small
number of fighters, all that remained of the
once formidable Far East Air Force, came
under the command of Col. Harold H.
George, formerly chief of staff of the Interceptor Command. Fighter fields were established on Bataan and preparations were
made to continue operations from there.
The 650 men of the 19th Bombardment
Group left Luzon before the end of December to join their planes in Australia. Their
comrades in the 24th and 27th Groups were
not as fortunate. They remained behind
and, since few men were required to fly and
service the planes still in operation, eventually became infantry soldiers on Bataan.50
All hopes of reinforcing the Philippines
with pursuit planes were now at an end.
Even if these planes could be flown from
Australia northward, there were no longer
any fields on Luzon outside Bataan on which
they could base. The War Department
told General MacArthur frankly that its
plans for sending fighter aircraft to him
were now jeopardized and that "the day to
day situation" in the Philippines and
Borneowhere the Japanese had landed
on the 24thwould determine what could
be done. He could draw what small comfort he could from fresh assurances that the
United States would develop a strong air
force in the Far East and that the Secretary
of War approved fully his plans and orders.51
General Brett, still in Chungking when
news of the decision to withdraw reached
Washington, was directed to get to Australia
as quickly as possible. He was informed
50
World War II, I, 224-25; Brereton, Diaries, p. 62;
Ind, Bataan, The Judgment Seat, passim.
51
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, No. 879, 24
Dec 41, AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.

of the changed situation and asked to submit recommendations on the "location,
composition, and future operations of U.S.

Forces in Australia." 52 The air forces in
Australia, he was told, were to be built up
in the hope that long-range bombers would
be able to aid the Philippine garrison and
that the entire force would be useful in supporting the Allied attempts to halt the Japanese advance along the Malay Barrier.53
By 24 December every effort to bring supplies and reinforcements to General MacArthur had failed. The Pensacola convoy had reached Australia, but no way had
been found to move its cargo northward.
General MacArthur had not received a
single piece of equipment or one additional
man to reinforce his garrison. The supplies and men destined for the Philippines
remained in Australia, which was rapidly
being developed into an advanced Allied
air and supply base.
Within a period of three weeks, from 8
December to 25 December, the Japanese
had achieved astounding results in the
Philippines. They had completed one
major amphibious assault and at least seven
52
Rad, Marshall to Military Attache, Melbourne
for Brett, No. 41, 25 Dec 41, WPD 4628-3.

53
Ibid.
157
minor landing operations; they had placed
a large number of troops ashore on Luzon,

north and south of Manila, and were ready
to move on the capital; they had cut the
line of communications between the Philippines and Australia.
During this three-week period, the Japanese had also established complete aerial
and naval supremacy in the Philippines
and forced the Asiatic Fleet and the Far
East Air Force to retire to the line SurabajaDarwin, 1,500 miles from Manila. General MacArthur summed up his situation
on 27 December as follows: "Enemy penetration in the Philippines resulted from our
weakness on the sea and in the air. Surface
elements of the Asiatic Fleet were withdrawn and the effect of the submarines has
been negligible. Lack of airfields for modern planes prevented defensive dispersion
and lack of pursuit planes permitted unhindered day bombardment. The enemy
has had utter freedom of naval and air
movements." 54 To these reasons, he could
have added the unsatisfactory performance
of the ill-trained and poorly equipped Philippine Army reservists.
54

381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East; see Brereton's views
on the same subject in his Diaries, pp. 64-67.
PART THREE
THE WITHDRAWAL TO BATAAN
CHAPTER X
The Withdrawal Begins

conference with MacArthur that night at
the Manila Hotel. At the meeting, MacArthur explained that there was no immediate cause for concern, and that he was
only "preparing for the worst in case the
Japanese should land in great force at different places." In such an event, it would
be unwise, he told Quezon, to have his forces
scattered. He intended to concentrate his
army on Bataan, and to move his headquarters, the High Commissioner's office, and the
Commonwealth Government to Corregidor
and declare Manila an open city. "Do you
"WPO-3 Is in Effect"
mean, General," asked Quezon, "that toBefore the war, General MacArthur had morrow you will declare Manila an open
determined that he would meet a Japanese city and that some time during the day we
attack by offensive action, not by what he shall have to go to Corregidor?" Macconsidered to be the passive defense pro- Arthur's answer was an emphatic "No." He
vided for in WPO-3. Accordingly, he had did not seem to be certain that the move
ordered his force commanders to meet the would even be necessary, and was evidently
Japanese at the beaches and to drive them only preparing the President for such a posback into the sea. There was to be "no sibility. The meeting closed with Quezon's
withdrawal from beach positions." The first promise to consider the matter further. Later
Japanese landings between 8 and 10 he consented, with reluctance, to move to
December had caused no change in this Corregidor if necessary.1
strategy.
The possibility of a withdrawal seems to
Once the Japanese had landed, General have been in the minds of other officers in
MacArthur had to consider seriously the MacArthur's headquarters before the main
prospect of an eventual withdrawal to Japanese landings. During an inspection
Bataan and the evacuation of Manila. To of the 21st Field Artillery sector along Linprepare President Quezon for the worst, he gayen Gulf, Col. Constant L. Irwin, Macsent word to him on the morning of the Arthur's G-3, showed little interest in the
12th to be ready to move to Corregidor on
1
Quezon, The Good Fight, pp. 194-98. Present
four hours' notice.
at the meeting also were Col. Manuel Nieto, the
Shocked and wholly unprepared for this President's aide, and Lt. Col. Sidney L. Huff, Mac"startling message," Quezon arranged a Arthur's aide.
The success of the Japanese landings at
Lingayen Gulf and Lamon Bay ended all
hopes for an American victory in the Philippines. Only one day after the landing to the
north, on 23 December, General MacArthur decided that he would have to fall
back to Bataan and fight a delaying action
there until help could arrive. This decision, made only under the greatest necessity,
was the basic strategic decision of the campaign in the Philippines.
162
tactical placement of the guns. He seemed
concerned, instead, with the location of the
ammunition and supply routes, selected to
conform with the mission of holding at the
beaches. "He took a look at our ammunition disposition and the dangerous supply
routes," wrote Colonel Mallone, instructor
of the 21st Field Artillery, "and very violently announced that it would be impossible to withdraw the ammunition in time
to save it. . . ." 2 This was the first time,
remarked Mallone, that he heard the
word "withdraw." He explained to Colonel Irwin that his orders were to hold at
all costs, and repeated Wainwright's order:
"We must die in our tracks, falling not
backward but forward toward the enemy."
The answer of the G-3 officer was, "Don't
believe everything you hear." 3
Colonel Mallone, as well as the chief of
staff and senior instructor of the 21st Division, was now thoroughly confused about the
mission and after a conference decided to
request clarification from General Wainwright's headquarters. They were told that
the mission was still to hold at all costs, but,
added Colonel Mallone, "by the manner
in which it was issued it was evident that
there is considerable doubt in the minds of
the North Luzon Force command as to
whether the mission is actually as given." 4
2
Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 56; see also ltr, Brig
Gen. Constant L. Irwin, ret., to Ward, 13 Jun 51,
OCMH. The author discussed the question of the
As early as 12 December, then, General

Mac Arthur was preparing the ground
for measures that would have to be taken
if he decided that it was necessary to
withdraw to Bataan. When General
Homma landed his 14th Army at Lingayen Gulf ten days later, on 22 December, Mac Arthur still made no change in
his plan. But his message to General
Marshall on that date shows that he now
believed he might have to withdraw
quickly. He estimated that the Japanese
disembarking from the seventy to eighty
transports in Lingayen Gulf had a
strength of 80,000 to 100,000 men, and
reported that he had on Luzon only about
40,000 men "in units partially equipped."
He anticipated that "this enormous tactical discrepancy" would force him "to
operate in delaying action on successive
lines through the Central Luzon plain to
final defensive position on Bataan."5
When forced to do so, he told General
Marshall, he would declare Manila an
open city to save the civilian population
and move his headquarters, together with
the Philippine Commonwealth Government and the High Commissioner's office,
to Corregidor, which, he said, "I intend
5
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 3, 22 Dec 41,
AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East. Although MacArthur stated that he had only 40,000 men on
Luzon, an analysis of the units present indicates
that the number of troops was actually much

higher. The strength of the American garrison,
withdrawal with Generals Sutherland and R. J.
even without the air force, could not have been
Marshall and with Colonel Collier.
less than 20,000, including the 12,000 Philippine
Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 56. The conversation between Irwin and Mallone took place in the
presence of the senior American instructor of the
21st Division (PA), Col. Ray M. O'Day, the division chief of staff, and several other officers. Colonel
O'Day did not get the idea of a withdrawal from
Scouts. To this figure must be added the strength

of seven Philippine Army reserve divisions and one
regular division, as well as the Constabulary, inducted into the service of the United States in
December. Many of the units were undoubtedly at
Irwin, but did say that such a remark was made
two-thirds strength, but even at half strength, the

total number of troops on Luzon at this time could
in reference to the ammunition.

author, 16 Nov 49, OCMH.
4
ber of Japanese troops who landed at Lingayen between 22 and 28 December was about 43,000.
Ltr, O'Day to
not have been less than 75,000-80,000. The num-
THE WITHDRAWAL BEGINS
163
to hold." 6 General Marshall immediately zon. Realizing that his opponent's air and
replied that his proposed line of action naval forces were far superior to his own,
was approved and that he was doing his that American ground forces were free to
land on any beaches they chose, and that
utmost to send aid.7
The fighting in North Luzon on 22 and their superior mobility and fire power
23 December and the rapid advance by were too great for him, he concluded that
the Japanese to Rosario apparently con- the Japanese would be unable "to conduct
vinced MacArthur that the time had warfare on flat land." Yamashita, therecome to put the scheme for withdrawal fore, decided to withdraw from Manila
into effect. General Wainwright's request and the central Luzon plain, and to fight
on the afternoon of the 23d for permission a delaying action to "divert American
to withdraw behind the Agno River must forces in Luzon so as to keep them from
have confirmed this decision. To these attacking Japan as long as possible."
military considerations must be added Unlike General MacArthur, Yamashita
General MacArthur's desire to save the hoped to accomplish his objective by
withdrawing into the mountains of northcity of Manila from destruction.
But the chief reason for the withdrawal ern Luzon. He might have been more
order was the failure of the troops to hold successful if he had retired to Bataan, as
the Americans had four years earlier.
the enemy. Up to this time General MacArthur seems to have had the greatest From there he could have maintained his
confidence in the fighting qualities of the forces intact and have denied the AmeriPhilippine Army reservists and in the cans, for a time at least, the use of
9
ability of his forces to hold the central Manila Bay.
The decision having been made to withLuzon plain. The events of the 22d and
23d forced a revision of this view. "Gen- draw to Bataan, USAFFE notified all force
eral MacArthur, viewing the broken, flee- commanders that "WPO-3 is in effect."10
ing North Luzon Force," wrote Colonel Nothing more was required. WPO-3 was
Collier, a sympathetic observer, "realized an old plan, well known to all U.S. Army
that his cherished plan of defeating an officers who had been in the Philippines six
enemy attempt to advance toward Manila months or more. Under it, the Philippine
from the north was not now possible. Department headquarters, after the experiMacArthur's position on 23 December ence of numerous maneuvers, had selected
1941 was somewhat akin to the position
in which General Yamashita found himself three years later, when the victorious
Americans were preparing to invade Lu6
7
Ibid.
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, 22 Dec 41, AG

381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East. This message
implied approval of MacArthur's plans by the President, for it contained the statement that the President had seen all of MacArthur's messages.
8
A. Frank Reel, The Case of General Yamashita
(Chicago, 1949), pp. 21-22. Most of the Japanese

officers who read this volume in manuscript form
did not agree with the author that a withdrawal
to Bataan by Yamashita would have resulted in a
more successful defense. Comments of Former
Japanese Officers Regarding The Fall of the Philippines, p. 41, OCMH.
10
Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story, p.
36. Wainwright received the order on the night of

the 23d, but General Parker did not get the order
until about 1000 of the 24th, when he was ordered
to Bataan to organize the Bataan Defense Force.
Ltr, Parker to Ward, 16 Jan 52, OCMH.
164
certain delaying positions along the central

Luzon plain. These positions had been
reconnoitered and were considered fairly
strong defensive lines along the route of
withdrawal to Bataan. It only remained to
issue written orders to supplement the
announcement that WPO-3 was in effect.
The next morning, 24 December, at

1100, the USAFFE staff was called to a
conference. General Sutherland announced
the decision and stated that the headquarters was to be moved to Corregidor that
evening. Each man was to take with him
only field equipment and one suitcase or
bedroll. By special order all officers in the
headquarters, except those of high rank who
had been promoted a few days earlier, were
promoted one grade. To the War Department General Mac Arthur sent news of his
city, despite the order that all Commonwealth officials would remain at their posts.13
The headquarters began to move out on
the Don Esteban after 1900 that day. "It
was a beautiful moonlit night," wrote Colonel Collier, "and the cheerful, peaceful
murmuring of the rippling waves from the
cutting prow of the ship belied the havoc of
war."
14
It was Christmas Eve, and the men
sat around on deck talking in hushed tones

and watching the flames rising from the
Navy's fuel dump where over 1,000,000
gallons of oil had been fired earlier in the day.
The Don Esteban docked at Corregidor at
2130, and the next morning Headquarters,
USAFFE, opened on the island. That day,
Mac Arthur reported to the War Department that his headquarters had moved.15 A
rear echelon, headed by Brig. Gen. Richard
decision, as well as the further information

that the Japanese had landed at Atimonan
and Mauban that morning.11 "Tonight I
plan to disengage my forces under cover of
darkness," he wrote. "For the present, I am
remaining in Manila, establishing an advanced headquarters on Corregidor." After
evacuating the High Commissioner and the
Commonwealth Government, he told the
J. Marshall, Deputy Chief of Staff, remained behind in Manila to close out the
headquarters and supervise the shipment of
supplies and the evacuation of the remaining troops.16
There was much to do in the days that
followed to prepare Bataan for the troops
destined to make their last stand there. On
the morning of the 24th, Col. Lewis C.
Chief of Staff, he would declare Manila an
Beebe, G-4, USAFFE, and Brig. Gen.
open city.12
On the afternoon of the 24th, President
Quezon and High Commissioner Sayre,
with their personal and official families,
sailed to Corregidor aboard the interisland
steamer Mayan. Many Philippine officials
Charles C. Drake, Quartermaster, were

called to General Marshall's office and there
told of the decision to withdraw all troops on
Luzon to Bataan and to evacuate Manila.
General Drake was instructed to move his
base of operations to Bataan immediately
simply packed a few belongings and left the
and to check on the reserves at Corregidor
11
Rad, CG USAFFE to AGWAR, 24 Dec 41, AG
381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East. MacArthur mistakenly reported that the Japanese were standing
off Nasugbu.
12
No landing was ever made there.
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, 24 Dec 41, AG

381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
13
14
Collier, Notebooks, I, 80-81; II, 40.
Ibid.,11,42.
15
Ibid., 44; rad, MacArthur to AGWAR, 25 Dec
41, AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
16
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, pp. 33, 40;
interv, author with R. J. Marshall, 7 Apr 48.

to be sure that there was enough to supply
10,000 men for six months. Small barges
and boats required to move the supplies
from Manila to Corregidor and Bataan were
quickly gathered, and within twenty-four
hours Corregidor was completely stocked
with the supplies for a six months' campaign. At the same time, all supplies were
immediately started on their way to Bataan
by every available meanswater, truck, and
rail. Ammunition had already been stored
in the peninsula, together with certain defense reserves including 300,000 gallons of
gasoline, lubricating oil, and greases, and
about 3,000 tons of canned meats and fish.17
In Manila, the rear echelon worked valiantly to get all the supplies out of the city
before the Japanese moved in. Those small
craft not transferred to Corregidor and Bataan were destroyed; demolitions were carried out with efficiency and dispatch. By the
time General Marshall and his men moved
165
Wainwright's North Luzon Force was to
hold the Japanese north of the key city of
San Fernando, Pampangawhere Route 7,
the main highway leading into the Bataan
peninsula, beganuntil 8 January, then
withdraw into Bataan.19 This would provide
time for the South Luzon Force to move up
past Manila and into Bataan and give those
troops already on Bataan an opportunity to
establish a line. The withdrawal was to be
in five phases, or along five lines. On each
line Wainwright's men were to hold only
long enough to force the enemy to prepare
for an organized attack. The object was to
delay, not defeat, the enemy and to reach
Bataan intact.20
General Parker's South Luzon Force was
to withdraw west and north along successive defense lines through and around
Manila, across the Pampanga River,
spanned by the two bridges known collectively as the Calumph Bridge, to San
Fernando, and then to Bataan. All of the

South Luzon Force was to clear the bridge
before 8 January. The Calumpit Bridge
therefore
became a critical point in the plan
At the same time that a revised supply
for
withdrawal.
It had to be held until all
plan was put into effect, a revised plan of
the
troops
in
the
South Luzon Force passed
operations was quickly worked out. The ob21
over.
ject of these plans was to gain time to preTo prepare defensive positions on Bataan,
pare defenses on Bataan and to permit an
the
Bataan Defense Force was organized on
orderly withdrawal into the peninsula.
the 24th. General Parker was placed in
17
QM Rpt of Opns, pp. 20-21.
command and given two Philippine Army
18
Interv, author with R. J. Marshall, 7 Apr 48;
divisions, the 31st and 41st (less 42d InCarlos P. Romulo, I Saw the Fall of the Philippines
fantry),
in addition to the troops already in
(New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1942),
Bataan
to
do the job. Command of the
pp. 68-90.
out on New Year's Eve, most of the supplies
that might possibly be of value to the enemy
had been destroyed.18
The first specification in the charge against General Homma when he was tried as a war criminal in
Manila in 1946 was the violation of an open city.
Since Manila was used as a base of supplies, and
since a U.S. Army headquarters was based in the
city and troops passed through it after 26 December,
it is difficult to see how Manila could be considered
an open city between 26 and 31 December 1941.
Nevertheless, the charge against General Homma
stood. USA vs. Homma, specification of charges.
South Luzon Force, which consisted during

19
The date was later changed when it was found
that North Luzon Force could not hold until the 8th.
San Fernando, Pampanga, should not be confused with San Fernando, La Union.
20
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 33; Collier,
Notebooks, II, 47.
21
Ibid.; ltr, Sutherland to CG 51st Div ( P A ) ,
24 Dec 41, sub: Opns Orders, AG 371 Phil Rcds.
166
the withdrawal of the 51st Division ( P A ) ,
one regiment of the 1st Division, the 42d
Infantry, plus supporting tanks and SPM's,
passed to General Jones.22
The only troops in Bataan when Parker
reached there at 1700 of the 24th were the
Philippine Division (less 57th Combat
Team and one battalion of the 45th Infantry) and a provisional air corps regiment.
The 14th Engineers (PS) marked out the
defensive positions and the Philippine Army
troops, when they arrived on the peninsula,
moved into these positions and began to dig
foxholes and put up wire. Brig. Gen. Clifford Bluemel's 31st Division ( P A ) , stationed along the Zambales coast was the
first into Bataan. Its movement was completed by 26 December. Two days later the
41st Division ( P A ) , less elements, took up
its position along the skeleton line.23
The plan for the withdrawal of the forces
in north and south Luzon called for a difficult maneuver requiring accurate timing
and the closest co-ordination. Should the
forces in north and south Luzon fail to pull
back to Bataan, or should the Japanese seize
the road net leading into the peninsula,
then the strategic objective of the withdrawal, the denial of Manila Bay to the
enemy, would be jeopardized.
The North Luzon Force Plan
The North Luzon Force plan of withdrawal was based on the five delaying positions or lines selected and reconnoitered
during peacetime. Separated by the estimated distance which could be covered in
one night's march, these lines utilized the
22
USAFFE GO 54, 27 Dec 41; SLF and II

Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 16, 19.
23
SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 19;
terrain features advantageous in defense

rivers, high ground, and swamps. Each was
anchored on high ground and took full advantage of natural barriers. They lay across
the face of the central Luzon plain and covered the main approaches to Manila, Routes
3 and 5. (Map 6)
The first defensive line, known as D-1,
extended in an easterly direction from
Aguilar, south of Lingayen Gulf on Route
13, through San Carlos to Urdaneta on
Route 3. As Col. William F. Maher, Wainwright's chief of staff, has observed, the D-1
line "was simply a line on which we hoped
to be able to reorganize the badly disorganized forces north of the Agno River." 24
The second position, the D-2 line, extended in general along the arc of the Agno
River, one of the formidable natural barriers in the central plain. After holding for
one day on this line, the troops were to retire
next to the D-3 line, stretching from Santa
Ignacia on the west through Gerona and
Guimba to San Jose on the east. The D-4
line was approximately twenty-five miles
long and extended from Tarlac on the left
(west) to Cabanatuan on the right. Small
rivers and streams intersected this line,
which, at Cabanatuan, was anchored on the
Pampanga River.
The final and most southerly position,
called the D-5 line, stretched from Bamban
in front of Mt. Arayat, across Route 5 to
Sibul Springs. Southeast of Mt. Arayat, between the Pampanga River and Route 5,
was the Candaba Swamp, which broke the
central plain into two narrow corridors
leading toward Manila. Of the five lines,
only the last, the D-5 line, was to be organized for a protracted defense. Plans
called for a stand here until the South Luzon
24
Ltr, Maher, formerly NLF CofS, to author, 11
Nov 49, OCMH.
168
Force could slip behind the North Luzon
Force, up Route 3, into San Fernando.25
During its withdrawal to Bataan, the
North Luzon Force was to be supported by
General Weaver's Provisional Tank Group,
whose job it would be to cover the withdrawal, sweep enemy avenues of approach,
and halt hostile mechanized movement.
The tanks were deployed on alternate sides
of the road, at curves and bends, to achieve
maximum sweep of their weapons with a
minimum of exposure. Always they were to
take care that they left themselves a route of
escape. When required to withdraw, the
tanks were to move back one at a time, under cover of the forward tank. The tankers
were to select their positions after a careful
reconnaissance, and with an eye to fields of
fire, alternate positions, avenues of approach, and emergency escape routes.26
The success of the withdrawal would depend to a large degree on the engineers.
Their task was twofold: to maintain roads
and bridges ahead of the retreating columns, and to destroy the bridges and block
the roads already passed to halt the enemy
advance. Demolitions and the construction
of obstacles before the D-1 line were to be
accomplished by the front-line units; North
Luzon Force engineers, consisting principally of the engineer battalion of the 91st
Division (PA), were made responsible for
all work south of that line. The destruction
of railroad bridges was left to a special detachment of demolition experts from MacArthur's headquarters, attached to North
Luzon Force. Demolitions were to be exe25
Collier, Notebooks, II, 82; NLF and I Corps

Rpt of Opns, p. 11.
26
Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, pp. 10-11; ltr,
Col Ernest B. Miller to Ward, 31 Dec 51, copy in
OCMH.

cuted by the engineers when ordered by the
division or covering force commander and
when the tanks and vehicles of the last
elements of the rear guard had cleared the
bridge.27
The term line, applied to the five delaying positions, is misleading. Actually the
front was too wide to be held continuously
by the forces available to General Wainwright. Unit commanders were given considerable leeway in occupying their positions
and usually could do little more than place
their troops so as to cover the most likely
routes of approach. Each line was to be occupied before dawn, held during the day,
and evacuated at night, the troops withdrawing to the next line. Their withdrawal
would be covered by a shell, a small part of
the retiring force, which was to remain in
position until just before dawn when it was
to pull back hastily to rejoin its parent unit
on the line below. This shell, in theory,
would consist of an infantry-artillery team,
but in practice often included only one of
these arms.
By occupying these positions successively
and holding them with a shell while the bulk
of the force retired to the safety of a prepared position to the rear, Mac Arthur
hoped to force the enemy to halt and deploy
for an attack before each position. By the
time he was ready to attack, the line would
be evacuated. In this way, the Japanese advance southward would be considerably
delayed, and time would be gained to prepare defenses on Bataan and to permit the
South Luzon Force to pass into the penin27
Memo, NLF Engineer for CofS NLF, 1 Aug 42,
sub: Orgn and Opns of NLF Engineers 8 Dec 41-6
Jan 42, pp. 1-10, copy made for author by Col
Harry A. Skerry, the NLF Engineer, and on file in
OCMH. This memo will hereafter be cited as
Skerry, NLF Engineer Rpt of Opns.

sula behind the North Luzon Force. The
danger of the scheme lay in the Japanese
control of the air, which made it possible
for them to play havoc with the retiring
road-bound tanks and artillery. The risk
was a calculated one, but the danger was
minimized by limiting important movements to the hours of darkness.28
The supply of the troops during the withdrawal would be difficult. The problems
ordinarily encountered in supplying large
bodies of mobile troops during a retrograde
movement would be complicated by the
shortage of supplies and trained supply officers, the necessity of moving a large amount
of equipment to Bataan, and the destruction
of those supplies which could not be saved.
The fact that most of the men were inadequately trained, poorly equipped, and often
undisciplined would add considerably to the
difficulties.29
To the Tarlac-Cabanatuan Line
On Christmas Eve the North Luzon
Force stood generally along a line extending
from Tayug on the east through Urdaneta
and San Carlos to Aguilar on the west.
(Map 4) All units were under orders to
hold for twenty-four hours before falling
back to the Agno.
On the right (east) was the 26th Cavalry
(PS). That afternoon the Scouts had been
forced to retreat from Binalonan across the
Agno River to Tayug, thus actually anchoring the North Luzon Force at the start of
the withdrawal on the D-2 line. At Tayug,
the cavalrymen had relieved the 71st Engineer Battalion (PA) covering the river
28
Ltr, Maher to author, 11 Nov 49, OCMH;
Collier, Notebooks, II, 82; Mallone, Bataan Diary,
I, 67; NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 14.
29
169
crossing and had joined the 91st Division
(PA) and the remnants of the 71st.30
West of Tayug, holding the center of the
North Luzon Force line from Urdaneta to
San Carlos, was General Brougher's 11th
Division ( P A ) . Also in the center was the
192d Tank Battalion, at this time the only
armor in support of the North Luzon Force.
On the afternoon of the 24th it was moving
south toward the Agno, under orders to
deploy along the south bank. Already on
its way toward the river was the 194th,
which had left Manila that morning with
orders to assemble in the vicinity of
Carmen.31
Extending the North Luzon Force line
west from San Carlos to the Zambales
Mountains, straddling the Agno, was General Capinpin's 21st Division (PA). Stationed initially along the southern shore of
Lingayen Gulf, this division had not yet
come in contact with the enemy. Its orders
were to withdraw at 1900 on the 24th in
two columns along the two roads, one on
each side of the river.
Withdrawal to the Agno
At the appointed hour, 1900 of 24 December, the 21st Division began to withdraw.32 Wire communication between the
30
Lt. Col. William E. Chandler, "26th Cavalry
(PS) Battles to Glory," Part 2, Armored Cavalry
Journal (May-June 1947), p. 11; Skerry, NLF
Engineer Rpt of Opns, pp. 3, 5, 9.
31
Miller, Bataan Uncensored, pp. 88-91; Prov
Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, pp. 10-11; 11th Inf ( P A ) ,
Beach Defense and Delaying Action, 8 Dec 41-5
Jan 42, p. 19, OCMH. The latter is Part 2 of an
unsigned and undated account entitled. The 11th
Infantry Regiment ( P A ) . Part I is entitled
Mobilization and Training.
32
The plan of withdrawal of the 21st Division
( P A ) can be reconstructed in some detail from
personal papers loaned to the author and on file
in OCMH. Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 62, 67-70;
170
division command post and front-line units
was discontinued and signal troops began
reclaiming the wire for later use. The first
units to move out were the 22d Infantry and
the 1st Battalion, 21st Field Artillery. Blowing the large bridges to the rear, they retired
down the road toward San Carlos.
West of the Agno, the 21st Infantry began to withdraw from its beach positions at
about 1900. By 2130 of Christmas Eve, division headquarters had reached its new
command post on Route 13, eleven miles
south of San Carlos. So quiet had the night
been that Col. Ray M. O'Day, division instructor, turning on his radio to hear the
midnight mass, "looked up at Heaven and
could hardly believe it was a war-torn
world." 33
The withdrawal continued all through
the night. By about 0400 of 25 December
the bulk of the 21st Infantry had reached
Aguilar and, when the sun rose, its 3d Battalion moved across the Agno in bancas to
take up positions along the east-west road
to San Carlos. It was not until late afternoon that the last covering units reached the
D-1 line. They had been held up by delays
in the destruction of many small bridges,
and in one case, premature demolition of a
bridge had forced the abandonment of
precious vehicles. There had been no hostile
contact during the withdrawal.
The rest of the North Luzon Force spent
a less peaceful Christmas. The enemy, prevented from reaching the Agno on 24 December by the stiff defense of the 26th CavO'Day, 21st Div (PA), II, 10-11; Brief History of
22d Infantry (PA), p. 3; Rpt on Opns of 21st Inf
(PA), 7 Dec 41-9 Apr 42, p. 2; Capt Grover C.
Richards, Outline of Steps to a POW Camp, pp.
3-4; ltr, [CO, 21st Inf] to TAG PA, 30 Dec 45,
sub: Opns of 21st Inf (PA), 7 Dec 41-9 Apr 42,
p. 2.
33
O'Day, 21st Div (PA), II, 11.

alry, continued his efforts the next day.
With Binalonan in his possession, General
Tsuchibashi, the 48th Division commander, could now split his force into two columns. One he sent south on Route 3 to Urdaneta, where the 11th Division was posted;
the other went east toward Tayug. (Map
6) The column along Route 3 would consist of the 1st and 2d Formosa Infantry
with the 4th Tank Regiment. The remain-
der of the 48th Division (less 1st Battalion,

47th Infantry at Damortis), concentrated
in the Pozorrubio-Binalonan area during
the night of 24-25 December.34
At 0200 of Christmas morning, the 1st
and 2d Formosa and the 4th Tank Regiment moved out against Urdaneta, which
was defended by elements of the 11th Division's 13th Infantry (PA). The fight lasted
all morning but the Japanese proved too
strong for the Filipinos and by noon had
control of the town. The 11th Division then
began falling back toward the Agno.35
Meanwhile, on the right flank of the
North Luzon Force there had been a shuffling of units. The 71st Division, ordered to
San Fernando, Pampanga, for reorganization, was moving out of the line. The 91st
Division, with the 26th Cavalry attached,
was under orders to pull back to the next
line at 2100, leaving a shell on the river until
dawn of the 26th. The cavalry was to hold
the river line at Tayug to cover General
Stevens' withdrawal and to protect the force
right flank. A shell from the 91st Division,
the 92d Combat Team, was to take up a
34
14th Army Opns, I, 52-53; Answers to Questionnaire on Phil Campaign, 5 Aug 49, ATIS Doc
49692; Statement of Col Moriji Kawagoe, CofS
48th Div, in Statements of Japanese Officials on
World War II, II, 126-27.
35
14th Army Opns, I, 53; Col Glen R. Townsend,
CO, 11th Inf (PA), Defense of the Philippines, p.
12, OCMH; O'Day, 21st Div (PA), II, 11.
171
VILLASIS-CARMEN BRIDGE over the Agno River on Route 3. (Photograph

taken in 1935.)
position to Pierce's left, along the Agno as

far south as Carmen.36
By evening of 25 December, the 11th
Division, in the center, stood on the Agno
River and was in its D-2 positions. Defense
of Carmen and its important bridge, rebuilt
by the 91st Engineer Battalion, was assigned
to the 1st Battalion, 21st Infantry, in force
reserve since the second week of hostilities.
To its left (west) along a 2,000-yard front
west of Carmen, was the 13th Infantry. The
rest of the 11th Division sector, extending
to Bautista, was held by the 11th Infantry.

The 21st Division was on the left, the 92d
Combat Team and the 26th Cavalry on
the right of the D-2 line. Spread thin along
the Agno River between Carmen and Route
13, a distance of twenty-five miles, was the
194th Tank Battalion (less Company C)
which had reached the river at 1900 the
previous night. Tank support on the right
side of the line was provided by the 192d
Tank Battalion, which covered the sixteen
miles from Carmen to Tayug.37
36
Maj William E. Chandler, An Outline History
of the 26th Cavalry (PS), p. 4, OCMH; see also
the same author's article, "26th Cavalry (PS)
Battles to Glory," Part 2, Armored Cavalry Journal
37
Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 11 ; Miller,
Bataan Uncensored, pp. 89-91; Engineers of the
Southwest Pacific 1941-1945, Vol. I, Engineers in
Theater Operations (Washington, 1947), p. 6 illustration, and p. 15 n. 24; NLF and I Corps Rpt of
Opns, p. 8; 11th Inf ( P A ) Beach Defense and
Delaying Action, p. 19, OCMH; ltr [CO, 21st Inf]
to TAG PA, Opns 21st Inf (PA), p. 2.
(May-June 1947), pp. 11-12; ltr, Selleck to Board

of Officers, 1 Feb 46, sub: Reinstatement of Rank,
p. 9, OCMH; unsigned account of 92d Inf ( P A ) ,
p. 1, OCMH.
AGNO RIVER between Bayambang and Carmen.

stretches along the southwestern bank of the river.
Bayambang, foreground,
174
When the move was completed and all

of the North Luzon Force had reached D-2,
General MacArthur reported to Washington, "Our position now along the Agno
River." 38 Thus far, the withdrawal had
proceeded satisfactorily. The Japanese had
attacked at only one point and had achieved
their objective, but had not disrupted the
American scheme of withdrawal. Already
the important bridges across the Agno, at
Bayambang and Villasis, were ready for
destruction.
Fight on the Agno

The D-2 line, from three to twelve miles
behind the D-1 line, depended primarily
on the curving Agno River for its strength.
Both flanks were guarded by high ground.
The two critical points on the line were
Tayug and Carmen, both important road
junctions. A break-through at Tayug would
open the right of the North Luzon Force
to a hostile flanking movement; a Japanese
penetration at Carmen would split the defenses in the center. Failing to hold either
of these vital points, the North Luzon Force
would have to abandon its position and
perhaps its plan of withdrawal.
While Wainwright was pulling back to
the Agno, the Japanese had not been idle.
Shortly after noon on 25 December, an advance element of Lt. Col. Kuro Kitamura's
48th Reconnaissance Regiment, moving
east from Binalonan, met patrols of the 26th
Cavalry at Asingan, across the river from
Tayug. By 1900 Kitamura's troops had
driven the Scouts back to the river where
the 2d Squadron was already in position on
the opposite shore. Only the soft mud of the
riverbank had prevented the Japanese tanks
38
Rad, CG USAFFE to TAG, 26 Dec 41, AG 381
(11-27-41 Gen) Far East.

from crossing immediately. The struggle
continued into the night and at 0200 the
next morning, when the Japanese finally
reached the opposite shore, the Scouts broke
off the action. By 0400 Tayug was in enemy
hands. Since further opposition was futile,
Colonel Pierce withdrew to the 91st Division line at Umingan, ten miles to the southeast. Blowing eight bridges between Tayug
an San Quintin as it retired, the decimated
26th Cavalry passed through General
Stevens' line at 0545. Later in the day, under North Luzon Force orders, it continued
south toward Bataan as force reserve.39 The
Scouts had fought with great effect in the
five days since the Japanese landings and
had contributed in a large degree to the
enemy delay. Their discipline and courageous stands at Damortis, Rosario, and
Binalonan had shown that the Philippine
soldier, properly trained, equipped, and led,
was the equal of any.
While the 48th Reconnaissance Regiment was attacking the 26th Cavalry at
Tayug, the second of General Tsuchibashi's
columnsconsisting of the 2d Formosa, a
battalion of the 1st Formosa, and the 4th
Tank Regimentwas moving due south
against Carmen. During the evening of 25
December, this force entered unoccupied
Villasis on Route 3, only a mile north of
Carmen and the Agno River. After a preliminary air strike behind the lines by twelve
planes of the 8th and 16th Light Bombardment Regiments, the Japanese opened the
assault against Carmen, crossing the Agno
near Villasis after sunset of the 26th. The
2d Formosa and the 4th Tank Regiment,

with artillery in support, met opposition
39
14th Army Opns, I, 53; Chandler, "26th Cavalry (PS) Battles to Glory," p. 12; ltr, Maher to
author, 11 Nov 49, OCMH; rads, Maj Lomuntod
to USAFFE, Nos. 29 and 31, 26 Dec 41, AG 370.2
(19 Dec 41) Phil
Rcds.
TARLAC RAILROAD STATION after Japanese bombing, above; salvaging a

carload of .30-caliber ammunition, below.
176
from the 37-mm. guns of the 194th Tank
Battalion, which, having only armor-piercing shells, was unable to hold up the Japanese advance.40
Late in the afternoon of the 26th, when
news of the withdrawal of the 26th Cavalry
on the right reached Wainwright, he ordered the 11th Division to fall back through
Carmen to Route 3, then south to the D-3
line. Before the move could get under way,
the Japanese shattered the 1st Battalion,
21st Infantry, at Carmen, inflicting two
hundred casualties and capturing Maj.
Robert Besson, the battalion commander.
By 1930 Carmen was in enemy hands. The
Japanese pushed on vigorously, a battalion
of the 1st Formosa striking the 92d Combat
Team on the right of the 11th Division line.
Two hours later the enemy was in Resales,
three miles to the east of Carmen.
With Route 3 in Japanese hands, the 11th
Division was forced to fall back via the
Manila Railroad, which extended along the
western (left) edge of its sector. There was
no other route of retreat in this area. Behind
the division front was a large, roadless area
covered with rice fields. The only routes
leading to the rear were on the division
flanksRoute 3 on the east and the Manila
Railroad on the west. Swift action on the
part of General Brougher in commandeering and dispatching a locomotive and several freight cars from Tarlac that night
made possible the escape of the troops.41
40
14th Army Opns, I, 53; 5th Air Gp Opns, p. 39;

Statement of Gen Kawagoe, ATIS Doc 62707,
Statements of Japanese Officials on World War II,
II, 128; Answers to Questionnaire on Phil Cam-
paign, 5 Aug 49, ATIS Doc 49692; Miller, Bataan

Uncensored, p. 95.
41
14thArmy Opns, I, 53; 11th Inf (PA) Beach
Defense and Delaying Action, pp. 19-20, OCMH;
2d Lt Louis I. Bentz, Jr., 82d Inf (PA), p. 1,
Chunn Notebooks; O'Day, 21st Div (PA), I, 4.

The Provisional Tank Group encountered greater difficulty in withdrawing than
had the infantry. Col. Ernest B. Miller, the
194th Tank Battalion commander, had told
General Weaver at 1830 of the 26th that
the enemy might soon cross the Agno and
that there remained "nothing but the tanks
to stop it." 42 Actually, the Japanese were
already across the river. Weaver ordered
Miller to hold at the D-2 line until 0500 the
following day. The 192d Tank Battalion to
the east was also ordered to hold, but Colonel Miller as the senior tank officer was
authorized to withdraw both battalions
sooner if Japanese action threatened to cut
their line of retreat.43
In the 192d Tank Battalion area the tactical situation made compliance with General Weaver's order impossible. Around
dusk on 26 December, Col. John H. Rodman, commanding the 92d Combat Team,,
informed Col. Theodore Wickord, the 192d
commander, that the infantry was pulling
back on the right to form a line from Carmen to Umingan. When the 92d pulled
back at about 2100, Wickord's battalion
also moved out. It moved east past Carmen,

then south, before the Japanese could blockBrougher, Notes on Withdrawal of 11th Infantry
from Agno River Position, pp. 1-2, copy in OCMH.
42
Miller, Bataan Uncensored, p. 97.
43
Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 11; Miller,
Bataan Uncensored, pp. 97-98; ltr, Miller to Ward,

31 Dec 51, OCMH; Weaver, Comments on Draft
MS, Comment 13, OCMH. Miller claims he was
given no authority to withdraw earlier if necessary.
He also claims that no holding orders were issued
to the 192d. Weaver stated that his orders were
given to both battalion commanders. The 192d
has prepared no reports and efforts by the author
to secure additional material on this question from
the battalion commander have been unsuccessful.
Colonel Miller intimates that General Weaver was
keeping the tanks in a "rat trap." There is no
direct evidence other than Colonel Miller's published statements to substantiate such a view.

ade the route of escape, and reached the
D-3 line without difficulty.44
Meanwhile, the 194th Tank Battalion
made its own way south as best it could.
The tanks of Company A fought their way
through a Japanese roadblock at the edge
of Carmen and retreated down Route 3.
Above San Manuel, about six miles south,
Colonel Miller, the battalion commander,
organized a roadblock with three tanks; all
the others he sent to the rear. Shortly after,
a single half-track with a 75-mm. gun
(SPM), commanded by Capt. Gordon H.

Peck, came down the road after having cut
its way through the cane fields. Placing himself under Colonel Miller's orders, Peck took
his place at the roadblock. At about 2300,
General Brougher, the 11th Division commander, arrived at San Manuel. He explained that his division was moving back
by rail and asked that the tanks cover the
railroad until the Filipino troops could pass
through to safety. It was finally agreed that
the block would be held as long as possible
before the tanks and the SPM fell back five
miles to Moncada, where the railroad
crossed Route 3. The troop trains carrying
the 11th Division were expected to pass
through that town at 0400 on 27 December.45
All was quiet at the roadblock until a few
hours before dawn. At about 0245, after the
last stragglers had cleared the block, a Japanese armored column, apparently advance
elements of the 4th Tank Regiment, reached
the spot. Fire from the American tanks and
44
Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 12; ltr, Weaver

to Wainwright, 20 Nov 45, OCMH; Miller, Bataan
Uncensored, p. 98.
45
47
46
Miller,
Miller, Bataan
Bataan
Bataan Uncensored,
Uncensored,
Uncensored, pp.
pp.
pp. 102-03;
103-04,
97-102;GO's
108GO
10, Hq Prov Tank Gp in the Field, 14 Feb 42, copy
given the author by General Weaver and on file in
OCMH. Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 12; ltr,
Miller to Ward, 31 Dec 51, OCMH; Weaver, Comments on Draft MS, Comment 14, OCMH.
177
SPM's swept the highway and adjoining
ditches. The Japanese were taken completely by surprise and after fifteen minutes
pulled back. Fearing encirclement by Japanese infantry, Miller and Peck then struck
out for Moncada.46
The tanks and the SPM that had formed
the roadblock moved slowly down Route 3
in the dark hours before dawn. They
reached the rail crossing in Moncada only
a scant ten minutes before the 11th Division
troop trains entered the town. Once the
trains had cleared the danger point, Colonel
Miller continued his march south and
reached the D-3 line at Gerona at. about
0830 on the morning of 27 December. Here
he was joined by the survivors of the battalion's Company D. Cut off from retreat,
the company had come south along an old
carabao cart trail, the Manila Railroad
tracks, and Route 3. It found the bridge just
below Moncada destroyed and was forced

to leave its fifteen tanks north of the stream.
This decision had been made in the hope
that some of the men could return later with
guides and bring the tanks south. This expectation could not be fulfilled and the
tanks were lost for the rest of the
campaign.47
5 and 10, Hq Prov Tank Gp in the Field, 13 Jan
and 14 Feb 42.
09; Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 12; Capt Jack
C. Altman, 194th Tank Bn, p. 3, Chunn Notebooks;
OCMH. During an interrogation at the end of the
war General Homma stated that the 9th Infantry
had reported the capture of twenty-three tanks
stranded north of a river above Paniqui after the
bridge had been blown. Interv, Col Walter E.
Buchly with Homma, Manila, Mar 46, copy in
OCMH.
There was an investigation of the blowing of the
bridge and the loss of the tanks in prison camps in
Formosa and Manchuria in 1944 and 1945. It was
178
The D-3 Line
Approximately forty miles in length, the
D-3 line stretched across the Luzon central
plain midway between Lingayen Gulf and
San Fernando, Pampanga, from a point just
west of Santa Ignacia on Route 13 to San
Jose in Nueva Ecija Province, at the junction of Routes 5 and 8. Deployed along this
line were the 91st, 11th, and 21st Divisions
(PA), supported by the Provisional Tank
Group and the 75-mm. guns (SPM).
The right (east) flank, resting on the
foothills of the Sierra Madre, was held by
the 91st Division which had taken up positions across Route 5 and on the south bank
of a small river in the vicinity of San Jose.48
Between Route 5 and Gerona on Route 3
were the 11th Division and the bulk of the
Tank Groupthe 194th at Gerona and the
192d to its right. The 21st Division, whose
two columns had reunited at Camiling, was
in position between Gerona and Santa
Ignacia at the edge of the Zambales
Mountains.49
Despite occasional alarms there was no
action on the D-3 line on 27 December.
That night the North Luzon Force made
ready to fall back to the D-4 line. The 91st
Division began pulling out at about 1730
and by 0430 had reached the south bank
then shown that Company D had reached the Mon-
cada bridge fifteen hours after the last tanks of its

battalion headquarters and fourteen hours after
the last infantry elements had crossed. No tank

guides from either Company A or Battalion Headquarters, 194th Tank Battalion, had been left behind
to direct the withdrawal of Company D. Comments
of Col Skerry on Draft MS, Comment 4, OCMH.
48
Bentz, 92d Inf (PA), pp. 1-2, Chunn Notebooks.
49
O'Day, 21st Div (PA), II, 12; Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 82; Miller, Bataan Uncensored, p.
107; Weaver, Comments on Draft MS, Comment
16, OCMH.

of the Pampanga a few thousand yards below Cabanatuan. Two hours later the entire
unit was ordered into the line between
Cabanatuan and Carmen, Nueva Ecija, a
barrio on the road ten miles west of
Cabanatuan and not to be confused with
the village of the same name on the Agno.
At Carmen the 91st Division tied in with
units of the 11th Infantry that had withdrawn from the D-3 line during the night
and were deployed from Carmen west to
La Paz. The 21st Division stood on the left
of the 11th Division, extending the line to
Tarlac, where Route 13 joined Route 3 and
the main track of the Manila Railroad. The
tanks were in general support.
On the Agno River the Japanese halted
to consolidate their position and bring up
more troops. During the 27th, artillery,
armor, and service troops moved forward to
join the 48th Division. The 47th Infantry

and a battalion of artillery, in reserve near
Pozorrubio since 24 December, together
with the 7th Tank Regiment, were dispatched to Tayug. Infantry and artillery
units occupied San Quintin to the south and
patrols pushed forward into undefended
Umingan. On the 48th Division right
(west), the 1st Formosa consolidated its
hold on Resales. One battalion of the regiment remained at Urdaneta, and another
went on to Carmen to relieve Colonel Tan-,
aka's troops who then moved back across
the Agno to Villasis for rest.50
By 28 December the North Luzon Force
was on the D-4 line. In the face of a welltrained and better equipped enemy, it had
fulfilled its missionto hold the Agno line
until the night of 26-27 December and to
withdraw to the Tarlac-Cabanatuan line.
Now, from positions along this line, the
50
14th Army Opns, I, 50, 53-54.
179

troops in North Luzon awaited the next
attack.
Supply
As the front-line units moved back, the
troops to the rear began to carry out the
supply plan. On 24 December General
MacArthur's headquarters had ordered the
evacuation of Fort Stotsenburg and the destruction of its 300,000 gallons of gasoline
and large amounts of high octane fuel. Lt.
Col. Wallace E. Durst, Post Quartermaster,
was able to save about 50,000 gallons of gas
by shipping some of it to the rear and issuing the rest to vehicles in the immediate
area. "No material amount of gasoline," reported Durst's assistant, Lt. Col. Irvin
Alexander, "was abandoned to the enemy." 51 In addition to gasoline, Stotsenburg stocks included 8,000 pounds of fresh
beef, about 100,000 components of dry rations, large supplies of clothing, and air
corps ammunition and equipment. When
the post was finally abandoned, almost
nothing of value was left, according to Colonel Alexander. All supplies, he said, had
been shipped to Bataan or issued to troops
in the Stotsenburg area.52
The evacuation of Fort Stotsenburg long
before the approach of enemy forces,
aroused much criticism from officers who
disagreed sharply with Colonel Alexander's
optimistic statements on the amount of supplies saved. Colonel Collier exaggeratedly
described the evacuation of Stotsenburg as a
51
Col Alexander, Narrative Rpt of QM Activities

at Fort Stotsenburg, pp. 1-2, App. A to QM Rpt
of Opns.
52
Ibid., pp. 2-3; Col Alexander, Personal Recol-
lections of Bataan and Later, pp. 48-50, copy in

OCMH.
"frenzied departure" in which "warehouses

filled with food, clothing, and other military
supplies were left intact." Also left behind,
he reported, were 250,000 gallons of gasoline and several obsolete but serviceable
planes.53 General Drake, MacArthur's
quartermaster, reported that only a portion of the reserve supplies stocked at
Stotsenburg had been removed before its
evacuation.54
On the afternoon of 25 December, as
North Luzon Force fell back to the D-2 line,
Lt. Col. Charles S. Lawrence, commanding
the Tarlac Depot, had informed Drake that
evacuation of the depot would be necessary
very soon. In the absence of orders to the
contrary, he said, he would issue all his supplies, including five days' subsistence for the
North Luzon Force, at one time and head
for Bataan with his men.55 That night he
learned from Lt. Col. Gyles Merrill, Wainwright's supply officer, that the line through
Tarlac would be occupied on the night of
27 December. Merrill suggested that Lawrence place his remaining rations in dumps
at Tarlac, to be picked up by the troops as
they withdrew. With Wainwright's approval Lawrence placed the supplies in separate dumps, one for each division or separate
unit. Troops of the 21st Division Headquarters Company were posted as guards.
53
Collier, Notebooks, II, 84; III, 2.
See also ltr,
Lt Col John E. Olson to author, 10 Jan 52, OCMH.

In his comments on this manuscript, Colonel Alexander insisted that the supplies had been evacuated
and that nothing was left behind. Ltr, Alexander to
Ward, 25 Dec 51, OCMH.

54
QM Rpt of Opns, p. 22; see also Mallone,
Bataan Diary, I, 108; O'Day, 21st Div, I, 12-13;
OCMH.
55
Col Lawrence, Tarlac Advance QM Depot Rpt
of Opns, p. 6, App. A to QM Rpt of Opns.
180
This done, Lawrence and his men left for
Bataan.56
The evacuation of Stotsenburg and
Tarlac was typical of the hurried movement
of supplies once the plan of withdrawal had
gone into effect. "The troops withdrew so
fast," reported General Drake, "that we
could not put into operation any of our
withdrawal plans to cover this movement." 57 There was scarcely time to remove "a few defense reserve supplies" from
McKinley and Stotsenburg and no time to
evacuate the depots established before the
war at Tarlac and Los Banos. Fortunately,
many of the supplies left behind were picked
up by the units as they withdrew, and much
of the remainder was destroyed.
Closely related to the difficulty of supply
and evacuation was the scarcity of motor
vehicles on Luzon. Even the addition of
civilian vehicles did not solve this problem.
"The fact is," wrote Colonel Lawrence,
"that there was not sufficient motor equipment in the Philippines to begin to meet
fully all the requirements." 58 This shortage
was made more serious by the failure of
commanders to return the vehicles which
brought their supplies. Even more reprehensible was the hijacking and commandeering of vehicles along the highways, often
by commanders who feared that they would
not have the transportation to move their
troops and equipment in an emergency.
These practices "resulted in confusion and
caused a complete interruption in motor
transport service during the period of
evacuation of supplies to Bataan." 59
56
57
Ibid.
Qm Rpt of Opns, p. 22.

Lawrence, Tarlac Advance QM Depot Rpt of
Opns, pp. 7-8, App. A to QM Rpt of Opns.
59
QM Rpt of Opns, p. 66.
58

The Tarlac-Cabanatuan Line
The original plan of withdrawal called
for only a brief halt at the D-4 line, just
long enough to force the enemy to stop and
prepare for a co-ordinated attack. A determined stand would be made on the D-5 line.
On 27 December General Wainwright
changed this plan. Fearing that a quick
withdrawal from D-4 would leave too little
margin for error between his last defensive
line and the vital bridges across the
Pampanga River at Calumpit, over which
the South Luzon Force would have to pass,
he decided to hold at Tarlac and Cabanatuan, the D-4 line. Late that night he
issued new orders to his North Luzon Force
abandoning D-5 as the final line of defense.
"D-4 will be held at all costs until ordered
withdrawn," he announced. "Maximum
delay will be effected on each position.
Withdrawal plan later." 60
The final plan for holding the D-4 line
and for the withdrawal to follow utilized the
existing deployment of units already on the
line. The 91st Division was assigned the
eastern edge of the central plain, the zone
between the Pampanga River, which paralleled Route 5, and the mountains to the
east. The critical point in this sector was
Cabanatuan, where the roads from the
north converged into Route 5 which led
south toward Manila. When ordered to
withdraw, the division would move down
Route 5 to Plaridel, a distance of forty-five
miles, thence west to Calumpit where Route
3 crossed the Pampanga River.
60
This order is quoted in Mallone, Bataan Diary,
I, 90. See also O'Day, 21st Div (PA), II, 12. The
author has been unable to find the original of this
order. It is entirely possible that the change in mission of North Luzon Force was initiated by MacArthur's headquarters.

The 11th Division was on the left of the
91st, in the area between Carmen and
Route 3. It was to retire along the secondary
roads in its sector. The 21st Division was on
the western edge of the central plain, covering Tarlac and Route 3. Its line of retreat
was along Route 3 to Angeles, thence to
Bataan by Route 74.61 As a further protection to the Calumpit bridges and the South
Luzon Force route of withdrawal, the 194th
Tank Battalion, reduced to twenty tanks,
was pulled out of the D-4 line by MacArthur's headquarters on the 29th and
ordered back to Apalit, three miles northwest of Calumpit, to a position of readiness.
The day before, Company A of the 192d
had been shifted from the 91st Division
sector to the area west of the Pampanga and
now, with a platoon of the 194th, formed
the only tank support between the Pampanga and Route 3. The rest of Colonel
Wickord's battalion remained in position
east of the Pampanga, in support of the
Division.62
When all units were on the line, General
Mac Arthur reported to the War Department that he was "endeavoring to temporarily hold hard in the north" until the
North and South Luzon Forces could join
at San Fernando after which he would
"pivot on my left into Bataan." American
and Filipino troops were "tired but well in
hand." In this report, MacArthur mistakenly estimated that his North Luzon Force
alone was facing three Japanese divisions.
These enemy troops, he pointed out, were
excellent, and their equipment "modern
and extensive." Although the Japanese were
not then exerting heavy pressure against his
line, Mac Arthur believed that this inactivity
61
NLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 12.

Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 13; Miller,
Bataan Uncensored, p. 111.
62
181
would soon end. The enemy, he warned,
was "undoubtedly setting up a powerful
attack both north and south simultaneously
designed to pin me down in place and
crush me." 63
General Mac Arthur's estimate of the
enemy's intentions was correct. The arrival
of the 48th Division at the Agno River had
completed the landing phase of the operation. General Homma was now ready to
drive on through Cabanatuan and Tarlac
to Manila.
As of noon, 27 December, the North
Luzon Force position seemed to the Japanese to favor a rapid advance. American air
power had been knocked out and the Philippine garrison was effectively cut off from
reinforcement. Three of the divisions which
had opposed their landings, the 11th, 71st,
and 91st, as well as armor and cavalry, the
Japanese believed, had suffered decisive
defeats. The Japanese were also aware of
General Mac Arthur's move to Corregidor
and of the transfer of at least one division
the 31stto Bataan. On the basis of his
intelligence estimate General Homma reasoned correctly that MacArthur planned a
delaying action "in one corner of Bataan"
and on Corregidor.64
Despite this correct evaluation of American intentions, the consensus in the 14th
Army staff was for a continuation of the
drive on Manila. The mission assigned by
Imperial General Headquarters was to take
Manila, and it is doubtful that Army had
the authority to divert any of its forces from
that mission. As Lt. Col. Yoshio Nakajima,

14th Army intelligence officer, wrote:
"Since the mission of the 14th Army was
to occupy Manila, the main force proceeded
63
Rad, CG USAFFE to TAG, 28 Dec 41, AG
381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East.
64
14th Army Opns, I, 55-56.
182
to that city." 65 Some even felt that, since
Manila was the main objective, the withdrawal to Bataan "expedited the completion of our mission." 66
The plan finally adopted for the advance
from the Agno River utilized one division,
reinforced, supported by armor and aircraft.
The main effort was to be made on the east,
along Route 5, and the immediate objective
was Cabanatuan. The 48th Division would

jump off from the Agno River on the 28th
and advance toward that town. Simultaneously, the Kamijima Detachment, consisting of elements of the 9th Infantry and
supporting artillery, would move from its
positions along the Lingayen coast to Carmen to protect the right flank of the 48th
Division. From there it would presumably
advance down Route 3 toward Tarlac. The
only concession made to the obvious American withdrawal to Bataan was to order General Tsuchibashi to send an infantry regiment with heavy artillery support to Tarlac
to assist the 9th Infantry in its effort to move
speedily down the central plain and seize
the road net leading into the peninsula.
Supporting the 48th Division advance were
the 4th and 7th Tank Regiments, 14th
Army artillery, and the 5th Air Group.67
Threat on the East

The key to the right flank of the D-4 line
was Cabanatuan. Situated on the banks of
the Pampanga River, the town is an important road junction on Route 5. The
river, about 100 yards wide at this point,
and unfordable by motor vehicles, flows
65
Interrog of Col Nakajima, 25 Apr 47, Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers, I, Mil Hist
Div, GHQ FEC.
66
Interrog of Col Motoo Nakayama, Apr 47, ibid.
67
Ibid.; 14th Army Opns, I, 56-57, 61-64.

swiftly in its twisting and irregular course.
Approaching Cabanatuan from the mountains to the northeast, the Pampanga passes
the town about 3,000 yards to the north
then turns sharply south to flow west of the
town and continue its errant way in a southwesterly direction toward Manila Bay. At
Cabanatuan two bridges span the swiftly
flowing river: one to the north and another
to the west. It was in the general vicinity of
these bridges that the Japanese first attacked the D-4 line.
The 14th Army advance from the Agno
began on schedule on the morning of 28
December, at the same time that General
Homma moved his command post to Binalonan. In the lead were the 4th and 7th
Tank Regiments, a battalion of the 2d Formosa, and a battalion of the 48th Mountain
Artillery which advanced through San
Quintin to San Jose. From there, they struck
southeast, crossed the Pampanga at Rizal,
and by 29 December had reached Bongabon, in position to threaten the right flank
of the D-4 line.
The 48th Division followed in two columns. The west column, consisting of the
1st Formosa supported by a battalion of
artillery, left Resales before dawn of the
29th and marched southeast through
Guimba, then east to Baloc on Route 5,
north of Cabanatuan. The east column, consisting of the 2d Formosa, 47th Infantry,
48th Reconnaissance, and artillery and engineer units, followed behind the tank regiments to San Jose, where Route 5 intersected Route 8, and then followed the
former toward Cabanatuan.68
At Cabanatuan, the main strength of the
91st Division, the 92d Combat Team,
68
14th Army Opns, I, 60-61, 83; Statement of
Gen Kawagoe, ATIS Doc 62707, Statements of
Japanese Officials on World War II, pp. 128-30.
183

waited for the attack. In and around the
town were the 2d and 3d Battalions, and
to the left extending to the Pampanga, was
the 1st Battalion. Both bridges had been
blown and were considered impassable for
wheeled traffic, but not for foot troops.
Moreover, the fiver was fordable north of
Cabanatuan.69 On the morning of 29 December, the left (east) column of the 48th
Division reached the Pampanga northwest
of Cabanatuan, but it was the tanks, driving
down from Bongabon, that reached the
town first. As the tankers approached, the
47th Infantry, under cover of an artillery
bombardment, began crossing the river. It
was now late in the afternoon, and the 92d
Combat Team, outflanked and faced by a
superior enemy, fell back. That night the
Japanese entered Cabanatuan.70
The Japanese did not stop at Cabanatuan. Led by Maj. Gen. Koichi Abe, 48th
Division infantry group commander, they
continued south along Route 5 on 30 December. Followed by two battalions of
the 48th Mountain Artillery and a battalion of 150-mm. howitzers of the 1st
Field Heavy Artillery Regiment, the 47th

Infantry pursued the withdrawing 91st Division toward Gapan, about fourteen miles
below Cabanatuan. Just north of that village the defenders crossed the Penaranda
River, destroying the steel highway bridge
over that stream. Urged on by Lt. Louis I.
69
Bentz, 92d Inf (PA), p. 2, Chunn Notebooks;

Skerry, Comments on Draft MS, Comment 6,
OCMH. The 192d Tank Battalion was in the
area, but there is no information on its position
or employment at this time.
70
The American sources for this action are sketchy
and vague as to times and places. Where doubts
exist or where the records are irreconcilable, the

Japanese account of the action has been used. 14th
Army Opns, I, 63, 83. Ltr, Luther R. Stevens to
Capt Edwin B. Kerr, 30 Dec 52; ltr, Col John H.

Rodman to Maj Gen Orlando Ward, 1 Feb 52, both
in OCMH.
Bentz, Jr., about sixty-five Filipinos of the

92d Infantry formed a line along the south
bank of the river, while the remainder of
regiment, bolstered by three hundred high
school ROTC boys who had arrived that
morning from Manila, occupied a milelong line from the village west to the Pampanga. The 47th Infantry hit this line late
in the afternoon and broke through with
little difficulty. By nightfall the enemy had
entered the town. The remnants of the 91st
Division withdrew toward Baliuag, twentyfive miles south on Route 5, where they
planned to reorganize.
The rapid advance of the Japanese along
Route 5 jeopardized the American right and
resulted in a shortening of the D-5 line. The
North Luzon Force right flank would now
have to be anchored on Mt. Arayat, west of
Route 5, instead of Sibul Springs to the east.
Route 5 lay open and the enemy was well
on his way toward the Calumpit area. Unless he was held, the withdrawal of the
South Luzon Force would be threatened.
Advance in the Center

The center of the D-4 line, from the
Pampanga to Tarlac, was held by the 11th
Division. Paralleling the front was an eastwest road. The critical points in the line were
Zaragoza and La Paz, held by the 11th Infantry. The 2d Battalion was in front of
La Paz, the 3d Battalion to the east above
Zaragoza, and the 1st Battalion in reserve
about 5,000 yards to the south. Company
A, 192d Tank Battalion, was in general
support near Zaragoza. The only route of
withdrawal was down a secondary road
from La Paz to Concepcion, about thirteen
miles, then west to Route 3.
In the initial deployment of the 11th Infantry no provision had been made for
184
guarding the eastern entrance to the critical

east-west road which ran behind the line.
The 92d Infantry on the right was supposed
to protect that flank, but Maj. Russel W.
Volckmann, acting 11th Infantry commander, was uneasy about this arrangement. Recognizing the importance of the
road and the vulnerability of his position
he shifted his line so that troops of his 3d
Battalion were in position to guard the road.
A roadblock was established on the west side
of the bridge across the Dalagot River, leading into Zaragoza, and a platoon of tanks
placed in position there. The bridge was
prepared for demolition, but the river was
easily fordable by foot troops. The organization of the roadblock was a wise precaution,
for the Tarlac-Cabanatuan road had already been exposed on the east by the withdrawal of the 91st Division.71
The assault against the 11th Division was
made by the Kanno Detachment, consist-
line and cut off the retreat of the American

troops in the center.72
The Kanno Detachment jumped off from
Talevera, north of Cabanatuan, at 0100 on
30 December. Preceded by bicycle-mounted
infantry, the unit cleared Cabanatuan, already in Japanese hands, shortly after and
pushed on along the Cabanatuan-Tarlac
road, disregarding security measures. At
0315 an alert tanker of the 192d Tank Battalion observed a large number of cyclists
in column approaching Zaragoza. When
the Japanese reached the American position
they were greeted by point-blank fire from
the alerted tanks. At the mercy of the tanks,
the cyclists lost an estimated eighty-two men
before they could make their escape.
It was still dark when the action ended.
The tank commander, fearing infiltration
by enemy infantry, withdrew his platoon
across the Zaragoza bridge, then insisted
that the bridge be blown though the 11th
ing of the 3d Battalion, 2d Formosa, sup- Infantry troops were still on the other side.
ported by a battalion of the 48th Mountain The commander of the engineer detachArtillery, substantially the same force which ment had no choice but to comply and lit
had landed at Vigan on 10 December. This the time fuses. So surprised was the troop
force was the one which General Tsuchi- commander when the bridge was blown
bashi had assigned to assist the Kamijima
that he ordered an investigation immediDetachment in its drive toward San Fer- ately and incorrectly concluded
nando. Its mission was to move south along . . . that the engineer lieutenant had left the
Route 5 to Cabanatuan, then push west to destruction of the bridge to his platoon seroutflank Tarlac, which Colonel Kamijima geant and departed for the rear. The platoon
sergeant detailed a private and departed with
was approaching from the north. This ma- the rest of the men. The private, not to be
neuver would cover the right flank of the outdone, had found a civilian, instructed him
48th Division and, if executed speedily and how to light the dynamite, paid him one peso
successfully, would turn the North Luzon and then left to join his platoon. The civilian,
71
Interv, author with Col Volckmann, May 48;

Maj W. J. Lage, Opns of 3d Bn, 11th Inf (PA) at
Zaragoza, 28-29 Dec 41 (paper prepared for Advanced Infantry Officers Course, 1947-48, The
Infantry School); Weaver, Comments on Draft MS,
Comments 18 and 19, OCMH. Major Lage's account is one day off, and the author has made
necessary corrections.
after hearing the shooting, became excited

and blew the bridge.73
72
73
Lage, Opns of 3d Bn, 11th Inf (PA), p. 16.

Another explanation of these events is to be found
in the report of the 11th Engineer Battalion, a portion of which is quoted in Skerry, Comments on
Draft MS, Comment 10, OCMH.
185
BICYCLE-MOUNTED JAPANESE TROOPS

The premature destruction of the bridge
took the tanks out of the action and left the
infantry, still on the far side of the shallow
river, without the support of the armor.
When daylight came the Kanno Detachment struck the roadblock with heavy
rifle and mortar fire. Part of the detachment
had swung around to the north and now
began to exert pressure from that direction.
paratory to an infantry attack. After a

twenty-minute barrage by 75-mm. guns of
the 48th Mountain Artillery, the Kanno
Detachment began to cross the river. Unable to halt the enemy, the 3d Battalion
moved west along the Zaragoza-La Paz
road. Colonel Kanno brought his men
safely across, then halted the advance until
he could get his heavier weapons across the
Fearing that his battalion might be out- river. The 3d Battalion, about 500 yards
flanked, the commander pulled his men to the west and supported by tanks, awaited
back across the river. By noon, they were the attack. At 1415 a Japanese antitank
established in positions along the west bank. gun moved into the Japanese line and diDespite heavy casualties and the presence rected its fire against the Americans. It was
of a strong hostile patrol above La Paz, the finally knocked out, but only after it had
battalion commander felt he could hold destroyed the lead American tank.
the enemy at the river line.
With the lead tank gone and their locaShortly after noon the Japanese artillery tion known to the enemy, the tanks began
opened fire against the 3d Battalion, pre- to pull back. Since they were not under 11th
186
Infantry control, there was no way to keep
them in position. The Japanese immediately unleashed a heavy barrage, threatening the American positions. Major Volckmann, who was on the scene, organized a
counterattack with the battalion reserve.
The counterattack opened at 1500 and,
although no ground was gained, it evidently
surprised the Japanese and led them to believe the defenders were stronger than they
actually were. When the Japanese fire
slackened, the 3d Battalion withdrew again,
this time about 1,500 yards to the west
along the La Paz road. By 1360 the men
were in their new positions.
No sooner had the 3d Battalion taken up
its new position than it received orders to
pull back. These orders originated in Wainwright's headquarters, where it had become
apparent during the day that the entire line
was threatened by the 48th Division's

breakthrough at Cabanatuan. Division
commanders were ordered to pull back to
the D-5 line. General Brougher, accordingly, directed his men holding the center
of the line to withdraw through La Paz to
Concepcion. The 11th Infantry immediately began to assemble at La Paz. By 1730
the 3d Battalion had fallen back across the
bridge just east of that point, the remainder
of the regiment retiring before it. When all
the troops were across, the bridge was destroyed. At this moment the Kanno Detachment appeared along the Zaragoza road
and was met with machine gun fire. With
its rear momentarily secure, the battalion
retired toward the D-5 line.
Of the 550 men of the 3d Battalion only
156 remained. Many of these were
wounded. But the Japanese had been
stopped effectively. By delaying Kanno for
twenty-four hours, the 3d Battalion had
prevented him from reaching Tarlac on 30
December in time to join in the attack on

that town. It had thus frustrated a maneuver which might well have turned the left
anchor of the North Luzon Force line.
Fight on the West

At the western end of the D-4 line stood
the ruined city of Tarlac, its streets a
shambles from the repeated strikes of enemy
bombers. Just south of the city, the 21st
Division, as yet untried in battle, awaited
the advance of the Japanese. On the gently
sloping ground to the west was the 21st Infantry guarding the bridge where Route 13
crossed the Tarlac River. The 22d Infantry,
on its right, straddled Route 3. In reserve
was the 23d Infantry, eight miles south of
Tarlac at Santa Rosa. The terrain, except
for the area in which the 21st was deployed,
was low and level, consisting largely of rice
fields and offering little opportunity for
cover. The infantry derived what protection
it could from dry cornstalks, bamboo trees,
and swamps. The only consolation the
rifleman could draw from his position was
that he had a clear field of fire.74
The Kamijima Detachment, which was

assigned the mission of assaulting Tarlac,
had shown a curious reluctance to advance
below the Agno River. Heavy casualties
during the landings had made Colonel
Kamijima, in the words of 14th Army
Chief of Staff Maeda, "very cautious."75
Such reluctance might well expose the right
74
O'Day, 21st Div (PA), II, 12-13; ltr, [CO,
21st Inf] to TAG PA, Opns of 21st Inf (PA), p. 2;
Brief Hist of 22d Inf (PA), p. 3; Hist of 21st Div

(PA), pp. 18-19. This last document was obtained
from General Capinpin and like the others is on
75
file
Interrog
in OCMH.
of Gen Maeda, 10 May 47, Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers, Mil Hist Div,
GHQ FEC, I.
187

(west) flank of 48th Division, and General
Maeda, whose interest in Bataan had led
him to emphasize the importance of the advance on Tarlac, took steps to correct the
situation. He reprimanded Kamijima for
his excessive caution and ordered him to
move across the Agno.76
By 29 December the Kamijima Detachment had apparently progressed to a point
just north of Tarlac. On that day the 3d
Battalion, 21st Infantry, reported that it had
been fired on by Japanese patrols. The 23d
Infantry was ordered to reconnoiter and organize a position along the high ground be-
During the course of the action, the 22d

Infantry noted a number of men advancing
down the road from Tarlac. These men were
first thought to be 13th Infantry troops retiring from positions east of the city, but
just before they reached the stream in front
of the American line they were identified as
enemy troops and fired upon. A few minutes
later, five American tanks and two SPM's
broke out of Tarlac and fought their way
down toward the stream. Their retreat had
been cut off by Colonel Kanno's advance
along the Cabanatuan-Tarlac road, and
after much difficulty they had pushed their
tween Santa Rosa and San Miguel, east of

Route 3. At the same time the rear of the
22d Infantry was strengthened. That night
the men of the 22d found occasion to open
fire against Japanese patrols. Their fire was
not returned, and it is possible that the imagination of the men in combat for the first
time was responsible for the many Japanese
patrols reported south of Tarlac.77
Shortly after noon of the 30th, advance
elements of the 9th Infantry led by Colonel
Kamijima himself entered Tarlac. With
only two companies of infantry Kamijima
refused to push on. At about 1500 the remainder of the 9th Infantry (less the 3d
way through enemy-held Tarlac. The 21st

Division troops recognized the tanks and
half-track and furnished them with artillery
support in their flight to the stream. But
here they met an insuperable obstacle and
the men had to abandon their vehicles.
With the exception of one crew whose tank
was hit, all the men reached the 21st Division lines safely. Attempts to rescue the vehicles were unsuccessful and the artillery
was ordered to destroy them.79
Late in the afternoon the 21st Division
received orders to withdraw under cover of
darkness to the D-5 line. That evening units
began moving out of their D-4 positions.
Pressure on the 22d Infantry had died
down, but now the 21st Infantry came under heavy attack. As the division pulled
back, this regiment supported by the 3d
Battalion, 21st Field Artillery, covered the
withdrawal alone. During the fight the 21st
Infantry received many casualties and was
badly battered. Finally, still intact but
greatly weakened, the regiment began to
pull back. The artillery battalion remained
Battalion) and the two batteries of the 22d

Field Artillery reached the area. Thus reinforced, Colonel Kamijima felt strong
enough to attack and sent his men against
the 22d Infantry positions along Route 3.
The defenders held firm, inflicting severe
losses on the 9th Infantry and killing
Colonel Kamijima himself.78
76
Ibid.; 14th Army Opns, I, 60-61.

O'Day, 21st Div (PA), II, 13; Richards, Steps
to a POW Camp, p. 6.
77
78
14th Army Opns, I, 63; Interrog of Gen Maeda,
10 May 47, Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers, Mil Hist Div, GHQ FEC, I; USA vs. Homma,
p. 3055; Mallone, Diary, I, 100; Brief Hist of 22d

Inf (PA), p., 3.
79
Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 101-02; O'Day, 21st
Div (PA), II, 13-14; separate, unsigned one-page
history, entitled 194th Tank Battalion, OCMH;
Miller, Bataan Uncensored, p. 111. The identity of
the tanks is not clear in the sources.
188
Katsumi Takahashi's 8th Field Heavy Artillery Regiment. This greatly increased
Japanese force spent the day preparing to
push south along Route 3.82
In the brief period of seven days, from
Christmas Eve to the year's end, there had
been a radical change in the situation in
northern Luzon. The Japanese, who on 24
December had just secured their beachhead,
now threatened Manila and the road net
into Bataan. The enemy had broken out of
his initial lodgment and was now moving
rapidly in two columns down the broad
central plain of Luzon.
The North Luzon Force had withdrawn
approximately fifty miles from its first de". . . every man of the 21st Infantry fense line to its D-5 positions at Bamban
who came out of Tarlac . . . alive should get and Arayat. The left and center had redown on his knees and thank God for that red- tired with moderate success, but the right
headed son of a bitch [Savoie]. He was everywhere he was needed at the right time. . . . flank was in grave danger. On that flank,
He kept the guns in almost three hours after General Homma had placed the main
he could have withdrawn to give us a chance strength of the 48th Division supported by
to break off. We were all out and the enemy two regiments of tanks and increasing
back into Tarlac before he pulled up a gun." 81 amounts of artillery and other supporting
By dawn, 31 December, the 21st Division arms. Should the right flank give way, the
was on the D-5 line. The 21st Infantry at withdrawal of the South Luzon Force to
Bamban, fifteen miles south of Tarlac, was Bataan might well be imperiled.
here joined by its 1st Battalion. This batThe first part of the withdrawal had been
talion had been detached and placed in completed. Although it had been successNorth Luzon Force reserve earlier and had ful, there had been difficult moments. Comseen action on the Agno line in the fighting munications had broken down at times, suparound Carmen. The Japanese 9th Infanply had proved difficult, and some of the
try was also reinforced when its 3d Battalion bridges had been blown too soon. The decaught up with the rest of the regiment. fense lines had sometimes been hastily and
The enemy force at Tarlac was further inadequately manned, or not occupied at
strengthened on the 31st by the arrival of all. "Not a single position," wrote the asthe Kanno Detachment and by Lt. Col. sistant G-3 of USAFFE, "was really occupied and organized for defense. Troops were
80
Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 105; O'Day, 21st barely stopped and assigned defensive sec-
in position to cover the infantry's withdrawal. Long after its scheduled hour of
retirement, the artillerymen, led by their
American instructor, 1st Lt. Carl J. Savoie,
continued to fire.
To the rear the division covering force
waited impatiently and anxiously for the 3d
Battalion to pass through its line. When the
trucks and guns of the battalion finally came
down the road, Colonel Mallone noted
that the men "were tired, worn, hungry
but cocky, proud, aggressive." 80 They had
good reason to feel cocky. The battalion,
unaided, had held up the Japanese advance
and made possible the successful withdrawal
of the 21st Infantry.
Div (PA), II, 14.

81
Mallone Bataan Diary, I, 105, quoting Lt Col
William A. Wappenstein, CO, 21st Infantry.
82

tors before they stampeded into farther
withdrawal, in many instances without firing a shot." 83 This view portrays the withdrawal at its worst. Not all troops stam83
189
peded, and there were numerous instances
of heroism under fire and determined stands.
For the most part, the withdrawal was conducted as well as it could be with the untrained and ill-equipped Philippine Army
troops.
CHAPTER XI
Withdrawal in the South

The withdrawal of the American and
Philippine troops south of Manila began at
the same time that General Wainwright's
forces evacuated the D-1 line. At about
The force under General Jones's command was much smaller than Wainwright's
North Luzon Force. It consisted primarily
of the 1st Infantry of the 1st Division (PA)
1000, 24 December, General Parker had
and the inadequately trained and poorly
turned over command of the South Luzon equipped 51st Division (PA), which had
Force to General Jones and left for Bataan. for its artillery component only one batJones, who retained command of the 51st talion of eight British 75's. The 42d InDivision (PA), inherited four American fantry, 41st Division (PA), was assigned to
officers from Parker's staff. It was fortunate beach defense on the west side of the island.
that he did, for there were none on his The rest of the division had gone with Gendivision staff.1
eral Parker to Bataan. Artillery support for
Jones' orders when he assumed command the South Luzon Force was provided by the
of the South Luzon Force were to "block

the enemy advance" and, "when forced to
do so," withdraw past the open city of
Manila and join Wainwright's forces north
of the city.2 While USAFFE orders directed
General Jones to "harass and delay to the
utmost the advance of the enemy," they
made clear that his primary mission was to
get his troops out of south Luzon and into
Bataan.3
three batteries of 155-mm. GPF's of the

86th Field Artillery, defending the beaches
in southwest Luzon, and three batteries of
Arty Officer, SLF, p. 10, copy lent to author and
Infantry, the 16th Reconnaissance Regiment, and supporting arms and services.
75-mm. guns (SPM) organized into the 2d
Provisional Group.4 Armored support was

limited to one companyCompany C of
the 194th Tank Battaliondetached from
the parent organization with the North
Luzon Force.
The Japanese force in south Luzon was
numerically
smaller than the composite
1
Interv, author with Jones, 25 Oct 49, OCMH;
American and Philippine force defending
Jones, Diary, p. 10; ltr, Parker to Ward, 16 Jan 52,
OCMH; USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 33.
the
area. Drawn from the 16th Division and
2
Opns Orders, USAFFE to CG 51st Div, 24 Dec
led
by the division commander, Lt. Gen.
41, AG 381, Phil Rcds.
3
Quoted in Diary of Lt Col Arthur L. Shreve,
Susumu Morioka, it consisted of the 20th
on file in OCMH; interv, Stanley Falk, research
asst to author, with Jones, 15 Dec 49. General
R. J. Marshall, in a letter to the author, states
that the "final evacuation of the headquarters in
Manila and cessation of transfer of supplies was
governed by the length of time that the South Luzon
Force was able to delay the approach of the Japanese." Ltr, Marshall to author, 31 Oct 49, OCMH.
The 155-mm. GPF batteries had two guns in

each battery. The GPF (Grande Puissance Filloux)
155-mm. gun is a weapon designed by a French officer, Col. L. J. F. Filloux, before the first World War
and furnished to the American troops in France.
WITHDRAWAL IN THE SOUTH

General Morioka's route to the Philippine
capital was not as broad or as smooth as
that followed by General Tsuchibashi in
the north. The Japanese in northern Luzon
had the wide central plain to traverse; the
path of the 16th Division was blocked by
mountains and broad lakes. (Map 7) Immediately after landing at Lamon Bay,
Morioka had crossed the steep Tayabas
Mountains with the major part of his force.
Before him were the towering heights of
Mt. Banahao. To reach Manila he would
have to skirt the southern slopes of this obstacle and follow Route 1 westward. Once
beyond Mt. Banahao he could turn north
toward the huge inland lake called Laguna
de Bay, follow Route 1 along its western
shore, thence through the narrow corridor
between the lake and Manila Bay into the
city of Manila itself. The smaller force
which had landed at Mauban would have
to skirt the northern foothills of Mt.
Banahao, move along the south shore of
Laguna de Bay to Route 1, then northward
to the capital city. The two enemy forces
would have to act independently until they
were halfway to Manila.
If the Japanese advance westward in two
columns made mutual support of the two
columns impossible once Mt. Banahao was
reached, it also presented General Jones
with a serious problem: to maintain contact between his units in order to avoid
hostile flanking movements. He solved his
problem by assigning a half-track patrol
from Company C, 194th Tank Battalion, to
patrol the north-south road in front (east)
of Mt. Banahao. This patrol was charged
with maintaining contact between the 1st
Infantry to the north and the 52d and 53d
Infantry on the south.5
5
Interv, author with Jones, 25 Oct 49, OCMH;

Jones, Diary, p. 11.
191
Withdrawal From Mauban
Of the two Japanese columns moving
west from Lamon Bay, the northernmost,
which had landed at Mauban, was the
weaker, its mission the less important. This
force, led by Colonel Tsunehiro, was numerically small, about the size of a battalion
combat team, and consisted of the 2d Battalion, 20th Infantry, supported by a battery
of the 22d Field Artillery. Unless it was
allowed to advance entirely unchecked,
Tsunehiro's force could have no decisive
effect on the outcome of the action. Its mission was merely to advance along the south
shore of Laguna de Bay toward Manila. If
necessary, Tsunehiro could turn south
shortly after capturing Lucban to aid the
main force of the 16th Division advancing
from Atimonan.6
Opposing Colonel Tsunehiro was the 1st
Infantry (less 3d Battalion) of the 1st Regular Division (PA), dug in near Sampaloc,
seven miles west of Mauban. At 0300 on
Christmas Day it began an unauthorized
withdrawal toward Lucban, about eight
miles to the west. General Jones did not
learn of this move until noon when, as he
was about to begin his Christmas dinner,
a motorcycle messenger from the half-track
patrol of Company C, 194th Tank Battalion, came in with the news. He immedi6
In addition to the sources cited below, the account of the withdrawal from south Luzon is based
upon: Jones, Diary, pp. 11-16; MacDonald, Supplement to Jones Diary, pp. 11-13; Shreve, Diary,
pp. 9-18; Maj Alfredo M. Santos, CO 1st Inf, The
1st Regular Div ( P A ) in Battle of Phil (paper prepared for School of Logistics, Command and General Staff College, 7 Jun 4 7 ) , pp. 32-34; ltr, Col
Boatwright to Groce, research asst to author, 25
Mar 49, OCMH; intervs, author and Falk with
Jones, 25 Oct 49, 15 Dec 49, 15 Mar 50, 5 Apr 50,
and on other occasions; / 4 t h Army Opns, I, 54-55,
69-70; II, 12; 16th Div Opns, 24 Dec 41-3 Jan 42,
ATIS Enemy Pub 355, pp. 4-9.
193
MOTORCYCLE MESSENGER CATNAPPING

ately went forward to stop the retreat.
Meanwhile, the Japanese reached Sampaloc, which they took without opposition.
From there they pushed on toward the
barrio of Piis, four miles distant.
General Jones located the headquarters
of the 1st Infantry near Luisiana, about six
miles northwest of Lucban on Route 23.
Angered by the retreat, he demanded of
Maj. Ralph E. Rumbold, the senior American instructor, "just what the devil" he
meant by pulling back. Rumbold replied
that he had been ordered to do so by the
commander of the South Luzon Force,
"General Parker." Jones thereupon informed him that he, Jones, now commanded the South Luzon Force, and that
the 1st Infantry was to establish contact

with the enemy immediately.7 With a halftrack from the tank company General Jones
set out in his own vehicle ahead of the 1st Infantry to seek a suitable delaying position.
At about 1900, near Piis, he met an enemy
patrol. The Japanese, equipped with machine guns, opened fire on Jones's party and
disabled the half-track. The patrol was
finally dispersed and Jones returned to the
1st Infantry, the half-track crew hiking back
carrying its machine gun. By this time Rumbold had pushed forward toward Piis but
7
One possible explanation for the confusion was
the fact that the 1st Infantry had been ordered to
north Luzon on the night of 23-24 December by
USAFFE, and then later, before it could move, the
order had been rescinded.
194
had been halted by a combination of rain,
darkness, and enemy fire.8
On his return to the 1st Infantry lines
late that night General Jones ordered Major
Rumbold to fight a delaying action until he
was forced to withdraw. He was to retire
northwest along Route 23 to a point above
Luisiana and hold there until further
notice.
The next morning, 26 December, Rumbold ordered the 2d Platoon, Company C,
194th Tank Battalion, which General Jones
had attached to the 1st Infantry the previous evening, to attack the Japanese in Piis.
Lt. Robert F. Needham, the platoon leader,
suggested a reconnaissance first, but was
told that it would be unnecessary since the
enemy was understood to have nothing
larger than .50-caliber machine guns. Advancing in column along the narrow road,
the tanks ran into a strong Japanese roadblock consisting of antitank guns, 75-mm.
guns, and several machine guns. The enemy block had been prepared the previous
evening, after the fight with General Jones's
half-track, in expectation of an American
mechanized attack. During the action that
followed, the platoon's lead and rear tanks
were knocked out, immobilizing the others
on the narrow road, and Lieutenant Needham and his crew in the lead tank killed.
The surviving tankers managed to escape,
to drift back finally into the American lines
at the end of the month.9
Deprived of tank support, the 1st Infantry fell back to the junction of the Mauban
road and Route 23. Here it was joined
shortly before noon by more than three hun8
The general recommended decorations for all

participants. Miller, Bataan Uncensored, p. 122;
Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 13.
9
Miller, Bataan Uncensored, pp. 117-21; Weaver,
Comments on Draft MS, Comment 21, OCMH.

dred retired Philippine Scouts led by Maj.
Montgomery McKee, a retired Scout offi-
cer. These grizzled veterans, trained and

disciplined by a lifetime in the Scouts, had
long since served their time. Called on to
bolster the raw Filipino troops, they assembled hurriedly near Fort McKinley and,
in a fleet of taxicabs, rushed to the front.
General Jones immediately attached them
to the 1st Infantry and replaced Major
Rumbold with McKee, their commander.
These "seasoned, trained men," wrote Col.
Stuart C. MacDonald, South Luzon Force
chief of staff, "definitely stiffened the green
1st Infantry." 10
Meanwhile, Colonel Tsunehiro had been
advancing along the Mauban road. When
he reached the road junction where the 1 st
Infantry and the Scouts were dug in, he
was met by determined resistance. For several hours there was a hard fight; finally at
about 1400 the defenders were forced to pull
out and fall back along Route 23 toward
Luisiana to the northwest. The Japanese
did not follow immediately but continued
southwest to Lucban, only a short distance
away, which they reached at dusk.
The next morning reports of Japanese
troop movements northward began to reach
the 1st Infantry. These reports were accurate. Minor elements of the 16th Reconnaissance Regiment, which had landed at
Atimonan, had come west and north along
Route 23 to join Tsunehiro in Lucban about
noon. The 1st Infantry thereupon continued
to withdraw that day and the next. Part of
Tsunehiro's force was pushing northwest
toward Luisiana along Route 23 and another column had struck out along an unimproved road west of Lucban. The first
and stronger element entered Luisiana
10
MacDonald, Supplement to Jones Diary, p. 11.

about noon of the 28th while the column to
195
Withdrawal From Atimonan
the west occupied Majayjay at about the

same time.
The Japanese advance in two columns
constituted a real threat to the 1st Infantry.
If the element to the west pushed on rapidly
it might reach the south shore of Laguna de
The withdrawal from Atimonan had

begun at the same time, on Christmas Day,
as the 1st Infantry's withdrawal from Mauban and General Wainwright's stand at the
Agno River. At Atimonan the Japanese had
Bay before the Philippine regulars and cut landed a force consisting of the 16th Recontheir line of retreat. The 1st Infantry, naissance Regiment, more than a battalion
therefore, at 1000 on 28 December, began of the 20th Infantry, a comparable force
to fall back to Calauan on Route 2 which from the 22d Field Artillery, almost all of
paralleled the south shore of Laguna de Bay. the 16th Engineers, and other service units.
Withdrawal to Calauan meant a circuitous To oppose this Japanese force, which by
march of twenty-five miles, first north and 25 December had crossed the mountains
northwest along Route 23 to Santa Cruz, west of Atimonan and was advancing along
then southwest along Route 21. The regi- Route 1 toward Pagbilao, General Jones
ment began its march at 1000 on 28 Decem- had initially the equivalent of a reinforced
ber, but before it could reach its destina- regiment of infantry. From Col. Virgil N.
tion and set up defensive positions it was Cordero's 52d Infantry he had the 2d and
directed to proceed to Los Banos, seven 3d Battalions (less one company); and
miles farther along Route 21. From Los from Col. John R. Boatwright's 53d InfanBanos it was a short distance to Route 1, try, the 1st Battalion. A detachment from
the main road northward to Manila.11 The Lt. Col. David S. Babcock's 2d Provisional
3d Battalion of the 1st Infantry, stationed Group of SPM's was in support. Only
originally to the north, pulled back at the Cordero's men were in contact with the
12
same time to Pililla on the north shore of enemy along Route 1.
Pagbilao, fifteen miles inland from Atithe lake, where it was in position to halt an
enemy advance to Manila from that monan on Route 1 and the immediate Japanese objective, is an important road juncdirection.
By 29 December the 1st Infantry, form- tion in south Luzon. From there a road leads
ing the north flank of the South Luzon northwest to Tayabas, about seven miles
Force, had withdrawn successfully from away, where it joins Route 23, along which
Mauban on Lamon Bay to Los Banos along the 1st Infantry, farther north, was withthe south shore of Laguna de Bay, a dis- drawing. Route 1 turns southwest at Pagtance of thirty-five miles. It was now in bilao to join that village with Lucena. The
position to move quickly around the lake road then changes direction sharply to
and northward past Manila through San travel northwest to meet the road linking
Tayabas with Sariaya. Route 1 then conFernando, thence to Bataan.
tinues west through Sariaya and Candelaria
11
Major Santos asserts that he was ordered to proceed without delay to Bataan and that he did so.
Other evidence indicates that the regiment was not
ordered to Bataan immediately, but to Los Banos.
Santos, 1st Reg Div (PA), p. 34.
12
Jones states in his diary, pages 11-12, that the
155-mm. GPF's were in support here, but these guns
were actually to the west, according to Colonel
Shreve. Shreve, Diary, pp. 9-13, OCMH.
196
to Tiaong, where it turns north toward

Manila. Tayabas and Lucena are linked
by the southern portion of Route 23. The
road net between Pagbilao and Sariaya is
shaped like a kite, with its tail (Route 1)
stretching eastward to Atimonan. Before
Pagbilao, flowing due south, is the Palsabangon River, intersecting Route 1 about
3,000 yards east of the village.
On Christmas Day Colonel Cordero's
52d Infantry was ordered to hold the
Pagbilao-Tayabas road, and Colonel Boatwright's one battalion of the 53d was posted
on the east shore of the Palsabangon River
to cover the east-west road and Cordero's
line of retreat. When the Japanese reached
the river they were halted briefly by Boatwright's 53d Infantry troops to permit final
preparations for the demolition of the bridge
and the crossing of Cordero's men. The last
52d Infantry troops crossed under enemy
fire and the bridge was blown almost in the
face of the pursuing Japanese. Colonel
Japanese were in possession of Pagbilao and

in full pursuit of the two American columns
withdrawing rapidly toward Tayabas and
Lucena.
The Japanese were too close for comfort.
To cover the retirement of the 52d and 53d
Infantry, General Jones hurriedly made
new dispositions the next day. He pulled
back the 3d Battalion, 53d Infantry, from
its position on beach defense along Tayabas
Bay and attached it to the provisional infantry battalion formed earlier from the 51st
Field Artillery (less two batteries). This
unit, led by Col. Hamilton F. Searight,
Jones further strengthened by attaching a
platoon of Company C, 194th Tank Battalion. He then ordered Searight to dig in
along Route 1 at the eastern edge of Sariaya
and to hold there until the troops of the two
infantry regiments moving back from Tayabas and Lucena passed through his lines.
The two Japanese columns, meanwhile,
were pushing forward determinedly. Along
Cordero continued through the 53d In-
Route 1, the 3d Battalion, 20th Infantry,
fantry lines to positions about 2,000 yards
followed Boatwright's battalion, which

passed through Lucena early on the 26th
to reach Sariaya about 1530 that afternoon.
to oppose the expected Japanese crossing. The Japanese battalion, which had had a
The Japanese were held up only briefly late start, did not enter Lucena until 2100
at the Palsabangon River. During the after- that night. To the northwest Colonel Cornoon, they forced a crossing and established dero's 52d Infantry pulled back through
a bridgehead on the west bank of the river. Tayabas early in the morning, then turned
Colonel Boatwright's battalion withdrew southwest toward Sariaya, blowing bridges
quickly along Route 1 through Pagbilao. as it retired. The regiment passed through
The Japanese who had forced the crossing, Searight's lines that evening, some hours
the 16th Reconnaissance Regiment, rein- after the 53d Infantry. The 16th Reconnorthwest of Pagbilao, along the Tayabas
road. Boatwright remained at the river line
forced, did not pursue Boatwright but

turned northwest toward Tayabas instead to
follow Cordero's 52d Infantry. The pursuit
of the 53d Infantry along Route 1 fell to
naissance, delayed by obstacles and blown
bridges, reached Tayabas at 1600. From

there it sent forward a patrol northward
along Route 23 to establish contact with
the 3d Battalion, 20th Infantry, which had Colonel Tsunehiro's force nearing Lucban.
crossed the Palsabangon behind the 16th By nightfall of the 26th General Morioka
Reconnaissance. By evening of the 25th the held the entire area east of Sariaya, with its
197

important network of roads, and was in
position to drive west along Route 1 or north
on Route 23.
General Jones's position, while far from
desperate, was not favorable. Unlike Wainwright in the north, who by evening of the
26th was on the D-3 line, he had no phase
lines or previously reconnoitered positions
to fall back to. In the absence of these, he
improvised a system of delaying positions.
Along terrain favorable to defense, he set up
his front lines. To the rear he established a
secondary line, behind whatever obstacles
the terrain offered. Since it was practically
impossible, as one staff officer noted, "to
rally our troops . . . without a considerable lapse of time" after a line had been hit
hard, the stragglers from the front lines were
collected at the secondary line, re-formed,
and put into position along a third line.13
To make matters more difficult and confusing, the units became so mixed during the
withdrawal that it was practically impossible
to call them by their proper designations.
They were identified instead, in the Japanese manner, by their commander's name.
"Our tactics," observed Colonel Shreve in
his diary, "have been unique." 14
The evacuation of supplies and equipment proved as difficult in south Luzon as it
did in the north, and for the same reasons.
The quartermaster supply depot at Los
Banos was never evacuated, probably because of the shortage of transportation.
Eventually, division trains moving through
Los Banos picked up all the supplies they
could carry; the remainder was reported
destroyed. The shipment to Bataan of the
six 155-mm. GPF's, emplaced along the
13
Shreve, Diary, p. 15.

Ibid.
14
west coast, proved extremely difficult.

USAFFE's order directing that the prime
movers, 10-ton tractors, be sent to Bataan
left the GPF's without transportation.
Finally, by changes in orders and desperate
improvisations, the 155's were moved out
of position. By the evening of the 26th, they
were on their way to Bataan.15
At 1900 on 26 December General Jones
established his foward command post at
Candelaria, seven miles west of Sariaya, on
Route 1. Here he organized his first line of
defense. Along the two rivers which bracketed the town on the east and west, Jones
posted Colonel Boatwright's 53d Infantry
(less 3d Battalion). The main line of resistance was established along the river west
of the city, with an outpost line on the river
to the east. The bridges over both rivers
were prepared for destruction. At the same
time, General Jones set up a secondary line
six miles behind Candelaria, at Lusacan,
with Colonel Cordero's 52d Infantry.
Troops of the 53d Infantry would fall back
through Cordero's line when they withdrew
from Candelaria.
With two lines across the enemy's route
of advance, Jones pulled Searight back from
Sariaya to Tiaong, about 3,000 yards west
of Lusacan, where Route 1 turns north toward Laguna de Bay. Searight broke contact with the enemy at 0100 on the 27th,
his troops moving to the rear in buses.
General Morioka, meanwhile, had concentrated his forces at Lucena, sending the
16th Reconnaissance Regiment in pursuit
of the retreating South Luzon Force. The
destruction of the four large bridges be15
QM Rpt of Opns, p. 22. Shreve's original orders had been to destroy the guns, but he was determined to get them out "by hook or crook." Shreve,
Diary, p. 9.
198
CAMOUFLAGED 155-MM. GUN M1917 (GPF), towed by a 10-ton tractor.

tween Tayabas and Sariaya held up the
vehicles, and the reconnaissance regiment
was forced to advance toward Candelaria
on foot. On the afternoon of the 27th the
Japanese finally reached the town and broke
through the outpost line. Passing through
the town quickly, they hit the main line of
resistance about dusk. The Filipinos, failing
to recognize their own troops falling back
before the advancing Japanese, opened fire
on their comrades. Fortunately, little damage was done and few lives lost. Behind the
retreating troops came the Japanese. Despite determined opposition, they forced a
crossing of the river and by 2030 of the 27th
the 53d Infantry (less 3d Battalion) was in
full retreat. On General Jones's orders,
Colonel Boatwright's troops continued on
to the rear for much needed rest and reor-
ganization, and the following day moved

out of southern Luzon to Bataan.16
The Japanese did not stop at Candelaria.
Pushing ahead aggressively, they reached
Lusacan, six miles away, on the morning of
the 28th. Here they ran into Colonel Cordero's 52d Infantry, deployed along the
secondary line of defense. The Japanese
were able to outflank Cordero's position
quickly and at 0915 the American commander abandoned his position and retired
toward Tiaong.
The American position at Tiaong, guarding the defile through which Route 1 led
north, was a strong one. Protected on both
flanks by high ground, it was ideal for a
prolonged stand, and General Jones decided
16
Capt William Cummings, 53d Infantry (PA),
pp. 3-4, Chunn Notebooks.
199

that he would make a determined effort to
on his way to Bataan. The 51st Infantry at
hold here. In the line he placed about four

battalions of infantry, a battery of field artillery, and all his tanks and self-propelled
artillery. The SPM's were deployed so as to
provide direct support for the infantry, and
the eight guns of the 51st Artillery were
placed on high ground to the left of the main
defenses, enfilading the path of the Japanese
advance. To secure the rear, Jones withdrew
the Philippine Scout detachment under
Major McKee from the 1st Infantry and
placed it in position about eight miles north
of Tiaong. The 51st Infantry (less 1st Battalion) was placed at Lipa, eleven miles to
the west, in position to cover the approaches
from that direction. The 2d Philippine Constabulary Regiment, part of the 1st Constabulary Brigade, was in general reserve. From
Santiago, about six miles southwest of Los
Banos, it could support either the Tiaong
position or the troops along the lake.
Despite these elaborate preparations no
stand was made at Tiaong. By the evening of
the 28th General MacArthur had apparently become apprehensive about the right
Lipa also withdrew to Santiago on the 29th

and then continued north along the lake
to Alabang where it went into mobile reserve. Brig. Gen. Simeon de Jesus' 1st Constabulary Brigade (less the 2d Regiment),
part of the 2d Division formed from the
Constabulary on the outbreak of war, relieved the 42d Infantry, still on beach de-
flank of Wainwright's North Luzon Force

which was now on the D-4 line. He therefore ordered General Jones to hurry his
withdrawal and to get out of South Luzon in
time to pass safely behind Wainwright's
lines. The entire South Luzon Force was to
be across the Calumpit bridges by 0600 of
the first day of the new year.
These orders meant the abandonment of
the strong position at Tiaong, and it was
with reluctance that Jones, shortly after
midnight, 28-29 December, ordered the
troops there to fall back to Santiago. Colonel Cordero's 52d Infantry with a battery
of the 51st Field Artillery left at 0200, and
reached the bivouac area north of Santiago
four hours later. By midnight Cordero was
Out of South Luzon
fense, and took up positions covering Routes

17 and 25 leading into Manila. The 42d
Infantry withdrew by bus to Bataan. That
night South Luzon Force headquarters
moved to Fort McKinley.17
By evening of 29 December the South
Luzon Force stood in position at Santiago,
with flank guards at Los Banos and on
Routes 17 and 25, and a mobile reserve at
Alabang to the north. Approximately half
of the 51st Division was already on its way
to Bataan. The rest of the South Luzon
Force was ready to follow. To the south the
van of the Japanese forces, the 16th Reconnaissance Regiment, was just entering
Tiaong.
Not long after the South Luzon Force

had started hurriedly for Bataan, it was
halted by orders from the rear echelon headquarters of USAFFE in Manila. About
1030 of the 30th General Jones was notified
by Lt. Col. Jesse Traywick, G-3 of that
headquarters, that he was to withdraw no
farther unless forced to do so by enemy
pressure.18 Probably the change in orders
was an attempt to delay the final evacuation
of Manila, thus gaining time for the transfer
17
The 1st Brigade (PC) consisted of the 1st and
2d Philippine Constabulary Regiments.
18
Ltr, Gen R. J. Marshall to author, 31 Oct 49,
OCMH.
200
of additional equipment to Bataan and Corregidor. Jones, unaware of the situation to

the north, was puzzled by the new order,
coming as it did but thirty-six hours after
the order calling for a top-speed withdrawal.
But without question and happy for an
opportunity to meet the enemy, he immediately made his plans. He went forward to
Santiago where the bulk of his force was and
arranged an ambush. The position was an
excellent one, the force adequate, and time
sufficient to prepare the trap. Except for a
few patrols, the Japanese were still around
Tiaong and Candelaria, consolidating and
moving up equipment and supplies, the
last of which had been landed about noon
of the 28th. Those elements advancing were
doing so slowly and cautiously.
Again Jones was to be deprived of his
chance to pick a fight with the Japanese.
General Homma's main force of infantry,
tanks, and artillery in northern Luzon had
broken through at Cabanatuan and was
pressing down Route 5. With Wainwright's
right flank exposed and the North Luzon
Force "in a very precarious position" there
was a real possibility that the Japanese
would succeed in driving a wedge between
the North and South Luzon Forces.19 General MacArthur on Corregidor immediately
saw the danger to his scheme for withdrawal
to Bataan and, through his deputy chief of
staff in Manila, General Marshall, made
plans to meet the emergency. On the evening
of the 30th, Marshall telephoned the South
Luzon Force command post at McKinley
and spoke to Colonel MacDonald, the chief

of staff, who took the call in General Jones's
absence. Marshall directed MacDonald to
return immediately to the original plan of
withdrawal so as to clear the Calumpit
bridges not later than 0600 of 1 January. He
19
stressed the importance of covering the

bridges from the north and east by holding
Plaridel seven miles to the east and made
the South Luzon Force responsible for this
task. When informed that the 51st Infantry
was "ready to roll" Marshall "seemed quite
relieved." "Very evidently," wrote MacDonald, "something very bad had happened in NLF, just what the situation is
there, we still didn't know."20
Unable to reach General Jones at
Santiago, MacDonald issued the necessary
orders for the withdrawal. The 2d Philippine Constabulary was returned to General
de Jesus, the brigade commander, who was
ordered to relieve all other elements of the
South Luzon Force and to cover their withdrawal. He placed one of his regiments in
position to block Routes 17 and 25, and the
other to cover Routes 1 and 21. The 1st
Infantry was now free to continue its withdrawal and moved around Manila to
Bataan. The force at Santiago was ordered
to fall back through the Constabulary and
the mobile reserve51st Infantry (less 1st
Battalion) plus a battery of the 51st Field
Artilleryto proceed immediately to Plaridel to meet General Marshall's requirements
for more troops in that area. When these
units had cleared Manila, General de Jesus
was to pull his brigade back first to Fort
McKinley and then, on the night of 31 December-1 January, to Bataan, clearing the
Calumpit bridges by 0600 of New Year's
Day.21
20
MacDonald, Supplement to Jones Diary, pp.
13-14; Hunt, MacArthur and the War Against

Japan, pp. 44-45.
21
The Army Transport Service was prepared to
ferry the South Luzon Force headquarters from
Manila or Cavite if the situation demanded, but

South Luzon Force headquarters was never informed of this possibility. QM Rpt of Opns, p. 23;
interv, author with Jones, 5 Apr 50.

General Jones returned to his command
post from Santiago as the units began to
move to their new locations. Unaware as
yet of the change in orders, the general "was
astonished to find that the greater part of
the CP was already on the road to Plaridel,"
and hastened after it.22 Lt. Col. Arthur L.
Shreve, the G-3 and artillery officer, and
Capt. Arthur G. Christensen, intelligence officer, had left McKinley in an old taxi
shortly before midnight. Stopping in Manila
for sandwiches, beer, and ice cream, they
arrived at Plaridel and opened the new command post in a schoolhouse at 0400, 31 December. Colonel Shreve noted in his diary
that he telephoned Fort McKinley to report,
"We are set up. Check in to USAFFE and
wait."23
General Jones arrived in Plaridel a short
time later. After a brief search he found his
new command post just before daylight.
He immediately phoned MacDonald and
instructed him to close the command post
at McKinley. Captain Christensen went
forward with a North Luzon Force staff
officer to learn the exact location of troops
in the area.
Many of the 51st Division units cleared
the Calumpit bridges before dawn of 31
December, and other elements crossed during the day. The first battalion of the mobile
reserve, the 51st Infantry, under Lt. Col.
Loren P. Stewart, arrived at Plaridel at
0600, and the other battalion came up three
hours later. During the morning these two
51st Infantry battalions were placed in position astride Route 5, northeast of Plaridel.
Colonel Babcock's 75-mm. SPM's were
placed north of the town to oppose the Japanese tanks known to be approaching from
22
23

Shreve, Diary, p. 17.
201
Cabanatuan. About twelve miles south of
Plaridel, on Route 3, Company C of the
194th Tank Battalion held the road against
enemy pursuit from the south. Below Manila, at Fort McKinley, General de Jesus'
1st Brigade ( P C ) was preparing to withdraw toward Bataan under cover of darkness. "Manila," reported General MacArthur to the War Department, "will be
uncovered by nightfall." 24
The withdrawal of the South Luzon
Force had been eminently successful. With
little loss, the Filipino and American troops
had retreated approximately 140 miles
through rugged terrain from Lamon Bay
to Plaridel. Most of the South Luzon Force
had already gone to Bataan. Although Jones
had inflicted no major damage on the
enemy, he had shown great skill in hampering Morioka's pursuit. After the 28th of
December the Japanese had been unable to
maintain contact with the withdrawing
South Luzon Force. Indeed, on New Year's
Day, their advance elements were still near
Santiago and in no position to influence the
struggle for Luzon. So effective had been
Jones's destruction of highway and railroad
bridges that he thought "the South Luzon
Force could have effectively delayed the
enemy's advance on Manila for a considerably longer period had it been necessary." 25
The correctness of this conclusion is amply
confirmed by General Morioka, who complained frequently of his inability to bring
up armored cars, artillery, and supplies because of the destruction of roads and bridges
24
Rad, Mac Arthur to TAG, 31 Dec 41, AG 381
(11-27-41) Far East; Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns,
p. 14; ltr, Maj John Curtiss, Jr., To Whom It May
Concern, 5 Jun 45, written in Manchukuo while
Curtiss was a prisoner of war. A copy of this letter
was obtained from General Jones.
25
Jones, Diary, pp. 17-18.
202
and the back-breaking task confronting his
overworked engineers.26
By the last day of the year most of Luzon
was in the hands of the enemy, but General
MacArthur's forces were still intact. The
first part of the double retrograde movement to Bataan had been successfully accomplished, and the USAFFE commander
could report to Washington that "the South
Luzon Force had made firm contact with
the North Luzon Force in the San Fernando area." 27 All that now remained to
26
Morioka reported Japanese casualties from 24
December through 1 January as 128 killed and 260
wounded in action. 16th Div Opns, 24 Dec 41-3

Jan 42, ATIS Enemy Pub 355, p. 11.
27
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, 1 Jan 42, AG 381
(11-27-41 Sec 1) Far East.
complete the withdrawal of the troops east

of the Pampanga River was the difficult
maneuver across that river and the movement north through San Fernando then
south into Bataan, while the troops along
the D-5 line fell back along the roads leading into Bataan. It would be a hazardous
operation, for enemy air and ground forces
were an ever-growing menace as the area
of maneuver became smaller. But the greatest test, the complicated movement of
thousands of men and tons of supplies from
north and south Luzon toward San Fernando, had gone well. The success of the withdrawal would be decided during the next
few days.
CHAPTER XII
Holding the Road to Bataan

On 30 December 1941 the Philippine south. Troops north and south of San FerCommonwealth reaffirmed its faith in the nando would have to pass through that town
future with the inauguration of President- to get to Bataan; only the left elements of
elect Manuel Quezon at a brief ceremony the troops on the D-5 line would be able
on the island fortress of Corregidor. Across to use Route 74.
General Homma's main striking force
the bay, the American and Filipino troops
were making ready for their last stand be- was not aimed at the D-5 line, but at
fore withdrawing to Bataan. Despite Que- Manila. This force, which had broken
zon's brave inaugural words, the future of through at Cabanatuan on the 30th, was
the nascent republic never appeared darker.1 moving rapidly down Route 5, east of the
Almost all of the troops on Luzon were Candaba Swamp. Once it reached Plaridel,
now north of Manila. The North Luzon where a road led westward to Route 3, it
Force stood on the D-5 line, from Bamban would be only a short distance east of the
to Arayat, in front of San Fernando and the two bridges at Calumpit. If the Japanese
secured Plaridel and the bridges quickly
road leading into Bataan. (Map 8) Fifteen
to twenty miles long, this line was the enough, they would cut off the retreat of
shortest of the five defensive lines used by the troops still south of Calumpit and, by
General Wainwright's forces. Guarded on gaining a position west of the Pampanga
the left (west) by the steep heights of the River in the rear of the D-5 line, comZambales Mountains and on the right by the promise the execution of the withdrawal
rugged 3,367-foot high Mt. Arayat and the into Bataan.
twenty-mile-long Candaba Swamp, it was
General Mac Arthur had foreseen this
susceptible only to frontal attack by the contingency as soon as the Japanese had
Japanese force moving south from Tarlac broken through at Cabanatuan and had
along Route 3.
quickly sent reinforcements from the North
Ten miles south of Bamban, the west and South Luzon Forces to hold Plaridel
anchor of the D-5 line, an unimproved road, and the road to the north as far as Baliuag.
Route 74, branched off from Route 3 to the Defending Plaridel was as essential to
his plan for withdrawal to Bataan as
southwest to give access to Bataan. The
main road into the peninsula, Route 7, be- holding the D-5 line. Possession of this
gan at San Fernando, ten miles farther barrio meant that the Calumpit bridges
over which the forces east of the Pampanga
1
must
pass to get to San Fernando were safe.
Quezon, The Good Fight, pp. 227-35. General
MacArthur and High Commissioner Sayre also
The task of the forces on Luzon was, then,
spoke briefly and feelingly at the ceremony. Mactwofold: to hold in the north along the D-5
Arthur's speech is printed in Hunt, MacArthur and
line
and on the east at Plaridel. Failure to
the War Against Japan, pp. 48-49.
HOLDING THE ROAD TO BATAAN
205
MOUNT ARAYAT, looking west.

hold long enough at either point spelled
the doom of the entire plan.
The Defense of Calumpit

For the defense of the Calumpit bridges
Mac Arthur placed every unit that could be
spared east of the Pampanga. From the
South Luzon Force came the 51st Infantry
(less 1st Battalion) and the 75-mm. guns
of Colonel Babcock's SPM provisional battalion, both stationed at Plaridel. The
194th Tank Battalion (less Company C)
was posted at Apalit, on the west bank of the
Pampanga two miles above Calumpit, in
position "to insure the exit" of those forces
east of the river. If necessary, the tank
battalion was to move to Bocaue, between
Manila and Plaridel, to reinforce Company

C, part of the South Luzon Force, which
was to hold that barrio "until the extrication of North and South Luzon Forces was
insured." 2 At least one company of the
192d Tank Battalion was in the PlaridelBaliuag area.
The 91st Division, retreating down
Route 5 from Cabanatuan, reached Baliuag
at daybreak of the 31st. It was joined
shortly by elements of the 71st Division
the 71st Field Artillery and the 71st and
72d Infantrywhich had been ordered
there the night before by General Wainwright. The 71st Division units took up
positions north of Baliuag and the 91st Division went into reserve south of the town.
2
Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 14.
206
and those elements of the North Luzon

Force in the area would have to pass
through Plaridel and along these secondary
roads to cross the Calumpit bridges. South
of Plaridel lay the invader's route to Manila.
General Tsuchibashi, 48th Division commander, was fully aware of the importance
of Calumpit and the Baliuag-Plaridel area.
On the 30th he had ordered two tank regiments and a battalion of infantry to advance from Cabanatuan to the Angat River
and cut the route from Manila to San Fernando. This force, led by Col. Seinosuke
Sonoda, commander of the 7th Tank Regiment, and assisted by a company of engineers to repair roads and bridges, was
marching unopposed down Route 5 toward
Plaridel on the night of the 30th.5
On the morning of 31 December an advance detachment of Colonel Sonoda's
force reached the outskirts of Baliuag. The
The Fight for Plaridel
engineers, protected by tanks, attempted to
repair the bridge across the stream north of
The defense of the Baliuag-Plaridel area the town, but were met by fire from the
was of the greatest importance. Baliuag, 71st Field Artillery. Shortly after, the enemy
a town of rambling houses and nipa huts tanks were brought under fire by a platoon
scattered along Route 5 and the north of Company C, 192d Tank Battalion,
bank of the Angat River, commands the which lay in concealed positions below the
approaches to Plaridel, six miles to the stream. The Japanese broke off the action
south. Plaridel is located at the intersec- and withdrew to the east where they eftion of Route 5 and several secondary fected a crossing around noon. It was at
roads, two of which extend along opposite this time that the 91st Division left its rebanks of the Angat River to Route 3 and serve position below Baliuag and started for
the Calumpit bridges, some eight miles to Bataan, leaving the 71st Division elements
the northwest. The South Luzon Force alone in the town.6
Before 1000 Wainwright's headquarters

warned the two divisions that they would
have to withdraw from Baliuag in time to
clear the Calumpit bridges, nine miles
away, by 0400 the next morning.3
At approximately 1000 that morning,
General Sutherland, MacArthur's chief of
staff, telephoned Jones, commander of the
South Luzon Force, and placed him in command of all forces east of the Pampanga.
In effect, this made Jones commander of
the troops holding the Calumpit bridges.
Sutherland ordered Jones to hold the
bridges until the 1st Brigade (PC) had
passed over and warned him that all troops
would have to be west of the Pampanga
River by 0600 of 1 January, for at that
time the bridges would be blown. Apparently General Wainwright was not informed of the change in command.4
3
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 13; USAFFEUSFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 39; ltr, Selleck to Board
of Officers, 1 Feb 46, sub: Reinstatement of Rank;
ltr, Col Fowler, CO 71st FA, to author, 30 Apr 49,
OCMH; Capt Albert W. Erickson, 71st Inf (PA),
pp. 2-3, and Bentz, 92d Inf (PA), pp. 1-2, both
in Chunn Notebooks.
4
Jones, Diary, p. 16. These instructions were
passed on to General de Jesus, commander of the
1st Brigade (PC), for his was the only unit not yet
in position to clear Calumpit rapidly.
5
14th Army Opns, I, 84; statements of Col Moriji
Kawagoe, CofS 48th Div, 9 Mar 50, ATIS Doc
56354 and of Maj Makoto Nakahara, Opns Officer,
48th Div, 13 Mar 50, ATIS Doc 56372, in Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers, Mil Hist
Div, GHQ FEC, II.
6
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 39; NLF and
I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 13; Prov Tank Gp Rpt of
Opns, p. 14; ltr, Fowler to author, 30 Apr 49,
OCMH.

By 1330 the Japanese tanks had reached
the eastern outskirts of Baliuag and were
awaiting infantry reinforcements before
making an all out assault against the town.
Meanwhile, the 71st Infantry prepared to
pull out of Baliuag in accordance with
orders. The two infantry regiments and the
engineers left in buses around 1400, but the
artillery regiment remained behind.7
At about this time General Wainwright
arrived at Jones's command post in the
Plaridel schoolhouse. The North Luzon
Force commander, unaware of the fact that
Jones now commanded all troops east of the
Pampanga, ordered him to take up positions for a close-in, perimeter defense of the
Calumpit bridge. Jones informed Wainwright of his orders from Sutherland and
explained that he intended to hold the
enemy at Baliuag rather than at the bridge.
While Jones and Wainwright were talking,
General Stevens, 91st Division commander,
entered the command post, followed a short
time later by a South Luzon Force staff
officer who announced that the 71st Division had moved out of Baliuag. Jones then
ordered Stevens to stop the 71st and put it
in position west of Plaridel, along the road
leading to Calumpit. Wainwright left soon
after for his own command post.8
Stevens' efforts to halt the withdrawal of
the 71st Division infantry elements proved
futile. By 1500 the main body of Sonoda's
7
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 39; ltr,
Fowler to author, 30 Apr 49. Official reports do
not record the fact that the 71st Field Artillery
remained in Baliuag. This fact is established by the
artillery commander, Colonel Fowler,
8
General Jones was unaware that the 71st Field
Artillery was still at Baliuag. Interv, author and
Falk with Jones, 1 Nov 49 and 6 May 50. See also,
Jones, Diary, pp. 16-17; NLF and I Corps Rpt
of Opns, pp. 13-14; USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns,
p. 39; ltr, Fowler to author, 30 Apr 49, OCMH;
207
mechanized force was standing in front of

Baliuag and it was perfectly evident that
the Japanese were massing for an attack.
Deeply concerned over the effect of an attack on the untried 51st Infantry, Jones
ordered two platoons of Company C, 192d
Tank Battalion, to cross the river and attack
the enemy concentration at the east end of
Baliuag. The tanks were to be supported
by about a half dozen of Colonel Babcock's
75-mm. SPM's which were to fire on
Baliuag and its northern approaches when
the tanks broke off the attack. After a
hasty reconnaissance, Babcock placed his
guns on the dry, baked fields a few thousand
yards west of Baliuag arid sent a forward
observer to a position 500 yards west of the
town. For communications with the tanks
Babcock had a radio-equipped scout car of
Company C.
At about 1700 the tanks of Company C,
led by Lt. William Gentry, moved out to
the attack. As the two platoons approached
the enemy, the covering artillery fire, presumably supplied by the 71st Field Artillery, lifted. A bitter fight ensued. The
American armor made a shambles of that
part of Baliuag in Japanese hands. The
tanks rolled through the streets, firing into
bahays, smashing through the nipa huts as
if they were so many toy houses, and scattering hostile infantry right and left. A brief
but wild tank-versus-tank action followed.
In the fading daylight American and Japanese tanks chased each other up and down
the narrow streets, while enemy foot soldiers, in a futile gesture, fired small arms
at the tankers. The SPM's and artillery remained idle, unable to fire for fear of hitting
their own tanks. When Company C finally
broke off the action, it had knocked out
eight Japanese tanks with little loss to itself.
As the tanks pulled back, the SPM's and
208
artillery opened up on Baliuag and continued to fire until 2200 when Fowler and
Babcock pulled their men back to Plaridel
and then west across the Pampanga. The
last of the tanks crossed the Calumpit bridge
at about 0230 on 1 January.9
Holding the unimproved road from Plaridel to Calumpit was the untried 51st Infantry. When at 0300 the 1st Brigade
(PC) cleared the Calumpit bridge General
Jones sent his chief of staff to Plaridel with
orders for the 51st to withdraw immediately.
The retirement began at 0400, 1 January.
Meanwhile, the Japanese had entered Baliuag and were pushing cautiously toward
Plaridel. At 0400 they were close enough
to hear the sound of motors as the 51st
Infantry began to pull out, and immediately
rushed forward to attack. Firing into the
truck column the Japanese hit the rearmost vehicles but inflicted no damage.
Lacking motor transportation they were unable to follow. Colonel Stewart pushed
ahead rapidly and crossed the Pampanga
with his 51st Infantry at about 0500 on
the morning of the 1 st, the last unit to cross
the Calumpit bridge.10

"Blow the Bridges"
What the Japanese could not accomplish on the ground they might have accomplished with their air force. On 31 December the highway and railroad bridges spanning the Pampanga at Calumpit presented
to the Japanese air force the most inviting
target since Clark Field. Heavily laden
with dynamite charges for rapid demolition and protected by only two gun batteries of the 200th Coast Artillery ( A A ) , the
bridges were extremely vulnerable to air
attack.11 Indeed, like marriage, in Shaw's
classic definition, they combined the maximum of temptation with the maximum of
opportunity.
The Japanese failed to take advantage of
this opportunity for a decisive blow from
the air. The 48th Division urged that the
Calumpit bridges be bombed and there
were heated discussions over this question,
but the view of Col. Monjiro Akiyama, 14th
Army air officer, that the destruction of the
bridges would prove of little value, prevailed. The 14th Army's order of the 30th,
therefore, directed the 5th Air Group simply
to attack the retreating enemy and to make
9
The account of this action is based on the folan effort to destroy the bridges west of Lulowing sources, many of them in conflict with each
bao,
just above the base of the Bataan
other: Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 14; ltr,
12
peninsula.
Weaver to author, 30 Jan 50; Jones, Diary, p. 17;
interv, author and Falk with Jones, 31 Oct and
Even with this limited mission, the Japa1 Nov 49, 24 Jan 50; ltr, Maj Curtiss (forward
nese
air forces made only a desultory effort.
observer for the 75-mm. SPM's), To Whom It
Col.
Harry A. Skerry, the North Luzon
May Concern, 5 Jun 45, copy in OCMH; Collier,
Notebooks, II, 78-80; Lt Col Thomas Dooley, The
First U.S. Tank Action in World War II (paper
prepared for Advanced Officers Class No. 1, The
Armored Force School, 1 May 48), p. 12; ltr,
Weaver to Wainwright, 20 Nov 45, copy in OCMH ;
10
Jones, Diary, p. 17; 14th Army Opns, I, 84;
ltr, Col Skerry, NLF Engineer, to Lt Col George A.
Meidling, 4 Jun 49, Comment 9. Col Skerry's comments, altogether numbering twenty-one, pertain to
Chapter II of Combat Engineer Operations, a
projected volume in the series Engineers of the
Southwest Pacific 1941-1945. These comments

were sent to the author by Colonel Skerry and are
on file in OCMH. They are hereafter cited as
Skerry, Comments on Engineer Hist, with appropriate number.
11
Interv, author with Gen Sage, 28 Feb 51;
12
Statements of Cols Kawagoe, CofS, 48th Div,
and Akiyama, in Statements of Japanese Officials
on World War II, GHQ FEC, Mil Intel Sec, I,
19, II, 134.
209
CALUMPIT BRIDGES spanning the Pampanga River.
Force engineer and the man directly responsible for blowing the bridges, later
wrote that he was "amazed" by the "weak
air efforts" the Japanese made and "the few
planes seen in the sky, despite the previous
almost total destruction of our air force and
the resulting enemy air superiority." 13
At about 0500 on New Year's Day, as
the 51st Infantry cleared the Calumpit
bridge, General Wainwright asked Generals
Jones, Stevens, and Weaver if all their units
were safely across. He received affirmative
13
Skerry, Comments on Engineer Hist, No. 9, p.
5; interrog of Lt Col Hikaru Haba, Intel Officer,
14th Army, Apr 47, Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers, Mil Hist Div, GHQ FEC, I.
The account of the blowing of the bridge is based
on Colonel Skerry's Comment 9; Wainwright, Gen-
eral Wainwright's Story, p. 44; and interv, author

with Jones and Sage, 28 Feb 51.
replies from these three, but Colonel Skerry

pointed out that a platoon of demolition engineers under Lt. Col. Narcisco L. Manzano (PS) was still on the road south of
Calumpit. Nothing had been heard from
Manzano since the previous noon, and
Colonel Skerry requested that destruction
of the bridges be delayed as long as the tactical situation permitted, to enable Manzano's group to escape. Wainwright assented, but all final preparations for demolition were made and orders were issued to
fire the charges at 0600.
It was still dark. There was no Japanese
air bombardment or artillery fire, but from
the south came the sounds of rifle fire. The
nervous Filipino troops fidgeted in their positions and stared apprehensively across the
river. At 0545, when there was still no sign
210
of Manzano's detachment, Wainwright extended the time for blowing the bridges to
0615.
As dawn broke, the noise of enemy rifle
fire from the south increased. General
Wainwright, unaware that the main Japanese force was pushing toward Manila
and that less than a regiment had been sent
toward Calumpit, believed that this fire
presaged a major Japanese effort to cross
the Pampanga. Blowing the bridges would
place the deep, unfordable river squarely in
the path of the advancing enemy and give
the Bataan forces time to prepare for defense. Wainwright then made his decision;
Manzano and his men would have to reach
Bataan by other routes. He turned to his
engineer. "Skerry," he said, "we cannot
wait any longer. Blow the bridges."
The covering force withdrew to a safe
distance, the explosives were checked, and
at 0615 the charges were detonated. The
air was filled with a roar and a rushing
noise, a flash lit up the sky, and the Calumpit bridges disappeared in a mass of falling
debris. In front of the defenders flowed the
deep Pampanga; to their rear lay San Fernando, where the road to Bataan began.
San Fernando, nine miles north of Calumpit, was as vital to the successful completion of the plan of withdrawal as Plaridel.
Not only did the South Luzon Force have
to pass through it before turning southwest
to Bataan, but almost the entire North
Luzon Force would funnel through that
town also.
Thirty-five miles northwest of Manila,
and strategically second in importance only
to the capital, San Fernando is an important
road and rail junction. It is there that Route
7, the main road to Bataan, joins Route 3.
The troops from Calumpit would have to
travel northward along Route 3 to reach
San Fernando; those on the D-5 line would
withdraw south along this road and Route
10. At San Fernando both groups would
pick up Route 7 for the final lap of their
journey to Bataan.
The 21st Division on the west flank of the
D-5 line was the only unit which could escape into Bataan without going through San
Fernando. At Angeles, midway between
Bamban and San Fernando, it would leave
Route 3 and follow Route 74 to Bataan. All
other units north and south of San Fernando
would reach Bataan via San Fernando and
Route 7.
Even if the enemy did not impede the
The D-5 Line: Bamban-Arayat
march to Bataan, the roads over which
By the first day of the new year the bulk the tired soldiers must travel to reach the
of the American and Filipino forces had peninsula would present many obstacles.
escaped from the enemy pincer movement From Calumpit north to San Fernando,
designed to trap them on the plain before and from there south to Bataan, the road
Manila. Calumpit had been passed suc- was packed with a "solid stream of traffic,"
cessfully and the troops from the south had military and civilian.14 Vehicles of all
side-stepped the Japanese and withdrawn typescars, buses, trucks, artillery, and
in good order across the Pampanga. Mactanksfilled the center of the road. In some
Arthur's men no longer faced the main places, there were stretches of several miles
strength of Homma's 14th Army, which was
14
pushing rapidly toward Manila.
Collier, Notebooks, I, 73-74.
211
SAN FERNANDO, looking northwest. Route 3 from Calumpit runs diagonally

through the photograph; Route 7 leading to Bataan is in upper left. Zambales
Mountains are visible in background.
where the vehicles were lined up almost

bumper to bumper. On each side was an
endless line of pedestrians, mostly civilians
fleeing from the invading army.
The enemy air force could hardly be expected to overlook so obvious and inviting
a target on their way to other, more important military missions. The primary
objective of the thirty-two light bombers of
the 5th Air Group that day was ammunition dumps, but the Japanese pilots reported
that they also dive-bombed American vehicles and "motorized units." 15 Colonel
Collier noted that "hostile bombers, with
the rising sun glistening on wing tips, flying
at low and high altitudes, crossed and re-
crossed the road." 16 But he saw no divebombing or strafing attacks. "Had the
bombers struck the jammed columns with
bombs and strafing," he wrote, "our withdrawal into Bataan would certainly have
been seriously crippled." 17
Since 30 December General Homma had
been strengthening his forces in front of the
D-5 line. By New Year's Eve he had on
Route 3, in and around Tarlac, the entire
9th Infantry Regiment, the Kanno Detachment (3d Battalion, 2d Formosa), 8th Field
Artillery (less one battalion), two batteries
of the 22d Field Artillery, and a battalion
of the 48th Mountain Artillery. The mis16
15
17

Ibid., 76.
212
sion of this force was to drive south toward
Bataan.18
Along the D-5 line stood two Philippine
Army divisions, the 11th on the right and
the 21st on the left. Between the high
ground on each end of the line the terrain was flat, the vegetation consisting of
cane fields and uncultivated grassland. As
the troops reached this position they began
to clear fields of fire and, when they could
get the wire, erect barbed-wire entanglements.19
The 21st Division held the left (west)
portion of the flatlands along the south bank
of the Bamban River from the MagalangConcepcion road to the Zambales Mountains/On the right was the 22d Infantry;
to its left was the 21st Infantry, with the 3d
Battalion on the right and the 2d Battalion
on the left. Along the front, between the
two battalions, were two high multiplespan steel bridges (one railroad and one
highway) fording the Bamban River. The
engineers had destroyed both bridges, but
the river, practically dry at this season of
the year, presented no obstacle to advancing
infantry and only a slight one to vehicles.
To strengthen the river line, therefore,
Company C, 23d Infantry, was posted on
the high ground north of the Bamban River
and west of Route 3, in position to dominate the road and railroad south of the
town. The 21st Field Artillery was in general support.20
The wisdom of placing Company C in
this position was soon confirmed. At about
18
14th Army Opns, I, 64, 71-72.

Mallone, Comments on Draft MS, 8 Jan 52,
OCMH; ltr, Townsend to Ward, 8 Jan 52, OCMH;
Central Luzon, Allied Geographical Sec (AGS)
GHQ SWPA, Terrain Study 94, I, 48; Skerry,
NLF Engineer Rpt of Opns, p. 9.
20
Brief Hist of 22d Inf (PA), p, 2; Mallone,
Bataan Diary, I, 106; O'Day, 21st Div (PA), II, 14.

0130 New Year's Day, a Japanese force
mounted on bicycles and estimated as of
company size was observed pedaling down
the road from Bamban toward the destroyed bridge between the 2d and 3d Battalions, 21st Infantry. The enemy troops
were part of the Kanno Detachment, which
had been caught in the open by American
tanks at Zaragoza two days earlier. Their
reception at Bamban was no less warm.
As the Japanese cyclists advanced along the
short stretch of road paralleling the river
east of the bridge, Company C delivered a
punishing fire in their midst. After some
minutes of confusion and milling about, the
surprised and badly hit Japanese force retreated, having suffered thirty-five casualties. Company C gained an assortment of
bicycles, swords, and miscellaneous equipment, as well as a wounded Japanese noncom. Since he spoke no English and no one
present understood Japanese, he proved
useless as a source of information). By the
time he had been evacuated to the rear he
had died of his wounds.21
By 0900 the remainder of the Kanno
Detachment had reached Bamban. The
infantry soon began an attack against the
river line and Company C; the artillery
joined in the action about noon. That
afternoon the fighting was brisk, with heavy
shelling on both sides and with Japanese
aircraft participating in the action. But
all efforts by the Japanese to cross the river
met with failure and Company C was still
in position late in the day.
At division headquarters reports of Japanese troop movements south from Tarlac
19
21
The account of 21st Division operations at
Bamban is based upon O'Day, 21st Div (PA), II,
15; Brief Hist of 22d Inf (PA), p. 4; Opns of 21st
Inf ( P A ) , p. 2; Richards, Steps to a POW Camp,
pp. 7-8; 14th Army Opns, I, 65 84; ltr, O'Day to
Ward, 14 Jan 52, OCMH.
213
to Bamban had been received earlier in the

day, one scout noting "that one of our own
tanks was being driven around Tarlac to
the hilarity of the enemy troops." 22 These
reports were accurate. The 9th Infantry
and supporting troops were moving forward to reinforce the Kanno Detachment.
As the Japanese came within artillery range
they were brought under fire by guns of
the 21st Field Artillery. Although suffering losses in personnel and equipment, the
9th Infantry by 1600 had joined the Kanno
Detachment on the north bank of the river.
But the Japanese for some inexplicable
reason failed to attempt a crossing. At
nightfall the 21st Division began to move
out, Company C wading the shallow Bamban to rejoin the division. The entire division withdrew down Route 3 to Angeles,
then turned southwest along Route 74 to
Porac. The enemy followed cautiously and
it was not until 1130 of the 2d that the
Kanno Detachment reached Angeles. The
Japanese now had possession of the Clark
Field area.
It was now the turn of the 11th Division
to extricate itself and withdraw into Bataan.
This division had recently been strengthened by the return from the Cagayan valley
of about 1,000 of its men, drawn largely
from the 12th and 13th Infantry Regiments. Its sector of the D-5 line extended
from the Magalang-Concepcion road eastward to the Pampanga River. On the right
(east) was the reorganized 12th Infantry,
holding a front from Mt. Arayat to the
Pampanga River and the town of Arayat.
It was in position to guard against an unexpected Japanese advance toward San
Fernando along Route 10, which connected

Gapan on Route 5 with that town.
The western portion of the 11th Division
line, from the Magalang road to Mt. Arayat,
was held by the 11th Infantry under the
command of Col. Glen R. Townsend, who
had led the Cagayan valley force. At Magalang a north-south road from Concepcion
branched off, one section leading to Angeles on Route 3 and another to Mexico,
a few miles northeast of San Fernando.
The 2d Battalion, 11th Infantry, was posted
across the Magalang road, a few miles north
of the town and directly in the path of a
Japanese advance from Concepcion. The
3d Battalion extended the line east to the
mountains, and the 1st Battalion, recovering from its hard fight at Zaragoza on the
30th, was in reserve.23
Early on 1 January General Brougher,
the division commander, ordered Colonel
Townsend to withdraw his 11th Infantry,
starting at 2000 that day. The regiment
was to retire along the Magalang road
through Mexico and San Fernando to
Guagua, about fifteen miles from Bataan.
While the 11th Infantry was preparing to
move, an enemy force estimated as a reinforced battalion of infantry with artillery
support was pushing south along the Magalang road from Concepcion. At 1630 this
Japanese force attacked Townsend's line.
Maj. Helmert J. Duisterhof's 2d Battalion,
composed of Igorot troops, bore the brunt
of the assault. Despite repeated attacks, the
Igorots, supported by two 75-mm. SPM
23
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, p, 12; Townsend, Defense of Phil, OCMH; 11th Inf (PA),
Beach Defense and Delaying Action, pp. 21-22,
OCMH; Capt Liles, 12th Inf (PA), p. 13, Chunn

22
Notebooks.
214
guns, held firm, inflicting heavy losses on

the enemy. A Japanese attempt to outflank
the 11th Infantry line by pushing elements
through dense fields of sugar cane met with
failure. At 2000, the appointed hour, the
11th Infantry broke contact and began its
withdrawal, passing through the 194th
Tank Battalion in position east of San Fernando. By 0200 of the 2d the regiment had
reached Guagua. During the night it was
joined by the 12th Infantry and remaining
elements of the 13th Infantry.24 With the
successful withdrawal of the 11th Division,
the troops on the D-5 line had made good
their escape through San Fernando. Meanwhile the remaining troops south of that
town were doing the same.
Escape Through San Fernando
The blast that destroyed the Calumpit

bridges in the early hours of 1 January
signaled the end of the South Luzon Force.
Its mission completed, the force moved on
to Bataan where General Jones rejoined
the 51st Division. At the same time General Stevens of the 91st Division and General Weaver, commander of the tank group,
went on to San Fernando to join their
units.25
When the debris had stopped falling at
the Pampanga crossing, the covering force
of 71st and 91st Division elements, originally organized by Stevens; returned to
its positions along the river bank. A second force, the 3d Battalion of the 23d In24
Ltr, Townsend to Ward, 8 Jan 52, OCMH;

O'Day, 21st Div (PA), II, 15. See also ltr, Col
Miller to Ward, 31 Dec 51, OCMH. There is no
Japanese confirmation of this action.
25
Jones, Diary, p. 17; Skerry, Comments on Engineer Hist, No. 9, p. 10; Miller, Bataan Uncensored, pp. 122-23.
fantry, with a battery of the 21st Field

Artillery, moved into position near Apalit,
about 4,000 yards to the north on the west
bank of the Pampanga. The mission of
this battalion, led by Maj. Charles A. McLaughlin, was to "assist in delaying the
enemy advance on San Fernando," by preventing a hostile crossing before 2000. In
support of both forces was the tank group,
posted just below San Fernando.26
Late on the morning of 1 January the
Japanese reached Calumpit. The Tanaka
Detachment (2d Formosa, less 3d Battalion,

and a battalion of the 48th Mountain Artillery) had moved cautiously from Plaridel
during the night and now faced the covering force across the wide, unfordable Pampanga. The sight of the Japanese at such
close proximity was extremely disconcerting
to the poorly trained Filipino troops. Their
nervousness was increased by the sight of
the Japanese bombers which passed overhead that morning on their way to bomb
installations on Bataan.
During the day the Japanese made numerous attempts to push a force across the
swiftly flowing Pampanga, but to no avail.27
The covering force on the river line pulled
out for San Fernando during the afternoon,
followed that evening by McLaughlin's battalion. The remnants of the 71st and 91st
Divisions which constituted the first of these
forces were "so badly disorganized and in
need of equipment" that they were sent directly to Bataan. McLaughlin's battalion
26
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 14; Skerry,
Comments on Engineer Hist, No. 9, p. 10; ltr,
McLaughlin to author, 14 Jun 49, OCMH;
Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 113; O'Day, 21st Div
(PA), II, 6.
27
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 14, 14th
Army Opns, I, 65, 84; USA vs. Homma, p. 3055,
testimony of Homma.
215
rejoined the 21st Division at Porac on the

morning of 2 January. The last elements
to pass through San Fernando were the
tanks. Reaching the town at 0200 on the
2d, after all the others had left, they found
it to be "truly a ghost town." The tankers
gave the order to blow the bridge across the
San Fernando River and in the darkness
moved down Route 7 toward Guagua and
the American line being formed there.28
The Japanese did not cross the Pampanga
until the afternoon of 2 January when at
1600 the Tanaka Detachment finally got
its artillery over the swiftly flowing river.
Once across, Colonel Tanaka moved forward rapidly and by 1830 had reached San
Fernando. There he made contact with
the Kanno Detachment which had pushed

down Route 3 from Angeles.29
In the few days from 30 December 1941
to 2 January 1942 the North and South Luzon Forces had completed successfully the
most complicated and difficult maneuver
of the campaign thus far. They had held
at Plaridel and along the D-5 line. A part
of the force had crossed the Calumpit
bridge, marched through San Fernando,
and down Route 7 toward Bataan. Another part had withdrawn from the D-5
line, along the flat grassland west of Mt.
Arayat to Mexico and San Fernando to
join the others retreating down Route 7.
The remainder had moved down Route 3
to Angeles and then along Route 74 to
Porac. Everywhere the enemy had been
held and the route of escape kept open until the last unit was on its way into Bataan.
28
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 14;

Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 114; Miller, Bataan
Uncensored, p. 124; Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns,
p. 15; Dooley, First U. S. Tank Action in World
29
14th Army Opns, I, 84; USA vs. Homma, p.
War II, p. 13; ltr, Miller to Ward, 31 Dec 51,
OCMH.
3055, testimony of Homma.
CHAPTER XIII
Into Bataan
lonee, to number 120,000 men.1 Actually,
Japanese strength on Luzon was about half
that size, and only two reinforced regiments
with tanks and artillery faced the men on
the Guagua-Porac line.
From Cabanatuan, where Homma had
moved his headquarters on New Year's
Day, 14th Army issued orders to attack the
line before Bataan.2 A force, known as the
Takahashi Detachment after its commander, Lt. Col. Katsumi Takahashi, and
consisting of the 9th Infantry (less two
companies), two batteries of the 22d Field
Artillery, and the 8th Field Heavy Artillery
Regiment (less one battalion), was to strike
The Guagua-Porac Line
out from Angeles along Route 74, smash the
Along the ten-mile line from Guagua to American line at Porac, and go on to seize
Porac, paralleling the road between the two Dinalupihan, an important road junction at
barrios, General Wainwright had placed the entrance to Bataan. To support Takathe 11th and 21st Divisions (PA), as well hashi's drive down Route 74, Homma oras armor and cavalry. (Map 9) On the dered the 9th Independent Field Heavy
left (west), around Porac, was the 21st Artillery Battalion, then approaching TarDivision with the 26th Cavalry (PS) to its lac, to push on to Porac.
A second force, drawn largely from the
rear, in force reserve. On the east was the
11th Division, its right flank covered by 48th Division, was organized for the drive
almost impenetrable swamps crisscrossed by down Route 7 through Guagua to Hernumerous streams. In support of both di- mosa, a short distance southeast of Dinavisions was General Weaver's tank group. lupihan. This force, organized at San FerThe troops along this line, the best in the nando and led by Colonel Tanaka, was
North Luzon Force, though battle tested composed of the 2d Formosa and a batand protected by mountains on the west and talion of the 47th Infantry supported by a
swamps on the east, felt exposed and in- company of tanks and three battalions of
secure. They were convinced that they
1
Bataan Diary, I, 113. This estimate
were opposing the entire Japanese 14th cameMallone,
from G-3 USAFFE.
2
Army, estimated, according to Colonel Mal14th Army Opns, I, 66.
By the first week of January 1942 the

American and Filipino troops withdrawing from both ends of Luzon had joined at
San Fernando and begun the last lap of
their journey to Bataan. In ten days they
had retired from Lingayen Gulf and Lamon Bay to Guagua and Porac, on the
two roads leading into Bataan. There they
had halted and established a line only fifteen miles from the base of the peninsula.
The longer they could hold, the more time
would be available to prepare the final
defenses in Bataan.
218
artillery. Both detachments were to receive

support from the 5th Air Group, which was
also to strike at targets on Bataan. The attack would begin at 0200 on 2 January.3
The Japanese expected to smash the defenses before Bataan easily and to make
quick work of the "defeated enemy," who,
in General Morioka's striking phrase, was
like "a cat entering a sack." 4 General Homma fully intended to draw the strings tight
once the Americans were in the sack, thereby bringing the campaign to an early and
successful conclusion. He was due for a
painful disappointment.
Seven miles south of Porac, at San Jose,

was the force reserve, the 26th Cavalry,
now partly rested and reorganized after its
fight in the Lingayen area. Its mission was
to cover the left flank of the 21st Division
and extend it westward to the Zambales
Mountains. Colonel Pierce, the cavalry
commander, dispatched Troop G, equipped
with pack radio, forward toward Porac, to
the left of the 21st Infantry. The rest of
the regiment he kept in readiness at San
Jose. The 26th Cavalry was not the only
unit in San Jose; also there were the 192d
Tank Battalion and the headquarters of the
21st Division. The place was so crowded
that
Colonel Mallone, who wanted to esThe Left Flank
tablish the command post of the 21st Field
In the 21st Division sector, just below Artillery there, was forced to choose anPorac, two regiments stood on the line. On other location because "the town was as
6
the west (left), from the mountains to full as the county seat during fair week."
The expected attack against the GuaguaRoute 74, was the 21st Infantry, spread
thin along the entire front. On the right, Porac line came on the afternoon of 2
behind the Porac-Guagua road, was the January, when an advance detachment
22d Infantry. The 23d Infantry, organ- from the 9th Infantry coming down Route
ized at the start of hostilities, was in reserve 74 hit the 21st Infantry near Porac.
about five miles to the rear. The division's Although the enemy detachment was small,
artillery regiment was deployed with its 3d it was able to force back the weakened and
Battalion on the left, behind the 21st In- thinly spread defenders about 2,000 yards
fantry, and the 1st Battalion on the right. to the southwest, to the vicinity of Pio.
The 2d Battalion was in general support, Stiffened by the reserve, the regiment finally
but placed immediately behind the 3d Bat- halted the Japanese advance just short of
talion which was short one battery.5
the regimental reserve line. Efforts to restore the original line failed, leaving the ar3
Ibid., 64, 71-72, 85; 5th Air Gp Opns, p. 41.
tillery exposed to the enemy infantry, who
4
Interrog of Lt Gen Susumu Morioka, 24 Apr 47,
were
"about as far from the muzzles as outInterrogations of Former Japanese Officers, Mil
Hist Div, GHQ FEC, I, 71.
fielders
would play for Babe Ruth if there
5
The account of action on the left flank is based
were no fences." 7
upon NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 14-15;
Division headquarters in San Jose immeO'Day, 21st Div (PA), II, 15-20; Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 114-20, 123-25; Chandler, "26th
diately made plans for a counterattack
Cavalry (PS) Battles to Glory," Part 2, Armored
using a battalion of the reserve regiment, the
Cavalry Journal (May-June 1947), pp. 12-13;
Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 15; Brief Hist of
22d Inf (PA), p. 4; Richards, Steps to a POW
Camp, pp. 9-12; 14th Army Opns, I, 73, 85.
Mallonee, Bataan Diary, I, 115.

Ibid., 116.
INTO BATAAN
23d Infantry. But darkness fell before the
attack could be mounted and the 2d Battalion, 23d Infantry, the unit selected for the
counterattack, was ordered to move up at
dawn and restore the line on the left. When
the 2d Battalion moved into the line, the
21st Infantry would regroup to the right,
thus shortening its front.
That night the stillness was broken only
by fire from the Philippine artillery which
had pulled back about 600 yards. When
morning came the enemy was gone. Reports from 21st Infantry patrols, which
had moved forward unmolested at the first
sign of light, encouraged division headquarters to believe that the original main line of
resistance could be restored without a fight
and orders were issued for a general advance when the 2d Battalion, 23d Infantry,
tied in with the 21st Infantry.
American plans for a counterattack
were premature. The evening before, the
main force of the Takahashi Detachment
had left its assembly area midway between
Bamban and Angeles and marched rapidly
toward Porac. The 8th Field Heavy Artillery Regiment (less one battalion), with
its 105-mm. guns, had accompanied the
force and by morning was in position to
support the infantry attack. Thus, when
the 2d Battalion, 23d Infantry, began to
advance it was met first by punishing smallarms fire from the infantry, then by fire
from the 105-mm. guns of the 8th Field Artillery. At the same time three Japanese aircraft swung low to strafe the road in support of the enemy attack. The momentum
of the advance carried the Japanese below
Pio, where they were finally stopped.
When news of the attack reached General Wainwright's headquarters, the most
alarming item in the report was the presence of Japanese medium artillery, thought
219
to be heavy guns, on the left of the American line. This artillery represented a serious threat, and the 21st Division was ordered to "hold the line or die where you
are." 8 General Capinpin did his best, but
he had only two battalions of the 23d Infantry, an unseasoned and untrained unit,
left in reserve. One of these battalions was
in North Luzon Force reserve and it was
now ordered to move to the 11th Division
sector near Guagua where a heavy fight
was in progress.
Meanwhile, Colonel Takahashi had
launched an assault against the 21st Infantry. First the battalion on the left gave
way and within an hour the reserve line also
began to crumble. By noon the left flank of
the 21st Infantry was completely disorganized. The right battalion, though still intact,
fell back also lest it be outflanked. This withdrawal exposed the left flank of the 22d
Infantry on its right.
Colonel Takahashi lost no time in taking advantage of the gap in the American
line. Elements of the 9th Infantry drove in
between the two regiments, hitting most
heavily the 1st Battalion, 22d Infantry, on
the regimental left. The action which followed was marked by confusion. The noise
of artillery fire and the black smoke rising
from the burning cane fields reduced the
troops to bewildered and frightened men.
At one time the 21st Infantry staff was
nearly captured when the onrushing enemy
broke through to the command post. A
group of tanks from the 11th Division sector, ordered to attack the Japanese line in
front of the 21st Division, showed a marked
disinclination to move into the adjoining
sector without orders from the tank group
commander. Before the ferocity of the Jap8
220
anese attack the defending infantry line

melted away.
Had it not been for the artillery the Japanese attack might well have resulted in a
ing the day fired on the rear areas. Fortunately, their marksmanship was poor and
although they made life behind the front
lines uncomfortable they inflicted no real
complete rout. Fortunately, the 21st Field

Artillery acted in time to halt Takahashi's
advance. The 1st Battalion on the right,
damage.
On the afternoon of the 4th, as a result of pressure on the 11th Division to the
behind the 22d Infantry, covered the gap

between the two regiments and fired directly against the oncoming Japanese at a
east, General Wainwright ordered the 21st

Division to withdraw under cover of darkness to the line of the Gumain River, about
eight miles south of Porac. That night the
division began to move back after successfully breaking contact with the enemy. Despite the absence of enemy pressure there
range of 600-800 yards. The 2d and 3d

Battalions delivered direct fire up the draw
leading through Pio. Notwithstanding the
punishing artillery fire, the 9th Infantry continued to attack. For six hours, until dark-
was considerable confusion during the withness closed in, the left portion of the 21st drawal. By daylight of the 5th, however, the
Division line was held by the guns of the troops were across the Gumain where they
21st Field Artillery alone, firing at close began to prepare for their next stand. Divirange across open fields. "As attack after sion headquarters, the 23d Infantry, the
attack came on, broke, and went back,"
wrote Colonel Mallone, "I knew what
Cushing's artillerymen must have felt with
the muzzles of their guns in the front line

as the Confederate wave came on and broke
on the high water mark at Gettysburg." 10
Quiet settled down on the 21st Division
front that night. The Takahashi Detachment, its attack halted by the effective fire
of the artillery, paused to reorganize and
take stock of the damage. The next day, 4
January, there was no action at all on the
left and only intermittent pressure on the
right. The Japanese did manage to emplace one or two of their 105-mm. guns
along the high ground to the west and dur-
division signal company, and other special

units were at Dinalupihan, with the 21st
Field Artillery located just east of the town.

The Right Flank
Along the east half of the GuaguaPorac line stood the 11th Division (PA).
The 11th Infantry was on the left, holding
the Guagua-Porac road as far north as
Santa Rita. The regiment, in contact with
the 21st Division on the left only through
occasional patrols, had three battalions on
the line. The 2d Battalion was on the left,
the 1st in the center, and the 3d on the right.
Next to the 11th was the 13th Infantry,

which
held Guagua and was in position
9
Lt. Grover C. Richards, 21st Infantry ( P A ) ,
across
Route
7. Extending the line southstates that he was sent to bring the tanks in and
east from Guagua to Sexmoan were two
finally had to walk in front of the lead tank in order
to get it to advance. Richards, Steps to a POW
companies of the 12th Infantry. The 11th
Camp, pp. 9-10. See also Weaver, Comments on
Field Artillery, for the first time since the
Draft MS, Comment 22, OCMH.
10
start of the war, was in support of the diMallone, Bataan Diary, I, 120.
INTO BATAAN
vision. Part of the 194th Tank Battalion
and Company A of the 192d provided additional support.11
The Japanese attack on the right flank
of the Guagua-Porac line came on 3 January. Leaving San Fernando at 0400 the
reinforced Tanaka Detachment had advanced cautiously along Route 7. At about
0930 the point of the Japanese column
made contact with a platoon of tanks from
Company C, 194th, posted about 1,000
yards north of Guagua. Under tank fire
and confined to the road because of the
marshy terrain on both sides, the Japanese
halted to await the arrival of the main
force. About noon, when the force in front
became too formidable, the American tanks
fell back to Guagua. The Japanese continued to advance slowly. Forced by the
nature of the terrain into a frontal assault
along the main road and slowed down by
the numerous villages along the line of advance, the attack, the Japanese admitted,
"did not progress as planned." 12 Artillery
was brought into support and, late in the
afternoon, the 75-mm. guns opened fire,
scoring at least one hit on the 11th Infantry
command post. The defending infantry
were greatly cheered by the sound of their
own artillery answering the Japanese guns.
Organized after the start of the war and inadequately trained, the men of the 11th
Field Artillery, firing from positions at
221
Guagua and Santa Rita, made up in enthusiasm what they lacked in skill.13
The Japanese artillery fire continued during the night and increased in intensity
the next morning, 4 January, when a battalion of 150-mm. howitzers joined in the
fight. In the early afternoon an enemy
column spearheaded by tanks of the 7th
Tank Regiment broke through the 13th
Infantry line along Route 7 and seized the
northern portion of Guagua. Another column hit the 3d Battalion, 11th Infantry,
to the left of the 13th, inflicting about 150
casualties. The two units held on long
enough, however, for the 1st and 2d Battalions of the 11th Infantry to pull out.
They then broke contact and followed the
two battalions in good order.14
During this action Company A, 192d
Tank Battalion, and elements of the 11th
Division attempted to counterattack by
striking the flank of the Japanese line before Guagua. This move almost ended in
disaster. The infantry on the line mistook
the tanks for enemy armor and began dropping mortar shells on Company A, and General Weaver, who was in a jeep attempting
to co-ordinate the tank-infantry attack, was
almost hit. The mistake was discovered in
time and no serious damage was done.
13
11th Inf ( P A ) , Beach Defense and Delaying
Action, pp. 22-23; Townsend, Defense of Phil,
p. 13.
14
The account of this action and those that follow
are reconstructed from a large number of records
which present at best a confusing picture. The main
sources used in this reconstruction are: NLF and I
Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 14-15; Prov Tank Gp Rpt,
p. 15-16; Miller, Bataan Uncensored, pp. 126-32;
Rpts of S-2 and S-3, 194th Tank Bn in Diary of
11
The account of the action around Guagua is
based on Townsend, Defense of Phil, p. 13; 2d Lt
James, 11th Inf (PA), p. 8, and Liles, 12th Inf
(PA), p. 13, both in Chunn Notebooks; 11th Inf
(PA), Beach Defense and Delaying Action, pp. 2223; Miller, Bataan Uncensored, pp. 124-32; Prov
Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, pp. 15-16; Dooley, The
First U.S. Tank Action in World War II, p. 13; Col Miller, copy in OCMH; 14th Army Opns, I,
86; Weaver, Comments on Draft MS, Comments
Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 124-25.
12
22-25, OCMH.
222
When news of the Japanese breakthrough at Guagua reached General Wainwright on the afternoon of the 4th he decided it was time to fall back again. The
next line was to be south of the Gumain
River, and orders were issued to the 11th, as
well as the 21st Division, to withdraw to the
new line that night.
General Brougher's plan of withdrawal
called for a retirement along Route 7
through Guagua and Lubao to the new line.
The rapid advance of the Tanaka Detachment through Guagua and down Route 7
toward Lubao late that afternoon, however,
cut off this route of retreat of the 11th Infantry and other elements on the line. A
hasty reconnaissance of the area near the
highway failed to disclose any secondary
roads or trails suitable for an orderly retirement. To withdraw cross-country was to invite wholesale confusion and a possible rout.
The only course remaining to the cutoff
units was to traverse a thirty-mile-long, circuitous route through San Jose, in the 21st
Division sector, then down Route 74 to
Dinalupihan. There the men would turn
southeast as far as Layac Junction and then
north along Route 7 to a point where they
could form a line before the advancing
Tanaka Detachment.
That evening, 4 January, the long march
began. Those elements of the 11th Division
cut off by the Japanese advance, and Company A, 192d Tank Battalion, reached San
Jose without interference from the enemy
but not without adding to the confusion
already existing in the 21st Division area.
Meanwhile at San Jose, General
Brougher, the 11th Division commander,
had collected all the trucks and buses he
could find and sent them forward to carry
his men. With this motor transportation,
the 11th Infantry was able to take up a posi-

tion along Route 7, between Santa Cruz and
Lubao, by about 0600 of 5 January. This
line was about one mile southwest of the
Gumain River, the position which the division had originally been ordered to occupy.
Troops arriving on this line found themselves under small-arms fire from the Tanaka Detachment, which had entered Lubao
the previous evening.
A short distance north of this line, an outpost line had already been established the
previous afternoon by General Brougher
with those troops who had been able to
withdraw down Route 7. The infantry
troops on this line were from the 12th Infantry, part of which had pulled back along
Route 7. Brougher had rounded up about
two hundred men from the regiment, together with the ten guns of the 11th Field
Artillery and some 75-mm. SPM's, and
formed a line on Route 7 between Lubao
and Santa Cruz. For fourteen hours, from
the afternoon of 4 January to the morning
of 5 January, these troops under the command of Capt. John Primrose formed the
only line between the enemy and Layac
Junction, the entrance into Bataan. Early
on 5 January when the new line was formed
by the troops who had withdrawn through
San Jose, Primrose and his men pulled back
to join the main force of the division.
The withdrawal of the 194th Tank Battalion from Guagua had been accomplished only after a fierce fight. Colonel
Miller, the tank commander, had ordered
the tanks to pull out on the morning of the
4th. Under constant enemy pressure, the
tanks began a slow withdrawal, peeling off
one at a time. Guarding their flank was a
force consisting of a few tanks of Company
C, 194th, and some SPM's from Capt. Gordon H. Peck's provisional battalion posted
INTO BATAAN
at a block along the Sexmoan-Lubao road.
At about 1600 Peck and Miller had observed a large enemy force approaching.
This force, estimated as between 500 and
800 men, supported by machine guns, mortars, and artillery, was led by three Filipinos carrying white flags, presumably under duress. The tanks and SPM's opened
fire, cutting the Japanese column to pieces.
The 194th Tank Battalion then left burning
Guagua and Lubao and moved south to
positions a mile or two above Santa Cruz.
The tanks and SPM's at the block covered
its withdrawal.
Some time after midnight, between 0200
and 0300 on 5 January, the covering force
was hit again, this time by infantry and artillery of the Tanaka Detachment. Attacking in bright moonlight across an open field
and along the road, the enemy came under
direct fire from the American guns. Driven
back with heavy casualties, he attacked
again and again, and only broke off the
action about 0500, at the approach of daylight. Later in the day the Tanaka Detachment, seriously depleted by casualties, was
relieved by Col. Hifumi Imai's 1st Formosa Infantry (less one battalion) to
which were attached Tanaka's tanks and
artillery.
By dawn of 5 January, after two days of
heavy and confused fighting, the GuaguaPorac line had been abandoned and the
American and Filipino troops had pulled
back to a new line south and west of the
Gumain River. The 21st Division on the
west had retired to a position about eight
miles below Porac and was digging in along
the bank of the river; to the east the 11th
Division had fallen back six miles and stood
along a line about a mile south of the river.
But the brief stand on the Guagua-Porac
223
line had earned large dividends. The Japanese had paid dearly for the ground gained
and had been prevented from reaching their
objective, the gateway to Bataan. More important was the time gained by the troops
already in Bataan to prepare their positions.
Behind the Gates

The only troops remaining between the
enemy and Bataanthe 11th and 21st
Divisions, the 26th Cavalry, and the tank
groupwere now formed on their final
line in front of the peninsula. This line,
approximately eight miles in front of the
access road to Bataan and generally along
the Gumain River, blocked the approach
to Bataan through Dinalupihan and Layac
Junction.
Both Dinalupihan and Layac Junction lie
along Route 7. This road, the 11th Division's route of withdrawal, extends southwest from San Fernando to Layac where it
joins Route 110, the only road leading into
Bataan. At Layac, Route 7 turns sharply
northwest for 2,000 yards to Dinalupihan,
the southern terminus of Route 74 along
which the 21st Division was withdrawing.
Route 7 then continues west across the base
of the peninsula to Olangapo on Subic Bay,
then north along the Zambales coast to Lingayen Gulf, a route of advance the Japanese had fortunately neglected in favor of
the central plain which led most directly to
their objective, Manila.
Layac Junction, where all the roads to
Bataan joined, was the key point along the
route of withdrawal. Through it and over
the single steel bridge across the Culo River
just south of the town would have to pass
the troops converging along Routes 7 and
74. The successful completion of this move
224
would require the most precise timing, and, Thinly manned in one place, congested in
if the enemy attacked, a high order of road another, the position was poorly organized
discipline.
and incapable of withstanding a determined
assault. In one section, infantry, artillery,
and tanks were mixed together in complete
Through the Layac Bottleneck
disorder. "Everyone," said Colonel MalThe withdrawal from the Gumain River lonee, "was in everyone else's lap and the
through Layac Junction, although made whole thing resembled nothing quite as
without interference from the enemy, was much as the first stages of an old fashioned
attended by the greatest confusion. On the southern political mass meeting and free
east, where the 11th Division was in position barbecue." 16
astride Route 7, there were a few skirmishes
Fortunately for General Capinpin, the
between patrols on 5 January but no serious Takahashi Detachment on Route 74 did
action. General Brougher had received a not advance below Pio. This failure to adbattalion of the 71st Infantry to strengthen vance was due to an excess of caution on
his line but the battalion returned to its the part of the colonel who, on the 4th,
parent unit at the end of the day without had been placed under the 65th Brigade
ever having been engaged with the enemy.15 for operations on Bataan.17 It is, entirely
In the 21st Division area to the west there possible that Japanese caution and lack of
was much milling about and confusion on vigor in pressing home the attack may have
the 5th. Work on the Gumain River posi- been due to a mistaken notion of the strength
tion progressed very slowly during the morn- of the defending forces and a healthy reing, and the troops showed little inclination spect for American-led Filipino troops. Had
to extend the line eastward to make contact Takahashi chosen this moment to launch a
with the 11th Division. During the day con- determined attack against the 21st Division
tradictory or misunderstood orders sent the he would almost certainly have succeeded
men forward and then pulled them back, in trapping the forces before Bataan.
sometimes simultaneously. Shortly before
The troops had hardly taken up their
noon General Capinpin, needlessly alarmed positions behind the Gumain River when
about the situation on the 11th Division General Wainwright issued orders for the
front and fearful for the safety of his right withdrawal into Bataan through Layac
(east) flank, ordered a withdrawal to a Junction, to begin at dark. First to cross
point about a mile above Dinalupihan. The the bridge over the Culo River below Layac
movement was begun but halted early in would be the 11th Division, followed closely
the afternoon by an order from General by the 21st. To cover the withdrawal of
Wainwright to hold the Gumain River line the 11th, one battalion of the 21st Division
was to sideslip over in front of the 11th
until further orders.
By midafternoon the division had once Division, while the 26th Cavalry would
flank of the 21st during its
more formed a line south of the river. protect the left
withdrawal.18
15
11thInf ( P A ) , Beach Defense and Delaying

Action, p. 24; ltr, Selleck to Board of Officers,
1 Feb 46, sub: Statement for Reinstatement of
Rank, p. 10, OCMH.
16
Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 131. See also pp.

127-30, and O'Day, 21st Div (PA), II, 19.
17
See below, Ch. XV, p. 21.
18
INTO BATAAN
The execution of such a maneuver seemed
impossible under the conditions existing
along the front. The 23d Infantry, in division reserve, was already at Dinalupihan
and Colonel O'Day, senior American instructor in the 21st Division, proposed instead to place a battalion of this regiment
astride Route 7 behind the 11th Division.
General Brougher's troops could then fall
back through the covering battalion. This
proposal was accepted, and after considerable difficulty "the equivalent of a battalion" was placed in position by dark.19
When night fell the 11th Division withdrew from its positions and moved southwest along Route 7 toward Layac Junction
and the road to Bataan. Soon the town
was crowded with men and vehicles and as
the withdrawal continued became a scene
of "terrible congestion," of marching men,
trucks, buses, artillery, tanks, horses, and
large numbers of staff and command cars.
"It looked," remarked one observer, "like
the parking lot of the Yale bowl." 20
At about 2030 Col. John Moran, chief of
staff of the 11th Division, reported that his
division had cleared Layac and was across
the Culo bridge. The 21st Division was
now ordered across. Observing the passage of men, Colonel O'Day wrote: "It was
a painful and tragic sightour soldiers
trudging along, carrying inordinate loads of
equipment and personal effects. Many had
their loads slung on bamboo poles, a pole
between two men. They had been marching almost since dark the night before, and
much of the daylight hours had been spent
in backing and filling. . . ." 21
19
20
225
By about midnight of the 5th, the last
guns of the 21st Field Artillery had cleared
the bridge, and within the next hour all of
the foot troops, closely shepherded by the
Scouts of the 26th Cavalry, were across.
Last to cross were the tanks, which cleared
the bridge shortly before 0200 of the 6th.
General Wainwright then ordered Capt.
A. P. Chanco, commanding the 91st Engineer Battalion, to blow the bridge. The
charges were immediately detonated and
the span demolished. All of the troops were
now on Bataan, and the last gate slammed
shut. The Japanese had lost their opportunity again to cut off the retreat. Colonel
Imai was still at Santa Cruz and Takahashi
still hung back at Porac.22
Holding Action Below Layac Junction

Already formed below Layac Junction
when the Culo bridge was blown was another line designed to delay the enemy and
gain more time for the Bataan Defense
Force. The idea for a delaying action at
Layac Junction was contained in WPO-3,
the plan that went into effect on 23 December, and General Parker, commander
of the Bataan Defense Force, had sent the
31st Infantry (US) there on the 28th to
cover the junction.
The importance of this position was
stressed by Col. Hugh J. Casey, MacArthur's engineer officer, who, on 2 January, pointed out to General Sutherland that
the defense lines then being established on
Bataan left to the enemy control of Route
110 which led south from Layac into the
peninsula. This road, he felt, should be de-
Ibid., pp. 18,20.
Mallone, Bataan Diary, I, 138. See also O'Day,

21st Div (PA), II, 20; Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns,
p. 16; 11th Inf (PA), Beach Defense and Delaying
Action, p. 24.
21
22
14th Army Opns, I, 73, 86; O'Day, 21st Div
(PA), II, 21; Skerry, Comments on Engineer History, No. 9, p. 11; Chandler, "26th Cavalry (PS)
(May-June 1947), p. 13.
226
nied the Japanese as long as possible. He
recommended to General Sutherland,
therefore, that a strong delaying action, or,
failing that, "definite reference to preparing strong delaying positions . . . should
be made." 23
These recommendations were apparently
accepted, for the same day General MacArthur ordered Wainwright to organize a
delaying position south of Layac Junction
along Route 110. On completion of this position, control would pass to General Parker, who was to hold until forced to withdraw by a co-ordinated enemy attack.24
Responsibility for the establishment of
the Layac Junction line was given to General Selleck who had just reached Bataan
with his disorganized 71st Division (PA).
The troops assigned were the 71st and 72d
23
Memo, Casey for CofS USAFFE, 2 Jan 42,
sub: Defense of Bataan, AG 381, Phil Rcds; ltr,
Parker to Ward, 16 Jan 52, OCMH; ltr, Col Olson
to author, 10 Jan 52, OCMH. Colonel Maher,
Wainwright's chief of staff, states that the Layac
Junction position would have been occupied "as a
matter of course," and that Colonel Casey had
nothing to do with its use. Ltr, Maher to Ward,
24 Dec 51, OCMH.
24
Except where otherwise indicated this section
is based upon: ltr, Selleck to CG II Corps, 3 Feb
43, sub: Action at Layac Junction, in Selleck,
Notes on the 71st Div (PA), pp. 20-22. Attached
to this letter are accounts of the 31st Infantry (US)
by Col. Charles L. Steel and of the 26th Cavalry
(PS) at Layac Junction by Lt. Col. Lee C. Vance,
and a memo, Weaver for Selleck, 1 Feb 43, sub:
Action Prov Tank Gp in Connection with Layac
Delaying Position; ltr, Selleck to Board of Officers,
1 Feb 46, sub: Statement for Reinstatement of
Rank, OCMH; USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns,
pp. 41-42; SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, pp.
22-27; and Chandler, "26th Cavalry (PS) Battles
to Glory," Part 2, Armored Cavalry Journal (MayJune 1947), pp. 13-14; Weaver, Comments on
Draft MS, Comments 29 and 30, OCMH; ltr,
Miller to Ward, 31 Dec 51, OCMH; Skerry, Comments on Draft MS, Comment C, OCMH.
Japanese sources for this action are scanty and
the author had to rely on 14th Army Opns, I, 86,
and the American sources cited.

Infantry from Selleck's 71st Division, totaling approximately 2,500 men; the 26th
Cavalry, now numbering 657 men; and the
31st Infantry (US) of the Philippine Division, the only infantry regiment in the Philippines composed entirely of Americans. Of
this force, the 31st was the only unit which
had not yet been in action. Artillery support consisted of the 71st Field Artillery
with two 75-mm. gun batteries and four
2.95-inch guns; the 1st Battalion of the 23d
Field Artillery (PS) with about ten 75's;
and the 1st Battalion, 88th Field Artillery
(PS) with two batteries of 75's. The tank
group and two SPM battalions were also
in support.
On 3 and 4 January the 71st Division
elements and the 31st Infantry moved into
position and began stringing wire and digging in. General Selleck had been denied the
use of the 71st Engineers by North Luzon
Force, with the result that the construction
of defenses progressed slowly. When Colonel
Skerry inspected the line on the 4th and 5th
he found that the tired and disorganized
71st and 72d Infantry had made little progress in the organization of the ground and
that their morale was low. In the 31st Infantry (US) sector, however, he found
morale high and the organization of the
ground much more effective.
At that time Selleck's forces were spread
thin along a line south of Layac Junction
across Route 110, which ran southeast and
east between Layac and Hermosa. On the
right was the 71st Infantry, holding a front
along the south bank of Culis Creeknot
to be confused with the Culo River immediately to the north. This line, parallel to
and just north of Route 110, extended from
Almacen, northeast of Hermosa, to a point
northeast of Culis, where Culis Creek
turned south to cross Route 110. The east-
227
INTO BATAAN
ern extremity of the 71st Infantry sector
was protected by swamps and a wide river;
on the west was the 72d Infantry, straddling Route 110. Its sector was about
1,000 yards below Layac Junction and
faced north and east.
Next to the 72d Infantry was the 31st Infantry, with the 1st and 2d Battalions extending the line to the southwest, about 3,000
yards from the nearest hill mass. This exposed left flank was to be covered by the
26th Cavalry, then pulling back through
Layac Junction with the 11th and 21st Divisions. In reserve was the 3d Battalion, 31st
Infantry, about 1,000 yards to the rear. Supporting the 31st was the 1st Battalion, 88th
Field Artillery, on the west, and the 1st Battalion, 23d Field Artillery, to its right, west of
Route 110. The 71st Division infantry regiments each had a battalion of the 71st
Field Artillery in support.
At approximately 0330 of the 6th of
January the 26th Cavalry reached the new
line south of Layac Junction and fell in on
the left of the 31st Infantry, to the foothills of the Zambales Mountains. It was followed across the bridge by the tanks, which
took up supporting positions southwest of
Hermosathe 194th Battalion on the left
(west) and the 192d on the right. The
75-mm. SPM's, which withdrew with the
tanks, were placed along the line to cover
possible routes of advance of hostile tanks.
The line when formed seemed a strong
one. In Colonel Collier's opinion, it had
"a fair sized force to hold it," and General
Parker declared, referring probably to the
31st Infantry sector, that it "lent itself to a
good defense . . . was on high ground and
had good fields of fire."25
General Selleck did not share this optimism about the strength of his position. To
him the front occupied by his troops seemed
excessive, with the result that "all units
except the 26th Cavalry were over-extended." 26 Colonel Skerry's inspection on
the 5th had led him to the conclusion that
the length of the line held by the disorganized 71st and 72d Infantry was too extended
for these units. Selleck thought that his line
had another, even more serious weakness, in
that part of the right portion faced northeast
and the left portion northwest, thus exposing
the first to enfilade from the north and the
second to enfilade from the east.
Admittedly the position chosen had weaknesses, but no more than a delaying action
was ever contemplated along this line. As
in the withdrawal of the North Luzon Force
from Lingayen Gulf, all that was expected
was that the enemy, faced by an organized
line, would halt, wait for artillery and other
supporting weapons, and plan an organized,
co-ordinated attack. By that time the objectivedelaywould have been gained, and
the line could pull back.
At 0600, 6 January, when all the troops
were on the line, Wainwright released General Selleck from his command to Parker's
control. After notifying MacArthur of his
action he withdrew to Bataan, stopping
briefly at Culis where Selleck had his command post. North Luzon Force had completed its mission. Like the South Luzon
Force it was now in position behind the
first line on Bataan. Only the covering force
at Layac Junction denied the enemy free
access to Bataan.
Action along the Layac line began on
the morning of 6 January with an artillery
25
Collier, Notebooks, III, 11; SLF and II Corps
Rpt of Opns, p. 25; ltr, Parker to Ward, 16 Jan 52,
OCMH.
26
Ltr, Selleck to CG II Corps, 3 Feb 43, Action
at Layac Junction, in Selleck, Notes on 71st Div
(PA), p. 25.
228
barrage. At about 1000 forward observers

reported that Japanese infantry and artillery were advancing down Route 7 toward Layac Junction. This column was
part of the Iman Detachment which consisted of the 1st Formosa Infantry, one com-
Japanese artillery shifted fire. It enfiladed

the 31st Infantry and inflicted great damage on the 71st Infantry and the 1st Battalion, 23d Field Artillery, destroying all but
one of the latter's guns. The 88th Field Artillery, in a more protected position, did not
pany of the 7th Tank Regiment, two bat- suffer as great a loss. That day General Mactalions of the 48th Mountain Artillery Arthur informed the War Department that
armed with 75-mm. guns, and one battalion the enemy was using his "complete comof the 1st Field Heavy Artillery Regiment mand of the air ... to full effect against
with eight 150-mm. howitzers. By 1030 the our artillery." 28
Japanese column was within artillery range
The intense Japanese artillery barrage
of the defenders and the 1st Battalions of the was the prelude to an advance by the in23d and 88th Field Artillery Regiments fantry. MacArthur had warned that the
opened fire. The first salvo by the Philip- Japanese were "apparently setting up a
pine Scout gunners was directly on the tar- prepared attack in great strength," and, exget. Switching immediately to rapid volley cept for his estimate of the strength of the
fire, the two battalions, joined by the 71st enemy, his analysis was correct.29 At about
Field Artillery, searched the road from front 1400 a Japanese force of several battalions
to rear, forcing the enemy to deploy about of infantry crossed the Culo River below
4,200 yards northeast of Layac.27
Layac Junction and pushed forward the
The Japanese now moved their own American line. Another force turned north
artillery into position. The 75's of the at Layac and moved toward Dinalupihan,
48th Mountain Artillery and the 150-mm. entering that undefended town at 1500. An
howitzers of the 1st Field Artillery, directed hour later the Japanese who had continued
by unmolested observation planes, began to south on reaching Layac hit Selleck's line
drop concentrated and effective fire on the
between the 31st Infantry and the 72d InAmericans and Filipinos. It was during
fantry. Company B, on the right of the
this bombardment that Jose Calugas, the
mess sergeant of Battery B, 88th Field Ar- 31st line, had been badly shaken by the
artillery barrage and fell back in disorder to
tillery, won the Medal of Honor.
General Selleck, without antiaircraft pro- higher ground about 800 yards to the rear,
tection, was unable to prevent aerial recon- leaving a gap between Company C on its
naissance, with the result that the Japanese left and the 72d Infantry on the right. Jap150's, out of range of the American guns, anese troops promptly infiltrated. Attempts
were able to place accurate and punishing by the rest of the 1st Battalion, 31st Infanfire upon the infantry positions and upon the try, to fill the gap failed and Col. Charles
artillery. Around noon, therefore, Selleck L. Steel, the regimental commander, seordered his artillery to new positions, but the cured his 3d Battalion from Selleck's reserve
observation planes, flying as low as 2,000 and ordered it into the line.
feet, reported the changed positions, and the
27
Collier, Notebooks, II, 12-14; ltr, Fowler to

author, 30 Apr 49, OCMH.
28
Rad, MacArthur to TAG, No. 14, 6 Jan 42,
AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 1) Far East.
29
Ibid.
INTO BATAAN
The Japanese, supported by artillery fire,
continued to push into the gap, hitting the
right of Company C, 31st Infantry, and
Company A of the 72d on the left. Lt. Col.
Jasper E. Brady, Jr., the 3d Battalion commander, ordered Companies I and L, 31st
Infantry, into the sector previously held by
Company B. As Company I moved forward,
it was caught in the enemy's artillery fire,
badly disorganized, and forced back to the
rear. Company L, however, continued to
press forward. Within thirty minutes from
the time it had jumped off to the attack, it
had succeeded in restoring the line.30
Outwardly the situation seemed well in
hand. But General Selleck was in serious
trouble. His overextended line had been
partially penetrated, his reserves had been
committed, and his artillery was practically out of action. The Japanese were continuing to press south across the Culo
River. Should they attack successfully
through the 72d Infantry line, they would
gain control of the road and cut off Selleck's
route of escape. Colonel Steel recommended
withdrawal and General Selleck informed
Parker that he would not be able to hold
out without artillery and infantry reinforcements and that a daylight withdrawal
might prove disastrous. At 2200 of the 6th,
General Parker ordered a withdrawal under
cover of darkness.
Although both the American and Japanese commanders had tanks at their disposal
neither had employed them that day. Possibly the Japanese had failed to use armor
30
Maj Donald G. Thompson, Opns of Co L,
31st Inf (US) in Battle of Layac Junction (paper
prepared for Advanced Infantry Officers Course,
1947-48, The Infantry School), pp. 10-14. Major
Thompson commanded L Company during this
action.
229
because there were no bridges over the Culo
River. Some of the American tanks had been
hit by the Japanese artillery, but not seriously enough to prevent their use. They had
not been used to support the attack by the
3d Battalion, 31st Infantry, General Selleck
noted caustically, because "the terrain was
not considered suitable by the lank commander." 31 At about 1830, when it appeared that the Japanese might cut off the
route of escape, Colonel Miller, senior tank
commander in the area, had moved the
tanks toward the highway. They arrived
there about 2100, and were met by General Weaver's executive with orders for a
further withdrawal southward into Bataan.32
The tanks were already well on their
way when the units on the line received
orders to pull back. The 71st Division elements experienced no difficulty in withdrawing down the road. The 31st Infantry,
leaving three companies on the line as a covering shell, pulled out about 0130 on the
morning of the 7th. An hour later, as the
shell began to move out, the Japanese
launched an attack against Hermosa, cutting off Company E and almost destroying
it. The Japanese reached their objective
by 0500, but the survivors of Company E
31
Ltr, Selleck to Board of Officers, 1 Feb 46, sub:
Statement for Reinstatement of Rank, p. 11,
OCMH. General Weaver does not mention this
matter in his memo to Selleck, cited above, or in
his report. Colonel Miller speaks of the impossibility of tank action in this area in Bataan Uncensored, p. 139. In his comments on a draft of this
manuscript, General Weaver states that no request
for tanks was ever made to him. Comment 29,
OCMH.
32
Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, pp. 16-17; ltr, Miller to
Ward, 31 Dec 51, OCMH; Weaver, Comments on
Draft MS, Comments 29 and 30, OCMH.
230
did not rejoin the regiment until a few

days later.33
The 26th Cavalry, which had not been
under attack that day, had lost contact with
the 31st Infantry on its right. Radio communication proved inadequate; messages
were garbled and, in some cases, indecipherable. The code had been changed during the night and no one had informed the
26th Cavalry. Consequently the Scout regiment was not aware of the order to withdraw during the night. It was not until
the approach of daylight that the 26th
learned of the withdrawal. It began to pull
back at 0700 of the 7th. By this time the
Japanese controlled the road as far south
as Hermosa and the Scouts were compelled
to move overland across the mountainous
jungle to reach the American line. With
the departure of the 26th Cavalry the Layac
line disappeared.
At Layac Junction the American and
Philippine troops had paid dearly to secure
one day of grace for the forces preparing
to defend Bataan. Against the longer range
Japanese guns the Americans had been defenseless. The line had been penetrated at
the first blow, only to be restored and then
abandoned. The Japanese had once more
failed in their attempt to follow up their
advantage.
The withdrawal into Bataan was now
complete. Under desperate circumstances
and under constant pressure from the
enemy, General MacArthur had brought
his forces from the north and south to San
Fernando and Calumpit. There, in a most
33
Thompson, Opns of Co L, 31st Inf (US), p. 15;
Maj Eugene B. Conrad, Opns of 31st Inf (US),
pp. 10-11, and Maj Everett V. Mead, S-4 of 31st
Inf (US), Opns and Mvmts of 31st Inf (US),
p. 15. Both papers prepared for Advanced Officers
Course in 1946-47 and 1947-48, respectively, at
The Infantry School.

difficult maneuver, he had joined the two
forces and brought them safely into Bataan,
fighting a delaying action all the way. All
this had been accomplished in two weeks,
during which time positions had been prepared on Bataan and supplies shipped there
from Manila and elsewhere. Not a single
major unit had been cut off or lost during
the withdrawal, and only once, at Cabanatuan, had the American line failed to
hold long enough to permit an orderly withdrawal. The success of this complicated and
difficult movement, made with ill-equipped
and inadequately trained Filipino troops, is
a tribute to the generalship of MacArthur,
Wainwright, and Jones and to American
leadership on the field of battle.
The withdrawal had been a costly one
on both sides. General Wainwright's North
Luzon Force of 28,000 men had been reduced to about 16,000 largely by the desertion of Filipino soldiers who returned to
their homes. Only a small portion of the
12,000 men lost were battle casualties or
captured by the enemy. General Jones's
South Luzon Force fared much better. Of
the 15,000 men in his force originally, General Jones had 14,000 left when he reached
Bataan.34 The Japanese suffered close to
2,000 casualties during the period since the
first landing. This number included 627
killed, 1,282 wounded, and 7 missing.35
The men who reached Bataan were tired
34
45, 48; interv, Falk with Jones, 2 Dec 49. The
strengths as given are rough approximations at best.
No official figures are available for the campaign
or any part of it.
35
Comments of Former Japanese Officers Regarding The Fall of the Philippines, pp. 50, 124;
USA vs. Homma, Defense Exhibit Y. See also the
testimony of Colonel Nakajima, who said at the trial
of General Homma that there were 4,500 casualties, including 1,300 wounded and 2,700 sick, in
the 14th Army thus far. USA vs. Homma, p. 2573,
testimony of Nakajima.
INTO BATAAN
and hungry. Before the fight began again
they were accorded a brief rest while the
enemy reorganized. To Colonel Collier this
interlude seemed but an intermission between the acts of a great tragedy entitled
"Defense of the Philippines." But before
231
the curtain could go up on the second act,
certain off-stage arrangements had to be
completed. While these did not directly affect the action on-stage, they exerted a powerful influence on the outcome of the
drama.
CHAPTER XIV
The End of an Era

On 26 December, Manila was declared
an open city. All newspapers published the
text of the proclamation and radio stations
broadcast the news through the day. A
huge banner bearing the words Open City
and No Shooting was strung across the front
of the city hall. That night the blackout
ended and Manila was ablaze with lights.1
With the evacuation of the government
and the army, a feeling of foreboding and
terror spread through the city, and the exodus, which had ceased after the first confusion of war, began again. "The roads
back into the hills," noted one observer,
"were black with people striving to reach
their native villages . . . . The few trains
still running into the provinces were literally jammed to the car tops." 2 The business
district was deserted and there were few
cars along Dewey Boulevard.
Here and there a few shops made a brave
attempt at a holiday spirit with displays of
tinsel and brightly wrapped gifts. On the
Escolta, two Santa Clauses with the traditional white beards and red costumes looked
strangely out of place. One walked up and
down as if dazed while the other, more practical, piled sandbags before the entrance to
his shop. "No girls in slacks and shorts were
bicycling along the water front," wrote Maj.
Carlos Romulo reminiscently, "and there
1
USA vs. Homma, pp. 271, 283, 291, testimony
of Abelardo L. Valencia, correspondent, and Don
Bell, news commentator; Lee, They Call It Pacific
(Viking), p. 125.
2
Lee, They Call It Pacific, pp. 126-27; USA vs.
Homma, pp. 264-355.
were no horseback riders on the bridle

path . . . the Yacht Club, the night clubs
and hotels ... all looked like funeral parlors." 3 "Let it be known," reported NBC
correspondent Bert Silen, "that our Christmas Eve was the darkest and gloomiest I
ever hope to spend." 4
Late on the night of 26 December Radio Tokyo acknowledged receipt of the
Manila broadcasts declaring the capital
an open city.5 Official notification to 14th
Army came later, either on the 28th or after,
when Imperial General Headquarters forwarded the information from Tokyo. Apparently MacArthur made no attempt to
notify the Japanese forces in the Philippines of his intentions, but a mimeographed
announcement of the open city declaration
was in the hands of the Japanese troops by
31 December.6
3
Romulo, I Saw the Fall of the Philippines, pp.
73-74, 77.
4
John Hersey, Men on Bataan (New York,
1942), p. 41.
5
USA vs. Homma, pp. 283-86, testimony of Don
Bell.
6
Ibid., pp. 2573-74, testimony of Col Nakajima;
p. 3067, testimony of Homma; pp. 357-58, testimony
of Yoshiaki Nakada, a chaplain on the 14th Army
staff; Defense Exhibits M and N, affidavits by the
Spanish and Swiss Consuls; Statement of Nakajima,
6 Feb 50, ATIS Doc 56349, Interrogations of

Former Japanese Officers, Mil Hist Div, GHQ FEC,
II, 5.
General Maeda commented later that "Imperial
General Headquarters did not recognize the declaration of Manila as an open city. Manila had to be
taken. Even if it were an open city, Japanese troops
had to occupy it." Interrog of Maeda, 10 May 47,
THE OPEN CITY (Japanese photograph).
234
Either the Japanese in the Philippines

were unaware of the open city declaration
or they chose to ignore it, for enemy aircraft
were over the Manila area on 27 December.
The Army's 5th Air Group sent 7 light and
4 heavy bombers against Nichols Field, and
at least 2 fighters over the port district that
day.7 But the main bombing strikes, directed
against the Manila Bay and Pasig River
areas, were made by naval aircraft. For
three hours at midday, successive waves of
unopposed bombers over Manila wrought
great destruction on port installations and
buildings in the Intramuros, the ancient
walled city of the Spaniards. The attacks
against shipping continued the next day,
with additional damage to the port area.8
By New Year's Eve the rear echelon of
USAFFE headquarters under General
Marshall had completed its work and was
prepared to leave the "open city." The capital was subdued but ready to greet the New
Year. Hotels, nightclubs, and cabarets were
opened, a dance was held at the Fiesta Pavilion of the Manila Hotel, and many
women donned evening gowns for the first
time since the start of the war. But no sirens
were sounded as in the past to herald the
new year; there was no exploding of firecrackers, no tooting of horns, and no bright
lights from naval ships in the bay lighting
the sky. The only fireworks came from burning military installations. Along Manila
streets the uncollected garbage of many
days lay almost unnoticed.9

While a few citizens drank and danced,
most of the bars closed at 2100. A large
number of bartenders, in what someone
termed a "scotched-earth policy," smashed
the remaining bottles to prevent their falling into Japanese hands.10
The next morning the quartermaster
stores in the port area were thrown open to
the public and great crowds hurried towards
the piers. About to be burned, the sheds
yielded a wide assortment of booty to the delighted Filipinos. The ice plant, filled with
frozen food, was also thrown open. Not all
the residents were at the piers; many attended church services, for the Japanese
were expected that afternoon.11
For almost forty years Manila had been
the outpost of American civilization in the
Orient. Now the badly mauled port area
was quiet and dead as the old year. From
the waters of Manila Bay rose the funnels
of sunken ships and along the waterfront
stood the blackened, empty walls and the
battered piers, mute epitaph to one of the
finest harbors in the Far East.12
The city was surrounded by an inferno
of flame, noise, and smoke. Fuel supplies
at Fort McKinley to the southeast, installations that survived the bombing at Nichols
Field to the south, and the ruins of Cavite
across Manila Bay were demolished in great
bursts of flame and explosion. The bewildered and frightened population was further panic-stricken by the soaring flames
from the oil tanks at Pandacan, which ate
up surrounding warehouses and buildings

Ibid.; Sunday Tribune (Manila), December 28,
1941, in USA vs. Homma, Prosecution Exhibit 20,
and pp. 267-355, passim.
9
Philippines Herald (Manila), December 31,
1941; Manila Bulletin, January 1, 1942; Romulo,
I Saw the Fall of the Philippines, pp. 85-89.
8
10
Hersey, Men on Bataan, p. 237.

Van Landingham, "I Saw Manila Die," Saturday Evening Post, September 26, 1942, p. 70.
12
Romulo, I Saw the Fall of the Philippines, p.
74; Philippines Herald (Manila), December 31,
1941.
11
THE END OF AN ERA

and sent up black clouds of smoke. The
flaming oil floated along the Pasig and set
other fires along the banks. And from the
air the enemy continued to drop bombs,
adding even more fuel to the great conflagration which swept huge areas in and around
the city. "To the native population of Manila," commented one observer, "it seemed
like the end of the world." 13
The Occupation of Manila

On the first day of the New Year the
Japanese 48th Division and the 4th and 7th
Tank Regiments were twelve miles above
the northern outskirts of Manila. To the
south that night advance elements of General Morioka's 16th Division reached Manila Bay at a point less than ten miles from
the capital city.14 With two divisions "ready
to go," Homma stopped the advance on
the outskirts of the capital over the protests
of both divisional commanders. "If those
divisions went in together from south and
north," he explained later, "anything might
happen." 15
Both divisions could have entered Manila
on New Year's Day and expected to do so.
When the order to advance did not come,
Lt. Gen. Yuichi Tsuchibashi, 48th Division
commander, sent Homma an urgent message at 1040, pointing out that the great
fires had dissipated "the Army's hope of
13
Van Landingham, "I Saw Manila Die," Satur-
day Evening Post, September 26, 1942, p. 70.

14
14th Army Opns, I, 65. The 2d Formosa and
two battalions of the 48th Mountain Artillery were
not with the 48th Division at this time.
15
USA vs. Homma, p. 3056, testimony of Homma.
General Maeda, Homma's chief of staff, declared
that the 48th Division, for one, "was told to wait
so that it could spruce up and reorganize." Interrog
of Maeda, 10 May 47, Interrogations of Former
Japanese Officers, Mil Hist Div, GHQ FEC, I.
235
preserving the city of Manila" and that "to

rescue Manila from this conflagration" he
planned to enter the capital in force. From
Homma he requested approval for his
plan.16 This was followed by a plea from
the division's chief of staff, who wrote: "I
beseech you at the order of my superior to
promptly approve the previously presented
plan."17
Immediately after the 14th Army command post completed its movement from
Binalonan to Cabanatuan, a staff conference was held at 1900 on New Year's Day
to decide on the method of entry into Manila. Two plans were discussed: one to send
a force into the city immediately, as proposed by the 48th Division commander;
the other to dispatch a "military commission" to the capital to urge its surrender
while the troops remained outside the city.
The former plan was finally adopted, and
at 2000 the 48th Division was ordered to
seize Manila and prevent its destruction.
Similar orders were given the 16th Division
at 1000 on 2 January. General Morioka
would also occupy Cavite and Batangas.18
The line of the Pasig River, which flowed
through the capital and into Manila Bay,
was set as operational boundary between
the two divisions. That night supplementary
orders from General Homma fixed the size
of the force entering Manila from the north
at three infantry battalions of the 48th Division. The 16th Division was seemingly
left free to determine the number of its
troops entering Manila. Further orders apparently directed that the city was not to
16
14th Army Opns, I, 67. The telegram was
dated 1040, but it did not reach Homma until
1710. The nearly five hours it required to reach
Army headquarters is unexplained.
17
Ibid.
18
Ibid., 68-69.
236
be entered until the 2d, for no entry was

made that night.19
Inside the city a newspaper extra at noon
on New Year's Day declared the enemy to
be on the verge of entry and advised inhabitants to remain in their homes and await
further orders from the Philippine authorities in control. Anticipating confinement in
internment camps, American residents immediately packed toilet articles and a
change of clothing.20 Word of the impending entry of the Japanese reached Corregidor quickly. MacArthur reported to the
War Department on the morning of the 2d
that Japanese troops would enter Manila
that afternoon. His information was accurate enough to enable him to predict that
the force would be small and that its duties
would be limited to the maintenance of law
and order, "which would indicate that
there will be no violence." 21 That morning
Japanese nationals were released from
custody. The crowds, laden with stores from
the quartermaster warehouses, began to
break into business establishments and
wholesale looting began.22 The once proud
city, covered with the ashes and filth of destruction, was difficult to recognize as the
beautiful and orderly metropolis it had been
less than a month before.
Finally, at 1745 on Friday, 2 January
1942, the Japanese entered Manila. Maj.
Gen. Koichi Abe, 48th Division infantry
19
Ibid., 76. Homma later claimed that "arrangements were made to enter the city . . . with only two
battalions from each division, and the rest of the
divisions must stay out of the city." Neither Generals Tsuchibashi nor Morioka limited the entering
units to two battalions. USA vs. Homma, p. 3056,
testimony of Homma.
20
Van Landingham, "I Saw Manila Die," Saturday Evening Post, September 26, 1942, p. 70.
21
Rad, MacArthur to AGWAR, No. 5, 2 Jan 42,
AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 1) Far East.
22
Manila Bulletin, January 3, 1942.

group commander, led one battalion of the
1st Formosa and two of the 47th Infantry
into the northern sector of the capital. Simultaneously, from the south, the 16th Reconnaissance Regiment and a battalion of
the 20th Infantry also entered.23 Accompanied by released Japanese civilians, who
acted as interpreters, the occupying troops
posted guards at strategic points and set
about securing the city.24 "The joyful voices
of the Japanese residents," reported General Morioka, "were overwhelming." 25
The voices of the other residents were
not so joyful. Throughout the city at important intersections Japanese officers and
interpreters set up card tables and checked
pedestrians. All "enemy aliens," British and
Americans, were ordered to remain at home
until they could be registered and investigated. The only Caucasians who walked the
streets unmolested were Germans, Italians,
and Spaniards.26
All that night Japanese trucks poured
into the city, their occupants taking over
private hotels and some public buildings as
billets. Enemy troops moved into the University of the Philippines and other school
buildings. The next morning the only cars
on the street were those driven by Japanese
officers and civilians. From their radiators
flew the flag of the Rising Sun. Spanish,
French, Italian, German, Portuguese, and
Thai flags could also be seen. The vault of
the national treasury at the Intendencia
Building was sealed and a large placard announced the building and its contents to be
the property of the Japanese Government.
The banks remained closed and the doors
23
14th Army Opns, I, 70, 84.

Manila Bulletin, January 3, 1942.
25
16th Div Opns, 24 Dec 41-3 Jan 42, ATIS
24
Enemy Pub 355, p. 9.

26
Margaret Utinsky, Miss U (San Antonio, Tex.,
1948), p. 1; Hersey, Men on Bataan, p. 154.
237
THE END OF AN ERA
JAPANESE LIGHT TANKS moving toward Manila on the day the city was entered.
of Manila restaurants were also shut. News- Philippine General Hospital. All British and
paper publication was briefly suspended Americans were ordered to report for internand then began again under Japanese con- ment, and nearly 3,000 were herded totrol. The few stores that were open did a gether on the campus of Santo Tomas Uniland-office business with Japanese officers versity. "Thereafter," reported the Japawho bought up brooches and watches with nese, "peace and order were gradually restored to Manila." 28
colorful occupation pesos.27
The restoration of "peace and order" reGovernmental departments of the Philippine Commonwealth were placed under quired the Japanese to place many restric"protective custody." The courts were tem- tions on the civilian population. On 5 Januporarily suspended, utilities were taken over ary a "warning" appeared in heavy black
by the Japanese, and a bewildering list of li- type across the top of the Manila Tribune.
censes and permits was issued to control the "Any one who inflicts, or attempts to ineconomic life of the Islands. Japanese sick flict, an injury upon Japanese soldiers or inand wounded were moved into the Chinese dividuals," it read, "shall be shot to death";
General Hospital and three wards of the but "if the assailant, or attempted assailant,
27
The Sunday Tribune (Manila), January 4,
1942; Utinsky, Miss U, p. 4.
28
Hersey, Men on Bataan, pp. 152-54; 14th
Army Opns, I, 77.
238
cannot be found, we will hold ten influential
persons as hostages who live in and about
the streets or municipalities where the event
happened." The warning concluded with
the admonition that "the Filipinos should
understand our real intentions and should
work together with us to maintain public
peace and order in the Philippines."29
With the occupation of Manila," General
Homma had successfully accomplished the
mission assigned by Imperial General Headquarters. But he could draw small comfort
from his success, for MacArthur's forces
were still intact. The newly formed Philippine Army, the Philippine Scouts, and the
U.S. Army garrison had successfully escaped
to Bataan and Corregidor. So long as they
maintained their positions there, the Japanese would be unable to enter Manila Bay
or use the Manila harbor. The Japanese had
opened the back door to Manila Bay but
the front door remained firmly closed.
To the civilians who watched quietly

from behind closed shutters as the Japanese
entered their city it seemed incredible that
the war was less than a month old. In that
brief span of time, the enemy had made
eight separate landings on widely dispersed
beaches. He had driven out of the Philippines the Far East Air Force and the Asiatic
Fleet. On Luzon he had marched north and
south from each end of the island to join
his forces before Manila. Casualties had
been comparatively light and the main objective was now in his hands.
In that same time the Japanese had secured a foothold in Mindanao to the south
and had gained control of the important har-
bor at Davao. Brig. Gen. William F. Sharp's

forces on that island were still intact, however, and held the airfield at Del Monte,
the only field in the archipelago still capable
of supporting heavy bombers. In the
Visayas the Japanese had made no landings. There the scattered American and
Philippine garrisons on Panay, Cebu, Bohol,
Leyte, and other islands fortified their defenses and made plans for the day when
the enemy would appear off their shores.
Elsewhere, the Japanese forces had set
about exploiting their initial gains. Hong
Kong had fallen to the 23d Army on Christmas Day. General Yamashita's 25th Army,
which had landed on the Malay Peninsula
on the first day of war, was now pushing
ever closer to Singapore. Japanese forces in
the Sulu Archipelago and Borneo consolidated their positions and prepared to move
into the Netherlands Indies. The South
Seas Detachment, which had seized Guam,
was now ready to move on to Rabaul, while
other units staged for operations in the
Celebes-Ambon area. Important Burmese
airfields had been attacked on 25 December
and at the year's end the 15th Army was
concentrating in Thailand for its invasion
of Burma. After the first rapid gains, the
enemy was ready for further offensives. The
Allies had little left to challenge the Japanese bid for supremacy in the Southwest
Pacific and Southeast Asia.
General MacArthur attributed the success of the Japanese to American weakness
on the sea and in the air. The enemy, he
pointed out, now had "utter freedom of
naval and air movements" and could be
expected to extend its conquests southward
into the Netherlands Indies, using Mindanao as a base of operations.30 If the Jap-
29
Sunday Tribune (Manila), January 5, 1942;
see also USA vs. Homma, Prosecution Exhibit 16.
30
Rad, MacArthur to TAG, 27 Dec 41, AG 381
(11-27-41) Far East.
Strategic Views on the Philippines
THE END OF AN ERA

anese were able to seize the Netherlands
Indies, he warned, the Allies would be
forced to advance from Australia through
the Dutch and British islands to regain the
Philippines. He regarded it as essential,
therefore, to halt the Japanese drive southward, and proposed that air forces should
be rushed to the Southwest Pacific. Operating from advance bases, these planes could
prevent the Japanese from developing airfields. Concurrently, with strong naval action to keep open the line of communication to Mindanao, Japanese air forces were
to be neutralized by Allied air power, and
then ground forces would be landed there.
He had already done all he could to support such action, MacArthur told the War
Department, by sending his air force to
Australia and the Netherlands Indies and
by supporting Mindanao with reinforcements and ammunition. "I wish to emphasize," he concluded, "the necessity for naval
action and for rapid execution by land, sea,
and air." 31
Receiving no reply to this message, General MacArthur took the occasion, on 1
January, when asked about the evacuation
of President Quezon, to emphasize his isolated position and to remind the Chief of
Staff of his strategic concept for a combined
effort by land, sea, and air forces through
the Netherlands Indies to Mindanao.
Quezon's departure, he warned, would undoubtedly be followed by the collapse of
the will to fight on the part of the Filipinos,
and he pointedly added that, aside from
7,000 combat troops (exclusive of air
corps), his army consisted of Filipinos. "In
view of the Filipinos effort," he declared,
"the United States must move strongly to
31
Ibid. For the measures taken to strengthen
Mindanao, see V-MF Rpt of Opns, Part I, passim,

Annex XI, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns.
239
their support or withdraw in shame from
the Orient." 32
Just a week later, as his forces withdrew
behind the first line of defenses on Bataan,
MacArthur outlined for the Chief of Staff
the preparations he was making for the arrival of an expeditionary force in Mindanao.
These included transfer of equipment for
one division, the movement of nine P-40's
and 650 men of the 19th Bombardment
Group to Del Monte, and plans to develop
additional landing fields there. It was essential, he wrote, to inaugurate a system of
blockade-running to Mindanao since supplies were low.
Our air force bombardment missions from
south should quickly eliminate hostile air from
Davao and our pursuit should go into Del
Monte without delay. Establishment of air
force will permit immediate extension into
Visayas and attacks on enemy forces in Luzon.
. . . An Army Corps should be landed in
Mindanao at the earliest possible date. . . .
Enemy appears to have tendency to become
overconfident and time is ripe for brilliant
thrust with air carriers.33
MacArthur's pleas for a major Allied effort in the Southwest Pacific were received
with sympathy in Washington, where the
first wartime United States-British conference on strategy was in session. The British
recognized the importance of the threat in
the Far East and agreed that munitions and
supplies should go there, even though such
shipments represented a diversion from the
agreed strategy that the main effort should
be made against Germany first. "The
President and Prime Minister, Colonel
32
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, Nos. 2 and 3, 1
Jan 42, WPD 4639-2. Apparently MacArthur excluded from his estimate of combat strength the
12,000 Philippine Scouts who, though Filipinos,

were part of the U.S. Army.
33
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 20, 7 Jan
42, AG 381 (11-27-41) Far East.
240
Stimson and Colonel Knox, the British
Chiefs of Staff and our corresponding officials," General Marshall told MacArthur,
"have been surveying every possibility looking toward the quick development of
strength in the Far East so as to break the
enemy's hold on the Philippines."
Though all were agreed on the need for
action in the Southwest Pacific, little could
be done. The loss in capital ships, Marshall
explained, prevented naval convoys for
heavy reinforcements and the concentration of strong naval forces in the Southwest
Pacific such as MacArthur was requesting.
Heavy bombers were on the way, via Africa
and Hawaii, and pursuit planes were being
sent by every ship, so that the Allies should
soon have aerial supremacy in the Southwest Pacific. "Our great hope," Marshall
told MacArthur, "is that the rapid development of an overwhelming air power on the
Malay Barrier will cut the Japanese communications south of Borneo and permit an
assault in the southern Philippines." The
naval carrier raids MacArthur was asking
for were not ruled out entirely but little hope
was offered for such an effort. Marshall
closed his message on a note of encouragement for the future and the assurance that
"every day of time you gain is vital to the
concentration of overwhelming power necessary for our purpose." 34
Actually, the American and British staffs
in Washington had already agreed upon the
strategy for the Far East: to hold the Malay
Barrier from the Malay Peninsula through
Sumatra and Java to Australia. This line
was considered the basic Allied defensive
position in the Far East, and the retention
of its east and west anchors, Australia and
Burma, was therefore regarded as essential.
34
Ibid.

The latter had additional strategic importance because it was essential to the support of China and the defense of India.
The Allies were agreed that land, sea, and
air forces should operate as far forward of
the barrier as possible in order to halt the
Japanese advance southward. The support
of the Philippine garrison and the re-establishment of the line of communications
through the Netherlands Indies to Luzon
apparently came after the more important
task of holding Australia and Burma.35
During the first week in January the War
Plans Division of the General Staff, which
had been studying the possibility of sending an expedition to the relief of the
Philippine garrison, came to the conclusion
that the forces required could not be placed
in the Far East in time. While this
reason was probably the overriding consideration in its recommendation that operations to relieve the Philippines not be
undertaken, the War Plans Division went
on to point out that the dispatch of so large
a force would constitute "an entirely unjustifiable diversion of forces from the principal theaterthe Atlantic." The greatest
effort which could be justified on strategic
grounds was to hold the Malay Barrier
while projecting operations as far north as
possible to provide maximum defense in
depth. This view was essentially that already agreed upon by the Combined Chiefs
of Staff. The War Plans Division therefore
recommended that, "for the present," operations in the Far East should be limited to
these objectives.36
35
Rpt of U.S.-British CsofS, 31 Dec 41, sub:
Supporting Measures for SWPA (ABC 4/3), OPD
Reg Doc. General MacArthur was informed of the

substance of this report on 31 December 1941.
36
Memo, Brig Gen L. T. Gerow for CofS, 3 Jan
42, sub: Relief of Phil, WPD 4639-3.
241
THE END OF AN ERA

The War Plans Division study is of considerable interest, not only for the effect it
may have had on MacArthur's requests for
a joint advance through the Netherlands
Indies to Mindanao, but also for its realistic
appraisal of the strategic situation in the
Far East and the importance of the Philippine Islands. Accepting General MacArthur's estimate of Japanese strength in the
Philippines and of the length of time he
could hold out against serious attackthree
monththe Army planners- agreed that the
loss of the Philippines, "the key to the Far
East position of the Associated Powers,"
would be a decisive blow, followed probably by the fall of the Netherlands Indies
and Singapore.37 Australian and British
trade routes would then be seriously threatened, while Japan's strength would be increased by control of the raw materials in
the Indies. The isolation of China was
"almost certain to follow." 38 This analysis
coincided with MacArthur's, as did the
plan of operations outlined to recover the
Philippines.
It was when the planners considered the
means necessary to carry out these operations that they found themselves in disagreement with General MacArthur. They estimated that 1,464 aircraft of various types,
only about half of which were available,
would be necessary to advance from Australia to Luzon. The difference would have
to come from other areasHawaii, Panama, and the United Statesand from
lend-lease aircraft already committed. Additional airfields would have to be built in
37
Ibid. MacArthur estimated that the Japanese
had six divisions on Luzon, one at Davao, and a
small force at Jolo. There were only two Japanese
divisions in the Philippines. The planners, for lack
of more definite information, accepted MacArthur's
estimate.
38
Ibid.
Australia and along the line of advance.

The line of communications to Australia
would have to be made secure and a logistical organization developed to support the
drive northward. Such an effort, the planners estimated, would require very large
naval resources. With the vessels already in
the area, the Allies would have to transfer
7 to 9 capital ships, 5 to 7 carriers, about
50 destroyers, 60 submarines, and the necessary auxiliary vessels from the Atlantic
and Mediterranean to the Pacific and Far
East. The diversion of naval forces might
well result in the loss of the supply routes to
Europe and the Middle East and would
severely limit the defense of the Western
Hemisphere. It was not surprising, therefore, that the War Plans Division concluded
that the relief of the Philippine garrison
could not be accomplished in the three
months left, and that the allocation of such
sizable forces to the project would represent a major and unjustifiable diversion
from the main effort.39
There is no record of any formal approval
of the conclusions of the War Plans Division. Both Secretary Stimson and General
Marshall noted the study but made no comment. If there had ever been any serious
consideration given to MacArthur's proposals to send an expedition to the relief
of the beleaguered Philippine garrison, the
War Plans study put an end to such hopes.
But there was no relaxation of the determination to send General MacArthur whatever aid was within the means of the United
States and its Allies. President Roosevelt
had time and again stated his desire to do
so and as late as 30 December had written
Stimson that he wished the War Plans Division to explore every possible means of re39
Ibid.
242
lieving the Philippines. "I realize great risks

are involved," he said, "but the objective
is important." 40
While the President's stated desire remained the official policy of the government
and the hope of the American people, the
strategy evolved by the Allies placed more
realistic limits to the objectives they hoped
to attain. The conference then meeting in
Washington agreed that the Allies must
hold the Malay Barrier and established a
theater of operations known as the ABDA
(American-British-Dutch-Australian) area,
with Gen. Sir Archibald P. Wavell in command, to co-ordinate the efforts of the various national forces in that region. This
command, the first Allied command of the
war, included the Philippines, the Netherlands Indies, Malaya, and Burma. Wavell's
mission was to hold the Malay Barrier
against the advancing Japanese, but he was
also directed to re-establish communications
through the Netherlands Indies with Luzon
and to support the Philippine garrison.
Thus, General MacArthur was placed under Wavell's command, but, explained General Marshall, "because of your present
isolation this will have only nominal effect

upon your command. . . ." 41
Actually, the organization of the ABDA
area had no effect on operations in the
Philippines, and aside from a formal acknowledgement between the two commanders there was no communication between
the two headquarters. Although General
Marshall pointed out that the new arrangement offered "the only feasible method for
the eventual relief of the Philippines,"42
it was already clear to General MacArthur
that the Allies were not going to make a
determined effort to advance to his rescue.
It was perhaps just as well that the
Americans and Filipinos who crowded into
Bataan and took their positions behind the
lines already established did not know how
serious was the Allied position in the Far
East and how remote were their chances
for relief. Ahead of them were long, dreary
months of starvation and hard fighting before they would be herded into prison
camps. At least they could hope that help
was on the way. Only General MacArthur
and his immediate staff knew the worst.
40
Quoted in Robert E. Sherwood, Roosevelt and
Hopkins: An Intimate History (New York, 1948),
p. 454.
41
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, No. 93, 11 Jan
42, WPD 4639-14.
42
Ibid.
PART FOUR
THE SIEGE OF BATAAN
CHAPTER XV
Setting the Stage

Formed by the southern heights of the
Zambales Mountains, the Bataan peninsula
juts out from the mainland of Luzon between Subic and Manila Bay like a huge
thumb pointing at the shore of Cavite
Province only twelve miles away. Between
Bataan and the Cavite shore lie Corregidor
and several smaller islands, guarding the
entrance to Manila Bay. (Map 10)
Only twenty-five miles long and twenty
miles wide across its base, Bataan is ideally
suited for defensive warfare. It is jungled
and mountainous, cut by numerous streams
and deep ravines, and has only two roads
adequate for motor vehicles. Dominating
the peninsula are two extinct volcanoes: the
4,222-foot high Mt. Natib in the north and,
to the south, the Mariveles Mountains
whose highest peak, Mt. Bataan, towers to
a height of 4,722 feet. Along the east coast,
on the Manila Bay side, the peninsula is
flat and swampy near its base but becomes
hilly and rugged to the south. The coastal
plain on the west is extremely narrow. Here
the mountains extend almost to the sea;
high cliffs guard the shore and toothlike
promontories jut into the water. Radiating
from the two volcanic masses flow many
streams which wind their way through
steep ravines and gullies toward the bay and
the sea.
Bataan is crisscrossed by a large number
of trails, quickly overgrown by the tropical
vegetation and rarely suitable for vehicular
traffic. Across the base of the peninsula is
Route 7, lost to the Americans by their
withdrawal from Layac. South of Layac,

paralleling the east coast down to Mariveles
at the tip of the peninsula, then turning
north to parallel the west coast as far as
Moron, is Route 110. The east coast portion, called the East Road, is a single-lane,
all-weather road; the stretch from Mariveles to Moron on the opposite coast, the
West Road, is not as well surfaced. The
only other road of importance is an eastwest road from Pilar to Bagac, midway
down the peninsula and across the saddle
between Mt. Natib and the Mariveles
Mountains. This road, called the PilarBagac road and cutting Bataan like a waist
belt, was the only vehicular road providing
lateral communication for the forces divided by the rugged heights of central
Bataan.1
No better place than Bataan could have
been chosen for a final stand. There were
compensations for the inhospitable countryside. "Taking it all in all," noted Colonel
Skerry, the North Luzon Force engineer,
"the rugged terrain of the Bataan Peninsula,
covered as it was by a thick jungle, concealed the works of the defender even when
the enemy had constant air superiority and
air observation." 2 And after two weeks of
withdrawal the men were glad to reach a
position that was not to be abandoned the
next day. Morale was good. "The general
feeling seemed to be," wrote Colonel Col1
Bataan-Zambales, AGS, GHQ SWPA, Terrain
Handbook 42, pp. 23-39, 76.

2
Skerry, Comments on Engineer Hist, No. 10.
SETTING THE STAGE
247
Her, the assistant operations officer of

USAFFE, "we have run far enough; we'll
stand now and take 'em on." 3
The defense of Bataan was conceived as

a defense in depth. The first line, called the
main battle position, extended from Mabatang, a short distance north of Abucay, on
the east, across Mt. Natib to Mauban on the
The American Position
west coast, a distance of twenty miles. A
The defense of Bataan began officially on strong outpost line of resistance was es7 January 1942. On that day Wainwright tablished in front of the main battle posiassumed command of the West Sector of tion and defenses to a depth of several miles
the Bataan Defense Force, which became I were prepared to the rear. Along the beaches
Philippine Corps, and the East Sector, re- on both coasts troops were posted to guard
7
designated II Philippine Corps, came under against amphibious envelopment.
In Wainwright's corps on the west were
General Parker, till then commander of the
entire Bataan Defense Force. The boun- three Philippine Army divisions, the 1st,
dary between the two corps bisected the 31st, and 91st, to which was attached the
length of the peninsula from Mt. Natib to combat elements of the 71st Division ( P A ) ;
the Mariveles Mountains. The tip of Ba- the 26th Cavalry (PS); a battery each of
taan south of the Mariveles Mountains was field artillery and 75-mm. guns (SPM),
designated the Service Command Area and and miscellaneous troopsaltogether about
responsibility for its defense given to Brig. 22,500 men. On the right (east), in Parker's
Gen. Alien C. McBride, MacArthur's dep- corps, were four more Philippine Army diviuty for the Philippine Department. To sions, the 11th, 21st, 41st, and 51st; supWainwright's corps was assigned the de- porting artillery; and the 57th Infantry
fense of the western half of Bataan; Park- (PS) from the Philippine Division. General
er's corps was on the Manila Bay side.4 Parker had about 25,000 men in his corps.8
Both corps were under MacArthur's headEight miles behind the main battle posiquarters on Corregidor, which by 5 Jan- tion, paralleling the Pilar-Bagac road, was
uary had established a Bataan echelon un- the rear battle position which in prewar
der Brig. Gen. R. J. Marshall. Through plans had formed the main line of the
Marshall's headquarters, consisting of offi- Bataan defenses. On 7 January this line
cers from the general and special staff sec- was not yet fully organized; while the forces
tions of USAFFE, it was possible for Mac- along the main battle position held back the
Arthur to exercise close control over opera- enemy, other troops would prepare this
tions on Bataan.5 "I am on my main battle position. Posted along this line and assigned
line," MacArthur told the War Department
7
on 7 January, "awaiting general attack." 6
USAFFE FO 1, 6 Jan 42, AG 300.4 (28 Dec
3
Collier, Notebooks, III, 10.

41) Phil Rcds; ltr, Parker to Ward, 16 Jun 52,
OCMH.
5
Interv, author with Marshall, 7 Apr 48; memo,
Marshall for CofS USAFFE, 13 Jan 42, AG 370.2
(19 Dec 41) Phil Rcds.
6
AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 1) Far East.
4
41) Phil Rcds.

8
Ibid.; USAFFE GO 3, 7 Jan 42, AG 320.2
(6 Jan 42) Phil Rcds. This general order was
erroneously issued as GO 56, 6 January 1942, and
was corrected by GO 4, 7 January 1942.
Strengths given are estimates by the author,
based on scattered strength figures. See especially
those in Luzon Force Rpt of Opns, 12 Mar 42 to
9 Apr 42, Annex VI, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of
Opns.
248
the task of organizing it for a last-ditch
defense was the USAFFE reserve, the

Philippine Division (less 57th Infantry),
the tank group, and a group of 75-mm.
SPM's. Corps and USAFFE artillery was
emplaced to cover the front lines as well as
the beach defenses in all sectors.9
South of the rear battle position was the
Service Command Area. Under McBride's
command was a variety of troops: the 2d
Division (PC), organized on 7 January
and composed of Constabulary troops, the
remaining elements of the 71st Division
(PA), including the division headquarters,
provisional infantry units formed from air
corps troops, and a provisional battalion of
bluejackets and marines.10
The Mabatang-Mauban line, or Abucay-Mauban line, as it was more generally
called, the main battle position, occupied
on 7 January, was not a continuous line.
Separating and forming an almost impenetrable barrier between the left portion held
by I Corps and the right portion held by II
Corps was the northernmost of the two extinct volcanoes, covering an area about
fifteen by fifteen miles. Around the crater
are steep and jagged peaks rising to a height
of 3,000 to 4,000 feet. The northernmost
peak, Mt. Santa Rosa, is 3,052 feet high.
About three and a half miles southeast is
the highest point on the crater's edge, Mt.
Natib. In a distance of 2,000 yards this
4,222-foot-high mountain drops to half its
height. Mt. Silanganan, to the southwest, is
3,620 feet high. On its west escarpment this
land mass drops a thousand feet in as many
9

41) Phil Rcds.
10
USAFFE FO 2, 7 Jan 42, and amendment of
10 Jan 42, AG 300.4 (28 Dec 41) Phil Rcds;

yards. Though the military crests of these
mountains provided ideal defensive positionsone officer called them "an infantryman's dream"they made effective mutual
support between the two corps impossible.
The Mt. Natib position was selected, despite
its known limitations, because strategy required that a stand be made here to gain
time to prepare the rear battle position and
to retain as long as possible the lateral communication provided by the Pilar-Bagac
road.
IPhilippine Corps
The sector defended by General Wainwright's I Philippine Corps on the west

"was practically all wooded and almost
wholly uninhabited." 11 The terrain was extremely rugged and a bolo was a necessity
for a man on foot. From the South China
Sea, wrote Colonel Skerry, Wainwright's
engineer officer, after a reconnaissance, this
side of the peninsula "presented a most
formidable appearance of very high timbered banks with a solid mass of woods
stretching east to a high mountain range,
heavily timbered throughout, except for the
break at Bagac and Moron." 12
Communications in this area were poor.
That portion of the West Road which
stretched from Mariveles to Bagac was
poorly surfaced. Northward from Bagac
as far as Moron the road had been
improved and had a crushed rock surface
which made it passable in all weather.
The only method of continuing northward
from Moron where the West Road ended
was by a series of roundabout trails. "By and
11
12

SETTING THE STAGE

large," said Skerry, "this was an area where
an American needed a map, compass and
bolo even in the dry season.13
The main line of resistance on this side
of the peninsula followed Mauban Ridge
from Mauban on the coast to Mt. Silanganan. Holding the western portion of this
line was the 3d Infantry, 1st Division
(PA); to its right was a battalion of the 31st
Field Artillery of the 31st Division ( P A ) ,
equipped and organized as an infantry
unit. On the extreme right, on the slopes
of Mt. Silanganan, was Company K, 1st
Infantry. Its mission was to establish contact with the 51st Division on the left of
II Corpsan apparently impossible task
in that uncharted, mountainous country.
Only that portion of the main line of resistance held by the 3d Infantry was reinforced; it had a double apron of barbed
wire. The rest of the line "was unprotected
by obstacles other than the natural jungle." 14
The selection of Mauban as the western
anchor of the main line of resistance had
been debated before the war. In January
1941, at General Grunert's direction, officers of the 26th Cavalry (PS) had made a
reconnaissance of a proposed Mt. Natib13
14
Ibid.
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 16-17; SLF
and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 28; Santos, The 1st
249
Moron line. When their report was in,
Grunert ordered Wainwright, then commanding the Philippine Division, to prepare plans for a line from Mt. Natib to the
west coast of Bataan, in the vicinity of
Moron or Mauban. Officers of the 45th Infantry (PS) had then visited the area and
decided to place the western anchor of the
line at Mauban, where a 50- to 75-foot
ridge commanded the beach and offered a
clear field of fire for several hundred yards.
The line established when the troops moved
into Bataan, therefore, utilized the plans developed before the war, and the first draft
of the field order outlining positions on
Bataan at the beginning of January 1942
anchored the line at Mauban.15
In commenting on the first draft of the
field order establishing this line, Colonel
Casey, MacArthur's engineer officer, urged
that the main line be placed further north,
at Moron. Noting the excellent beach between Moron and Mauban and recognizing the danger of envelopment at Moron,
he pointed out that "if the rear position
[Mauban] only is held, it permits the concentration of enemy on these beaches for
attack on this flank." 16 He had recommended therefore that Moron be "organized and defended" and the Mauban line
used as a switch position.
Although Mauban remained the anchor
of the main line of resistance when the final
plan was drawn up, an effort was made to
meet Casey's objections. Two units, Company I of the 1st Infantry and Troop G,
26th Cavalry, were posted at Moron and
along the stretch of sandy beach to the south
Reg Div (PA) in Battle of Phil, p. 36; ltr, Brig Gen

Kearie L. Berry, ret., formerly CO 1st Inf (PA),
to author, 9 Jun 49, OCMH.
General Bluemel, who commanded the west sector
before Wainwright's arrival, had ordered Brig. Gen.
Fidel V. Segundo, the 1st Division (PA) commander, to establish contact with the left unit of the east
sector. Segundo was unable to do so, and explained
15
that there was no water on Mt. Natib and that he
Bluemel, Comments on Draft MS, Comment
could not keep troops there. Bluemel finally sent a
11, OCMH; interv, Groce with Lt Col Edgar
patrol led by his G-2 to establish contact with the
Wright, Jr., formerly with 45th Inf (PS), 2 Feb 49,
troops to the east. The patrol was gone three days
OCMH.
16
and failed to establish contact. Bluemel, Comments
Memo, Casey for CofS USAFFE, 2 Jan 42,
on Draft MS, Comment 15, OCMH.
sub: Defense of Bataan, AG 381, Phil Rcds.
250
to prevent enemy landings and to deny the
landing beaches at Moron to the enemy.17
The outpost line of resistance in the I
Corps sector extended from the barrio of
Bayandati, a mile and a half northwest of
Mauban, eastward to a point about halfway
up the slopes of Mt. Silanganan. The 3d Infantry held this line, which paralleled its
sector on the main line of resistance. To the
rear, behind the main line, was the 2d Battalion, 1st Infantry, forming a regimental
reserve line which stretched from the beach
defense below Mauban across the West
Road.18
Artillery support for Wainwright's corps
was provided by the 71st Field Artillery
(less 1st Battalion), two batteries of the 91st
Field Artillery, one battery of the 23d Field
Artillery, a battery of 75-mm. guns (SPM),
and two 155-mm. guns. Colonel Fowler,
who commanded this force, had altogether
thirty-three pieces, all but two of which were
75-mm. guns or 2.95-inch mountain howitzers. The 75's were emplaced along Mauban Ridge, just behind the main line of
resistance, and along the high ground to the
northeast. The SPM's were disposed along
a ridge about 300 yards to the south, and
the shorter range 2.95-inch guns placed farther forward. The two 155-mm. guns were
emplaced along the high ground near Mauban Point to cover the sea approaches as
well as those by land. Secondary positions
for the artillery, located about 3,000 yards

to the rear, were selected, "but due to the
excellent cover of the dense jungle around
the primary positions," Colonel Fowler
noted, "were not occupied until the last day
and night." 19
Defense of the beach south of the main
battle position was assigned to Brig. Gen.
Clifford Bluemel's 31st Division (PA). The
division was responsible for a stretch of approximately ten miles, from the regimental
reserve line on the north to Saysain Point,
with one battalion of the 45th Infantry
(PS) at Bagac Bay. Actually, Bluemel's
southern flank was extended south of the
assigned limit by one battalion of the 31st
Infantry (PA). In support of the 31st Division was a battery of the 92d Coast Artillery
(PS), which had gone into Bataan with
Bluemel and been assigned to cover Saysain Point with its two 155-mm. guns. Another battery of that regiment was located
near Bagac.20
For corps reserve General Wainwright
had the remnants of Selleck's 71st Division
and Stevens' 91st Division, both badly
mauled by their fight in northern Luzon. In
an effort to secure one effective unit from
these two divisions, the combat troops of the
71st were placed under Stevens' command
and the entire force reorganized.21 The 26th
Cavalry (PS), which had joined the I
Philippine Corps after a difficult overland
march from Layac junction, was also tired
19
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 17; Santos,

1st Reg Div (PA), p. 36; Chandler, "26th Cavalry
Journal (May-June 1947), p. 15; Col K. L. Berry,
Hist of 3d Inf, 1st Reg Div (PA), 19 Dec 41-9
Ltr, Fowler to author, 11 Mar 49, OCMH;

20
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 18-19;
Bluemel, 31st Div (PA), Rpt of Opns, pp. 7-8;
Bluemel, Comments on Draft MS, Comment 13,
OCMH; Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, p. 18.
21
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 18-19; Selleck, Notes on 71st Div (PA), p. 55. The 71st Division, although it remained a division on paper,
Apr 42, p. 2, copy lent author by Gen Berry, OCMH.
ceased to function as one after 6 January.
17
Santos, 1st Reg Div (PA), p. 36; Chandler,
"26th Cavalry Battles to Glory," Part 2, Armored

Cavalry Journal (May-June 1947), p. 15.
18
SETTING THE STAGE
251
and disorganized. Since there were no replacements for its animals and only a limited supply of forage, it was shortly reorganized into a motorized squadron of riflemen
and a mechanized unit equipped with scout
cars and Bren carriers.22
critical portion of the line. The enemy, advancing unopposed down the East Road,
was expected to make his first attempt to
breach the main battle position at this point.
In this sector, therefore, Parker placed the
fresh, well-trained Scouts of the 57th Infantry. They were to hold a line from
Manila Bay across the road and approxiIIPhilippine Corps
mately 2,000 yards inland as well as a porDefending the eastern half of the Bataan tion of the beach as far south as Balanga.25
peninsula was General Parker's II PhilipNext to the 57th Infantry, extending the
pine Corps, holding a line approximately main line of resistance 6,500 yards to the
15,000 yards in length from Manila Bay to west, was Brig. Gen. Vincente Lim's 41st
the I Corps boundary at Mt. Natib.23 Un- Division (PA). One of the first units to
like the western half of Bataan, the eastern reach Bataan, the division was as yet uncoast was low and swampy and devoted tried in battle. Its three infantry regiments
largely to the growth of rice. Here the were disposed abreast to give maximum
cleared ground provided good fields of fire, protection to the division front, which exand when the troops reached their posi- tended along the precipitous heights of the
tion the flat ground to the front, consisting gorge above the shallow Balantay River.26
mainly of rice paddies, was flooded. The
The rest of the II Corps main line, from the
East Road was an excellent highway com- left of the 41st Division to the slopes of Mt.
pared to the West Road and passed through Natib, was held by Jones's 51st Division
many small, thriving communities such as which had reached Bataan during the night
Cabcaben, Lamao, Orion, Pilar, and Abu- of 3-4 January. The division, less its 52d
cay. Inland, the II Corps sector became Infantry, which was on beach defense until
more mountainous and rugged as it ap- 11 January, held a front of more than 5,000
proached the high volcanic mass in the yards along the Balantay River. On the
right was the 51st Infantry. On the west,
center of the peninsula.24
The main battle position in the II Corps holding down the corps left flank and trailsector, as in the I Corps sector, consisted ing off into scattered foxholes, was the 53d
of a main line of resistance, with an outpost
and a regimental reserve line. The main

line extended westward from Mabatang on
the coast to the heights of Mt. Natib. The
right flank, including the coastal plain and
the East Road, was considered the most
22
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 19; Chandler,
"26th Cavalry (PS) Battles to Glory," Part 2, Armored Cavalry Journal (May-June 1947), p. 15.
23
SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 20 and map,
App. 5.
24
Collier, Notebooks, III, 21, 23; Skerry, Comments on Engineer Hist, No. 10.
25
41) Phil Rcds; SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p.
23; Maj John E. Olson, Opns of 57th Inf (PS) at
Abucay, 10-23 Jan 42, pp. 9, 11, and Maj Ernest
L. Brown, Opns of 57th Inf (PS), Abucay, Jan 42,
p. 8 (papers prepared for Advanced Officers Course,
in 1947-48 and 1946-47, respectively, The Infantry
School) ; Phil Div Rpt of Opns, pp. 10-11, Annex
XII, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns.
26
SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 21 and map,
App. 5; ltr, Col Malcolm V. Fortier to Hist Rcds
Sec Bd, Hq Fourth Army, 14 May 46, sub: Opns
of 41st Div (PA), p. 1, copy sent to the author by
Colonel Fortier, formerly senior instructor of the
41st Division, OCMH.
252
Infantry. The 52d was placed in reserve
when it rejoined the division.27
Fortifications along the II Corps line
were far stronger than in Wainwright's
sector. At least as far west as the 51st Division there was a double apron of barbed
wire. Working with only a small number
of picks, shovels, and axes, and substituting bayonets and the covers of mess kits
for individual entrenching tools, the men
were able to clear fields of fire, dig foxholes,
trenches, and gun emplacements, and construct camouflage overhead. The Japanese
later wrote that they found "the strongest
sort of field fortifications on the II Corps
line." "Covered rifle pits and machine gun
emplacements had been constructed," they
reported, "and these formed the main structure of the fire network; between them were
placed foxholes. . . . The fields of fire had
been cleared of cover; camouflage was
thorough; the rear communications network had been carefully and thoroughly
laid."28
Only in the 51st Division sector, on the
corps left, were the fortifications inadequate.
Here the establishment of a military line
along the jungled slopes of Mt. Natib
proved impossible in the time and with the
tools available. No regular line was organized in this area where patrols operated with
the greatest difficulty. Mt. Natib remained
an insuperable barrier to the establishment
of physical contact between the two
corps.29

Long-range artillery support in Parker's
sector was provided by the 86th Field Artillery Battalion (PS), with twelve 155-mm.
guns (GPF), and the 301st Field ArtilleryRegiment ( P A ) , with sixteen guns of the
same type and two 155-mm. howitzers.
Emplaced west of Abucay, these pieces were
in position to cover all of the main battle
positions and the East Road. Providing
direct support to the 57th Infantry along
the coastal road and the beach was the 1st
Battalion, 24th Field Artillery (PS), with
one battery on the main line of resistance
and two more near Abucay. Additional
support was furnished by a battery of the
88th Field Artillery (eight 75-mm. guns)
and the 2d Battalion of the 24th, which
also supported the 41st Division from a
position southeast of Abucay. Each of the
divisions had its own divisional artillery in
support as well, with the 2.95-inch howitzers of the 41st in position to back up the
51st Division. That division had only eight
75-mm. guns of a type unsuitable for use
in the rugged country to which it was assigned.30
Defense of the Manila Bay coastline in
the II Corps sector, from Balanga, where
the 57th line ended, as far south as Limay,
after 11 January was assigned to the 11th
Division (PA). In addition to its own artillery regiment, it had the support of the
30
SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 21-23,
29 and App. 5; Shreve, Diary, pp. 21-22; Col
Alexander S. Quintard, The 301st FA ( P A ) , p. 4,
OCMH; ltr, Capt Willard A. Smith to author,
27
SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 21, 31;
23 May 49, OCMH; copy of parts of a narrative by
interv, Falk with Jones, 13 Jun 50; Jones, ChronoCol Quintard, CO 301st FA, p. 2; 2d Bn, 24th
logical Order of Events, 51st Div (PA), 29 Dec FA (PS), extract from Priestley Diary, Notebook 1,
41-26 Jan 42, pp. 1-2, copy lent the author by
p. 15; Olson, 57th Inf (PS) Opns at Abucay, pp.
General Jones, OCMH.
11, 12; Brown, 57th Inf (PS) Opns at Abucay,
28
65th Brig, Combat in the Mt. Natib Area,
p. 9; ltr, Lt Col Charles E. N. Howard, Jr., to
Bataan 9-27 Jan 42, ATIS Enemy Pub 151, 13 Jul
TAG, n.d., sub: Unit Hist, 2d Bn, 88th FA (PS),
44, p. 1; SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 20.
7 Dec 41-9 Apr 48, pp. 2, 5-6, copy of this letter
29
SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 20; Jones,
and a longer draft sent to author and on file in
51st Div (PA) Order of Events, p. 2.
OCMH.
FORTIFICATIONS ON BATAAN. Tank obstacles and double-apron fence

entanglements, above; below, roadblock near the Mauban line.
254
21st Field Artillery, detached from its parent unit for beach defense. The rest of the
21st Division was in corps reserve.31
By the end of the first week in January
the main battle position on Bataan was organized and the troops in place. The Japanese, who on the 7th had taken Layac Junction, the gateway to Bataan, were already in
position to move against the American line.
"It was felt," wrote Colonel Collier, "that
the enemy would continue his close follow
up of our troops and launch an early push
against the right of the II Corps [along]
the East Road." 32 Unlike the rest of Luzon, Bataan offered no room for maneuver
and little space for withdrawal. The Japanese would have to be held as long as possible at each position. Except for the few
who would be fortunate enough to reach
Corregidor, there was no retreat from Bataan.
The Status of Supply

The supply situation on Bataan was serious from the start and became steadily
worse through the campaign. Originally,
under the ORANGE plan, supplies for 43,000
men for a period of six months were to
have been moved to the peninsula on the
outbreak of war. MacArthur's order to
fight it out on the beaches had invalidated
this plan, and when war came supplies and
equipment were moved forward to advance
depots to support the troops on the front
lines. At that time there were stored on
Bataan 2,295,000 pounds of canned salmon, 152,000 pounds of fruits and vege31
Mallone, Bataan Diary, II, 18-20; SLF and

II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 23.
32
tables, 6,000 pounds of miscellaneous foods,

and 400,000 gallons of gasoline.33
Full-scale movement of supplies to Bataan did not begin until the decision was
made on 23 December to withdraw to Bataan. By that time the number of troops
to be supplied during the siege of Bataan
had increased from the planned 43,000 to
almost 80,000, in addition to about 26,000 civilians who had fled to Bataan to
escape the invading army. Moving to Bataan enough food and supplies to keep so
large a force in action for a period of 180
days would have been extremely difficult
under the most favorable circumstances. To
accomplish it in about one week, during the
confusion of war and retreat, proved to be
an impossible task.
Some preparations had been made for the
transfer of supplies to Bataan even before
the orders for a general withdrawal had
been issued on the evening of 23 December.
Lt. Col. Otto Harwood, a quartermaster
officer, had gone to Limay on Bataan on
14 December to disperse the defense reserves stored there the previous summer,
and Col. Alva E. McConnell of the Philippine Quartermaster Depot had begun to
ship small quantities of food and petroleum
products to Bataan some days before the
23d. Altogether Harwood received from
Manila for storage on Bataan approximately 750,000 pounds of canned milk,
20,000 pounds of vegetables, 40,000 gallons
33
Col Otto Harwood, Storage of Supplies on
Bataan, p. 1, App. A, QM Rpt of Opns; Stauffer,
Quartermaster Operations in the War Against
Japan, Ch. I. Mr. Stauffer's chapter, plus the QM
Rpt of Opns, Annex XIII, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of
Opns, and the appendixes to this report, especially
the narratives in Appendix A, have been used in the
preparation of this section.
255
SETTING THE STAGE

of gasoline, and 60,000 gallons of lubricating oils and greases. The Si-Kiang, bound
for Indochina with 5,000,000 pounds of
flour and large quantities of petroleum, was
seized and brought to Bataan, but unfortunately was bombed and sunk before the
flour could be unloaded.34
The large-scale movement of supplies to
Bataan and Corregidor began after 23
December. First Corregidor was stocked
with enough reserves to supply 10,000 men
for six months. This task required only one
day since the island already had rations
for 7,000 men. The movement of supplies to
Bataan was more difficult, largely because
of transportation problems, the brief period
of time in which to accomplish the task,
and the size of the shipments.
The only land route to Bataan was the
one being used by the retreating troops.
Until 31 December the roads to San Fernando and into the peninsula could be
used, but with difficulty. The shortage of
motor vehicles further limited the quantities of supplies that could be dispatched by
this means. After that date the land route
from Manila to Bataan was closed. The rail
net north of Manila, the best in the archipelago, proved of limited value because of
the shortage of rolling stock and the desertion of train and engine crews.
There was no time to evacuate the depots
in northern Luzon and scarcely time to get
out part of the reserves from Forts McKinley and Stotsenburg. Many of the troops
became afflicted with "withdrawal fever"
and left behind much that they could have
taken. At Stotsenburg, long before the Japanese were within striking distance, the post
was evacuated. Food, clothing, and other
34
Harwood, Storage of Supplies on Bataan, pp.
1-3, and Lt Col Irvin Alexander, Supply Problems,
p. 2, both in App. A, QM Rpt of Opns.
supplies, it is reported, were left behind by

post personnel, to be picked up later by the
withdrawing troops. The same thing is supposed to have happened at Clark Field,
adjacent to Stotsenburg, where 250,000
gallons of aviation gasoline and several
obsolete but serviceable planes were left behind. 35 North and South Luzon Force commanders were instructed to pick up whatever food they could on their way to Bataan,
and to turn their supplies in when they
reached the peninsula. "Not an ounce"
was turned in, noted the quartermaster, although the divisions brought in between ten
and twenty-five days' supply of food.36
Most of the supplies for Bataan came
from Manila, where the port area with its
large warehouses and loaded ships was filled
with stores of all kinds. Bataan, only thirty
miles away across the bay, could be reached
easily by almost every type of vessel. With the
shortage of motor and rail transportation,
water transport become the chief means of
getting supplies from the capital to Bataan.
The quartermaster's Army Transport Service, led by Col. Frederick A. Ward and
staffed largely by civilian volunteers, took
over all the available barges, tugs, and
launches and used them for the journey.
The first two were slow, but they had the
advantage of being easily unloaded at the
three piers on Bataan where dock facilities
were primitive.
At the Manila end loadings were hampered by the Japanese bombings of the port
area between the 27th and 30th and the
shortage of stevedores. The latter was partially overcome by the use of some two
hundred American and British civilians
who volunteered to work as dock hands. Altogether, a total of approximately 30,000
35
36
See above, Ch. X, p. 18.

256
tons of supplies was shipped to Bataan and

Corregidor by barge and unloaded by the
time the Japanese occupied Manila on 2
January.
supplies were shipped to Bataan. An inventory of 5 January revealed that the supply of ammunition was satisfactory and
that the shortages anticipated would not
Also loaded, but still lying out in the bay develop.38
at this time, were another 150 barges and 3
The shortage of rations proved to be even
freighters. These vessels were unloaded dur- more serious than expected, and from the
ing the weeks that followed at times when start the scarcity of food was the most
they would be safe from Japanese attack, alarming fact in the situation of the 80,000
usually at night. But large quantities of food, troops on Bataan. The transfer of rice to
supplies of all kinds, and gasoline were left Bataan had proved difficult because of
behind on the docks and in commercial stor- Commonwealth regulations which stipulaage. What the civilians in Manila did not ted that neither rice nor sugar could be
take away with them just before the Japa- removed from one province to another.
nese entered the city, the conquerors ap- When the time came to move supplies to
propriated.37
Bataan, authority was requested to take
At the time the decision was made to these commodities but permission was not
withdraw to Bataan, ammunition and food received in time. In this way 10,000,000
appeared to be the most critical items of pounds of rice at the Government Rice
supply and they were accorded first prior- Central at Cabanatuan was lost.39 Even the
ity. Second priority went to defense mate- seizure of Japanese-owned stocks was prorials and to gasoline. All other supplies were hibited. At Tarlac Lt. Col. Charles S. Lawgiven third priority. When rations and am- rence, commander of the depot there,
munition had been shipped, medical sup- planned to take over about 2,000 cases of
plies, demolitions, barbed wire, and gaso- canned food, mostly fish and corned beef, as
line moved to the top of the priority list.
well as a considerable quantity of clothing
The movement of ammunition and ord- that belonged to Japanese firms. He was
nance supply to Bataan progressed swiftly. informed by MacArthur's headquarters
Before the war all units had been issued one that he had no right to do so and that he
unit of fire and a second was issued when would be court-martialed if he did. These
units moved into defensive positions along supplies were later destroyed during operathe beach. Some ordnance materials had tions.40
been stored at Forts Stotsenburg and McOn 3 January an inventory of the food
Kinley, but two thirds of the ammunition in the hands of the quartermaster on
reserves, about 15,000 tons, as well as six
38
Gen McBride, Notes on the Fall of Bataan;
carloads of replacement parts for the tanks,
were already in Bataan on 8 December. OCMH. General McBride, Service Command
During the last week of the year another Luzon Force commander, died in prison camp. A
of this report was borrowed from Colonel
15,000 tons of ammunition and ordnance copy
Selleck and is on file in OCMH. It will be here37
Col Ward, ATS Activities, Lt Col Michael A.

Quinn, Motor Transport Service Activities, and Lt
Col Richard G. Rogers, Traffic Control Opns, Apps.
B, C, and E, QM Rpt of Opns.
after cited as McBride, Notes on Bataan Service

Command.
39
40
Lawrence, Tarlac Advance QM Depot Rpt of
Opns, pp. 4-5, App. A, QM Rpt of Opns.
257
SETTING THE STAGE

Bataan was prepared. This inventory revealed that there was only a 30-day supply
of unbalanced field rations for 100,000
men, including a 50-day supply of canned
meats and fish, 40 days of canned milk, 30
of flour and canned vegetables (string
beans and tomatoes), and 20 of rice, the
most important element of the Philippine
diet. There were some staples such as sugar,
salt, pepper, lard, and syrup, but almost no
fresh meat or fruit and only limited quantities of canned fruits, coffee, potatoes,
onions, and cereals.41
The necessity for drastic action was apparent. On 5 January MacArthur approved
the recommendation of his quartermaster,
General Drake, that the troops and civilians
on Bataan and Corregidor be placed on halfrations, and the necessary instructions were
issued to the local commanders.42
The half-ration, containing about 2,000
calories, half the normal requirements of an
active man, was obviously inadequate to
the needs of fighting troops who had to work
as much as twenty hours a day, under the
most difficult conditions and in the worst
kind of climate and terrain. Fortunately
many of the men had accumulated food
during the withdrawal and this supply was
used to supplement the meager diet. Colonel
Mallone, instructor of the 21st Field Artillery (PA), for example, had a case and
a half of mixed canned goods, forehandedly purchased before the withdrawal. On
his way past Fort Stotsenburg he picked up
another half case. Although he gave part of
his private stock to some of his fellow officers, he kept a large portion of the two cases
for himself. Yet, with this additional sup-
ply of food, he wrote, "I had to do a tailoring job on my waistband twice. . . ." 43
Heroic measures to augment the food
supply were obviously necessary if the
troops on Bataan were to hold out for the
required six-month period. No sooner had
the withdrawal been completed than the
quartermaster began to exploit every possible resource on the peninsula to increase
his stores. Fortunately, it was the harvest
season and the rice stood ripe in the fields.
It was only necessary to bring it to the mills,
which the engineers were ordered to build
near Lirnay. Plans were made to secure
fresh meat by slaughtering carabao, the
Philippine draft animal, and a large abattoir was established by the veterinarians.
In addition, the units in the field butchered
whatever carabao or other animals they
could capture. A fishery was established at
Lamao, and plans were made to utilize the
catch of the local fishermen who went out
each night until prevented from doing so by
Japanese fire. Salt was secured by boiling
sea water in large iron cauldrons. Before the
troops had been on Bataan long, no local
resource that would yield any additional
amount of food was being overlooked.44
So serious was the shortage of food after
the first few weeks on Bataan that the search
for food assumed more importance than the
presence of the enemy to the front. Every
man became a hunter, and rifle shots could
be heard at all hours far from the Japanese
lines. Lt. Col. Irvin Alexander, a quartermaster officer, wrote:
Any carabao which was encountered in the
jungle was classed as wild and neither his an43
Mallone, Bataan Diary, II, 12.

Frank Hewlett, "Quartermasters on Bataan,"
Quartermaster Review, XXI (May-June 1942),
64; Capt Harold A. Arnold, "The Lesson of Bataan," Quartermaster Review, XXVI (NovemberDecember 1942), 14.
44
41
Inventory of Rations, 3 Jan 42, AG 430.2 (3

Jan 42) Phil Rcds.
42
Rad, MacArthur to CG Bataan Service Command, 5 Jan 42, AG 430 (25 Dec 41) Phil Rcds.
258
cestry nor his ownership was investigated.
The wild game was not too numerous and it
was very shy so that only the cunning and
lucky hunters were successful in bringing in
meat. Lack of success did not discourage the
hunters. . . . One Filipino . . . caught a
snake and ate it one day to die unpleasantly
the next. There were always plenty of experimenters ready to try any kind of native flora
or fauna which might prove edible ... although the experimenting individual frequently paid a high price.45
The supply of clothing on Bataan, while

not as alarming as the shortage of food, was
just as limited. It had been scanty at the
beginning of the war and was almost gone
by the time the men reached Bataan. The
regular garrison of U.S. Army troops and
Philippine Scouts had been comparatively
well clad when they took the field, but the
Philippine Army had been only partially
clothed and equipped. Those who had been
inducted before the war were far more fortunate than the Filipinos mobilized after
hostilities began. The uniforms and equipment of these men consisted of odds and
ends, whatever was on hand for issue and
whatever they could salvage or buy. Early
in January the Quartermaster had only
10,000 pairs of trousers and shorts and an
equal number of shirts and blue denim
suits. Obviously this amount of clothing was
hardly enough for 80,000 men fighting in
heavy jungle and mountains, in a wet climate where days were hot and nights cold,
and where tangled vegetation quickly tore
shirts and trousers. The army service shoe, of
which there were 50,000 pairs on Bataan,
was of little use to the Filipino soldier whose
feet were too narrow for footgear built on
American lasts.
The absence of mosquito netting, shelter
halves, blankets, and sun helmets was as
45
Alexander, Supply Problems, p. 5, App. A,
QM Rpt of Opns.

serious as the shortage of clothing. The physical deterioration of the troops and the high
incidence of malaria, hookworm, and other
diseases were caused as much perhaps by
the lack of proper protection against the
weather and the jungle as the unbalanced
and deficient diet.
Provision had been made in war plans
for a general hospital on Bataan. At Limay,
where the defense reserves were stored, all
supplies for the hospital were already assembled when the order to withdraw was
given. General Hospital No. 1 was established on 23 December and before the end
of the month another general hospital was
organized not far from Cabcaben. The
medical depot in Manila, where supplies
and equipment for a 10,000-bed hospital
center had been established at the start of
the war, began to transfer this vast accumulation of medical supplies to Bataan
after the 23d. But only enough was brought
in to assure an adequate supply of drugs
and medical equipment for the first part of
the siege of Bataan. By the end of February
a critical shortage of several drugs, the most
important of which was quinine, had already developed.46
The supply of petroleum products on Bataan was adequate for several months if
strict economy was practiced. During the
first week or two on Bataan there was no
control over the use of gasoline. When it
was discovered that stocks were being depleted at the rate of 14,000 gallons a day,
the supply was closely rationed. Ultimately
the consumption of gasoline was reduced to
4,000, then 3,000 gallons daily.

46
Col Wibb E. Cooper, Medical Dept Activities
in Phil, pp. 54-56, 57, 78, Annex XIV,
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns; McBride, Notes on
Bataan Service Command, pp. 113-14; ltr, Col
Harold W. Glattly to Ward, 8 Jan 52, OCMH.
259
SETTING THE STAGE
gineer supplies from the Lubao depot was

completed by 6 January.
The first engineer troops to reach Bataan
were put to work immediately on airfield
construction to accommodate the few
fighter craft still left and those which, it was
hoped, might yet arrive from the United
States-. Work was also begun on access roads
to the main highway along the east coast
of Bataan and on a lateral road from east
to west across the slopes of the Mariveles
Mountains.49
The main work on fortifications along
they were on a legitimate mission they were
directed to one of the motor pools. But most the front was performed by the infantry
of the vehicles had been well hidden and and artillery, but the engineers improved
the most careful search failed to locate them. these positions, strung wire, and laid mines.
Only later, when gasoline was rationed and They maintained roads and bridges and
the units could not operate the vehicles, were prepared demolition charges where necesthey turned in.47
sary. In addition to serving the troops along
Engineer supply, like that of the other the front, they built camps for the 26,000
services, was limited and carefully con- civilians who had taken refuge on Bataan,
trolled. The engineers had managed to ship sawmills to provide lumber for buildings
to Bataan and Corregidor more than and bridges, and rice mills to feed the men.
10,000 tons of their supplies, in addition to The greatest handicap to engineer activity
organizational equipment, by the end of was the lack of trained engineer troops.
December.48 These included 350 tons of ex- Civilian labor was used wherever possible,
plosives, 800 tons of valuable barbed wire, but there was no substitute for trained engi200 tons of burlap bags for use as sandbags, neer officers. So small was their number that
and large quantities of lumber, construction in one instance a civilian served for a time as
material, and depot stocks. During the with- the commander of an engineer battalion.50
drawal, engineer supplies had been evacuThe shortage of supplies of all types, and
Motor vehicles were much sought after
on Bataan. The various services and units
commandeered vehicles for their own use
and hijacking of both vehicles and loads
was common. The provost marshal did his
best to stop this practice, with little success.
Finally, all vehicles except those organic
to units were ordered into motor pools.
When the order failed to bring in the vehicles, a search and seizure system was inaugurated. The military police stopped vehicles and if the drivers could not prove that
ated from advance depots along the route

of retreat and moved to Lubao, a short distance north of Bataan. From there they
were to be transferred to two locations on
Bataan. Despite congestion along the roads,
the shortage of transportation, and the confusion of retreat, the final evacuation of en47
McBride, Notes on Bataan Service Command,
p. 113.
especially of food, had a greater effect on

the outcome of the siege of Bataan than any
other single factor. "Each day's combat,
each day's output of physical energy,"
wrote one officer in his diary, "took its toll
of the human bodya toll which could not
be repaired. . . ." 51 When this fact is
understood, he added, the story of Bataan
is told.
48
The material on engineer supply is derived from

Engineers in the Southwest Pacific, 1941-1945, Vol.
I, Engineers in Theater Operations, p. 19, and
Vol. III, Engineer Supply, pp. 6, 9, and 11.
49
50
51
Engineer Supply, p. 9, n. 6.
Engineers in Theater Operations, p. 19.
BRIDGES ON BATAAN. Top left, straw ready to be set on fire is piled over a
wooden bridge; top right, remains of a steel bridge; bottom, foundation for a
temporary bridge is prepared.
SETTING THE STAGE
261
The Enemy and His Plan
Southern Army arrived in the Philippines

to supervise the transfer.53
While General MacArthur's force on
In the opinion of 14th Army the transfer
Luzon was preparing the defenses of Ba- of ground and air troops from the Philiptaan, the enemy 14th Army was being re- pines showed a lack of understanding of the
organized. Original Japanese plans had situation by. higher headquarters.54 Actucalled for the reduction of Luzon fifty days ally, both Southern Army and Imperial
after the start of war. At that time the 48th General Headquarters recognized that this
Division, Homma's best unit, and most of early redeployment might jeopardize operathe 5th Air Group were to leave the Phil- tions in the Philippines, but they were willippines for operations elsewhere. The mop- ing to take this risk in order to hasten the
up would be left to a garrison unit, the 65th attack on Java and free themselves for any
Brigade, and the 16th Division. The bri- move by the Soviet Union. "Difficulties
gade, with attached service and supply would undoubtedly arise in the future in
troops, was to reach Luzon on the forty-fifth the Philippines," the Japanese believed,
day of operations, 22 January.52
"but the Southern Army thought that the
Sometime late in December, Gen. Count Philippines could be taken care of after the
Hisaichi Terauchi, Southern Army com- conclusion of the campaign in Java." 55
mander, and Admiral Kondo, commanding
The removal of the 48th Division from
the 2d Fleet, jointly recommended to Im- Homma's command at a date earlier than
perial General Headquarters that 16th originally planned might well have left him
Army's invasion of Java be advanced about with only the 16th Division to open the atone month ahead of schedule. This sugges- tack against Bataan. Fortunately for the
tion found willing listeners in Tokyo. Rea- Japanese cause, Homma had ordered the
soning that such a move would result in 65th Brigade to make ready for departure
the rapid occupation of the Southwest Pa- from Takao in Formosa only a week after
cific while the Allies were still off balance, the start of hostilities. This decision to emand noting the success of Homma's forces bark the brigade somewhat sooner than
in the Philippines, Imperial General Head- scheduled was made without reference to
quarters approved the Terauchi-Kondo the early departure of the 48th but was approposal and ordered the transfer of the parently based on the unexpected lack of
48th Division to 16th Army at a much American resistance to the initial landings
earlier date than originally planned. On 2
53
14th Army Opns, I, 73, 75, 77; Statement of
January, as 14th Army units entered MaMaeda, 2 Mar 50, ATIS Doc 56234, Interrogations
nila, General Homma received notice from of Former Japanese Officers, Mil Hist Div, GHQ
Southern Army that the 48th Division FEC, II; USA vs. Homma, p. 3225, testimony of
would soon be transferred. Orders for the Homma; Hist Army Sec, Imperial GHQ, pp. 40,
transfer of the division as well as the 5th 41;54Southern Army Opns, p. 16.
14th Army Opns, I, 75; Interrog of Col Motoo
Air Group reached Manila during the next Nakayama,
14th Army Senior Opns Officer, Apr 47,
few days, and on 5 January staff officers of Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers, Mil
52

55
Southern Army Opns, p. 16.
262
in northern Luzon.56 On 27 December,
Homma ordered Lt. Gen. Akira Nara, the
brigade commander, to sail from Takao
with all the troops then scheduled to reinforce 14th Army. Delayed in his departure by a typhoon, Nara finally set sail with
his convoy of fourteen ships and naval escort
on 30 December. At 1400 on New Year's

Day the troops began to debark at Lingayen
Gulf.57
The day the 65th Brigade landed in the
Philippines it was ordered to move by foot
to Tarlac. Within three days advance elements had entered the town. On the 6th
the brigade reached Angeles and began to
concentrate along Route 74, as far south as
Porac.58 "They had made their march," remarked General Nara proudly of his troops,
"but were footsore and exhausted." 59
Southern Army had stripped General
Homma of some of his best ground and air
units just before the start of the battle of
Bataan. All he had left was the 16th Division, which "did not have a very good reputation" for its "fighting qualities," the 65th
Brigade, the 7th Tank Regiment, supporting arms and services, and a small air unit
of less than seventy fighters, bombers, and
reconnaissance planes.60 Only in the air
were the Japanese assured of superiority.
The brigade which replaced the welltrained and equipped 48th Division was, in
the words of its commander, "absolutely
unfit for combat duty."61 Organized in
56

Ibid., 32, 60-61, 65. One regiment of the brigade landed at Laoag or Vigan. The rest of the
force landed between San Fabian and Mabilao.
58
Ibid., 66, 73, 75-76, 91; 65th Brig Opns Rpt,
Mt. Natib, pp. 2-3.
59
65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt. Natib, p. 2.
57
60
early 1941 as a garrison unit, it had a total

strength of about 6,500 men. Its three infantry regiments, the 122d, 141st and 142d
Infantry, consisted of but two battalions,
each organized into three rifle companies
and one machine gun company. The
brigade had few vehicles and no artillery
unit, but at least one of the regiments and
possibly the others had a battery of field
artillery. Organic to the brigade was a field
hospital, an engineer unit, and a signal unit
no larger than a "telegraph platoon." The
majority of the enlisted men were conscripts
and the month of training at Formosa was
entirely inadequate. Unit training had progressed only as far as the company.62
General Homma and the majority of the
14th Army staff believed that American resistance on Bataan would be weak and that
operations there would be quickly concluded. The plan for the attack, therefore,
was conceived of as a pursuit rather than an
assault against a strongly fortified position
in depth.63
This conception was confirmed by intelligence reports. The 14th Army staff esti-
mated that MacArthur had 40,000 to

45,000 men, about 40 tanks, and a few
fighter planes on Bataan and Corregidor.
On Bataan alone, Homma was told by his
intelligence officer, there were only 25,000
men. The American "regular" 31st Division and the "fortress unit" on Corregidor
were believed to total 35,000 while the remnants of the Philippine Army units altogether comprised 5,000 to 10,000 more. Reports received from air reconnaissance gave
62
Ibid.; 14th Army Opns, I, 66, 73, 97.

Statement of Maeda, 2 Mar 50, ATIS Doc
63
56234, Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers,
The quotation is from USA vs. Homma, p.
Mil Hist Div, GHQ FEC, II. No orders dealing
3057, testimony of Homma. See also p. 3232; and

5th Air Gp Opns, pp. 50-51.
61
with the forthcoming operation were received from

Southern Army or Imperial General Headquarters
at this time.
SETTING THE STAGE

no reason to believe that the Americans and
Filipinos had constructed any strong installations on Bataan.
The physical condition of the troops on
Bataan was believed to be poor. All units
in combat had been badly cut up, rations
had been reduced by half, and the entire
American-Filipino army was on a skimpy
two-meals-a-day diet. Desertions by Filipino
troops were believed to be heavy and the
Japanese fully believed that the Americans
had taken strong measures to halt these desertions and the surrender of individuals. In
support of these conclusions they pointed
out that the bodies of Philippine soldiers
had been found tied to trees.64
With this picture of the enemy, it is not
surprising that General Homma believed
the capture of the peninsula would be an
easy task. His estimate of the American
scheme of defense was that MacArthur's
forces would make their strong stand
around Mariveles and then withdraw to
Corregidor. Seizure of the island fortress
would not be easy and a "sea blockade"
might be necessary before the island would
be reduced. On the whole, "the threat of
enemy resistance was taken lightly" by 14th
Army.65
On the theory that the campaign would
be a light one, Homma assigned the seizure
of Bataan to the inexperienced and untrained 65th Brigade. His plan was to have
the brigade advance in two columns, one
along the east coast through Abucay to
Balanga and the other down the opposite
shore through Moron to Bagac. Once these
64
14th Army Opns, I, 87, 89; USA vs. Homma,
p. 3057, testimony of Homma.
65
Interrog of Maeda, 10 May 47, Interrogations
of Former Japanese Officers, Mil Hist Div, GHQ
FEC, I. "General Homma," remarked his chief of
staff, "thought only in terms of continuing the
pursuit."
263
objectives had been taken, Nara was to

send the main force of his brigade south
from Balanga, while a smaller force drove
on from Bagac. Both were to push towards
Mariveles, the 14th Army operation order
read, "with the annihilation of the enemy
on Bataan Peninsula as their objective."66
Attached to the 65th Brigade for the Bataan operation were infantry, artillery, armor, and service units of all types. From
the 16th Division came the 9th Infantry,
a battalion of field artillery (75-mm. guns),
an engineer regiment, and a medical unit.
The 48th Division supplied two battalions
of artillery (75-mm. mountain guns),
which were pulled out a short time later.
Armored support consisted of the 7th Tank
Regiment, and artillery support was furnished by Army: 1st Field Heavy Artillery
Regiment (150-mm. howitzers), the 8th
Field Heavy Artillery Regiment (105-mm.

guns), and the 9th Independent Heavy Artillery Battalion (150-mm. howitzers).
Service and support units from Army completed the force available to General Nara
for the forthcoming operation.67
Direct support for the 65th Brigade's operations on Bataan was to be provided by
the air unit under Col. Komataro Hoshi.68
This unit was made responsible for reconnaissance, artillery spotting, and support
missions. Starting on 10 January it was to
base at Clark Field and from that date
through the 13th was to attack I Corps artillery positions, the airstrips on Bataan, and
66
14th Army Opns Order, Series A, No, 155,
1200, 11 Jan 42, and 65th Brig Opns Order, Series
A, No. 42, 1800, 8 Jan 42, both in 65th Brig Opns
Rpt, Mt. Natib, Apps. 20 and 3, respectively.
67
Ibid., p. 7, and 14th Army Opns Order, Series
A, No. 138, 0800,7 Jan 42, App, 1.
68
5th Air Gp Opns, pp. 47-51. The air unit consisted of 11 fighters, 21 reconnaissance, liaison, and
artillery observation planes, 36 light bombers, and
a number of service units.
264
installations in the Mariveles area.69 The
16th Division was to "cooperate" with the
65th Brigade by "sending a portion of the
division to occupy the strategic ground in
the vicinity of Ternate and Nasugbu." 70
The occupation of Ternate, on the south
shore of Manila Bay, and of Nasugbu to its
south would have the effect of cutting communication between Corregidor and southern Luzon.
At noon 4 January General Homma had
ordered the 65th Brigade to move down
Route 74 to the main battle position to relieve the 48th Division and take command
of the Takahashi Detachment and the 9th

Independent Heavy Artillery Battalion.
Nara apparently understood then that his
unit was to relieve the 48th Division, for his
orders were to "destroy the enemy," send his
main force toward Balanga, and make a
secondary effort toward Olongapo.71 Final
orders for the relief of the 48th Division
were issued at 0800 of the 7th. At that time
General Nara was again instructed to move
toward Olongapo and Balanga. By 1800 of
8 January the brigade had completed its
relief of the 48th and was concentrated
between Dinalupihan and Hermosa, preparing to attack.72 The next afternoon the
assault would begin.
71
69

70
14th Army Opns Order, Series A. No. 155,
1200, 11 Jan 42.

65th Brig Opns Order, Series A, No. 42, and
14th Army Opns Order, Series A, No. 138, both
cited above; 14th Army Opns, I, 91.
72
CHAPTER XVI
The First Battle of Bataan

The Japanese opened the battle for Bataan at 1500 on 9 January with a concentrated barrage directed against II Corps.
As "the roar of artillery . . . shook the northern portion of the Bataan peninsula," the
Japanese infantry moved out to the attack.1
General Nara's plan of attack, based on
14th Army's order to make the main effort
on the east, rested on two misconceptions:
first, that the American and Filipino troops
had been so weakened during the withdrawal that opposition would be light; and second, that the II Corps line was farther north
than was actually the case. General Nara's
misapprehension on the first point was
quickly corrected when II Corps artillery
replied, "particularly ferociously," to the
opening barrage. Tons of explosive hurtling
down on the advancing Japanese, ranged
four miles. Thus, in making his plans for

the major drive down the east side of the
peninsula, Nara assumed he would meet the
IICorps outposts soon after the attack
opened. On these assumptions he ordered
his troops to advance to a line extending
east and west of Album, with the main effort on the west to "overwhelm the enemy's
left flank." At the same time, a part of the
force was to swing wide in an encircling
movement to take II Corps in the rear. Simultaneously, a secondary thrust by a
smaller force would be made down the west
side of the peninsula against I Corps.3
For the attack General Nara organized
his reinforced brigade and attached units
into three regimental combat teams and a
reserve. Against II Corps he sent two regiments supported by tanks and artillery.
along the East Road and backed up four
Forming the brigade left (east) was Col.
miles on Route 7, made abundantly clear

the American determination to stand and
fight.2
The initial Japanese error in locating the
II Corps line was corrected only as the
battle developed. In drawing up his plan of
attack, General Nara had placed Parker's
left flank in the vicinity of Mt. Santa Rosa,
about three miles above its actual location.
The American outpost line, he estimated,
extended along the high ground immediately below Hermosa, an error of three to
Takeo Imai's 141st Infantry, supported by

a battalion of mountain artillery, a battery
of antitank guns, plus engineer and signal
troops. Starting from positions near Hermosa, Colonel Imai's force was to advance
southward down the East Road as far as the
Calaguiman River. It would have strong
support, if needed, from the 7th Tank Regiment which had spearheaded the attack
against Baliuag and Plaridel at the end of
December. In this first attack on Bataan,
the tanks would remain in the rear until the

Quintard, 301st FA ( P A ) , p. 5; Quintard, CO
301st FA (PA), Diary p. 5; Shreve, Diary, pp.
21-22.
2
3
Description of the Japanese plan is based on
65th Brig Opns Order, Series A, No. 42, 1800,
8 Jan 42, 65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt. Natib, App.
3, pp. 44-48.
266
engineers had repaired the bridges and removed the roadblocks along the East Road.
General Nara's hopes for a quick victory
rested on the combat team that was sent
against the western portion of the II Corps
line. This force, under Col. Susumu Takechi, consisted of the experienced 9th Infantry, reinforced by a battalion of artillery, an antitank gun battery, plus service
and support troops. Takechi's orders were
to "overwhelm" Parker's left flank, take Album, then send an encircling force around
the flank to join Colonel Imai's 141st Infantry coming down the East Road. To assure the success of this maneuver Nara
placed his reserve, the 142d Infantry, behind the 9th along the narrow trail leading
from Dinalupihan to Album, in position to
exploit the expected breakthrough of Takechi's troops.
Artillery support for the advance against
II Corps would be provided by Col. Gen
Irie's Army artillery, attached to the brigade for the operation.4 The guns were initially emplaced north of Hermosa, in posi-
The II Corps line, called the Abucay

line, extended from Mabatang on Manila
Bay to the northeast slopes of Mt. Natib.
(Map 11) On the east, guarding the East
Road, stood the well-trained Scouts of the
57th Infantry. To their left was the untried
41st Division (PA), once briefly part of the
South Luzon Force and now in position
along the Mt. Natib trail and Balantay
River, defending the center of the Abucay
line.5 Holding the western portion of the
corps line was General Jones's 51st Division ( P A ) , weakened by the long withdrawal from south Luzon. With its left
resting on the jungled slopes of Mt. Natib,
the division held a line along the north bank
tion to fire direct support and counterbat-
of the Balantay River as far east as Abucay
tery missions. As the battle progressed the
Hacienda, a raised clearing in the jungle

about five miles west of the town of Abucay.
At its western extremity the line consisted
of little more than scattered foxholes.
The Japanese attack began on schedule.
At 1500 Colonel Imai's men started down
the East Road but had not advanced far
artillery would be displaced forward to Or-
ani. Additional support for the 9th Infantry

would be furnished by a field artillery battalion advancing eastward from Olongapo
along Route 7.
Against I Corps on the western side of
Bataan, General Nara sent his third regimental combat team, built around the 122d
Infantry, and led by Col. Yunosuke Watanabe. Watanabe's mission was to advance
west along Route 7 to Olongapo, then south
to Moron. From there he would prepare

to advance on Bagac, western terminus of
the one lateral road across Bataan. Nara
4
The attached artillery consisted of the 1st and
8th Field Heavy Artillery Regiments and the 9th
Independent Heavy Artillery Battalion, Colonel
Irie was commander of the first-named unit.
apparently did not expect any resistance

above Bagac and was not even certain that
he would meet any there.
By early afternoon of 9 January all troops
were in position, tensely awaiting the zero
hour. General Nara himself was at Dinalupihan. At 1500 the big guns opened up.
Attack Against II Corps: The Abucay Line
5
The Mt. Natib trail extended from Mabatang
westward to the slopes of Mt. Natib. The 57th Infantry and part of the 41st Division had placed their
main line of resistance along this trail. Farther
west the trail ran below the main line of resistance.
The Balantay River appears in many sources and
on some maps as the Lavantan or Labangan River.
A tributary of the Calaguiman River, it is formed
by two streams joining about a mile west of Abucay
Hacienda; it then flows northeast until it joins
the Calaguiman. The Balantay is shallow and
easily fordable; its virtue as a military obstacle was
due to the fact that it flows through a deep gorge.
THE FIRST BATTLE OF BATAAN
267
MAP 11
before they were met by punishing fire from
II Corps artillery which had the road under
interdiction.6 To the west the movement of
the 9th Infantry was unopposed and
Colonel Takechi reached the vicinity of Album without any difficulty or opposition.
6
Probably more has been written on the fight at

Abucay than on any other episode in the Philippine
campaign. The sources for the action of each unit
will be cited in the appropriate place but the fight
as a whole can be reconstructed from 65th Brig
The only infantry contact during the day

came when a reconnaissance patrol of the
57th Infantry met a Japanese patrol below
Hermosa. After a brief fire fight the Scouts
had withdrawn.
Opns Rpt, Mt. Natib, pp. 15-30; 14th Army Opns,
I, 88-92; SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 2935; Lt Col Edmund J. Lilly, Jr., Rpt of Opns, 57th
Inf (PS), 8 Dec 41-9 Apr 42, pp. 3-4, copy in
OCMH; Jones, 51st Div (PA) Order of Events,
pp. 2-4.
268
INSPECTION. General MacArthur and Brig. Gen. Albert M. Jones with members
of their staffs, 10 January 1942.
General Nara, who had expected to hit

the II Corps outpost line on the first day
of the battle, was greatly encouraged
by the progress of his units. Both the
141st Infantry and the 9th Infantry sent
back optimistic reports of their advances,
and Nara incorrectly concluded that the
Americans had "made a general withdrawal" and "fled into the jungle without
putting up a fight." 7
On the evening of the 9th Wainwright
and Parker received orders from Corregidor to have all their general officers assembled to receive an important visitor the
next morning.8 At the first light of dawn a
PT boat carried General MacArthur and
his chief of staff, Maj. Gen. Richard K.

Sutherland, across the channel from Corregidor to Mariveles. From there they drove
up the East Road to Parker's headquarters
where they talked with II Corps officers and
inspected positions in that sector. Moving
west across the Pilar-Bagac road MacArthur met Wainwright and inspected
I Corps installations. When Wainwright
offered to show MacArthur his 155-mm.
guns, MacArthur replied, "I don't want to
see them. I want to hear them." 9
The Japanese unwittingly chose the day
of MacArthur's visit to Bataan to make
their first demand for surrender. In a mes9

8
Only Wainwright mentions the order directing him
to assemble the general officers. It is assumed that
Parker received similar orders.
Ibid., p. 50; Hunt, MacArthur and the War

Against Japan, pp. 52-53; USAFFE-USFIP Rpt
of Opns, p. 45. Colonel Mallone recalls MacArthur's answer to Wainwright as, "Don't need to
see 'em. I hear 'em." Mallone, Bataan Diary, II,
31.

sage addressed to the American commander
and dropped from the air behind the American lines, General Homma told MacArthur that his men were doomed and the end
near. "The question," he declared, "is how
long you will be able to resist. You have
already cut rations by half. . . . Your prestige and honor have been upheld. However,
in order to avoid needless bloodshed and
save your . . . troops you are advised to
surrender. . . . Failing that our offensive
will be continued with inexorable
force. . . ."10
The only answer the Japanese received to
their request for surrender was an increase
in the volume of artillery fire from II Corps.
To avoid the interdiction fire on the
East Road, Colonel Imai shifted the bulk of
his 141st Infantry to the west on the 10th,
with the result that his regiment split into
two columns. The easternmost column, consisting of the 2d Battalion (less two companies), continued to advance down the
East Road toward the 57th Infantry; the
western column, containing the rest of the
regiment, advanced against the 41st Division. Late on the afternoon of the 10th,
the 2d Battalion struck the 57th Infantry

outpost line just below Samal, and after a
brief fire fight the Scouts fell back. Though
unopposed by infantry, the 2d Battalion,
hindered by artillery fire, was able to advance only as far as the narrow Calaguiman
River, about 1,800 yards below Samal. To
10
MacArthur quoted the Japanese message in a
radio to the War Department, 27 Jan 42, WPD,
Ready Reference File. On the reverse side of his
message to MacArthur, General Homma later wrote
a separate warning for the Philippine troops. In it
he advised the Filipinos to save their "dear lives"
by throwing away their weapons and surrendering
before it was too late. "MacArthur had stupidly
refused our proposal," declared Homma, "and
continues futile struggle at the cost of your precious
lives."
269
the west the rest of the 141st Infantry,
under less intense artillery fire but delayed
by the rugged terrain, finally reached the
41st Division outpost line along the Calaguiman River four miles west of the East
Road, sometime during the night of 10-11
January.11
The 57th Infantry, under the command
of Col. George S. Clarke, was the first unit
on the II Corps line to come under heavy
infantry attack. Along the main line of resistance were the 1st Battalion on the right
and the 3d Battalion on the left. The 2d
Battalion was in reserve. On 11 January
a reinforced company of the reserve battalion, which had established an outpost
line south of the Calaguiman, came under
attack by the advance elements of Colonel
Imai's eastern column, the 2d Battalion,

141st Infantry. Soon the Japanese began to
cross the Calaguiman, about one mile north
of the main line of resistance. By 2300 the
Japanese battalion had reached a cane field
on the left front of the 57th's 3d Battalion,
directly before Company I. This cane field,
about 150 yards in front of the main line
of resistance, had not been cleared on the
11
The account of the action on the right of the
II Corps line is based upon: Olson, Opns of the
57th Inf (PS) at Abucay, pp. 10-17; Brown, Opns
of 57th Inf (PS) at Abucay, pp. 9-12; Capt William C. Anderson, Hist of 57th Inf (PS), pp. 2-5,
Chunn Notebooks; Capt Harry J. Stempin, Opns of
Co G, 57th Inf (PS), 7 Dec 41-30 Jan 42, pp. 9-12,
and Maj William E. Webb, Opns of 41st Inf (PA)
in Defense of Abucay Line, 10-18 Jan 42, pp. 1521 (both are papers prepared for Advanced Officers Course in 1946-47 and 1949-50, respectively,
The Infantry School) ; Lt Col Harold K. Johnson,
"Defense Along the Abucay Line," Military Review
(February 1949), pp. 50-51; Col Malcolm V.
Fortier, Notes on 41st Div (PA), pp. 1-2; memo,
Lt Col Frank F. Carpenter, Jr., Asst G-4 USAFFE,
for G-4 USAFFE, 14 Jan 42, sub: Rpt of Inspection Trip, 13 Jan 42, AG 319.1 (8 Jan 42) Phil
Rcds; unsigned account of the 41st Div (PA),
pp. 2-4.
270
assumption that artillery would effectively

prevent its use by the enemy as a route of
approach.
That night the Japanese in the cane field
moved out against the main line of resistance. First came an artillery and mortar
barrage, which was answered by concentrated fire from the 75-mm. guns of the 24th
the elimination of the infiltrated Japanese

was devised. Sniper parties consisting of
riflemen assisted by demolition engineers
were formed and these began to comb the
3d Battalion area systematically. By the end
of the day most of the Japanese had been
found and killed. It was as a result of his
action as the leader of one of these sniper
Field Artillery (PS). Hardly had the 24th

opened fire than the Japanese infantry
jumped off in a banzai attack across the
moonlit patch of ground in front of Company I. Wave after wave of screaming Japanese troops hurled themselves forward in
the face of intense fire. Men in the leading
wave threw themselves on the barbed wire
entanglements, forming human bridges
over which succeeding waves could pass.
Despite the appalling effects of the pointblank fire from the 75's, the Japanese continued their ferocious attack until Company
I, its commander seriously wounded and its
executive officer killed, finally gave ground.
Company K on the right immediately refused its flank and the battalion commander
threw his reserve, Company L, into the
fight. When this force failed to halt the
Japanese, Colonel Clarke committed a
company of the reserve battalion and the
Japanese attack stalled. At the approach of
dawn, the Scouts began a counterattack
which took them almost to the original line.
When the action was broken off on the
morning of the 12th, there were an estimated 200 to 300 dead Japanese on the
field of battle.
During the night a number of Japanese
had infiltrated into the 3d Battalion area,
on the left of the regimental line. The 57th
Infantry spent most of the next day routing
out the infiltrators, man by man, in handto-hand combat. After a number of Scouts
had been killed, a more efficient scheme for
parties that 2d Lt. Alexander R. Nininger,

Jr., was posthumously awarded the Medal
of Honor. His was the first of World War
II, although Calugas received his award for
heroism in the earlier fight at Layac
Junction.
The Japanese advance in other sectors
had been even less successful than that of

the 2d Battalion, 141st Infantry. The remainder of Imai's regiment in front of the
41st Division had begun to exert pressure
against the outpost line on the night of 1011 January. Unable to make progress here,
it had continued to move westward in search
of a soft spot in the line. By late afternoon
of the 11th Colonel Imai stood before the
43d Infantry on the left of the 41st Division
line.
The 9th Infantry had also drifted far
from its original axis of advance. Despite
the lack of opposition Takechi's advance
through the jungle of central Bataan was
slow. By the morning of the 11th his 2d
Battalion had progressed only as far as the
Orani River, two miles from the 51st Division line. The rest of the regiment had taken
the wrong road and marched east until it
was now only a few thousand yards northwest of Samal, almost behind the 141st instead of to its right.
It is not surprising that the Japanese had
become lost during the advance. Not only
were they hindered and confused by the
difficult terrain, but they were further
handicapped by the lack of adequate maps.
271

"Imperfect maps," General Nara later
wrote, "were the greatest drawback as far
as directing the battle was concerned." He
had difficulty also in maintaining communications with his forward units, largely because his signal unit was inexperienced and
the men frequently became lost in the jungle. American artillery imposed further difficulties on communications and he complained that "an hour of [radio] conversation a day was considered good, but even
this was not always possible." 12
It was not until the evening of 11 January that General Nara received enough
information to form an approximately correct estimate of his position. It was clear by
now that the Americans intended to resist
his advance and that this resistance would
be far stronger than he had expected. His
units had strayed from their original paths,
their gains had been small, and they were
becoming disorganized. "Besides the fact
that the front line force was hampered by
the terrain and that the control of the heavy
weapons and artillery forces was very poor,"

lamented Nara, "the line forces . . . did not
know each other's intentions and positions." 13 He decided, therefore, to revise his
plans. Modifying an earlier plan he ordered
the 141st Infantry, Colonel Imai's regiment, to continue its westward movement
until it became the brigade right flank
instead of the left, which it had been originally. The 142d, formerly brigade reserve,
was reinforced with artillery and ordered to
advance down the east coast to become the
brigade left flank. Colonel Takechi's 9th
Infantry, less one battalion, was designated
as the "encircling unit" and directed to
strike at Parker's left flank and take the
12
65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt. Natib, pp. 6, 26.
13
Ibid., p. 21.
corps line from the rear. The remaining

battalion of the regiment was ordered into
brigade reserve. To get his artillery forward
Nara was forced to order the construction
of a new road since II Corps artillery effectively denied him the use of the East Road.
Zero hour for the attack was set for noon of
the 13th, when the 9th Infantry, the "encircling unit," would jump off; the remainder of the brigade was to move out at
dusk of the same day.14
On the 12th, as the Japanese moved into
position for the attack, all units on the II
Corps line found themselves under increasingly heavy pressure. On the right, in front
of the 57th Infantry, the Japanese succeeded in establishing themselves again on
the south bank of the Calaguiman; in the
center they pushed back the outpost line
before the 43d Infantry.15 It was on the left
of the corps line that the Japanese made
their most important gains on 12 January,
when they tore a gap in the 51st Infantry
sector. A counterattack by a reserve battalion regained some of the lost ground but
at a heavy cost. By nightfall it was evident
that the Japanese, thwarted in their advance on the east, were shifting their effort
westward.
The threat to the eastern anchor of the
line was still too serious to be ignored.
Though the 57th Infantry had beaten back
all attempts by the 2d Battalion, 141st In-
fantry, to pierce the main line of resistance,

it was still hard pressed on the left and was
beginning to feel pressure on its right. Late
on the evening of the 12th, therefore, General Parker released the two-battalion 21st
14
65th Brig Opns Orders, Series A, Nos. 49 and

53, 11 and 12 Jan 42, 65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt.
Natib, Apps. 6 and 7.
15
Ltr, Col Loren A. Wetherby to author, 23 Oct
50, OCMH.
272
Infantry (PA) from corps reserve and gave
it to Colonel Clarke. With these fresh troops
Clarke made plans for an attack the next
morning with the 21st Infantry's 2d Battalion and the same numbered battalion of
the 57th. That night the 2d Battalion, 21st
Infantry, took over the left of the line and
the 3d Battalion went into reserve to free the
2d Battalion, 57th Infantry, for the counterattack.16
At 0600, 13 January, on the heels of a
rolling artillery barrage, the 2d Battalion,
21st Infantry, jumped off in the counterattack. Its task was made more difficult
by the fact that the Japanese had pushed a
deep salient into the left of the 57th line
during the night. The Filipinos advanced
quickly and aggressively, pushing the Japanese back across the bloodied ground. It
soon became evident to Capt. Philip A.
Meier, the battalion's American instructor,
that the gap was too large to be filled by his
men alone and he moved east to tie in with
the 1st Battalion, 57th Infantry, on his
right, thus creating a hole between his
men and the 41st Infantry on his left. Colonel Clarke, the 57th commander, thereupon ordered the 3d Battalion of the 21st
Infantry from reserve to plug the gap. As
the battalion began to move up at about
1300 it came under Japanese artillery fire
and was pinned down. When the artillery
16
The date of the attachment of the 21st Division
units to the 57th is variously given in the sources
used. The weight of evidence as well as the sequence
of events and Japanese sources point to the evening
of the 12th as the most likely date. On this point as
well as the action which follows, in addition to the
sources already cited in note 11, see: O'Day, 21st
Div (PA) I, Part 2, 1-2, II, 23-25; ltr [CO 21st

Inf] to TAG (PA), Opns 21st Inf (PA), p. 4; Richards, Steps to a POW Camp, pp. 14-20; Capts Roy
Oster and Grover C. Richards, 21st Inf (PA), p. 2,
Capt John C. Ellis, 23d Inf (PA), p. 8, and Lt Col
Eugene T. Lewis, 43d Inf (PA), p. 30, all in Chunn
Notebooks.

fire ceased three hours later, the 2d Battalion, 57th Infantry, counterattacked and
advanced to within 150 yards of the original line. By late afternoon the gap had been
closed and the Japanese were left in possession of only a small salient on the left of
the 57th Infantry line, a meager return indeed for four days of hard fighting.17
The counterattack by the 21st Infantry
on the morning of the 13th had forestalled
the Japanese offensive in that sector, leading General Nara to complain that "the
battle did not develop according to plan." 18
Elsewhere along the II Corps front he was
more successful. His artillery and air attacks that morning had caused damage
along the entire front and had caught a battalion of the 23d Infantry, moving from
reserve into position behind the 43d Infantry, inflicting from sixty to seventy casualties. Farther west the 141st Infantry had
begun to push against the right of General
Jones's line, in the 51st Infantry sector,
during the morning, and had forced Jones
back to his main line of resistance along
the high ground on the north bank of the
Balantay. The advance of the 9th Infantry
down the center of the peninsula, "hampered by the terrain" and, Colonel Takechi
reported, considerable resistance, had
failed to reach the main line of resistance
on the 13th.19
Japanese pressure next day, the 14th, was
heaviest on the left of the Abucay line.
Here the 141st Infantry hit the 43d Infantry, forcing the outposts along the Balantay back across the river. The 51st Di17
Brig Gen Arnold J. Funk, Comments on Draft
MS, 12 Jan 52, p. 2, OCMH. For Clarke's views on
this action, see his interview with a G-2 WDGS officer on his return to the United States, 14-15 August
1942. Mil Intel Library.
18
19
Ibid.

vision to the left thereupon abandoned the
main line of resistance and pulled backto
positions on the south bank of the Balantay. Farther west the 9th Infantry continued
its effort to encircle the corps left flank,
but failed again to reach the main line of
resistance. The reports reaching Nara that
night were generally favorable, but they
could not obscure the fact that the attack
had failed or that "the enemy's established
fire net was increasing in intensity . . .
and enemy artillery was concentrating fire
on [the east] front without a minute's
respite."20
By 15 January the Japanese drive no
longer constituted a serious threat to the
eastern anchor of the Abucay line, and Col.
Arnold J. Funk, who had relieved Clarke
at about 1200 on the 13th, replaced the
21st Infantry with the 22d, which had been
made available- by corps. But in the center,
where the 43d Infantry had been reinforced
by the 23d, the threat of a break-through
became serious. It was here, at the boundary between the 41st and 51st Divisions,
that the main enemy blow came on the 15th
with a strong attack by Imai's 141st Infantry. The reinforced 43d, on the left of
the 41st Division, held firm, but General
Jones had to commit his division reserve as
well as his service troops to maintain his
position on the Balantay. The fight continued throughout the day and at about
1600 a small party of Japanese troops
crossed the river in the face of heavy fire and
occupied a hill between the 51st and the
43d Infantry. The Filipino troops sought
determinedly to drive the enemy back across
the river, but, despite claims by Parker and
Jones that the 51st line was unbroken, the
20
Ibid., p. 23; see also Apps. 8 and 9, pp. 53, 55.
273
Japanese, at the end of the day, still retained their foothold on the south bank of
the Balantay. With the 9th Infantry in position about 1,000 yards to the west, the
prospects for the next day were distinctly
unfavorable.21
General Jones was in a serious position.
Although his division was still in place, his
troops were "very perceptibly weakening." 22 Unless he received reinforcements,
he told General Parker, he might have to
fall back from the main line of resistance.
To meet this demand for more men, the II
Corps commander, who had already committed his reserve, was forced to request additional troops from MacArthur's headquarters.
This request had apparently been
anticipated. The center of the AbucayMauban line, where the fight was now becoming critical and where the terrain made
physical contact between the two corps extremely difficult if not impossible, had been
a matter of concern to high-ranking officers in MacArthur's headquarters from the
very start. After his visit to Bataan with
MacArthur on the 10th, General Sutherland
had criticized the disposition of the troops
and expressed the fear that the enemy
"would attack down the center of the penin21
The account of the action on the left of the
II Corps line is reconstructed from: Jones, 51st
Div (PA) Order of Events, pp. 1-4; Col Virgil
N. Cordero, My Experiences During the War with
Japan (Nuremburg, privately printed, n.d.), pp.
20-23; MacDonald, Supplement to Jones Diary,
pp. 16, 17; 52d Inf (PA), p. 36; Bluemel, 31st Div
(PA) Rpt of Opns, pp. 8-9; Phil Div Rpt of Opns,
pp. 11-12; Maj William R. Nealson, Opns of a
Prov Bn, 41st Div (PA) at Abucay, 15-25 Jan 42
(paper prepared for Advanced Officers Course,
1947-48, The Infantry School), pp. 9-11; Cummings, 53d Inf (PA), p. 4, Chunn Notebooks;
Funk, Comments on Draft MS, p. 3, OCMH.
22
274
sula over the roughest terrain and not along
the coast where the roads were located." 23
The bulk of the forces on Bataan, he noted,
was not deployed to meet such an attack,
and he had suggested to the two corps commanders that they shift their troops so as to
strengthen their interior flanks. The following day, 11 January, the subject had been
raised again in an order which directed that
contact between the two corps "be actual
and physical" and that all avenues of approach, including "the rough area in the
center of the Bataan Peninsula," be covered.24
After an inspection of the front line on 12
January, General R. J. Marshall, USAFFE
deputy chief of staff and commander of the
Bataan echelon of that headquarters, also
became concerned over the weakness of the
center of the line. He discussed the problem
with General Wainwright who, he wrote,
"did not agree entirely, saying that he
thought that the center of our position was
too difficult terrain for the major attack." 25
Seriously disturbed, Marshall turned to
Sutherland for aid. "I don't believe," he de23
Sutherland made this statement in an interview
with the author on 14 November 1946, five years
after the events. Contemporary sources support
Sutherland's foresight in predicting Japanese
intentions.
24
Ltr Order, USAFFE, 11 Jan 42, sub: Plans
for Counterattack, AG 381 (10 Nov 41) Phil Rcds.
General Parker did not recall later any discussion
with Sutherland on this subject, but added that he,
too, was greatly concerned at the time and never
able to work out a satisfactory solution to the
problem. "There were just not enough units . . .
to cover the front effectively," he later wrote.
Those in the line were already overextended and
lacked sufficient deployment in depth. He felt then
and still did after the war that it would have been
unwise to weaken his line at any point to shift
troops to the west, to the center of the peninsula.
Ltr, Parker to Ward, 16 Jan 52, OCMH.
25
Memo, Marshall for CofS USAFFE, 13 Jan 42,
AG 370.2 (19 Dec 42) Phil Rcds.

clared, "we can over-estimate the importance of denying observation of both our
battle positions, which would be available
to the enemy were he in possession of Mt.
Natib." 26
Parker's request for reinforcements,
therefore, came as no surprise to Sutherland and Marshall who had already ordered
various units into the II Corps area. From
USAFFE reserve came the Philippine Divi-
sion (less 57th Infantry) and from Wainwright's corps came the Philippine Army
31st Division (less elements). When Parker
learned of these reinforcements he made
plans to use the former when it arrived for
a counterattack to restore the line and the
latter initially as corps reserve and later to
relieve the Philippine Division after the

counterattack.
While the reserves were moving into
position on the night of 15-16 January,
General Parker decided to make an immediate effort to regain the ground lost on
his critical left flank, and ordered the 51st
Division to counterattack on the morning
of the 16th. To strengthen the division for
this venture he gave General Jones the 3d
Battalion, 21st Infantry, which had already
seen action in the fight along the East
Road.27 Jones vigorously protested the order
to counterattack, pointing out to his corps
26
Ibid. In this memorandum Marshall stated that
he was sending Colonel Funk, who had not yet
assumed command of the 57th Infantry, to see
Wainwright again to find out what was being done
to protect the right flank of I Corps. When Funk
took command of the 57th, the visit was canceled.
27
The battalion was to arrive at Abucay Hacienda
at about 0400 of the 16th. There is a difference of
opinion in the source as to the identity of the unit
given Jones. Some claim it was the 21st Engineers;
others, the 3d Battalion, 21st Infantry. This confusion may arise from the fact that the 21st
Engineers got into the fight in this sector later, and
that the battalion of the 21st was late in reaching
the 51st Division.

commander that his main line of resistance
was tactically unsound and that "the weakened condition of his division from continuous combat and heavy losses during the past
month" made the ordered counterattack
"extremely hazardous." "Moreover," he asserted, "the present position was being held
only with great difficulty." 28 His protests
were unavailing and it was with little hope
of success that he made his preparations.
The 51st Division attack began on schedule at dawn of the 16th and immediately
ran into strong enemy resistance. The Japanese considered this area to be, in Nara's
words, "the pivot point of the entire enemy
position" and apparently expected the
counterattack.29 Despite the heavy opposition the 51st Infantry on the division right
succeeded in beating back the Japanese in
its sector. So successful was the regiment
that it pushed ahead of the units on its right
and left, thereby creating a dangerous
salient in the line.
The enemy was quick to take advantage
of Jones's exposed position. About noon
elements of the 141st Infantry pressed in
against the right (east) of the salient and
began infiltrating between the 51st Infantry and the 43d Infantry to its right. At
about the same time the 9th Infantry
which had been approaching Parker's left
flank from the north struck the left side of
the salient and pressed in between the 51st
and 53d Infantry. The 51st was thus
threatened by a double envelopment.
Under pressure from three directions, the
entire 51st regimental line gave way and
the Filipino troops fled to the rear in disorder, exposing the 43d to envelopment by
the 141st Infantry. Colonel Imai recognized
the danger as well as the advantage of his
28
29
Jones, 51st Div (PA) Order of Events, p. 3.
275
own position immediately. Should he push
ahead after the 51st he might well leave his
own left flank exposed to attack by the 43d
Infantry, whose strength he did not know.
He decided against this risk and after a brief
pause for reorganization sent the bulk of his
regiment eastward against the 41st Division.
The 43d Infantry, on the left, was now
forced to refuse its flank back to the reserve
line, where, under the calm guidance of Lt.
Col. Eugene T. Lewis, regimental instructor, it held against the repeated onslaughts
of Imai's men. Lewis was given additional
men to hold the refused flank when a hastily organized provisional battalion, consisting of the 41st Engineer Battalion, signal
and quartermaster troops, and stragglers,
was thrown into the action.
While a portion of the 141st Infantry was
pressing the attack against the 43d and 51st
Infantry, other elements of Colonel Imai's
regiment were pushing the 42d Infantry, on
the east (right) of the 43d, threatening to
drive between the two. To halt the Japanese
here, a battalion of the 23d Infantry was attached to the 42d and the attackers were
beaten off. Farther east elements of the
142d Infantry joined with the 2d Battalion,
141st Infantry, which had borne the brunt
of the fighting in the 57th Infantry sector
earlier, in an attack against the 41st Infantry, on the division right flank. Here the
Japanese were repulsed only after the 3d
Battalion, 32d Infantry, the first element of
the reserve 31st Division (PA) to reach II
Corps, was sent into action.
The disintegration of the 51st Infantry
had exposed not only the left flank of the
43d but also the right of the 53d Infantry,
westernmost unit on the II Corps line. Colonel Boatwright, 53d Infantry commander,
attempted to maintain contact with the 51st
on his right by pulling back his regimen-
276
tal flank to conform to that of the adjacent unit. This effort proved unsuccessful.
Behind and to the left rear of the 51st
Infantry was the 3d Battalion, 21st Infantry, in position to support the 53d and
available for a counterattack if necessary.
This battalion, which had been given General Jones by corps as division reserve before
the counterattack, had arrived in the 51st
Division sector late on the morning of the
16th, and without Jones's knowledge had
taken up a position behind the critical portion of the line. Throughout the action of
the 16th, Jones was unaware of its presence
and firmly believed that he was operating
without a reserve.30 Consequently the 3d
Battalion, 21st, saw little action during the
16th and withdrew later to Guitol.
Though the situation in the 53d Infantry
sector appeared desperate, it was not as dangerous as it seemed, partly because of the
presence of the 3d Battalion, 21st Infantry,
and partly because of the Japanese dispositions. Neither Boatwright nor General Jones
knew that Colonel Imai had decided to
throw the bulk of the 141st Infantry against
the 43d Infantry rather than against the
53d. Nor did either know that the 9th Infantry, which was in front and to the right
of the 53d, had halted at this critical moment to reorganize after its long march
through the jungled heights of central Ba30
There is a good deal of confusion and controversy in contemporary records and in diaries and
interviews over the movements and action of the
3d Battalion, 21st Infantry. Since it did not take
an important part in the counterattack of the 16th,
the activities of this battalion have not been covered
in detail here. Richards, Steps to a POW Camp,
pp. 17-19; Jones, 51st Div (PA) Order of Events;
O'Day, 21st Div (PA), II, 25; Oster and Richards,
21st Inf (PA), p. 3, Chunn Notebooks; ltr, Jones
to Ward, 3 Jan 52, OCMH; ltr, MacDonald to
Jones, 21 Dec 51, OCMH.

taan. Instead, the 51st Division staff was
convinced that disaster was imminent and
the situation too precarious to permit the
53d to remain in place.' In Jones's absence
at the front, the division chief of staff therefore ordered Boatwright to fall back to the
southwest farther up the slopes of Mt. Natib
and establish physical contact with I Corps,
a task that thus far had proved impossible.
The withdrawal of the 53d Infantry
across the precipitous slopes of Mt. Natib
was made under the most trying conditions

and proved a harrowing experience. The
men became separated in the jungle and
along the winding trails and the regiment
failed either to establish a position on Mt.
Natib or to tie in with I Corps. The majority
of the men finally reached Guitol, tired, hungry, and footsore; but others, after a march
through some of the most difficult country
in the Philippines during which they sub-
sisted on leaves, shrub roots, and boiled

snails, reached Bagac on the west coast.31
With the troops that succeeded in making
their way south General Jones organized
a covering force late on the afternoon of the
16th. This force he placed astride the Guitol
trail, approximately 4,000 yards south of
the Balantay River line from which he had
launched his counterattack that morning.
It was not this covering force that saved
the II Corps line but the failure of the
Japanese to exploit their advantage. The
two Japanese units in position to envelop
the left flank of the corps chose instead to
31
One officer in Boatwright's party states that

all he ate for three days was a can of pineapple,
which he shared with several other officers. 1st Lt
Eugene Forquer, 53d Inf (PA), p. 42, Chunn Notebooks; ltr, Boatwright to George Groce, research
asst, 22 Mar 49, OCMH; ltrs, Boatwright and MacDonald to Jones, 12 and 6 Nov 50, lent to author by
General Jones.
277
pursue other, less profitable objectives. The
the counterattack began the next morning
141st Infantry had flung itself against the

left flank of the 41st Division instead of attempting to take it in the rear. With the
51st Division in retreat, such a maneuver
might well have been more rewarding than
the attack against the 43d Infantry, which
had successfully refused its left flank. The

9th Infantry, Nara's "encircling unit," was
under orders to move southeast down the
Salian River valley, a short distance behind
the II Corps line. Had Colonel Takechi
moved through the gap between the 51st
it was about 5,000 yards to the southeast.32

By the evening of 16 January, just one
week after he had opened his attack, General Nara was in position to turn the left
flank of II Corps. Though forced to change
his plans repeatedly and held up by unexpectedly strong resistance, he had made considerable progress. Repulsed on the east by
the 57th and 21st Infantry and in the center
by the 41st Division, he had shifted the
axis of attack to the west and concentrated
his forces against the weakened 51st Divi-
and 41st Divisions he could have reached
sion whose 51st Infantry had finally broken.
the Salian River quickly and turned the
This disaster had completely unhinged the

II Corps line and left it open to a dangerous
flanking attack. If Nara could press his advantage and push his men south and southeast quickly enough he would envelop the
entire corps and push it against Manila
Bay. He would also make Wainwright's
position untenable and force him to withdraw. Already the Japanese had driven a
wedge between the two corps. The fate of
the entire line, from Mabatang to Mauban,
depended on the counterattack of the 31st
Infantry scheduled for the morning of 17
January. If the regiment was successful II
Corps might remain in position for some
time; if it was routed the entire line would
be forced to fall back in disorder. Should
the 31st delay the Japanese temporarily,
corps left flank. Instead, misled by poor

maps which confused the Abo-Abo and
the Salian, he began a wide sweep around
Parker's left in preparation for an advance
south and southeast down the Abo-Abo
River valley. At the critical moment, therefore, when he should have been pushing
down the Salian River valley, Takechi was
preparing for the march down the AboAbo, a course that would take him out of
the action for the next few days.
General Parker had recognized the gravity of his position almost as soon as the 51st
sector gave way. At about 1200 of the 16th
he had ordered Brig. Gen. Maxon S. Lough
to move his Philippine Division (less the
57th Infantry) to the left of the 41st Division and to counterattack the next morning
with two regiments abreast. The 31st Infantry (US)not to be confused with the
31st Infantry (PA), a regiment of the
Philippine Army's 31st Division which was
also in the II Corps sector at this time
moved out early in the afternoon and about
1900 reached its destination, approximately
one mile east of Abucay Hacienda. The
45th Infantry (PS) left its bivouac area at
1700 of the 16th but lost its way and when
32
Ltr, Parker to Ward, 16 Jan 52, OCMH. For
the movements of the 31st and 45th Infantry, see:
Phil Div Rpt of Opns, p. 12; Conrad, 2d Bn, 31st
Inf, Opns of 31st Inf (US), pp. 12-13; Maj John
I. Pray, former CO Co G, Action of Co G, 31st
Inf (US) Abucay Hacienda, 15-25 Jan 42, pp.
6-7, Maj Louis B. Besbeck, Opns of 3d Bn, 45th
Inf (PS) at Abucay Hacienda, 15-25 Jan 42, pp.
10-12, and Maj Henry J. Pierce, Opns of Co L,

45th Inf (PS) at Abucay Hacienda, p. 7. All three
papers prepared for Advanced Officers Course, the

first two in 1946-47 and the last in 1949-50, at
The Infantry School.
278
MAP 12
then the corps might yet gain time for a
planned and orderly withdrawal.
Attack Against I Corps: The Mauban Line

The Mauban line along which Wainwright's I Corps was posted extended from
the slopes of Mt. Silanganan on the east,
westward along Mauban Ridge, to the small
coastal village which gave the line its name.
(Map 12) Along the steep and rugged
slopes of the mountain was Company K of
the 1st Infantry (PA) which had been
ordered to establish contact with II Corps

on the right. It was never successful in accomplishing its mission, an impossible one
in the view of many officers. To its left was
a battalion of the 31st Field Artillery, 31st
Division (PA), organized and equipped as
infantry. The rest of the line was held by the
3d Infantry of Brig. Gen. Fidel V. Segundo's 1st Division (PA).
About three quarters of a mile in front
of the main line of resistance, from Bayandati to a point about midway up the mountain, was the outpost line, manned by ele-
279
ments of the 3d Infantry. Defending

Moron, two miles north of Bayandati, and
the sandy stretch of beach between it and
the outpost line was Company I, 1st Infantry, and Troop G, 26th Cavalry. In
corps reserve was the 91st Division (PA),
with combat elements of the 71st Division
attached; the 26th Cavalry; and the 1st
Infantry (less detachments).
In drawing up his plans for the conquest
of Bataan, General Nara had correctly estimated that decisive results could be obtained most quickly in the II Corps sector
and had sent the bulk of his troops down
the eastern side of Bataan. Against Wainwright's I Corps he had sent a relatively
weak force, consisting of a combat team
composed of the 122d Infantry (less two
companies), a battalion of field artillery,
a platoon of engineers, and a squad of
signalmen. This force, led by Colonel Watanabe, was under orders to advance west-
In occupying Grande Island the Japanese acquired possession of Fort Wint, the
"little Corregidor" of Subic Bay. Strategically situated to guard the entrance to the
bay and control the northwest shore of
Bataan, this fort had been part of General
Moore's Harbor Defenses and had been
manned by coast artillery personnel under
Col. Napoleon Boudreau. On 24 December
Colonel Boudreau had been ordered to
abandon the fort by the next day and join
the troops then entering Bataan. He had
completed the evacuation in time, but only
at the expense of several thousand rounds of
155-mm. ammunition, some mobile guns,
and the fixed guns of larger caliber.34
While the support or retention of Fort
Wint was probably impossible once the decision had been made to fall back on the
Mabatang-Mauban line, its evacuation
without a struggle gave the Japanese an important objective at no cost. An American
ward from Dinalupihan to Olongapo, then
garrison on Grande Island, even if it was
south through Moron toward Bagac.33

Leaving Dinalupihan at 1900 of the 9th,
Colonel Watanabe led his men along Route
7 toward undefended Olongapo. Delayed
only by destroyed bridges and demolitions
planted earlier by the American engineers,
he reached Olongapo at 1400 the next day.
His field artillery was still at Dinalupihan
where it was to remain until the road could
be repaired. Two days later, on 12 January,
under orders from 14th Army, the 122d Infantry embarked in native boats and
quickly seized Grande Island, at the entrance to Subic Bay.
33
As in the section preceding, the Japanese side

of the story has been reconstructed from 65th Brig
Opns Rpt, Mt. Natib, pp. 25-28 and 14th Army
Opns, I, 92-97. The plan outlined above is derived from the 65th Brig Opns Order, Series A, No.
42, 1800, 8 Jan 42, App. 3, 65th Brig Opns Rpt,

Mt. Natib, p. 44.
ultimately lost, might well have paid substantial dividends and certainly would have
given the Japanese many uncomfortable
moments. From Fort Wint the Americans
with their large guns could have disputed
Japanese control of the bay and of Olongapo, which later became an important
enemy supply base, and would have constituted a threat to the flank of any Japanese
34
Collier, Notebooks, II, 48-49; ltr, Boudreau to
author, 12 Dec 47, OCMH; Harbor Defenses Rpt
of Opns, p. 23. Neither Boudreau nor General
Moore mentions the loss of armament or ammunition but Colonel Collier states there was such a
loss and the Japanese claim that they captured a
number of guns and a large supply of ammunition
when they seized the island. 14th Army Opns, I,
88-92. General Bluemel states that four 155-mm.
guns were moved to Olongapo and from there
moved by tractor into Bataan. Bluemel, Comments
on Draft MS, Comments 14 and 16, OCMH.
280
force advancing down the west coast of

Bataan.
It was not until 14 January that Watanabe began his advance southward along
the west coast of the peninsula.35 Wainwright had dispatched a battalion of the
1st Infantry to Moron at the first news of
the occupation of Olongapo, but had with-
he dispatched the entire 1st Infantry, as well

as the 1st Engineer Battalion and two battalions of artillery, to Moron. He also relieved Troop G of the 26th Cavalry, which
had been on patrol since the 10th, and replaced it with the composite Troop E-F of
the same regiment. In command of these
forces was General Segundo, commander
drawn it two days later when the Japanese
of the 1st Division. Major McCullom,36
failed to advance. On the 14th, when the

Japanese began to move toward Moron, the
battalion was in corps reserve. Part of the
122d Infantry came down the narrow trail
between Olongapo and Moron; the rest of
the regiment embarked in boats for Moron
where the West Road began. Watanabe
hoped in this way to advance more rapidly
down the west coast toward Bagac and
avoid the delay inevitable if the entire regiment followed the winding trail north of
Moron. Unfamiliar with the coast line and
handicapped by poor maps, the water-borne
elements of the 122d came ashore at a small
barrio midway between Olongapo and
Moron and prepared to march the rest of
the distance on foot.
Wainwright received word of the Japanese advance almost as soon as the forward elements of the 122d Infantry
landed. In an effort to contain the enemy
commander of the 1st Infantry, exercised

tactical control.
On 15 January the two elements of the
122d Infantry joined and by the following
morning the regiment was within a mile of
Moron. When it crossed the Batalan River,
just north of the village, opposed only by
fire from an American patrol, Wainwright
hastened to Moron where he organized and
directed an attack by the 1st Infantry and
Troop E-F of the 26th Cavalry. In this
first engagement in I Corps the honors
went to the Filipinos who forced the Japanese back to the river line. Unfortunately,
the cavalrymen suffered heavily in men and
animals and had to be withdrawn. During
the course of the action Major McCullom
was wounded in the head and Col. Kearie
L. Berry, commander of the 3d Infantry,
on the main line of resistance, was placed
in command of the 1st Infantry as well.
The Japanese continued the attack
35
In addition to the sources cited below, this
against Moron during the 17th and by late
account of the fight in I Corps is based upon:
afternoon penetrated the town in force.
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 48; NLF and
Wainwright's men thereupon withdrew to
I Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 17-21; Berry, Hist of
3d Inf, 1st Reg Div ( P A ) , 19 Dec 41-9 Apr 42,
a ridge about a mile and a half to the south.
pp. 2-5; Chandler, "26th Cavalry (PS) Battles to
It is possible that from this position they
Glory," Parts 2 and 3, Armored Cavalry Journal
could have delayed the enemy advance but
(May-June 1947), p. 15, (July-August 1947), pp.
15-16; Col John H. Rodman, Engagement of 91st already strong Japanese reinforcements
Div (PA) on Moron-Bagac Road, p. 1, copy borwere moving against the Mauban line.
rowed from Rodman, OCMH; ltr, Col Fowler to
The decision to commit additional troops
author, 11 Mar 49, OCMH; ltr, Lt Col Houston
to the attack against I Corps had been made
P. Houser, Jr., to author, 18 Mar 49, OCMH; ltr,
Rodman to author, 30 Mar 49, OCMH; Prov Tank
by General Homma, the Army commander,
Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 18; ltr, Berry to Ward, 11 Jan
52, OCMH.
36
First name unknown.

not General Nara, who was responsible for
the assault against the Abucay-Mauban
line. Homma had made this decision on 13
January, by which time he had correctly
estimated that Nara's attack against II
Corps "was not progressing favorably" and
that the advance of Watanabe's force was
meeting no resistance.37 By strengthening
the force on the west coast Homma apparently hoped to overwhelm the two corps
simultaneously. His revised plan called for
a continuation of the drive against II Corps
by the 65th Brigade and an increased effort
on the west by a larger force than originally
contemplated. This force would not only
advance to Bagac but would also push east
along the Pilar-Bagac road to take II Corps
from the rear.
To secure the troops for his revised plan
of operations against I Corps, General
Homma drew on the 16th Division. On the
13th he ordered the division commander
to send to Bataan two infantry battalions
and as many regimental guns of 75-mm.
caliber and rapid-fire 37-mm. guns as possible. This force, when finally organized,
consisted of Headquarters, 16th Infantry
Group, the 20th Infantry (less one battalion), an antitank battery, and half the
regimental gun battery of the 33d Infantry. Led by Maj. Gen. Naoki Kimura,
16th Division infantry group commander, it
left Manila for San Fernando on 15 January. Late that night General Homma
created the Kimura Detachment and placed
it directly under the control of 14th Army,
thus relieving Nara of responsibility for
operations against I Corps. In addition to
the units he had brought with him, Kimura was also placed in command of the
troops already operating along the west
37
14th Army Opns, I, 92, 96.
281
coast of Bataan. Altogether he had a force
of about 5,000 men.38
On the morning of 18 January General
Kimura reached Moron and assumed control over operations. For the assault against
Wainwright's line along the ridge south and
southeast of the town he organized three
forces. The 122d was to attack frontally
down the West Road; the 3d Battalion, 20th
Infantry, was to swing east of Moron in an
attempt to take the ridge position on the
flank. The third force, one company of the
3d Battalion, was sent far up the mountain
around the I Corps flank to cut the PilarBagac road and did not participate in the
ensuing action. The 2d Battalion, 20th Infantry, Kimura held in reserve.
In the belief that his force was not strong
enough for a successful stand along the
ridge, Wainwright on the 18th directed a
withdrawal. The 1st Infantry and the 1st
Engineers fell back through the outpost line
to take up a position along the main line
of resistance between the 3d Infantry and
the battalion of the 31st Field Artillery on
the slopes of Mt. Silanganan. The Japanese
followed closely and that night drove in the
corps outpost line "without much effort." 39
A counterattack the next morning restored
the line but another Japanese assault on the
night of the 19th gave the Japanese final
and permanent possession of the outpost line.
As the 122d Infantry continued to push
against the 1st Division troops on the left
of the Mauban line, the 3d Battalion, 20th
Infantry (less one company), which had
been sent around the east flank of the ridge
38
14th Army Opns Order, Series A, No. 167,
2200, 15 Jan 42, App. 21, 65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt.
Natib, p. 75. For a description of the regimental

and rapid-fire guns, see Handbook of Japanese
Military Forces, TM-E 30-480, 1 Oct 44, pp.
217-18, 220.
39
Berry, Hist of 3d Inf, 1st Reg Div (PA), p. 3.
282
line on the 18th, swung back to the southwest into the I Corps area. Unopposed, the
battalion, led by Lt. Col. Hiroshi Nakanishi,
either infiltrated through the I Corps line
along the slopes of Mt. Silanganan or advanced through a gap between the 1st Infantry and 31st Field Artillery. At about
1000 of the 21st it reached the West Road,
three miles east of Mauban in the vicinity
of Kilometer Post (KP) 167, and established a roadblock behind the 1st Division.40
By this move the Japanese placed themselves squarely athwart the only major road
suitable for transporting heavy equipment
and supplies. Though the enemy force was
a small one, less than a battalion, the danger
to Wainwright's position was a grave one.41
To meet the threat Wainwright was
obliged to shift units in his sector. The transfer five days before of the 31st Division (less
31st Field Artillery) to II Corps had left
Wainwright with no reserves, and the commitment of the Philippine Division made it
impossible to secure reinforcements from
USAFFE. He would have to fight the battle
with what he had. Most of the 91st Division, including the attached elements of the
71st, had replaced the 31st on beach de-
fense when that division had gone to Parker.

One battalion of the 92d Infantry had been
attached to the 1st Division and was in
place along the reserve line, north of the
roadblock. When, on the 19th, word
reached General Segundo, the 1st Division
commander, that a Japanese force was infiltrating into the line from Mt. Silanganan,
he sent three company-size patrols from the
battalion of the 92d Infantry forward to
block the trails. They quickly became involved in action along the slopes of Mt.
Silanganan and were not available to meet
the threat behind the line. The remainder
of Wainwright's force, the 26th Cavalry
and elements of the 71st Division, were
already committed to the defense of the
Pilar-Bagac road and could not be shifted
without endangering the security of that
vital highway.
When the Japanese roadblock was first
discovered, therefore, the only unit available to throw against it from the north was
a reinforced platoon of the 92d Infantry.
Col. John H. Rodman, the regimental commander, ordered 1st Lt. Beverly N. Skardon
to lead the platoon into action. After an advance of a few hundred yards it came under
fire and was forced to halt. Meanwhile,
40
south
of the roadblock, a provisional
Locations along the roads and trails on Bataan
are frequently given in terms of the distance from
platoon was being readied for action. This
Manila in kilometers. In the absence of towns and
platoon was organized and led personally
villages on Bataan, this description sometimes is the
by General Wainwright who, on his way
only way to fix a point precisely on a map. These
locations corresponded to road and trail markers
to the front that morning, had heard firing
which read simply "KP" and the number of kilto the north and had hastily gathered about
ometers from Manila.
41
twenty men from the Headquarters ComThere is some disagreement as to the date the
road was cut. Some officers gave the date as 20
pany, 92d Infantry, to meet this unexpected
January; Wainwright and other officers say the
threat.
With these men he attacked the block
block was established on the 21st. The Japanese give
the 21st as the date, and that date has been acfrom the south, but after two hours, realcepted in this account. The time is fixed by the
izing he could make no progress with so
evaluation of Japanese and American sources. See
especially Rodman, Engagement of 91st Div (PA)
few men, he left the platoon with another
on Moron-Bagac Road; ltr, Rodman to author, 30
officer and continued forward by another
Mar 49, OCMH; ltr, Skerry to author, 15 Jul 52,
route to organize a larger force.
with inch, OCMH.

The initial Japanese block had been established by only a portion of the 3d Battalion, 20th Infantry. During the day the
rest of the battalion picked its way along
circuitous routes around blocked trails and
down the steep slopes of Mt. Silanganan to
join in the defense of the roadblock. Meanwhile, the build-up on the American side
continued as additional forces from the 91st

Division were released for the impending
battle. Scouts of the 26th Cavalry and Company C, 194th Tank Battalion, were also
ordered to the threatened area in an all-out
effort to clear the road. Colonel Rodman,

92d Infantry commander, was placed in
command of the entire force.
The attack opened on the morning of the

22d with an attempt by a platoon of tanks
to break through the block and establish
contact with the 1st Division to the north.
By this time the Japanese had constructed
antitank obstacles and laid mines, which,
with the fire from their 37-mm. antitank
guns, effectively held up the tankers. When
the two lead tanks of the 194th were disabled by mines, the remaining tanks of the
platoon were held up and the attack stalled.

Next, Rodman sent an understrength
motorized squadron of the 26th Cavalry
and the 3d Battalion, 72d Infantry, against
the roadblock. This attack was initially successful and the Filipinos reached a ridge
near the roadblock. But all efforts to eliminate the block met with failure. Meanwhile, the 122d Infantry continued to engage Colonel Berry's 1st Division troops
along the main line of resistance.

During the next few days Rodman attempted again and again to drive out the
Japanese, first by frontal assaults and then
by flanking attacks. A general attack by all

units in contact with the enemy was delivered at daylight of the 23d but failed to
283
gain any ground. Later in the day the 1st

Battalion, 2d Constabulary, in an effort to
outflank the enemy and establish contact
with 1st Division units, slipped through the
jungle south of the roadblock and at nightfall emerged in the vicinity of KP 172, from
where it could attack the enemy from the
west. Without explanation, however, the

Constabulary withdrew during the night to
its former position. The next morning, 24
January, the 1st Battalion, 91st Infantry,
and the 3d Battalion of the 72d attacked
the roadblock from the east. Despite support from the Constabulary, which delivered a limited attack from the south, this
effort to penetrate the block also proved unsuccessful.
Rodman's inability to make progress
against the roadblock could not have been
due to a shortage of troops. By 24 January

he had under his command the 2d Battalion, 92d Infantry; 1st Battalion, 91st Infantry; 3d Battalion, 72d Infantry; the 2d
Squadron, 26th Cavalry; two battalions
and a howitzer company from the 2d Constabulary, attached to I Corps on 22 January; as well as other mixed detachments.
All of these units, it must be added, were
understrength, tired, poorly fed, and, except for the 26th Cavalry squadron and
the howitzer company, had no automatic
weapons at all.
Against this array of units Colonel Nakanishi had only a single battalion, less one
company. Moreover, the Japanese probably
suffered greater hardships than their opponents. It is extremely doubtful that Kimura was ever able during this period to
establish a supply route over the mountains
and through the I Corps line to the men at
the roadblock. Nor is there any definite evidence of enemy air drops to Nakanishi's
troops. His men probably had no supplies
284
other than those they had carried across the

mountain. Their staunch defense of the
roadblock in the face of such strong opposition was therefore the more remarkable, explainable only by the difficulty of the terrain, which favored the defender, by training, and by determination.
While the fight for the roadblock was being fought to a standstill, the Japanese continued to push against the main line of resistance. Their advance was contested by
Colonel Berry's 3d Infantry and elements
of the 1st Infantry, but by evening of the
24th the "situation was desperate and
rapidly growing worse." 42 The line was
under attack from the north, ammunition
was short, and the supply route had been
cut. The 1st Division troops, whose food
stocks were low when the roadblock was
established, were suffering from a real
shortage of rations. Under the circumstances there was little for Colonel Berry,
who for all practical purposes was now commanding the 1st Division, to do except to
abandon the main line of resistance. His
position was untenable, his supplies gone,
his men exhausted and hungry. He could
not even rely on continued artillery support since Colonel Fowler's ammunition
was exhausted. On his own responsibility,
after consultation with Colonel Fowler and
Maj. A. L. Fitch and without permission
from General Wainwright, Berry made the
"inevitable" decision to withdraw.43
Having made his decision, Berry still had

a difficult problem to face. By what route
would his men withdraw and what equipment could he save? On his front was the
122d Infantry; to his rear was the 3d Battalion, 20th Infantry, firmly in position
along the roadblock. With the West Road
blocked, Colonel Berry had only one route
southward, the narrow beaches paralleling
the South China Sea coast line. If he used
this route, he would have to abandon his
vehicles, Colonel Fowler's artillery, and all
heavy equipment. Moreover, he would be
without cover from air attack while he was
on the exposed beaches. Knowing all this,
Berry had no choice but to withdraw along
this route.
On the morning of the 25th the order to
withdraw was issued. All guns, trucks, and
equipment which could not be moved along
the beaches were to be destroyed. "My
officers and myself," wrote Colonel Fowler,
the artillery commander, "destroyed the
guns with tears in our eyes." 44 At 1030 the
withdrawal began, with men bearing the
wounded on improvised litters leading the
way. Covering the withdrawal was the 1st
Battalion, 3d Infantry, blocking the West
Road along the slopes of Mauban Ridge.
Colonel Rodman's men kept the beaches
clear of Nakanishi's patrols by pressing in
against the roadblock from the west.
The withdrawal of the 1st Division from
the main line of resistance was made by battalion, from east to west. The route of with42
Berry, Hist of 3d Inf, 1st Reg Div (PA), p. 4.
43
drawal ran westward through the battalion
Ltr, Berry to Ward, 11 Jan 52, OCMH; ltr,
Fowler to author, 11 Mar 49, OCMH. Wainwright
support area to the West Road and then
confirms Berry's responsibility and the fact that he
along it to the 3d Infantry command post.
was acting without orders. Ltr, Wainwright to TAG,
From here the troops scrambled down trails
27 Jun 47, sub: Recommendation for DSC for Col
Berry, copy in OCMH.
to the water's edge, where a station was esColonel Collier tells an entirely different story
tablished to direct the men on their way
about the withdrawal of the 1st Division but
toward Bagac. By noon of the 25th an estithis account has not been accepted in the absence
of corroborating testimony.
III, 36.
Collier, Notebooks,
44
Ltr, Fowler to author, 11 Mar 49, OCMH.

mated 1,000 men had "infiltrated south";
of this number about one fourth were clad
only in underwear, carried no arms, and
passed as civilians.45 By nightfall the main
force had reached the beach from where the
men made their way south as best they
could. The withdrawal continued during
the night, the covering troops pulling back
under cover of darkness to join their comrades in the flight to safety.
The difficult task of disengaging the
enemy and moving a large number of men
to the rear along a dangerously exposed and
inadequate route of withdrawal was accomplished with a minimum of loss and confusion. The maneuver had been well planned
and executed. Only one tragic fact marred
the success of the withdrawalthe loss of the
artillery. Altogether, twenty-five pieces, of
which fifteen were 2.95-inch mountain guns
and the rest 75's, had to be left behind.
These had been emplaced just behind the
infantry when the line was set up. Their destruction by the retreating artillerymen left
I Corps with but two 155's and four 75-mm.
guns (SPM). 46 At least the destruction was
accomplished with the greatest efficiency for
the Japanese failed to report the capture of
any large number of guns.
Presumably when the 1st Division elements and the artillery withdrew from the
Mauban line, the other units to its right, the
31st Field Artillery and Company K of the
1st Infantry, also pulled back. There is no
record of their movement beyond scattered
45
USAFFE G-4 Journal, Bataan Echelon, 25-26

Jan 42, Extract from G-2 Rpt of 1200, 25 Jan 42
[erroneously written as 24 Jan], AG 461 (25 Dec
41) Phil Rcds.
46
There is some confusion as to the exact number
of pieces lost as a result of the withdrawal and the
figures given are the best that could be worked out
from the conflicting sources.
285
references to Filipino troops infiltrating to

the south.47
By evening of the 25th the Mauban line
had been evacuated. That night MacArthur
reported to the War Department that enemy
pressure on the left had forced him "to give
ground with some loss including guns of
the obsolete 2.95 type." 48 The situation, he
asserted, had been stabilized and "for the
present the immediate danger is over." At
the time he sent these reassurances to Washington, the enemy had already scored a
great victory against II Corps and the withdrawal of both corps was in progress.
The Abucay Line Is Turned

A week before the withdrawal from the
Mauban line, it will be recalled, the situation in the II Corps area on the east had
already become serious. The disintegration
of the 51st Infantry on the 16th had unhinged the left flank of Parker's corps and
had left the line exposed. "Unless the 51st
Division sector could be regained," wrote
General Parker later, "it was evident that
my left flank would be enveloped and the
position would be lost." 49 To recover the
lost ground and fix firmly the western anchor of his main battle position, Parker had
ordered the Philippine Division (less 57th
Infantry) to counterattack at daylight of
the 17th. The 31st Infantry (US) had
47
General Berry stated in an interview that there
was not a single American officer with the 31st Field
Artillery and that it withdrew without orders from
Mt. Silanganan. No light is cast on this subject by

General Bluemel's report since the 31st Division at
this time was in II Corps. Interv, author with Berry,

Jan 48; Bluemel, 31st Div (PA) Rpt of Opns,
passim.
48
AG 381 11-27-41 Sec 1) Far East.
49
SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns. p. 32.
286
Plans for the next day's action were

drawn up at a predawn conference held at
the 41st Division command post. Present
at the meeting were General Lough, Philippine Division commander; Col. Malcolm
V. Fortier, 41st Division senior instructor;
Col. Thomas W. Doyle, commander of the
45th Infantry, which had finally reached the
scene; and Colonel Steel of the 31st. After
some discussion it was agreed that a co-ordinated attack by all present would be made
that morning. The 31st Infantry was to attack north, and the 45th, echeloned by battalion to the right rear, would deliver the
main assault between the 31st and 43d to
the right. The 43d Infantry was to maintain its position along the regimental reserve
line. Artillery support for the advance would
be furnished by 41st Division artillery.
As his 45th Infantry moved forward to
the line of departure early on the morning
of the 18th, Colonel Doyle learned that the
1st Battalion of the 31st was under strong
enemy pressure and in danger of being outflanked. A hurried conference between
Doyle and Steel produced a revised plan of
operations. The 3d Battalion, 45th Infan50
The account which follows is based on the
try, was now to move to the left of the 31st
following sources: On the Japanese side, 65th Brig
Infantry, supporting the 1st Battalion of
Opns Rpt, Mt. Natib, pp. 25-31; 14th Army Opns,
that regiment on the extreme left of the AbuI, 94-98. On the American side, SLF and II Corps
Rpt of Opns, pp. 32-37; Phil Div Rpt of Opns,
cay line. The rest of the units would continue
pp. 12-13; Lt Col Jasper E. Brady, Jr., Diary, pp.
2-3, in Brady Papers, OCMH; Pray, Co G, 31st the attack as planned.
The 45th Infantry attack began later
Inf ( U S ) Abucay Hacienda, pp. 9-17; Besbeck,
Opns 3d Bn, 45th Inf (PS) at Abucay Hacienda, than planned, but proceeded without major
pp. 12-27; H. J. Pierce, Opns of Co L, 45th Inf
mishap. The regimentless the 3d Bat(PS) at Abucay Hacienda, pp. 7-14; Conrad, Opns
talion, which had lost its way and overshot
of 31st Inf (US) 8 Dec 41-9 Apr 42, pp. 14-15;
Fortier, Notes on 41st Div (PA), p. 2; Bluemel,
the markadvanced between the 31st and
31st Div (PA) Rpt of Opns, p. 10; O'Day, 21st
43d but was unable to reach its objective, the
Div ( P A ) , II, 27-29; Jones, 51st Div (PA) Order
of Events, 29 Dec 41-26 Jan 42, pp. 4-5; Richards, Balantay River, before dark. The 3d Bat-
moved into position near Abucay Hacienda

the evening before; the 45th Infantry (PS)
was still moving up and was about 6,000
yards southeast of that barrio when zero
hour came. Thus, the attack, when it was
made, was a piecemeal one. (Map 11)
At 0815, 17 January, the American troops
of the 31st Infantry, led by Col. Charles L.
Steel, jumped off from the line of departure
and advanced north along Trail 12, nearly
a mile east of Abucay Hacienda. On the left
was the 1st Battalion; next to it, astride and
to the right of the trail, was the 2d Battalion.
The 3d Battalion was in reserve. The 1st
Battalion on the left met little opposition and
was able to reach the Balantay River by
nightfall. The 2d Battalion on the right was
not so fortunate. About 400 yards from the
line of departure it encountered enemy resistance and, despite numerous attempts to
break through, was unable to advance farther that day. To fill the gap between the 1st
and 2d Battalions, which had developed as
a result of the unimpeded advance on the
left, Company K from the reserve battalion
was sent into the line.50
Steps to a POW Camp, pp. 20-21; Mead, Opns

and Mvmts of 31st Inf (US), p. 21 ; Maj Clarence
R. Bess, Opns of Service Co, 31st Inf (US), 5 Jan
42-9 Apr 42, pp. 22-23, and Maj Kary C. Emerson, Opns of II Phil Corps on Bataan, 10 Jan-8 Apr
42, pp. 18-19 (both papers prepared for Advanced
Officers Course in 1947-48 and 1949-50, respectively, The Infantry School) ; interv, Stanley Falk,
research asst, with Col Wright, formerly S-3 45th

Inf (PS), 5 Oct 50; ltr, Doyle to Ward, 8 Jan 52,
OCMH.

talion, after a false start which found it
"climbing the backs" of the 31st Infantry's
left company, finally reached the river by
1630. There it settled down to hold a front
of 1,400 yards, with no protection on its left
except that offered by the jungle. The 1st
Battalion, 31st Infantry, to its right was at
the river line, but the 2d Battalion was still
short of the river, as were the 45th Infantry
elements to its right. Thus at the end of the
second day of counterattack the Japanese
still held the salient above Abucay Hacienda.
The situation was still threatening. In addition to the danger presented by the westward movement of Imai's 141st Infantry,
Parker was receiving reports from artillery
spotters of Japanese, still out of range, moving down the Abo-Abo River valley in a
southeasterly direction. These were the men
of Takechi's 9th Infantry, sweeping wide
around Parker's left end toward the positions now held by the remnants of Jones's
51st Division and the reserve 31st Division
near Guitol.
On the 19th the American and Scout regiments resumed the attack. Starting just before noon the 31st Infantry hit the enemy
salient only to be repulsed. Time after time
the American infantrymen re-formed and
attacked, but with no success. Efforts to
bring tanks into the action failed when Parker's request for tank support was refused
on the ground that the terrain was unsuitable for tank operations. Sending armor into
such an engagement, wrote Weaver, would
be "like sending an elephant to kill flies." 51
On the west, the 3d Battalion, 45th Infan-
287
try, now attached to the 31st Infantry, was

under fire throughout the day from troops
of the 141st Infantry who had infiltrated
into the American line. Only on the right
did the Philippine Division make progress
that day. There, elements of the 1st and 2d
Battalions, 45th Infantry, were able to reach
the Balantay early in the afternoon.
Despite this limited success the prospects
for the Philippine Division counterattack
were distinctly unfavorable on the evening
of the 19th. Enemy pressure against the left
flank had become extremely strong and the
3d Battalion, 45th Infantry, was under fire
from the enemy's automatic weapons. More
ominous was the report from a 45th Infantry patrol that an enemy forcepresumably
the 9th Infantryhad already passed
around the II Corps flank. But General Parker did not know that Nara, abandoning all
hope for success along the coastal road, had
ordered the 2d Battalion, 141st Infantry, to

rejoin Colonel Imai at the opposite end of
the line. Nara had further strengthened the
141st by attaching to it a company of the
9th Infantry. These arrangements completed, Nara directed Colonel Imai to
launch an all-out attack against Parker's
left flank and rear "to drive the enemy
southeastward and annihilate them." The
attack was to open at noon of the 22d, by
which time all the units would be in place
and all preparations completed.52
On 20 and 21 January the Americans
and the Scouts again made numerous unsuccessful efforts to restore the original line.
The terrain, dense vegetation, and the lack
of accurate information about the enemy
51
Ltr, Weaver to Wainwright, 20 Nov 45.

Weaver, in his comments on this manuscript, states
that his remark was made with reference to the use
of tanks in the earlier action in the 57th Infantry
area and that no request for tanks was made by
General Parker at this time. Comment 41, OCMH.
52
65th Brig Opns Order, Series A, No. 82, 1800,
19 Jan 42, App. 11, 65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt.
Natib, pp. 58-60. The order gives the date 21

January for the attack, but this is evidently a misprint since there is no indication of a delay.
288
prevented effective co-ordination and made

contact between front-line units extremely
difficult and sometimes impossible. During
these two days the Japanese made their
preparations for the scheduled offensive.
Leaving enough men in position to contain
the two Philippine Division regiments, Colonel Imai gradually shifted the bulk of his
men westward to the extreme left of the II
Corps line. At dawn of the 22d these men began crossing the Balantay northwest of Abucay Hacienda, to the left of the 3d Battalion,
45th Infantry. By 1000 enough men and
heavy weapons had been put across to begin
the attack.
The offensive opened shortly before noon
with an air attack and an artillery barrage, directed mainly against the 1st Battalion, 31st Infantry, immediately adjacent
to the 45th Infantry's 3d Battalion on the
corps left flank. Colonel Imai then sent
his men into the attack. Whether by chance
or design, the weight of the infantry attack
fell upon the same battalion that had suffered most from the artillery preparation,
and the 1st Battalion, 31st Infantry, began
to fall back slowly. Under the threat of envelopment from the east and west, the 3d
Battalion, 45th Infantry, broke contact with
the enemy and also moved back. The 3d
Battalion, 31st, was also exposed by the
withdrawal, for on its right was the enemy
salient and on its left was the gap left by
the 1st Battalion. It, too, began to fall back,
refusing its left flank. By late afternoon the
31st Infantry and the attached 3d Battalion of the 45th had formed a new line
east and south of Abucay Hacienda. The
2d Battalion remained in place about 1,000
yards east of the Hacienda, along the eastwest road leading to that barrio. To its left
was the 3d Battalion, 31st Infantry, then
the 1st Battalion with its flank sharply re-

fused and facing almost due west. The 3d
Battalion, 45th Infantry, was in support
about 100 yards behind the 31st Infantry
line.
By nightfall on the 22d, the 31st and
45th Infantry were in approximately the
same place they had been five days earlier
when they began the counterattack. The
physical condition of the men, however, had
greatly deteriorated. They had been in action almost continuously during these five
days and the strain of combat was clearly
evident. The men on the front line had received little water or food and practically no
hot meals during the battle. Many had been
forced to rely on sugar cane to satisfy their
thirst and hunger. All the men showed the
effects of sleepless nights spent in beating
off an enemy who preferred to attack during the hours of darkness. Casualties had
been heavy, and the men were particularly
bitter about Japanese air bombardment,
against which the Americans had no
weapon.
The infiltration tactics of the Japanese,
which carried them into and behind the
American positions, also did much to wear
down physical resistance and lower morale.
Japanese artillery fire had been unopposed
for the most part, largely because the terrain prevented close artillery support.
When the guns to the rear had offered support, they had been quickly forced into
silence by enemy dive bombers which
buzzed around the offending weapons like
bees around a hive. Against an enemy well
equipped with mortars and grenade dischargers, and supported by artillery and aircraft, the Americans had only a limited
number of improvised hand grenades and
3-inch Stokes mortars with ammunition
that contained a very high proportion of
duds. "It was only through maximum ef-

fort and determination," wrote one company commander, "that we were able to
attack, and later, defend as long as we
did." 53
General Nara misread entirely the significance of the advance of his men on the
22d. He felt that the action had not gone
well and that progress had been slow.
"Indignant in a towering rage," he could
see no hope of victory in sight.54 General
Parker made a more accurate estimate of
the situation. "It was now evident," he
wrote, "that the MLR [main line of resistance] in the 51st Division Sector could
not be restored by the Philippine Division." 55 The counterattack of the Philippine Division, on which Parker had based
his hopes for restoring the left portion of
his line, had failed.
Not only had the Japanese driven in the
II Corps left flank but they now threatened
to envelop the entire line and pin the corps
against the sea. On the 17th, the 9th Infantry (less two companies) had entered
the Abo-Abo River valley on its journey
southeast toward Orion, far behind the line.
Though handicapped by inadequate maps,
lack of communications with brigade headquarters, shortage of rations, and the difficult terrain, Colonel Takechi's men had,
by 19 January, reached a position on the
flank and in the rear of the line.56 Their
advance, though observed, had been unchallenged.
53
Conrad, 31st Inf (US), p. 15. Conrad commanded Company F.

54
55
56
The maps used were drawn to the scale 1:200,000. Takechi was not sure where he was and may
not even have known he was following the Abo-Abo
River. General Nara was not even aware that
Takechi had entered the Abo-Abo valley. 65th
Brig Opns, Mt. Natib, pp. 26-31; 14th Army Opns,
I, 98.
289
All General Parker had to meet this new
threat was Bluemel's 31st Division (less
elements), the 3d Battalion, 21st Infantry,
and the remnants of Jones's 51st Division.
These units were in the vicinity of Guitol,
about four miles south of Abucay Hacienda.
Still in position astride the Guitol trail, which
joined Guitol with Abucay Hacienda, was
the covering force consisting of remnants
of the 51st Infantry and most of the 21st
Engineer Battalion. So weak was this covering force that it could do little more, in
Jones's words, than hold the trail "with
both flanks open." 57
By the morning of 19 January the commanders at Guitol were receiving reports of
the approaching enemy force. Patrols of
the 21st Infantry attempted to hold up advance elements of the 9th Infantry but were
easily routed. During the middle of the
afternoon the Japanese met and engaged
elements of the 21st and 31st Divisions before Guitol. The former promptly withdrew,
but the green untried 31st Division troops
remained in place to fire indiscriminately
at friend and foe through the night. The
small enemy force withdrew the next morning and was gone when General Bluemel
finally quieted his hysterical troops and organized a counterattack with the 3d Battalion, 31st Infantry.58
On 21 January Takechi's men appeared
behind the covering force along the Guitol
trail and seized the high ground, from which
they could dominate the Abo-Abo River
57
Jones, 51st Div ( P A ) Order of Events, p. 4.

The reasons for the withdrawal of the 21st
Division (PA) elements on the afternoon of the
19th is not clear. One explanation given is that
its task was to reorganize stragglers of the 51st
Division (PA). O'Day, 21st Div ( P A ) , II, 28.
This does not seem a compelling enough reason
for a withdrawal. Col Robert J. Hoffman, and
Bluemel, Comments on Draft MS, Comments 9
and 18, OCMH.
58
290
they would receive written orders that

night.
Sutherland's decision, approved by MacArthur, was based on a clear and correct
understanding of the tactical situation. The
disintegration of the 51st Division, coupled
with the failure of the Philippine Division
to restore the main line of resistance, had
opened a wide gap on the left flank of II
Corps through which the enemy had pushed
an unknown number of troops. The wedge
that now existed between the two corps left
both exposed to envelopment and made the
entire line untenable. Moreover, the route
of withdrawal in I Corps had been jeopardized by the enemy's establishment of a
The Withdrawal
roadblock behind the line on the West
On Corregidor MacArthur and his staff" Road. With USAFFE reserve and the rehad been receiving full" and complete reserves of the two corps committed, Sutherports each day on the progress of the cam- land realized that failure to withdraw at
paign from General Marshall and his as- this time might well result in disaster.
The decision made, General MacArthur
sistants in the Bataan echelon of USAFFE.
These reports had proved most disquieting, alerted the War Department to the impedand on 22 January General Sutherland on ing move. "The enemy," he wrote, "seems
MacArthur's orders went to Bataan himself to have finally adopted a policy of attrition
as his unopposed command of the sea ento get "a clear picture of the situation."59
His first stop was Limay, near where Gen- ables him to replace at will." He pointed
eral Parker had his headquarters. There he out that his losses had been very heavy and
discussed the situation with the II Corps "now approximate 35 percent of my entire
commander before moving on to visit Gen- force" with some divisions showing a loss
eral Wainwright. Actually, Sutherland's "as high as sixty percent." His diminishing
trip to I Corps was unnecessary for, after strength, he explained, would soon force
his talk with General Parker, he had de- him to fall back to a new line, where he
cided that "a withdrawal from the Abu- planned to make his final stand. "I have
cay-Mt. Natib position was essential." 60 personally selected and prepared this posiHe gave both corps commanders verbal tion," he told the Chief of Staff, "and it is
warning orders to prepare for a general strong." 61
withdrawal to the reserve battle position be61
hind the Pilar-Bagac road and told them
valley. An attempt, first by the 51st Infantry

on the north, and then from the south by
General Jones, to recapture the hill proved
unsuccessful. The covering force, cut off
from direct access to Guitol via the trail,
was forced to move north that night to Abucay Hacienda, then south by another route
to rejoin the division near Guitol. The Japanese were now in position to make good
their threat to envelop II Corps. With his
left flank driven in and with the Japanese
in possession of the high ground dominating
the left and rear of his line, General Parker
was in a most vulnerable position.
59
USAFFE-USFIP Kr. t of Opns, p. 48.

60
SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 37. See also
General Parker's letter to author, 14 Feb 48, in
OCMH, in which he states that Sutherland did
not announce the decision to him at this time.
42, AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 1) Far East. The losses

which MacArthur mentions in this message refer to
the entire campaign since 8 December and not to
the action on Bataan alone. Since there are no
casualty tables for this campaign, it is not possible

to state what the losses for the action along the

That General MacArthur viewed the
situation on Bataan with the greatest concern is evident from the tone of the message
and from his specific request to the Chief of
Staff that the "fame and glory" of the men
on Bataan "be duly recorded by their countrymen." While his army was still intact,
MacArthur declared that he wished to pay
tribute "to the magnificent service it has
rendered. No troops have ever done so much
with so little." The final pessimistic note
came when MacArthur raised the question
of his successor "in case of my death." In
such an event he recommended that his chief
of staff, General Sutherland, be appointed
to succeed him. "Of all my general officers,"
MacArthur declared, "he has the most
comprehensive grasp of the situation."62
The order for the withdrawal, issued on
on the night of 22 January, called for the
progressive evacuation of the line, to be completed by daylight of the 26th. The troops
would start to withdraw under cover of
darkness the following day, 23 January, and
would continue the withdrawal on each
succeeding night until all troops had reached
the reserve battle position.63 The speed
with which these detailed orders were issued
indicates that they had already been prepared, an assumption which is entirely reasonable in view of the fact that the AbucayMauban line was never intended as the
place where the troops would make their last
stand. It had been occupied primarily to
keep the Pilar-Bagac road in American possession as long as possible and to allow time
Abucay-Mauban line were. It is extremely doubtful
that they were serious enough to force a withdrawal,
as implied in the message cited. The reasons for the
withdrawal were tactical.
62
Ibid. The author has been unable to find in the
records any response to this message.
63
USAFFE FO 9, 22 Jan 42, AG 300 (28 Dec
41) Phil Rcds.
291
to prepare the final line to the rear.64 That
line extended generally along the PilarBagac road, "a baked clay road with a
double track," crossing it at various points
to take advantage of favorable terrain.65
Under the withdrawal plan, II Corps
was to move first, on the night of the 23d24th, leaving only one night for the withdrawal of I Corps. As Wainwright's men
had been moving back since the 22d, little
difficulty was expected in this sector. The
withdrawal of II Corps required a complicated plan, calling for the shift of the 45th
Infantry and the 11th Division (less artillery ) from Parker's to Wainwright's sector.
The first elements to abandon their position would be the heavy artillery and service installations which would begin to move
out the first night, 23-24 January, and
would arrive at their new positions by daylight of the 25th. A covering force, led by
General Lough of the Philippine Division,
was to protect the retirement of II Corps'
combat elements from the main line of resistance by establishing a thin line extending from the vicinity of Balanga westward
to Guitol. Along this line, from east to west,
would be posted the remnants of the 51st
Division, the 33d Infantry (PA), a battalion
of the 31st Infantry (PA), one third of the
57th Infantry (PS), and one third of the
64
This supposition is supported by Colonel Collier, who, in his notebooks and in an interview
with the author, declared that the orders had been
prepared in advance. Collier, Notebooks, III, 37;
interv, author with Collier, 20 Nov 46.
65
The quotation is from a poem entitled "Abucay
Withdrawal" in Henry G. Lee, Nothing But Praise

(Culver City, Calif., 1948). Lieutenant Lee was in
Headquarters Company, Philippine Division, and
wrote the poems included in this small volume during the campaign and in prison camp. He was
killed when the prison ship on which he was being
transferred to Formosa was hit by an American
bomb. The poems had been buried in the Philippines and were recovered after the war.
BRIG. GEN. MAXON S. LOUGH, left, with Col. Harrison C. Browne (CofS Phil
Div) and Capt. Joseph B. Sallee (ADC), near the front lines.

31st Infantry (US). General Lough would
be supported by Weaver's tank group and
the 75-mm, guns (SPM).
From right to left, the front line units
would begin to fall back through the covering force at 2300 of the 24th, leaving behind a shell to hold the original position.
This shell, consisting of one rifle company
and one machine gun platoon for each battalion, with the addition of a battery of 75mm. guns for each regimentwould start
its own withdrawal at 0300 of the 25th.
At 2330 on the 25th the covering force
would fall back rapidly and by daylight of
the 26th, if the movement was completed
as planned, all units would be in position
along the new line.66
During the night of 23-24 January the
artillery and service elements withdrew successfully, while all other units made hurried preparations to follow the next night.
The covering force took its position during
the day, with the tanks, scheduled to be the
last to pull out, deployed along the East
Road and the so-called Back Road southeast of Abucay Hacienda. The night of 2425 January was one of confusion. On the
extreme right of the line, troops of the 21st
Division in the 57th Infantry sector began
to fall back from positions above Abucay
along the East Road. In the center of the
line the 41st Division withdrew along the
Back Road.
The intersection of the Back Road with
the east-west road connecting Abucay with
Abucay Hacienda was the scene of the
greatest confusion. Troops poured into the
road leading south from all directions. Efforts to organize the men and keep the units
intact were fruitless. There were no military
police to regulate the traffic and it proved
66
USAFFE FO 9, 22 Jan 42; SLF and II Corps
Rpt of Opns, p. 30; Phil Div Rpt of Opns, p. 14.
293
impossible to maintain any semblance of
order or organization. At times movement
of vehicles and men stopped altogether, despite the best efforts of American and
Philippine officers. "It was impossible,"
wrote Colonel Miller, commander of a tank
battalion, "to do anything but keep the mass
moving to the rearprayinghoping
talking to yourself out loudgesticulatingand trying to make yourself understood. It was a nightmare.67 Had the enemy
chosen this moment to register artillery on
the road junction, the cost in lives would
have been shocking and the withdrawal
might well have ended in a rout.68
On the left of the line the pressure which
had been building up against the Philippine Division on the 23d and 24th reached
its climax just as the Scouts and Americans
began their withdrawal that night. As the
men began to move out of the line, heading
east toward Abucay and the East Road, the
Japanese hit the thin covering shell. Against
determined Japanese onslaughts the shell
held long enough to permit the bulk of the
men to withdraw. At about 0300 of the 25th
the last of the Americans of the 31st Infantry, covered by heavy fire from the 194th
Tank Battalion, staggered out of their positions, looking "like walking dead men."
"They had a blank stare in their eyes,"
67
Miller, Bataan Uncensored, p. 156. For the
withdrawal of each unit the author used the sources

relating to the various units already cited. See also
ltr, Doyle to Ward, 8 Jan 52, OCMH, in which
Colonel Doyle states that at about 0230 of the 25th
he "took over this mess of men and trucks" and
"cleared the congested area."
68
In prison camp Maj. Kary C. Emerson of the
Philippine Division and II Corps staff talked with
many small unit commanders and they all agreed
that "coordination was poor, that all roads were
clogged with troops and vehicles, and that had the
Japanese artillery fired on the roads . . . our losses
would have been very severe ... in fact, mass
slaughter." Emerson, Opns of II Phil Corps, p. 19.
294
wrote an officer of the regiment, "and their Atop a knoll at the southern end of the
faces, covered with beards, lacked any sem- column were the 75-mm. guns (SPM),
blance of expression." Unwashed and un- which, with the tanks, were designated as
shaven, their uniforms in shreds, "they the last elements of the covering force to
looked like anything but an efficient fighting withdraw. Between 0930 and 1030 that
morning the tankers came under attack
force...."69
The withdrawal continued throughout from the 141st Infantry, which moved in on
the night of 24-25 January, all the the column from the west. In the fight that
next day and on through the night, with followed, the SPM's added their accurate
the Japanese in full pursuit. On the 25th fire power to the armor-piercing 37-mm.
Japanese aircraft were out in full force, shells of the 194th. Unable to advance,
bombing and strafing the retreating soldiers. Colonel Imai called for artillery support and
From early morning until dusk, enemy soon enemy shells were falling near the roadplanes buzzed unopposed over the long col- bound tanks. The enemy's mortars joined
umns of men, dropping bombs and diving the battle and by noon shells were falling
low to spray the road with machine gun dangerously close to the Americans. Though
bullets. The Philippine Army soldier, in the two disabled tanks had not yet been
dusty blue denims, coconut hat, and canvas pulled out, the tank column was forced to
shoes, watched "with apprehensive eyes" fall back and leave the two behind. Pursued
for the first far speck of approaching planes. by low-flying aircraft, the SPM's and then
When the attacks came and the road the tanks withdrew to the safety of the new
erupted "in a sheet of death," the "untrained line. Though they had delayed the Japanese
denim men" milled "like sheep in a slaughter only a few hours, they had given the disorto dig in for the expen." 70 The reaction of the American in- dered units a chance
72
fantryman, with his scarred and tilted hel- pected onslaught.
While II Corps was withdrawing under
met and shredded khaki trousers black with
heavy
pressure, I Corps fell back with little
dirt, was more expressive. At the first alarm,
difficulty.
Cut off from the corps comhe threw himself to the ground and "in a
mander,
Colonel
Berry, it will be recalled,
tone of hurt disgust" cursed
had
independently
decided to withdraw
. . . the noble Japanese
71
from
the
Mauban
line.
Wainwright, in the
With four letter Saxon obscenities. . . .
meantime,
had
received
instructions from
As the II Corps units moved into posiGeneral
Sutherland
to
evacuate the
tions along the new line on the morning of
Mauban
position
and
fall
back
behind the
26 January, they were covered by the two
Pilar-Bagac
road.
As
he
was
going
forward,
tank battalions. The tanks of the 194th were
he
met
Colonel
Berry
who,
by
his
decision,
stretched out for nearly a mile along the
north-south Back Road, near Bani, with in- had anticipated Sutherland's order for a
structions to hold until two disabled tanks general withdrawal. Wainwright thereupon
along the narrow road could be moved back.
72
69
Mead, Opns of 31st Inf (US), p. 21.

70
Lee, "Abucay Withdrawal," Nothing
Praise, p. 25.
71
Ibid.
But
Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, pp. 21-22; USAFFE-USFIP

Rpt of Opns, p. 50. General Nara claimed to have
"routed the American tanks." 65th Brig Opns Rpt,
Mt. Samat, 26 Jan-29 Feb 42, ATIS Enemy Pub
289, 19 Jan 45, p. 7.

directed Berry to continue to withdraw but
to take his men all the way back to the
Pilar-Bagac road. By morning of the 26th,
I Corps was in position along the new line
to the left of II Corps.73
Though they had finally been forced to
give ground and abandon the first line of
defense, the American and Filipino troops
had inflicted heavy casualties on the enemy.
The 65th Brigade had entered combat on
9 January with a strength of 6,651 officers
and men. By 24 January it had suffered
1,472 combat casualties, almost all of which
were in the three infantry regiments. Attached units probably suffered proportionate losses and at the end of the Abucay fight
General Nara wrote that his brigade had
"reached the extreme stages of exhaustion." 74
295
When the troops of I and II Corps
reached the reserve battle position, they
were on the final line. Since 24 December,
a month earlier, they had fallen back from
position after position to reach the safety of
Bataan. Here they had held off the overconfident enemy along a line which, because
of the terrain in the center, was soon turned.
After two weeks of hard fighting the American and Filipino troops had fallen back
again. Bataan had been saved,
. . . . . saved for another day
Saved for hunger and wounds and heat
For slow exhaustion and grim retreat
For a wasted hope and a sure defeat. . . .75
There was no further retreat from the new

line. "With its occupation," MacArthur
wrote to the Chief of Staff, "all maneuvering possibilities will cease. I intend to fight
it out to complete destruction." 76
73
Ltr, Wainwright to TAG, 27 Jun 47, sub: Recommendation for DSC for Col Berry, copy in
OCMH; USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, pp. 48-49.
74
65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt. Natib, pp. 33, 38.
Each infantry regiment entered combat with 1,919
men. The 122d Infantry, which fought on the west
coast, suffered 108 casualties; the 141st, 700; and
the 142d, 613. American and Filipino casualties

for this same period are unknown.
75
Lee, "Abucay Withdrawal," Nothing But
Praise, p. 26.
76
42, AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 1) Far East.
CHAPTER XVII
The Battle of the Points

On the same day that General MacArthur made his decision to withdraw from
the Abucay-Mauban line, 22 January, the
Japanese set in motion a new series of operations potentially as dangerous to the American position on Bataan as General Nara's
assault against II Corps. Begun as a limited
and local effort to exploit the break-through
at Mauban, this fresh Japanese attack soon
broadened into a major effort by 14th Army
headquarters to outflank I Corps and cut
the West Road. It was to be an end run,
amphibious style, with its objectives far to
the south, in the Service Command Area.
Altogether the Japanese landed at three
separate places, each a finger of landa
pointjutting out from the rocky coast line
of western Bataan into the South China
Sea. The first landings came on 23 January, as the American and Filipino troops
began to fall back to the reserve battle position ; the last, on 1 February, four days after
the new line along the Pilar-Bagac road
had been established. Although the Japanese committed only two battalions to this
amphibious venture, it posed a threat out of
all proportion to the size of the forces engaged. (Map 13)
The Service Command Area
When the American line was first established on Bataan on 7 January, defense of
the southern tip of the peninsula, designated
the Service Command Area, had been assigned to Brig. Gen. Allan C. McBride,
MacArthur's deputy for the Philippine Department. McBride's command included,

roughly, all of Bataan south of the Mariveles Mountains (the line Mamala RiverPaysawan River formed the northern
boundary), and was divided into an East
and West Sector by the Paniguian River
which flows southward into Mariveles Bay.
Excluded from his control was the naval
reservation near the town of Mariveles
which was under the control of the Navy
and defended by naval troops.1
The Service Command Area covered
over 100 square miles. The distance around
the tip of Bataan along the East and West
Roads, from Mamala River on the Manila
Bay side to the Paysawan River on the South
China Sea coast, is at least forty miles. Inland, the country is extremely rugged and
hilly, with numerous streams and rivers
flowing rapidly through steep gullies into
the surrounding waters. The coast line facing Manila Bay is fairly regular but the west
coast, where the Japanese landings came, is
heavily indented with tiny bays and inlets.
The ground on this side of the peninsula is
thickly forested almost to the shore line
where the foothills of the central range end
in abrupt cliffs. Sharp points of land extend
from the "solid curved dark shore line" to
form small bays. A short distance inland,
and connected with a few of the more prominent points by jungle trail, was the single1

41) Phil Rcds; USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p.
44.
298
Mariveles, where the Navy's responsibility

began. The orders that had brought Selleck
to the Service Command Area had also
taken from him practically all of the combat
elements of his 71st Division, leaving only
the headquarters and service troops and one
battalion of artillery (two 75-mm. guns plus
one battery of 2.95-inch guns). In addition
to these troops he had the 1st Constabulary
a small Filipino force under Maj. Gen. Regiment from Francisco's division and five
Guillermo B. Francisco, commander of the grounded Air Forces pursuit squadrons.
2d Division (PA). To accomplish his mis- From Comdr. Francis J. Bridget, commandsion he had the 2d and 4th Constabulary ing the naval battalion at Mariveles, he reRegiments, as well as other miscellaneous ceived the assurance that the bluejackets
elements of his division, and one battery of would move in the West Sector should its
lane, badly surfaced West Road, which

wound its tortuous way northward from
Mariveles.2
An adequate defense of this long and
ragged coast line would have been difficult
under the best of circumstances. With the
miscellany of troops assigned to him, the
task was an almost impossible one for General McBride. Defending the east coast was
75-mm. guns (SPM). All that was available

to guard the west coast against hostile landings was a mixed force of sailors, marines,
airmen, Constabulary, and Philippine Army
troops. Command of this sector was given
to Brig. Gen. Clyde A. Selleck, 71st Division

commander, on 8 January. Both sector commanders, Francisco and Selleck, had similar
orders: to construct obstacles and station
their troops along those beaches suitable for
hostile landings, maintain observation posts

on a 24-hour schedule, and make arrangements for a mobile reserve of battalion size,
alerted and ready to move by bus on thirty
minutes' notice.3
General Selleck reported to McBride on
the 9th and was told then "what I was to do
and what I had to do it with." 4 His task was
to defend ten miles of the western coast of
Bataan from Caibobo Point southward to

2
Skerry, Comments on Engineer Hist, No. 10;

3
USAFFE FO 2, 7 Jan 42; memo, Funk for
Asst G-3 USAFFE, 8 Jan 42, AG 300.6 (24 Dec
41) Phil Rcds; McBride, Notes on Bataan Service
Command, p. 106.
4

Statement on Reduction in Rank, p. 11, OCMH.
southern extremity be threatened.5

The troops assigned to Selleck's command
constituted a curious force indeed. Many of
the men had no infantry training and some
had never fired a rifle. They wore different
uniforms and came from different services.
Altogether, they formed a heterogeneous
group which, even under peacetime conditions, would have given any commander
nightmares. The planeless airmen had been
issued rifles and machine guns when they
reached Bataan and ordered to train as infantry. They had two weeks to make the
transformation. During this time, to quote
one of their number, they "charged up and
down mountains and beat the bush for
Japs" in an effort to master the rudiments
of infantry tactics.6 Their attempts to acquire proficiency in the use of the strange
assortment of weapons in their possession

5
Rpt, Comdr Bridget to Comdt, 16th Naval Dist,

9 Feb 42, sub: Action at Longoskawayan Point",
p. 2, Off of Naval Rcds; memo, Selleck for McBride
in McBride, Notes on Bataan Service Command,
p. 131. The precise boundary between Selleck's
sector and the Navy was at Apatot Bay.

6
The Dyess Story by Lt. Col. William E. Dyess,
p. 38. Copyright, 1944, by Marajen Stevick Dyess.
Courtesy of G. P. Putnam's Sons. Ind, Bataan,
The Judgment Seat, p. 215.
THE BATTLE OF THE POINTS

were hardly more successful. Some had the
.30-caliber World War I Marlin machine
gun; others, air corps .50-caliber guns on
improvised mounts, Lewis .30-caliber machine guns, and Browning automatic rifles
(BAR). In a group of 220 men there were
only three bayonets, but, wrote one of their
officers, ''that was all right because only
three . . . men knew anything about using
them." 7
The Constabulary had had little training
as infantry, having served as a native police
force prior to their induction into the Army
in December. The naval battalion consisted of aviation ground crews left behind
when Patrol Wing Ten flew south, sailors
from the Canopus, men from the naval base
at Mariveles, and from forty to sixty marines
of an artillery unit. Of this group, only the
marines had any knowledge of infantry
weapons and tactics.8
With this force Selleck made his plans
to resist invasion. He set up his command
post along the West Road at KP 191, midway between the northern and southern extremities of his sector and about 5,000
yards inland from Quinauan Point. After
a reconnaissance, he set his men to work
cutting trails through the jungle and forest
to the tips of the more important promontories along the coast. Barbed wire was
strung, machine guns emplaced, lookouts
posted, and wire and radio communications
established. Selleck had four 6-inch naval
guns, but had time to place only two of
them, manned by naval gun crews, into posi-
299
tion. One was at the northern extremity of
his sector; the other, in the south. The third
was to have been put in at Quinauan Point
but the cement base was still hardening
when the Japanese attacked. The road cut
through the jungle to bring the gun in, however, proved invaluable later. Selleck also
planned to install searchlights atop prominent headlands to forestall a surprise night
landing but never received the equipment.9
On 22 January Selleck was still frantically
seeking more men and more weapons for his
sector, but the critical ten miles of beach,

which had been practically undefended
only two weeks before, was now manned by
troops and organized into battalion sectors
for defense. On the north was the 17th Pursuit Squadron, about two hundred men
strong. Below it, down to the Anyasan River,
was the 1st Battalion, 1st Constabulary
Regiment. The 34th Pursuit Squadron, with
16 officers and 220 men, occupied the next
sector of the beach which included Quinauan Point. Following in order from north
to south were the 2d Battalion of the Constabulary regiment, the 3d Pursuit Squadron, and then the naval battalion. In reserve
Selleck had the 3d Battalion of the Constabulary regiment and the 20th and 21st
Pursuit Squadron.10 There was little more
he could do but wait and trust that his inexperienced and poorly equipped men would
perform well if the Japanese should come
ashore at any of the tiny inlets in the West
Sector.
9
Memo, Selleck for McBride, in McBride, Notes
on
Bataan Service Command, p. 131; intervs, au7
Dyess, The Dyess Story, p. 39.
thor with Selleck at various times in 1947 and
8
Morison, Rising Sun in the Pacific, p. 200. 1948; ltr, Selleck to Board of Officers, 1 Feb 46,
Morison states there were one hundred marines but
sub: Statement on Reduction in Rank; Col Alexanthis number is too high. Lt. William F. Hogaboom,
der, Personal Recollections of Bataan, pp. 52-53,
who commanded these marines, put the number at
copy in OCMH.
10
forty. Hogaboom, "Action Report: Bataan," MaMemo, Selleck for McBride in McBride, Notes
rine Corps Gazette (April 1946), p. 27.
on Bataan Service Command, p. 131.
300
Longoskawayan and Quinauan Points
The Japanese scheme for a landing behind the American lines, a maneuver which
General Yamashita was then employing
with marked success in Malaya, originated
with General Homma. On 14 January,
when General Kimura, commander of the
force driving down the West Road against
Wainwright's I Corps, came to call on him,
Homma had expressed his concern over the
unexpected resistance along the east coast
and the "stalemate" on the west coast.
Though he did not apparently issue orders
for an amphibious move, he pointed out to
Kimura the advantages of a landing to the
enemy's rear and told him that landing
barges had already been ordered from Lingayen to Olongapo.11 With his detachment
of about 5,000 men, including most of the
20th and 122d Infantry, Kimura had then
advanced down the west coast and on 21
Januarywhen the 3d Battalion of the 20th
Infantry established itself firmly on the West
Road behind Wainwright's main line of resistanceappeared to be in an excellent position to reach Bagac from where he could
move east to take II Corps from the rear.12
That his drive on Bagac could be continued "without difficulty" seemed certain
to Kimura. But to forestall a possible enemy
reaction south of Bagac and to protect his
right (south) flank once he started to move
east along the Pilar-Bagac road, Kimura
decided to follow Homma's suggestion and
send a portion of his detachment by water
from Moron to Caibobo Point, five air miles
below Bagac. Selected to make this amphib-

ious hop was Colonel Tsunehiro's 2d Battalion, 20th Infantry, then in reserve at
Mayagao Point.13 This move, if properly reinforced and supported, might have had disastrous consequences for the American position on Bataan. It might well render Bagac,
the western terminus of the Pilar-Bagac
road, untenable for the Americans, cut off
all of the American and Filipino forces north
of Bagac, and present a serious threat to II
Corps on the east and Mariveles to the
south.
That it did not was due to chance, poor
seamanship, and the lack of adequate maps
and charts. When the 2d Battalion embarked
in barges at Moron on the night of 22 January, it was ill prepared for the journey.
Lack of time ruled out preparations ordinarily required to insure the success of an
amphibious operation. The only map available was scaled at 1:200,000, virtually useless for picking out a single point along the
heavily indented coast line.14 So deceptively
does the western shore of Bataan merge into
the looming silhouette of the Mariveles
Mountains that it is difficult even in daylight to distinguish one headland from another, or even headland from cove. At night
it is impossible.
Once afloat the Japanese found themselves in difficulty. The tides were treacherous and the voyage a rough one for the
men crowded into the landing barges. Unexpected opposition developed when the U.S.
Navy motor torpedo boat, PT 34, commanded by Lt. John D. Bulkeley and on a
routine patrol mission, loomed up in the
darkness. After a fifteen-minute fight, PT
34 sank one of the Japanese vessels. Unaware of the presence of other enemy ves-
11
Statement of Lt Col Shoji Ohta, Intel Officer,
16th Div, in Comments of Japanese Officers Regarding The Fall of the Philippines, pp. 58, 130,
13
copy in OCMH.
12
14
For a full discussion of this action, see above,
Ch. XVI, pp. 278-285.
Homma.

sels in the area, the torpedo boat continued
on its way. About an hour later Bulkeley
encountered another of the Japanese landing craft and dealt it a fatal blow. Before it
sank he managed to board and take two
prisoners and a dispatch case with Japanese
documents.15
By this time the Japanese invasion flotilla
had not only lost its bearings but had split
into two groups. Not a single Japanese
soldier reached Caibobo Point. The first
group, carrying about one third of the battalion, came ashore at Longoskawayan
Point, ten air miles southeast of the objective. The rest of the battalion, by now a
melange of "platoons, companies, and sections," landed seven miles up the coast, at
Quinauan Point.16 At both places the Japanese achieved complete tactical surprise, but
only at the expense of their own utter,
though temporary, bewilderment.
301
MAP 14
Visibility on the ground is limited by creepers, vines, and heavy undergrowth to a few
yards; travel, to the narrow footpaths. The
Longoskawayan Point, a fingerlike prom- base of the point is less than 2,000 yards
ontory jutting out into the South China Sea from Mariveles, the major port of entry for
and only 3,000 yards west of Mariveles HarBataan.
bor, is the southern coast of a small bay
Just inland from Lapiay Point is the 617whose northern shore is formed by Lapiay foot high Mt. Pucot, dominating the West
Point. (Map 14) Four hundred yards wide Road and the harbor of Mariveles. Though
at its tip and twice that at the base, Longos- within range of Corregidor's heavy guns, its
kawayan Point is only 700 yards long. Skirt- possession by the enemy would enable him
ing its narrow coast are rocky cliffs about to control the southern tip of Bataan with
100 feet high, covered with tall hardwood light artillery. This fact had been recognized
trees and the lush vegetation of the jungle. early by the Navy and Commander Bridget
had posted a 24-hour lookout on the summit
15
Rpt, Comdr, Torpedo Boat Sq Three, to Comdt,
of Mt. Pucot. He had, moreover, by agree16th Naval Dist, 27 Feb 42, sub: Action of PT 34,
22-23 Jan 42, Off of Naval Rcds; ltr, Comdr John ment with General Selleck, promised to send
D. Bulkeley to author, 5 Mar 48 OCMH; White,
his naval battalion into the area should the
They Were Expendable, p. 11.
Japanese make an effort to seize the hill.17
16
The Landings
Homma; 14th Army Opns, I, 94, 97; Lt Col Irvin

Alexander, Narrative of Quinauan Point Landing,
p. 1, App. A, QM Rpt of Opns.
17
Bridget, Action at Longoskawayan Point, p. 2,
Off of Naval Rcds; interv, Groce with Maj John
McM. Gulick, 20 Apr 48.
302
The presence of a Japanese force in the
vicinity of Mt. Pucot was first reported by
the naval lookout at 0840 of the 23d. The
300 Japanese, first estimated as a force of
200 by the Americans, had by this time
moved inland from Longoskawayan and
Lapiay Points and were approaching the
slopes of the hill. Though Bridget had 600
men at Mariveles, only a portion of this
force was available initially to meet the
Japanese threat. As soon as he had dispatched a small force of marines and sailors
to the hill he therefore requested reinforcements from Selleck, who promptly dispatched one pursuit squadron and a 2.95inch mountain pack howitzer, with crew,
from the 71st Division. Later in the day
Bridget was further reinforced by a portion
of the American 301st Chemical Company.18
When the first elements of Bridget's battalion reached Mt. Pucot they found an advance detachment of Japanese already in
possession. Before the enemy could dig in,
the marines and bluejackets cleared the
summit, then mopped up the machine-gun
nests along the slopes. The 3d Pursuit
Squadron to the north suffered a few casualties the first day, when a squad, sent to
investigate the firing, ran into a Japanese
patrol. That night the men of the 301st
Chemical Company took up a position
along the north slope of Mt. Pucot and
established contact with the 3d Pursuit.
Marines and sailors were posted on Mt. Pucot and along the ridges to the south. The
18
Bridget, Action at Longoskawayan Point, pp.

2-3; Selleck, Comments on Draft MS, 8 Jan 52,
OCMH. The number of men Bridget committed
initially is not known but at the end of five days
he had two hundred men from his naval battalion
in action. The information on the number of Japanese in the area was secured from a prisoner of
war and reported by Bridget, page 2.

howitzer was emplaced on a saddle between
the two ridges southeast of the hill.19
When the sun rose the next morning, 24
January, the Americans discovered that during the night the Japanese had reoccupied
their former positions along the west and
south slopes of Mt. Pucot. This was the
sailors' and marines' first experience with
the Japanese penchant for night attacks.
The Americans normally halted their attack about an hour before sunset, for the
light faded quickly in the thick jungle where
even during midday the light was muted.
As the troops along the Abucay line
had discovered, the Japanese frequently
launched a counterattack shortly after dark.
Unless a strong defense had been established
before darkness, they were often able to
regain the ground lost during the day. At
the end of such a counterattack the Japanese usually settled down for the night and
by daybreak were dug in along a new line.
The Filipinos had displayed considerable
nervousness during night attacks and had
showed a tendency to fire intermittently
through the night at the last known Japanese positions to their front. In their first
encounter with the Japanese the men of
Bridget's battalion reacted in the same manner.
For the Japanese, this first encounter with
the untrained bluejackets was a confusing
and bewildering one. A Japanese soldier recorded in his diary that he had observed
among the Americans a "new type of suicide
squad" dressed in brightly colored uniforms.
"Whenever these apparitions reached an
open space," he wrote, "they would attempt
19
Bridget, Action at Longoskawayan Point, pp.
3-4; Hogaboom, "Action Report: Bataan," Marine
Corps Gazette (April 1946), pp. 27-28; Lt Herb
S. Ellis, Hist of 3d Pursuit Sq, p. 48, Chunn Notebooks. The action at Longoskawayan Point is based
upon the first two sources.

to draw Japanese fire by sitting down, talking loudly and lighting cigarettes." 20 The
brightly colored uniforms the Japanese
noted were the result of an effort by the
sailors to dye their whites khaki, an effort
which produced a uniform of a "sickly mustard yellow" color.
During the 24th, in a day of vigorous
patrol action, the marines and sailors succeeded in driving the Japanese back to
Longoskawayan and Lapiay Points. By
nightfall they were in control of Mt. Pucot
and dug in along the ridges commanding
the Japanese positions. But it was evident
that the enemy force was too well entrenched and too strong to be expelled by
less than a full battalion with supporting
weapons.
Quinauan Point, where the remaining
600 men of Colonel Tsunehiro's 2d Battalion, 20th Infantry, landed, is about midway between Mariveles and Bagac. Like
Longoskawayan Point, it is a heavily timbered promontory with trees sixty to eighty
feet high and with a thick jungle undergrowth. Two roads suitable for motor vehicles and tanks connected the points with
the West Road. As in the landing to the
south, the Japanese had by chance come
ashore in an area where they could move
inland rapidly, cut the I Corps line of communication, and threaten the southern tip of
the peninsula. (Map 15)
Guarding the beaches along which the
bulk of the 2d Battalion landed was the 34th
Pursuit Squadron. Some salvaged .50-caliber machine guns with improvised firing
mechanism had been emplaced along Quinauan Point, but evidently the airmen had
failed to make proper provision for security
for there was no warning of the presence of
20
Capt Earl L. Sackett, USN, Hist of USS

Canopus, p. 14, Off of Naval Rcds.
303
MAP 15
the enemy. The gun crews, awakened by the
sound of the Japanese coming ashore in
pitch blackness and unable to fire their .50caliber machine guns, put up no resistance.
After giving the alarm, they "crept back to
their CP."21 By the time the squadron
was alerted the enemy had completed the
hazardous landing and was safely on shore.
News of this landing reached General
Selleck at his command post at KP 191 at
0230, six hours before the Longoskawayan
landing was reported. He immediately dispatched Colonel Alexander, recently assigned American instructor of the 1st Philippine Constabulary, with the 3d Battalion of
that regiment to drive the enemy back into
21
Lt Paulger (first name unknown), Hist of 34th
Pursuit Sq, p. 52, Chunn Notebooks; Selleck, Comments on Draft MS, 8 Jan 52, OCMH.
304
the sea.22 In the time it took the Constabulary to reach the scene of action, the Japanese dug in and constructed defensive positions near the base of the point. When the
Constabulary attacked at about 1000 of the
23d, therefore, it ran into strong opposition
and was finally halted about 600-yards from
the tip of the 1,000-yard-long peninsula.
Alexander then tried to flank the Japanese
position but that move, too, proved unsuccessful. Before the end of the day Alexander had reached the conclusion that he
was facing a reinforced battalion, about
seven hundred Japanese, and called on Selleck for tanks, artillery, and more infantry,
preferably Americans or Scouts.23
Back at Selleck's headquarters on the
West Road, the 23d was a hectic day. McBride was there and so was General Marshall, MacArthur's deputy chief of staff.
By that time news of the landing at Longoskawayan Point had been received and
Sutherland had telephoned from Corregidor to say that the Japanese were landing
at Caibobo Point. This last report, evidently based on the documents picked up by
Lieutenant Bulkeley, was quickly proved erroneous. The three men were discussing
plans for containing the Japanese at the
two points and driving them back into the
sea when Alexander's request for reinforcements was received. McBride turned to
Marshall and asked for tanks to send to
Quinauan Point, but the urgent need for
22

Statement on Reduction in Rank, p. 12; Alexander,
Quinauan Point Landings, pp. 1-2; Alexander, Personal Recollections of Bataan, pp. 54-55; NLF and
I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 24; Collier, Notebooks,
III, 43.
23
Alexander, Quinauan Point Landings, p. 2;
Paulger, 34th Pursuit Sq, p. 52, Chunn Notebooks;
Col Gilmer M. Bell, CofS South Sector, Opns in
the South Subsector, p. 2, copy in OCMH; Alexander, Personal Recollections of Bataan, p. 61.

armor to cover the withdrawal from the
Abucay line, scheduled to begin that night,
made it impossible for Marshall to grant
this request. The USAFFE deputy chief of
staff left shortly for his own headquarters
and late that night telephoned Selleck to
relay MacArthur's orders that he, Selleck,
was to take personal charge of the attack
on Quinauan Point the next morning.24
Meanwhile Colonel Alexander's force
had been augmented by the addition of two
Bren gun carriers, sent in lieu of the tanks,
and by elements of the 21st Pursuit Squadron, a company of Constabulary troops, and
a provisional company formed from Selleck's 71st Division headquarters company.
Despite these reinforcements, attacks made
during the 24th were unsuccessful and evening found the heterogeneous force in a
holding position at the base of the peninsula.25 Present during the day's action was
Col. Charles A. Willoughby, intelligence
officer on MacArthur's staff. When Colonel
Alexander was hit in the hand at 1600 it was
Willoughby who accompanied the wounded
man off the field.26
During the day there had been a change
in command in the West Sector. General
Marshall, who believed that only a small
number of Japanese had come ashore at
24
Ltr, Selleck to Board of Officers, 1 Feb 46,

sub: Statement on Reduction in Rank, p. 13;
Selleck, Comments on draft chapter prepared by
author, OCMH; interv, author with Marshall,
7 Apr 48.
25
Alexander, Quinauan Point Landings, p.. 2;
Alexander, Personal Recollections of Bataan, p. 62;
Bell, Opns in South Subsector, p. 2; Dyess, The
Dyess Story, p. 41. Dyess, then a captain, commanded the 21st Pursuit Squadron.
26
Melville Jacoby, "Corregidor Cable No. 79,"
Field Artillery Journal (April 1942), p. 267; ltr,
Maj Gen Charles A. Willoughby to Ward, 17 May
51, OCMH; Notebook of Col Alexander, copy in
OCMH; Selleck, Comments on Draft MS, 8 Jan 52,
OCMH.

Quinauan Point, had come to the conclusion
that the offensive was not being pushed aggressively enough.27 He passed this estimate
on to General Sutherland sometime during
the night of 23-24 January, and, as a result,
it was decided at USAFFE to relieve Selleck
and send Col. Clinton A. Pierce to the West
Sector to take over command. Pierce had
earned high praise and an enviable reputation for his handling of the 26th Cavalry
(PS) since the start of the campaign and he
seemed the right man for the job. In the
early morning hours of the 24th, Colonel
Pierce, who was to be promoted to brigadier
general in six days, appeared at Selleck's
headquarters with the information that he
had been ordered to assume command of the
West Sector. This was the first intimation
Selleck had that he was to be relieved. Later
that day, after he received official notice of
his relief from General McBride, Selleck
took Pierce to Quinauan Point, turned over
to him command of the sector, and left for
the Service Command.28
The change in command of the West Sector occurred almost simultaneously with a
reorganization of the command on Bataan
following the withdrawal to the reserve battle position. On 25 January McBride was
relieved of responsibility for beach defense
and that mission was assigned by USAFFE
to the two corps commanders. Francisco's
command along the east coast was merged
with Parker's corps, and the West Sector
was redesignated the South Sector of Wainwright's corps on the west. Pierce, as com27
Interv, author with Marshall, 7 Apr 48.
28
Ibid.; ltr, Selleck to Board of Officers, 1 Feb 46,
sub: Statement on Reduction in Rank, p. 13; ltr,
Pierce to Ward, 5 Jan 52, OCMH; Bell, Opns in

the South Subsector, p. 2. Selleck was reduced to
colonel on 25 January. Official Army Register,
1947.
305
mander of the South Sector, now came directly under Wainwright's command.29
Despite these administrative changes and
the arrival of additional reinforcements
including the rest of the 21st Pursuit Squadronthe situation on Quinauan Point remained the same on the 25th and 26th. It
was evident that trained infantry troops
supported by artillery and tanks would be
required to clear out the entrenched Japanese on both Quinauan and Longoskawayan Points. On the 26th USAFFE ordered the 2d Battalion, 88th Field Artillery
(PS), which had withdrawn to I Corps
from the Abucay line, to the west coast to
support the troops on beach defense. One
battery of the Scout battalion's 75-mm.
guns went to Longoskawayan Point; another battery, to Quinauan Point.30
The dispatch of trained infantry troops
into the threatened area was hastened when,
on 27 January, the Japanese attempted to
reinforce their stranded men at Quinauan.
MacArthur's headquarters quickly concluded that this move presaged a major
enemy drive to cut the West Road and ordered Wainwright to clear the area as soon
as possible. Wainwright thereupon ordered
two Scout battalions, released from
USAFFE reserve the day before, to move in
and take over these sectors. The 2d Battalion, 57th Infantry, was to go to Longoskawayan Point; the 3d Battalion, 45th, to
Quinauan Point.31 When the movement of
29
41) Phil Rcds.
30
Ltr, Col Howard to TAG, sub: Unit Hist 2d Bn,
88th FA (PS), p. 5. A copy of the letter, as well
as a lengthier draft, is on file in OCMH.
31
14th Army Opns, I, 107; Collier, Notebooks,
III, 42; USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 49;

Capt Clifton A. Groom, Hist, 3d Bn, 45th Inf (PS)
8 Dec 41-9 Apr 42, p. 8, and Anderson, Hist of

57th Inf (PS), p. 3, both in Chunn Notebooks.
The Japanese attempt to reinforce on the 27th is
described below, pp. 21-23.
306
these units was completed Wainwright
hoped to wind up the action on both points
in short order.
The Fight for Longoskawayan Point

The Americans on Longoskawayan Point
had made little progress since 24 January.
On that day Bridget had called up more of
his men from Mariveles and had received
from the 4th Marines on Corregidor two
81-mm. mortars and a machine-gun platoon. By morning of the 25th the two guns
were in position on a saddle northwest of
Mt. Pucot. Aided by an observation post on
the hill, they had lobbed their shells accurately into the Japanese positions on both
Longoskawayan and Lapiay Points. When
the mortar fire lifted, patrols had moved in
to seize both points. Lapiay had been abandoned and was occupied with no difficulty.
But the men who attempted to reach Longoskawayan were driven back. There the
Japanese were strongly entrenched and supported by machine guns and mortars. All
efforts to drive them out that day failed and
Bridget called for support from Corregidor.32
Since the morning of the 25th the crew
of Corregidor's Battery Geary (eight 12inch mortars) had been waiting eagerly for
permission to open fire on the Japanese. At
1000 this permission had been denied and
Col. Paul D. Bunker, commander of the Seaward Defenses on Corregidor, had gone back
to his quarters "inwardly raving with disappointment." 33 Finally, late that evening
32
The account of the fight at Longoskawayan
Point to 28 January is based on Bridget, Action at
Longoskawayan Point, pp. 3-5, and Hogaboom,
"Action Report: Bataan," Marine Corps Gazette
(April 1946), pp. 27-31.

33
Diary of Col Bunker, entry of 25 Jan 42. Colonel Bunker died in prison camp and the diary was

word had come from Maj. Gen. Edward P.
King, Jr., USAFFE artillery officer, that the
battery could fire in support of the naval
battalion. At about midnight the men began
their "first real shoot of the war."34 Using
670-pound land-attack projectiles with superquick fuzes, "which worked beautifully,"
Battery Geary fired sixteen rounds at a range
of 12,000 yards, only 2,000 short of extreme
range. The results were most gratifying.
After the fourth shot the forward observer
on Mt. Pucot reported that such large fires
had been started on Longoskawayan Point
that he could no longer see the target.35
This bombardment, the first hostile heavy
caliber American coast artillery fire since
the Civil War, made a strong impression on
the Japanese. One of them later declared:
"We were terrified. We could not see where
the big shells or bombs were coming from;
they seemed to be falling from the sky. Before I was wounded, my head was going
round and round, and I did not know what
to do. Some of my companions jumped off
the cliff to escape the terrible fire." 36
Even with the aid of the heavy guns from
Corregidor, Bridget's battalion was unable
to make any headway against the Japanese
on the point. Unless reinforcements were received, not only was there little likelihood of
an early end to the fight but there was a
possibility that the enemy might even
launch a counterattack. Fortunately, the
reinforcements sent by Wainwright began
to arrive. On the evening of the 26th the
battery of 75-mm. guns from the 88th Field
lent to the author before it was given to the U. S.
Military Academy at West Point. A photostat copy
is in OCMH.
34
35
36
Ibid.
Ibid.
USAFFE G-3 Info Bulletin, 3 Feb 42, quoted

in Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, p. 31.
307
during the morning but halted when it became apparent that the artillery, its field of
fire masked by Mt. Pucot, could not support
the attack. A platoon of machine guns was
set up on an adjoining promontory to the
88th Field Artillery, the two 81-mm. mor- left to cover the tip of the point, and a platars of the 4th Marines, the 2.95-inch pack toon of the 88th Field Artillery moved to a
howitzer from the 71st Field Artillery, and new position from which it could fire on the
the 12-inch mortars of Battery Geary Japanese.40 By nightfall the Scouts had adopened fire with a deafening roar. The bar- vanced about two thirds of the length of
rage lasted for more than an hour and when Longoskawayan Point.
it lifted the infantry moved out to take the
At dawn of the 29th, the Scouts moved
back to their original line of departure to
point.
Though it seemed that nobody "could be make way for a thirty-minute artillery prepleft alive" after so heavy a shelling, the aration, to begin at 0700. Again the 12-inch
marines and sailors who attempted to mortars on Corregidor joined the guns off
occupy Longoskawayan found the Jap- the point.41 A unique feature of this prepaanese active indeed.38 Not only were all at- ration was the participation by the minetempts to push ahead repulsed but, when a sweeper USS Quail which stood offshore
gap was inadvertently left open in the and fired at specified targets on land.42 Still
American line, the Japanese quickly infil- supported by the Quail, which continued
trated. For a time it appeared as though firing until 0855, the Scouts moved out
they would succeed in cutting off a portion again at 0730 only to discover that the Japaof the naval battalion and only the hasty ac- nese had occupied the area won the day
tion of the 81-mm. mortars and the pack before. It was not until 1130 that the Scouts
howitzer saved the situation. At the end of regained the line evacuated earlier in the
the day Bridget was no nearer success than morning. That afternoon Colonel Granhe had been before the attack opened.
berry put Company F into the line and
Prospects for the next day were consid- within three hours the 2d Battalion was in
erably improved when, at dusk, the 500 possession of the tip of Longoskawayan
Scouts of the 2d Battalion of the 57th Infan- Point. Except for mopping up, a job left
try, led by Lt. Col. Hal C. Granberry, largely to the naval battalion and to arreached Longoskawayan Point. That night mored launches, the fight for Longoskathey relieved the naval battalion and early wayan Point was over.43 Next day the Scout
the next morning moved out to the attack.39
40
Ltr, Howard to TAG, sub: 2d Bn, 88th FA
In the line were Companies E and G, with F
(PS), p. 5.
41
in reserve. The Scouts advanced steadily
Bunker, Diary, entry of 29 Jan 42; Harbor DeArtillery arrived and next morning the guns
were in place, ready for action.37
At 0700, 27 January, all the guns that
could be brought to bear on Longoskawayan Pointthe 75-mm. battery of the
37

(PS), p. 5; Collier, Notebooks, III, 41-42;

38
Bunker, Diary, entry of 27 Jan 42.

The account of the last days of fighting at
Longoskawayan Point is based on Anderson, Hist of
the 57th Inf (PS), pp. 3-4, Chunn Notebooks.
39
fenses Rpt of Opns, p. 31.

42
Rockwell, Naval Activities in Luzon Area, p.
14, and ltr, CO, USS Quail to Comdt. 16th Naval
Dist, 30 Jan 42, sub: Action at Longoskawayan
Point, 29 Jan 42, both in Off of Naval Rcds.
43
For an account of the activities of the armored
launches, see Sackett, Hist of USS Canopus, pp.
16-17.
308
battalion rejoined its regiment at sector
headquarters on the West Road, carrying
with it a supply of canned salmon and rice,
the gift of a grateful Commander Bridget.44
The cost of the action had not been excessive. In wiping out a force of 300 Japanese
the Americans had suffered less than 100
casualties; 22 dead and 66 wounded. Half
of the number killed and 40 of the wounded
had been Scouts. Once again the Americans
had learned the lesson, so often demonstrated during the campaign, that trained
troops can accomplish easily and quickly
what untrained soldiers find difficult and
costly. But had it not been for the prompt
action of the naval battalion, Mt. Pucot
might well have been lost during the first
day of action.
Although the Americans had not known
it, the Japanese on Longoskawayan had
never had a chance to inflict permanent
damage for their location was unknown to
higher headquarters. Indeed, neither Kimura, who had sent them out, nor Tsunehiro,
the battalion commander, seems to have
been aware, or even to have suspected, that
a portion of the 2d Battalion had landed so
far south. Later, the Japanese expressed
amazement and disbelief when they learned
about this landing. One Japanese officer
would not be convinced until he was shown
the Japanese cemetery at Longoskawayan
Point.45 Thus, even if they had succeeded in
gaining Mt. Pucot, there was little likelihood that the small force of 300 Japanese
44
Lt Col Harold K. Johnson, Anyasan and Silaiim
Points (paper prepared for School of Combined
Arms, 1946-47, Command and General Staff College), p. 12.
45
USA vs. Homma, p. 3060, testimony of Homma; ltr, Col Stuart Wood to author, 23 Mar 48,
OCMH; interv, Groce with Selleck, 2 Apr 48.

at Longoskawayan Point could have exploited their advantage and seriously threatened the American position in southern
Bataan.
The Fight for Quinauan Point

While the Japanese were being pushed off
Longoskawayan Point, the battle for Quinauan Point, seven miles to the north, continued. By 27 January the Japanese landing
there had been contained but the fight had
reached a stalemate. Against the 600
Japanese of Colonel Tsunehiro's 2d Battalion, 20th Infantry, Pierce had sent a miscellaneous and motley array of ill-assorted
and ineffective troops numbering about 550
men and drawn from a wide variety of organizations: the V Interceptor Command,
the 21st and 34th Pursuit Squadrons, headquarters of the 71st Division (PA), the 3d
Battalion, 1st Philippine Constabulary, and
Company A, 803d Engineers (US). 46 It is
not surprising, therefore, that little progress
had been made in pushing the enemy into
the sea.
On 27 January, it will be recalled, Wainwright had been ordered to bring the fight
on the beaches to a quick conclusion and had
dispatched the 3d Battalion, 45th Infantry
(PS), to Quinauan Point. By 0830 of the
28th, the entire Scout battalion, numbering
about 500 men and led by Maj. Dudley G.
Strickler, was in position at the point ready
to start the attack. All units except the V
Interceptor Command (150 men), which
46
Bell, Opns in South Subsector, p. 2; Dyess, The
Dyess Story, p. 42; 1st Lt John A. Goodpasture, V
Interceptor Comd Combat Unit 1, p. 43, Paulger,
Hist of 34th Pursuit Sq, p. 52, and 1st Lt Lawrence
N. Parcher, Hist of 21st Pursuit Sq, p. 50, all three
in Chunn Notebooks.
309
remained to cover the beaches below the

cliff line, were relieved.47
On the 29th, shortly after dawn, the attack was resumed. Two platoons of Com-
The Scouts advanced three companies
pany B, 57th Infantry, were in position on
abreast in a skirmish line about 900 yards

long, their flanks protected by the grounded
airmen. Attached to each of the rifle companies was a machine-gun platoon, placed
along the line at points where it was thought
enemy resistance would be stiffest. The line
stretched through dense jungle where the
visibility was poor and the enemy well concealed. "The enemy never made any movements or signs of attacking our force," wrote
the Scout commander, "but just lay in wait
for us to make a move and when we did
casualties occurred and we still could not see
even one enemy." 48
Under such conditions it is not surprising
that the battalion was unable to make much
progress during the day. Despite the fact
that the machine guns were set up just to
the rear of the front line and "shot-up"
from top to bottom those trees that might
conceal enemy riflemen, advances during
the day were limited to ten and fifteen yards
at some points. Progress along the flanks was
somewhat better and in places the Scouts
the battalion right flank; the rest of the reinforcing company was in reserve. Despite the
strengthened line no more progress was
made on this day than had been made the
day before. Again casualties were heavy,
especially in the center where resistance was
gained as much as 100 yards. By 1700, when

the battalion halted to dig in for the night
and have its evening meal of rice and canned
salmon, Major Strickler had concluded that
it would be impossible for his Scouts, aided
only by the airmen, to take the point. He
asked for reinforcements and that night
Company B, 57th Infantry (PS), was attached to his battalion.49
47
Groom, Hist, 3d Bn, 45th Inf (PS), pp. 8-14,
Chunn Notebooks; Bell, Opns in South Subsector,
p. 3; Lilly, 57th Inf (PS) Opns Rpt, p. 5. The ac-
count which follows is based on these sources.

48
Croom, Hist, 3d Bn, 45th Inf (PS), pp. 9-10,
Chunn Notebooks.
49
Lilly, 57th Inf (PS) Opns Rpt, p. 5.
strongest.
The battle continued throughout the 30th
and 31st, with about the same results. The
Japanese were being pushed slowly toward
the sea, but only at very heavy cost. No
headway could be made at all against the
enemy positions along the cliff and on the
high ground about 200 yards inland from
the tip of the point.
Hindering the advance as much as the
enemy was the jungle. The entire area was
covered with a dense forest and thick undergrowth that made all movement difficult
and dangerous. Even without enemy opposition the troops could move through the
jungle only with great difficulty, cutting
away the vines and creepers that caught at
their legs and stung their faces and bodies.
The presence of concealed enemy riflemen
and light machine-gun nests, invisible a few
feet away, added immeasurably to the difficulty of the attacking troops. In such terrain,
artillery, mortar, and armor could be of

slight assistance and the advance had to be
made by the rifleman almost unaided. It
was a slow and costly process.
At daylight, 1 February, in an effort to
reduce the opposition in the center, the infantry attack was preceded by a heavy but
ineffective mortar operation. When it lifted
the two center companies moved in quickly
but were able to advance only a short distance before they were halted. Major Strickler then went forward to the front lines to
310
make a personal reconnaissance. He was
The next morning the Scouts and tankers
last seen in the vicinity of Company B, 57th

Infantry. After an intensive search during
the day battalion headquarters regretfully
reported that its commander was missing,
presumably killed in action. Capt. Clifton
A. Croom, battalion adjutant, assumed
command.50
By now the battalion was sadly reduced
in strength, with casualties estimated as high
loss of sleep and exposure," would need help
soon if the attack was to be pushed aggres-
resumed the attack, but with little success.

Stumps and fallen trees impeded the advance of the tanks whose usefulness was
further limited by the absence of proper coordination between infantry and armor, and
faulty communication and control. When
the battalion halted at 1700 it was not far
from its original line of departure. That
night it was joined by Captain Dyess and
seventy men from the 21st Pursuit Squadron which had been in the fight earlier but
had been relieved when the Scouts had
sively.51 On the afternoon of the 2d Captain
taken over the line on the 28th. "On our
Croom asked General Pierce for tanks, a

request, happily, that Pierce was now in a
position to grant, for on the night of 31
January, on orders from MacArthur's headquarters, General Weaver had sent the 192d
Tank Battalion (less one company) to the
return," wrote Dyess, "we found that the

Scouts had occupied fifty yards more of the
high jungle above the bayat terrible cost
to themselves. Their casualties had run about
fifty percent. The sight and stench of death
were everywhere. The jungle, droning with
insects, was almost unbearably hot." 54
as 50 percent. The men, "dead tired from
west coast. In less than two hours a platoon

of three tanks from Company C was in
position on the line.52
Late on the afternoon of the 2d, with the
For the attack of the 4th Colonel Hilton
received two additional tanks and a radio

control car. Deploying his tanks across the
aid of tanks, the attack was resumed. Gen- narrow front and stationing men equipped
eral Weaver, arriving as the tanks were with walkie-talkie sets with each tank, Hilmaking their third attack, was on hand to ton moved his reinforced battalion out early
observe the action. This attack, like the in the morning. The line moved forward
others, failed to make any headway, and on steadily, the tanks, guided by directions
Weaver's insistence two more attacks, pre- from the radio control car, spraying the
ceded by artillery preparation, were made, area to the front with their machine guns
with little success. Late in the afternoon Col. and knocking out strong points.
Donald B. Hilton, executive officer of the
Success crowned this co-ordinated in45th Infantry, arrived and assumed con- fantry-tank attack. By the end of the day the
trol of all troops on the point.53
Japanese had been crowded into an area
100 yards wide and only 50 yards from the
50
Strickler's body was recovered on the 7th. cliff at the edge of the point. Plainly visMemo, QM Hq Phil Dept to QM USAFFE, sub:
ible to the Scouts were the Japanese soldiers
Supply Situation, 7 Feb 42, AG 319.1 (29 Jan 42)
Phil Rcds.
51
Croom, Hist, 3d Bn, 45th Inf (PS), p. 12,
Chunn Notebooks.
52
Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 20-21; NLF and
I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 24.
53
Croom, Hist, 3d Bn, 45th Inf (PS), p. 12,
Chunn Notebooks; Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns,
and beyond them the blue water of the

South China Sea. Suddenly the men witp. 21; Weaver, Comments on Draft MS, Comment
44, OCMH.
54
Dyess, The Dyess Story, p. 43.

nessed a remarkable sight. Screaming and
yelling Japanese ripped off their uniforms
and leaped off the cliff. Others scrambled
over the edge and climbed down to prepared positions along the rock ledges. Down
on the beach Japanese soldiers ran up and
down wildly. "I'll never forget the little
Filipino who had set up an air-cooled machine gun at the brink and was peppering
the crowded beach far below," wrote one
eyewitness. "At each burst he shrieked with
laughter, beat his helmet against the
ground, lay back to whoop with glee, then
sat up to get in another burst." 55
Though the Americans reached the edge
of the cliff the next morning, the fight was
not yet over. The Japanese had holed up
in caves along the cliff and in the narrow
ravines leading down to the beaches. Every
effort to drive them out during the next few
days failed. Patrols which went down the
ravines or the longer way around the beach
to polish off the enemy only incurred heavy
casualties. Though their cause was hopeless
the Japanese steadfastly refused to surrender. "The old rules of war," wrote General Wainwright, "began to undergo a swift
change in me. What had at first seemed a
barbarous thought in the back of my mind
now became less unsavory. I thought of
General U. S. Grant's land mine at Petersburg and made up my mind." 56
First he made arrangements to bring a
small gunboat close in to shore to shell the
area. Then, at dawn of the 6th, he sent in a
platoon of the 71st Engineer Battalion
(PA) under the supervision of Colonel
Skerry, the North Luzon Force engineer, to
assist the attacking troopsthe 3d Battalion, 45th Infantry, and Company B, 57th
55
Ibid., pp. 43-44.
56
311
Infantry (PS) in routing out the holed-up
Japanese. Fifty-pound boxes of dynamite
fired with time fuzes were lowered over the
cliff to the mouth of the caves. After a Scout
engineer sergeant was fatally wounded while
lowering one of the boxes, this method was
abandoned in favor of throwing dynamite
hand grenades (four sticks of dynamite with
a 30-second time fuze) along the length of
the cliffs close to the bottom edges from
where the Japanese fire had come. By this
means most of the Japanese (about fifty)
were forced into one large cave that was
completely demolished by dynamite. All of
the enemy had not yet been exterminated
and when patrols entered the area, they encountered spasmodic fire.57
It was not until 8 February that the Japanese were finally exterminated. The job was
done from the seaward side, as at Longoskawayan Point. Two armored naval motor
launches armed with 37-mm. and machine
guns, and two whaleboats, each with ten
men from the 21st Pursuit Squadron on
board, sailed from Mariveles at 0600 that
morning. In command of the boats was Lt.
Comdr. H. W. Goodall; Captain Dyess led
the landing parties. At about 0800 the small
flotilla arrived off Quinauan Point and the
navy gunners took the beach under fire.
Sheets lowered over the face of the cliff
marked the Japanese positions. When the
opposition on shore had been neutralized,
the whaleboats, waiting a mile off the coast,
came in to land the airmen. One group
landed on the northern side of Quinauan
Point, the other along the southern beaches.
Both moved cautiously toward the tip of the
peninsula while Scout patrols from the battalion on the cliffs above worked their way
57
Skerry, Comments on Draft MS, Comment D,
OCMH.
312
down through the ravines. Despite attacks
by three enemy dive bombers which hit the
small boats and the men on shore, the operation was successfully concluded during the
morning.58
The end of resistance on Quinauan Point
marked the destruction of the 2d Battalion,
20th Infantry. Three hundred of that battalion's number had been killed at Longoskawayan; another 600, at Quinauan. In
the words of General Homma, the entire
battalion had been "lost without a trace." 59
But the cost had been heavy. The 82 casualties suffered at Longoskawayan were less
than one fifth of the number lost at Quinauan. On 28 January when the 3d Battalion, 45th Infantry, took over that sector
it had numbered about 500 men. It marched
out with only 200; 74 men had been killed
and another 234 wounded. The other Scout
unit, Company B, 57th Infantry, left Quinauan Point with 40 men less than it had
had ten days earlier. Other units suffered
correspondingly high losses. Total casualties
for the Quinauan Point fight amounted to
almost 500 men.60 It was a heavy price to
pay for the security of the West Road, but
there was still a payment due, for the Japanese, on 27 January, had landed at yet another point on the west coast behind Wainwright's front line.
58
Ltr, Capt H. W. Goodall, USN, to George

Groce, 17 Aug 48, OCMH; Dyess, The Dyess Story,
p. 44; rad, Comdt, 16th Naval Dist, to OPNAV,
8 Feb 42, War Diary, 16th Naval Dist, Off of Naval

Anyasan and Silaiim Points
General Kimura's success against Wainwright's Mauban line between 20 and 23
January had led 14th Army headquarters to
revise its estimate of the situation and to
prepare new plans for the occupation of
Bataan. Originally, the main effort had been
made against II Corps on the east. In view
of Kimura's success, General Homma now
decided to place additional forces on the
west and increase pressure against I Corps
in the hope that he might yet score a speedy
victory. On the 25th, therefore, he directed
Lt. Gen. Susumu Morioka, 16th Division
commander, who had come up from southern Luzon and was now in Manila with a
portion of his division, to proceed to western Bataan with two battalions of infantry
and the headquarters of the 21st Independent Engineer Regiment and there assume command of the operations against I
Corps.61
The First Landing

Homma's order of the 25th, though made
two days after the landings at Longoskawayan and Quinauan, contained no reference to this effort to outflank I Corps by
sea. Homma was not yet convinced that this
amphibious venture should have the full
support of 14th Army. The decision to reinforce Tsunehiro's 2d Battalion at Quin-
Inf (PS), p. 14, and Parcher, 21st Pursuit Sq, pp.
61
Morioka's 16th Division was scattered at this
time. The 9th Infantry was under General Nara's
control on the east coast of Bataan; two battalions
of the 20th Infantry were already in Bataan and
operating under General Kimura, infantry group
commander of the division. The third regiment of
the division, the 33d Infantry, was split: one battalion was in Manila, one in southern Luzon, and
the third was on Mindanao. 14th Army Opns, I,
50-51, all three in Chunn Notebooks.
98-99.
Rcds. On the way back, the boats were attacked
again by dive bombers. Among the casualties that

day was Commander Goodall, seriously wounded.
59
USA vs. Homma, p. 3061, testimony of Homma;
rpt, Graves Registration Unit, 7, 8, 9, and 11 Feb

42, AG 319.1 (29 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.
60
Bell, Opns in South Subsector, p. 4; Paulger,
34th Pursuit Sq, p. 52, Croom, Hist, 3d Bn, 45th
313
MAP 16
auan, the only landing of which the Japanese had knowledge, was made by General
Morioka, Kimura's immediate superior. To
him, as to Kimura, the landing held out the
promise of large results. Even before he left
Manila, he ordered one company of the
small force at his disposal to go to the aid
of the 2d Battalion, 20th Infantry. The company selected was from the same regiment's
1st Battalion. It was to move with all speed
from Manila to Olongapo and there pick up
supplies for the trapped and hungry men
"fighting a heroic battle" against a "superior enemy" on Quinauan Point.62
The reinforcing company reached Olongapo at the head of Subic Bay on the night
of 26 January. At midnight it embarked in
62
Ibid., 107-08.
landing craft loaded with ammunition,

rations, and supplies, and set sail for Quinauan. Once more poor seamanship and the
lack of navigation charts and large-scale
maps led the Japanese astray. This time
they landed about 2,000 yards short of the
objective, between the Anyasan and Silaiim
Rivers, in the sector guarded by the 1st Battalion, 1st Philippine Constabulary.63 (Map
16)
The beach on which the Japanese craft
ran aground was little different from that
at Longoskawayan and Quinauan. The
coast line here presented the same irregular
appearance as that to the south. Dense
tropical forest and thick undergrowth extended almost to the shore line, and the foot63
Ibid.; Collier, Notebooks, III, 42.
314
hills of the Mariveles Mountains formed
steep cliffs about 100 feet high just in front
of the beach. The two rivers, Silaiim on the
north and Anyasan about 1,000 yards to the
south, emptied into shallow bays, each bearing the name of the river. Separating the
two bays was Silaiim Point, a narrow headland which formed the upper shore of the
southern bay. The lower coast of the bay
received its name from the southernmost of
the two rivers. Thus, from north to south,
presenting a confusion of identically named
geographic features, were: Silaiim Bay,
Silaiim River, Silaiim Point, Anyasan Bay,
Anyasan River, and Anyasan Point. This
confusion of points, when combined with
those to the north and south, was as bewildering to the troops as it is, probably, to
the reader. Their plight was most aptly expressed by one member of a wire crew,
perched atop a telephone pole who, when
asked where he was, replied, "For Christ's
sake, sir, I don't know. I am somewhere between asinine and quinine points." 64
Inland, the ground was even more difficult than at Longoskawayan and Quinauan.
Small streams branched off from the two
rivers, dry at this time of the year, to create
additional hazards to troop movements and
to provide cover for the enemy. With only
one access trail from the West Road to the
beach, the task of maintaining communications and supplying troops to the front
would be a difficult one. The absence of
roads would also limit the effective use of
tanks in formation and require their employment singly or in small numbers at isolated points. Similarly, the dense forest, by
restricting observation and increasing the
64
Maj Achille C. Tisdelle, Diary, entry of 6 Feb
42, copy in OCMH. Major Tisdelle was aide to
General King, Chief of the Artillery Section,
USAFFE.

hazards of tree bursts, would limit the use of
artillery and mortars. Like the fights then
in progress at Longoskawayan and Quinauan, the struggle to drive off the Japanese
between the Anyasan and Silaiim Rivers
would be a job for the rifleman.65
In MacArthur's headquarters, the new
landing was regarded as the prelude to a
major enemy offensive. Should this hostile
force, thought to be of "considerable size,"
establish contact with the Japanese on
Quinauan Point to the south or advance as
far as the West Road, only 2,700 yards
away, it would present "a threat of no mean
importance." 66
Coming ashore at about 0300 of the 27th,
the confused and lost Japanese of the 1st
Battalion, 20th Infantry, numbering about
two hundred men, met no more resistance
than had their fellows in the 2d Battalion.
The Constabulary troops on beach defense
promptly took flight at the first approach of
the enemy and the entire Constabulary battalion was soon dispersed. At dawn, when
General Pierce received news of the landing,
he immediately dispatched the 17th Pursuit
Squadron, then in sector reserve, to meet the
invaders.67
The grounded airmen moved out shortly
after dawn. At the abandoned Constabulary
command post, where breakfast still simmered in the pots, they discovered a smashed
switchboard and an aid station complete
with stretchers. After breakfasting on the
food and reporting the situation to sector
headquarters, the airmen set off jauntily for
65
Johnson, Anyasan and Silaiim Points, pp. 2-3.

Colonel Johnson states that the percentage of the
tree bursts was as high as 50 percent.
66
67
Bell, Opns in South Subsector, p. 5; 2d Lt
Stephen H. Crosby, Hist of 17th Pursuit Sq, p. 48,
Chunn Notebooks; NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns,
p. 25.

the coast. As they did so, some men were
heard inquiring how to fire their rifles.
More than a mile inland from the beach
and about 400 yards distant from the vital
West Road, the 17th Pursuit Squadron met
the enemy's advance patrols. The Japanese
pulled back without offering serious resistance and the squadron was able to advance
along the path between the two rivers until
it was about 1,000 yards from the shore line.
The Japanese had apparently established
their front line positions here and the Americans' easy march came to an abrupt halt.
Joined at this point by the 2d Battalion, 2d
Philippine Constabulary, which had just
been in the fight against the Japanese roadblock to the north, the Americans dug in
for the night.68 This was to be the easiest advance by the troops in the Anyasan-Silaiim
sector.
The next day, 28 January, the airmen and
Constabulary attacked during the morning.
Either because the Japanese had pulled
back or shifted position during the night, the
Constabulary battalion was able to advance
almost to the coast at Anyasan Bay. That
night, when the Japanese appeared ready to
counterattack, the Constabulary pulled back
leaving the 17th Pursuit to fend for itself.
The threat to the West Road now seemed
serious, for there was every indication that
the Japanese force, whose size and precise
location were still not known, might burst
out of the beachhead and create havoc behind the American lines.69
The situation was saved the next day
when the Scouts of the 2d Battalion, 45th
Infantry, arrived on the scene, led by their
executive officer, Capt. Arthur C. Biedenstein. General Pierce placed Biedenstein in
68
Crosby, 17th Pursuit Sq, pp. 48-49, Chunn
Notebooks.
69
Ibid.; Bell, Opns in South Subsector, p. 5.
315
charge of the operation and gave him the
1st Battalion, 1st Philippine Constabulary,
and the 1st Battalion, 12th Infantry
(PA)both of which had just been relieved at Quinauan Pointto clear out the
Japanese. To guard the West Road and insure the safety of the line of communication,
he placed Company A, 57th Infantry (PS),
on patrol to the rear.70
On 30 January, after a personal reconnaissance to locate the Japanese, Captain
Biedenstein opened the attack. Calling for
support from the 75-mm. guns of the 88th
Field Artillery, whose Battery D was in position to assist the men in both the Quinauan
and Anyasan-Silaiim sectors, he sent his
Scouts out to regain the beach near the
mouth of the Silaiim River. Either the battalion's front line had been incorrectly reported to the artillery or plotted inaccurately, for the result of the preparation was
almost disastrous. Without adequate communication between infantry and artillery
and with high trees limiting observation and
causing tree bursts, the Scouts soon found
themselves under fire from their own guns.
Before the artillery command post could be
reached, four Scouts had been killed and
sixteen more wounded. The offensive of the
30th came to an end even before it had
fairly begun.71
70
Ibid.; Capts Ralph Amato, Jr., and Louis Mur-
phy, Hist of 2d Bn, 45th Inf (PS), 8 Dec 41-9 Apr

42, p. 9, Chunn Notebooks; NLF and I Corps Rpt
of Opns, p. 25; Lilly, 57th Inf (PS) Opns, p. 5;
Maj Harold K. Johnson, 57th Inf (PS) Diary, pp.
11-12, copy in OCMH. There is considerable disagreement among the sources on the dates for operations in this sector. The conflicting sources cannot
be reconciled and the dates used in this account were
determined after an evaluation of all the sources.
71
Amato and Murphy, 2d Bn, 45th Inf (PS), p.
10, Chunn Notebooks; Johnson, 57th Inf (PS)
Diary, pp. 11-17; Johnson, Anyasan and Silaiim,
pp. 6-13; ltr, Howard to TAG, sub: 2d Bn, 88th

FA (PS), p. 11; Lilly, 57th Inf (PS) Opns, p. 5;
316
That night the 57th Infantry (less de- Point, the promontory south of the river
tachments) was moved to South Sector bearing the same name. Its new mission was
headquarters on the West Road with orders to establish contact with the enemy on the
to prepare for operations in the Anyasan- point in an effort to determine his strength
Silaiim sector. Hardly had the regiment ar- and locate his positions.
rived when General Pierce called for a volJohnson's efforts on the 31st were diunteera lieutenant colonel or major rected primarily toward securing informato co-ordinate the activities of the troops tion about the strength and disposition of
already engaged on that front. Maj. the enemy. While Company A of the 57th
Harold K. Johnson, who had been re- Infantry reconnoitered Anyasan Point to
lieved as S-3 of the regiment a week earlier the south, the 1st Battalion, 12th Infantry,
and had "nothing else specific to do," vol- pivoted on its right (west) flank and swept
unteered for the job. "When I reported to in on the beaches of Silaiim Bay. At the
General Pierce at 7:30 P. M.," he wrote in same time the Scouts and Constabulary behis diary, "I found about as complete a lack tween the Anyasan and Silaiim Rivers
of knowledge of conditions on the coast pushed westward toward the sea. The 17th
along which the Japanese had landed as Pursuit remained in place, keeping open the
line of supply and communications. Unopcould be imagined." 72
A personal reconnaissance on the night of posed, the Scout and Philippine Army batthe 30th did not greatly increase his knowl- talions cleared the area north of the Silaiim
edge of the enemy but it did give him a River during the morning, thus reducing
clearer picture of the disposition of the units the beachhead by about one third. The
now under his control. On the north, be- Constabulary troops, however, were stopped
tween the Silaiim River and Canas Point, cold after an advance of about 100 yards.
was the 1st Battalion, 12th Infantry (PA), The Scout company moving out toward
facing almost due north and with its right Anyasan Point failed to make any contact
flank on the sea. Facing west and holding a that day. Johnson now knew where the Japline from the Silaiim River to the trail lead- anese were dug in. But he still had no
ing from Silaiim Point to the West Road, knowledge of their strength or defenses.
With this scanty information, Major
was the 2d Battalion, 45th Infantry. Below
Johnson
concluded that there was no hope
it, to the left of the trail and extending the
of
clearing
the area with the force he had.
line south as far as the Anyasan River, was
His
2d
Battalion,
45th Infantry, was in poor
the 1st Battalion, 1st Constabulary. To the
shape.
It
had
reached
the Anyasan-Silaiim
rear, along the trail, was the 17th Pursuit.
sector
after
a
grueling
march from Abucay
Since there were no troops south of the
Anyasan River, Johnson asked for and re- where it had been badly mauled. One of its
ceived permission to relieve Company A of companies had been hard hit and disorganthe 57th Infantry from its patrolling mission ized by fire from friendly artillery and casualong the West Road and send it to Anyasan alties throughout the battalion had been
heavy. The unopposed Scout company to
Bell, Opns in South Subsector. The present acthe south could not be expected to make
count is based on these sources in addition to those
rapid progress through the jungle and it was
cited below.
72
too weak to attack alone if it should meet
Johnson, 57th Inf (PS) Diary, p. 11.

an enemy force. Of the rest of his troops
Johnson had no high opinion. He did not
believe that the 17th Pursuit would be "particularly helpful in an assault," or that the
Constabulary would contribute much in an
offensive. On the evening of the 31st, therefore, he asked General Pierce for more
troops, and asserted that in his opinion only
his own regiment, the 57th Infantry, then
at sector headquarters, would be able to
clear the Japanese out of the area. "No
other troops," he declared, "would make
the necessary attacks." 73 That night the
57th Infantry was released to General
Pierce, who immediately ordered it into the
Anyasan-Silaiim area. Next morning Lt.
Col. Edmund J. Lilly, Jr., commander of
the 57th Infantry, assumed control of operations there and Major Johnson resumed
his former post as S-3.
By the end of January the enemy had
been isolated and contained. A strong force
was assembling for a determined effort to
root out the Japanese hiding in the canebrakes, thickets, and creek bottoms of the
Anyasan and Silaiim Rivers. The Japanese
at Longoskawayan Point had been killed or
driven into the sea. At Quinauan Point the
slow costly process of attrition was under
way. To General Pierce the situation everywhere in the South Sector seemed generally
favorable. But appearances were deceptive,
for already the Japanese had launched a
desperate and final effort to reinforce their
beachheads on the west coast.
The Second Landing

At the time it was made, USAFFE's estimate that the first landing in the AnyasanSilaiim sector presaged a major enemy effort
73
Ibid., p. 13.
317
to cut the West Road was incorrect. Events
soon proved it prophetic, however, for on
the evening of 27 January General Homma
had for the first time lent his support to the
landings. That day, in an order to General
Morioka, he had directed that the beachhead at Quinauan Point be reinforced and
that the augmented force drive inland to
seize the heights of Mariveles and then the
town itself.74
Morioka's first efforts to comply with
Homma's orders were limited to attempts
to drop rations, medicine, and supplies from
the air to his beleaguered forces on the
beaches. But the Japanese aircraft were unable to locate their own troops in the jungle.
Supplies fell as often on Americans and Filipinos as they did on the starved Japanese.
The Scouts of the 45th Infantry one day
picked up twelve parachute packages containing food, medicine, ammunition, and
maps. The rations consisted of a soluble
pressed rice cake, sugar, a soy bean cake, a
pink tablet with a strong salty taste, and
"other ingredients [which] could not be
determined." 75
While these efforts to supply the troops by
air were in progress, Morioka assembled the
troops he would require to reinforce the
beachhead and push on to Mariveles. On 31
January he ordered the 1st Battalion, 20th
Infantry, one company of which was already
in the Anyasan-Silaiim area, to undertake
this dangerous mission. Maj. Mitsuo Kimura, battalion commander, immediately
74
14th Army Opns Order, Series A, No. 220, 27
Jan 42, 65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt. Samat, ATIS
Enemy Pub 289, Supp. 24.

75
Memo, QM Phil Dept to QM USAFFE, sub:
Status Rpt, 1 Feb 42, AG 319.1 (29 Jan 42) Phil
Rcds. See also, USA vs. Homma, p. 3061, testimony of Homma; ltr, Col Wood to author, 23 Mar
48, OCMH; Amato and Murphy, 2d Bn, 45th Inf
(PS), pp. 10-11, Chunn Notebooks.
318
made his preparations to sail the next more barges. Sighting the target, they
night.76
swooped low to release their 100-pound
By this time Morioka had tipped his hand. antipersonnel bombs, then turned for a
First warning of the impending Japanese strafing run over the landing boats.
move had reached the Americans on the
By now the Japanese were nearing Quin28th when a Filipino patrol on the opposite auan Point. Their reception from the men
side of Bataan had found a mimeographed on shore, themselves under fire from a Japorder on the body of a slain Japanese officer. anese vessel thought to be a cruiser or deWhen translated, it revealed the Japanese stroyer, was a warm one. Artillery shell fragintention to reinforce the beachheads and ments churned the sea around the landing
drive toward Mariveles. Thus warned, boats as Battery D of the 88th Field ArtilUSAFFE took measures to counter the ex- lery and Battery E of the 301st let go with
pected landings. Observers on the west coast their 75's and 155's. Together, the two batwere alerted and General Weaver, the tank teries fired a total of 1,000 rounds that
commander, was directed to send one of his night. Fire from the heavy machine guns
two tank battalions (less one company) to and small arms of the Scout battalion on
the threatened area. The few remaining the point peppered the small boats and
P-40's were gassed, loaded with 100-pound caused numerous casualties among the luckantipersonnel bombs and .50-caliber am- less men on board.
While the landing boats were being atmunition, and ordered to stand by for a
tacked by air, artillery, and infantry weaptake-off at any time.77
The night of 1-2 February was clear, ons, PT 32 moved in to attack the Japawith a full moon. As the enemy flotilla sailed nese warship, actually a minelayer, stationed
south it was spotted by American observers off Quinauan Point to cover the landing
and a warning was flashed to MacArthur's of Major Kimura's battalion. The enemy
headquarters. The land, sea, and air forces vessel turned her searchlight full on the
so carefully prepared for just this moment, patrol boat and let go with four or five salvos
were immediately directed to meet and an- from two guns, thought to be of 6-inch calinihilate the enemy. The result was the first ber. The PT boat sought unsuccessfully to
knock out the searchlight with machine gun
large co-ordinated joint attack of the campaign. While the motor torpedo boats sought fire, and then loosed two torpedoes. As she
targets offshore, the 26th Cavalry moved retired the men on board observed exploout from I Corps reserve to Caibobo Point sions on the enemy vessel, which later reto forestall a landing there. The four P-40's, ported only slight damage from shore bat78
all that remained of the Far East Air Force, teries.
took off from the strip near Cabcaben,
78
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 52; ltr, Howcleared the Mariveles Mountains, and ard to TAG, Hist, 2d Bn, 88th FA (PS), p. 13;
headed for the enemy flotilla of twelve or NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 25; Croom, Hist,
76

Collier, Notebooks, III, 44; Bluemel, 31st Div
(PA) Rpt of Opns, p. 15; ltr, Bluemel to Groce, 15
Jun 48, OCMH; Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, pp.
20-21.
77
3d Bn, 45th Inf (PS), pp. 12-12, Chunn Notebooks; Collier, Notebooks, III, 45-46; rad, 16th
Naval Dist to OPNAV, 2 Feb 42, War Diary, 16th
Naval Dist, Off of Naval Rcds; Rockwell, Naval
Activities in Luzon Area, p. 15; ltr, Bulkeley to
author, 5 Mar 48, OCMH; Chandler, "26th Cavalry

For the Americans and Filipinos who witnessed the battle in the clear light of the
full moon, it was a beautiful and heartening
sight to see the remnants of the enemy
flotilla, crippled and badly beaten, turn
away and sail north shortly after midnight.
Homma's plan to reinforce his troops on
Quinauan Point had failed and in the first
flush of victory the Americans believed the
surviving Japanese had returned to Moron.
But Major Kimura either had no intention
of admitting defeat or was unable to make
the return journey in his battered boats.
With about half his original force he landed
instead in the Anyasan-Silaiim area where
he was joined by his battalion's advance
company.79 Once more, against an alerted
and prepared foe, the Japanese had landed
behind Wainwright's line. All hope for an
early end to the fight for Anyasan and
Silaiim Points was now gone.
Colonel Lilly, who had assumed command of operations in the Anyasan-Silaiim
sector on 1 February, spent the day in a
thorough reconnaissance of the area. On the
evening of the 1st he still had no knowledge
of the strength of the Japanese, but he had
concluded that he would be more likely to
encounter the enemy in the jungle than
along the river beds. The arrival of Japanese

reinforcements apparently led to no change
in plans formed the previous night, and on
the morning of the 2d he launched an attack with three Scout battalions abreast. On
Journal (July-August 1947), p. 17; Ind, Bataan,
The Judgment Seat, pp. 278-79; USA vs. Homma,
p. 3061, testimony of Homma; 14th Army Opns,
I, 102-08, II, Maps 2 and 3; rpt, Comdr, Motor
Torpedo Boat Div Nine, to Comdt, 16th Naval Dist,
3 Feb 42, sub: Attack of PT 32 on Enemy Cruiser,
Off of Naval Rcds; White, They Were Expendable,
pp. 77-82; Comments of Former Japanese Officers
Regarding The Fall of the Philippines, p. 60,
OCMH.
79
319
the north, its right flank resting on the dry
bed of the Silaiim River, was the 2d Battalion, 45th Infantry, now led by its commander, Lt. Col. Ross B. Smith. To its south
(left) was the 3d Battalion, 57th, and next
to it the 1st Battalion (less Company B, at
Quinauan) of the same regiment. The mission of the northernmost battalion was to
seize the mouth of the river and the north
side of Silaiim Point. The center unit, between the two rivers, would take the point
itself while the 1st Battalion on the south
was directed to take Anyasan Point. Guarding the north flank of the advance was the
1st Battalion, 12th Infantry, assigned to
beach defense above Silaiim River. The
17th Pursuit Squadron remained astride the
trail to the West Road to secure the line of
communication. In reserve was the 2d Battalion of Colonel Lilly's 57th Infantry, recently arrived from Longoskawayan Point,
and the Constabulary battalion.
The attack jumped off at daybreak, as
the first rays of light filtered through the
leafy branches of the high hardwood trees.
Advancing cautiously through the luxuriant
undergrowth, the two right (northern) battalions met resistance almost immediately.
The southernmost battalion, however, met
no opposition that day or during the four
days that followed. But its progress was slow
for the ground before it was exceedingly
rough and difficult. The battalions to the
north, after small gains, concluded that the
force opposing them was a strong one and
spent the rest of the day developing the hostile position.
On the 3d tanks joined in the action. In
answer to a request of the day before, Com-
pany C, 192d Tank Battalion (less one platoon at Quinauan), consisting of nine tanks,
had been sent forward from sector headquarters. Colonel Lilly placed them between
320
the two rivers, the only area even remotely

suitable for tank operations. Restricted to
the narrow trail and hampered by heavy
jungle, the tanks were forced to advance in
column and were utilized essentially as moving pillboxes.
At the outset tank-infantry co-ordination
was poor, the foot soldiers having been directed to remain 100 to 150 yards behind
the tanks. With their limited fields of fire
and in column formation, the tanks were
particularly vulnerable to enemy mine and
grenade attack. It is not surprising, therefore, that on the first day the armor was used
the results obtained were disappointing. In
at least one case the result was tragic. The
enemy, unimpeded by the Scouts who were
well behind the tanks, disabled one of the
tanks, set it on fire, then filled it with dirt.
The crew never had a chance and was first
cremated, then buried.80 After this experience the riflemen were instructed to work
closely with the armor and four infantrymen
were assigned to follow each tank. When the
Japanese dropped down into their foxholes

now to allow the tanks to pass, the foot
soldiers picked them off before they could
get back on their feet.

The greatest threat to the tanks came
from enemy mines. The Japanese would
dash from cover, fix a magnetic mine
against the front of the tank and scurry for
the trees. Or they would attach a mine to
a string and drag it across the trail in front
of an advancing tank. Had not the infantry
provided close support, the tanks would not
have lasted long in the Anyasan-Silaiim
fight.
The employment of artillery also presented a difficult problem, as Colonel Lilly
quickly discovered. The ground sloped up
from the beach and there were no com-
manding heights along which to emplace

the guns so that they could support the firstline troops. Tree bursts from the 75-mm.
shells represented a real danger to friendly
troops. The one battery of 155-mm. howitzers that was available had no fire direction equipment of any kind and could not
be used for infantry support. In the absence
of artillery forward observers, infantry rifle
company commanders observed fire in front
of their own lines and sent corrections to
the artillery command post which had
established communications directly with
the assault companies.
The 2d Battalion, 88th Field Artillery
(PS), which was assigned the task of providing support for all the troops in Pierce's
South Sector, had to emplace its two fourgun batteries in pairs. To co-ordinate its
fire the battalion had to lay thirty-eight
miles of wire, in addition to utilizing the infantry communications net. The problem of
firing from an altitude of 800 feet, through
trees averaging 60 to 80 feet in height, at
an enemy on an elevation of 100 feet or less
and at a distance of about 4,000 yards,
without hitting friendly front-line troops
was a difficult one, and one that was never
entirely solved. In the fight for Quinauan
and Anyasan-Silaiim, the artillery battalion
expended about 5,000 rounds, without appreciably affecting the course of the action.81
Machine guns, though available, were not
employed widely in the fight for Anyasan
and Silaiim Points, first, because the undergrowth limited the field of fire, and second,
because of the difficulty of ammunition resupply. There was no way of bringing up
ammunition except by hand and it was hard
enough to keep the riflemen supplied. Machine gunners, therefore, were employed as
81
80
Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, pp. 21-22.

(PS), p. 5.

ammunition carriers for the riflemen. Their
use thus, observed Major Johnson, "outweighed the advantages of their supporting
fire."82
Although the Scout units had both 60and 81-mm, mortars, they had little or no
ammunition for these weapons. They did
use the 3-inch Stokes mortar ammunition
in the 81-mm. weapon, but, in addition to
the limitations imposed by the terrain, the
efficiency of this weapon was severely curtailed by the abnormally high percentage
of duds. To the end, the fight for Anyasan
and Silaiim Points remained primarily a
rifleman's fight.
While infantry-tank and infantry-artillery co-ordination were worked out during
the 3d and 4th of February, the advance of
the two right battalionsthe 2d Battalion,
45th Infantry, and the 3d Battalion, 57th
Infantryproceeded slowly. Until the
southern battalion fought its way through
the jungle and established contact with the
enemy on Anyasan Point, thus securing the
left flank, the rest of the line had to proceed
cautiously. Finally, on the 7th, this battalion
reached the Japanese positions, but was
roughly repulsed. American Air Corps
troops and the Constabulary battalion were
then sent in to join the fight. The Constabulary was placed on the right (north) of the
1st Battalion, 57th, with orders to maintain
contact with the 3d Battalion to the north.
The Air Corps troops went in on the left
and established contact with the Scouts on
Quinauan Point, thus completing a continuous line from the northern edge of Silaiim
Bay to the southern extremity of Quinauan
Point, a distance of about 4,000 yards.
The troops all along the front now began to advance more rapidly. Progress was
facilitated when, on the 8th, a platoon of
82
Johnson, Anyasan and Silaiim Points, p. 11.
321
37-mm. guns was released from Quinauan,
where the fight ended that day. The guns
were emplaced on a promontory overlooking Anyasan Point from where they would
take the Japanese supply dumps under fire.
The end of resistance at Quinauan also
made possible the return of Company B,
57th Infantry, to the heavily engaged 1st
Battalion on Anyasan Point.83
By this time the debilitating effects of the
half ration instituted a month earlier were
becoming apparent. Some of the men grew
listless and less eager to fight. Each day it
became more difficult to push the front-line
troops into aggressive action, and after the
first five days it became necessary to rotate
the assault battalions. Even the procurement of additional rations by the 57th Infantry, a Scout unit of high esprit de corps,
did not improve matters much.
The necessity of feeding the troops during the daylight hours imposed further restrictions on combat efficiency by shortening
the fighting day. The two meals were served
shortly after daybreak and just before dark
so that the action was usually broken off in
time to set up defensive positions against
night attacks and eat the last meal of the
day. Even when operations were proceeding
favorably, it was necessary to follow this
procedure for, with the meager ration, it
was essential that every man get his full
share to maintain his efficiency in combat.
Fortunately, even with the half ration,
the morale of the Scouts did not deteriorate.
They understood, as many did not, that
they were receiving all the food that a determined commander could get for them,
and there was little looting or stealing from
the kitchens. But the effect of the ration on
the performance of troops in combat was
83
Bell, Opns Rpt, 8-9 Feb 42, AG 370.2 (19 Dec

41) Phil Rcds.
322
undeniable. "A prolonged period of reduced rations," concluded Major Johnson,

"destroys the will to fight almost entirely,
and . . . may even destroy the will to
survive." 84
On 9 February, the 3d Battalion, 57th
Infantry, in the center of the line, was replaced by the rested and refreshed 2d Battalion, with the result that the attack that
day was pushed more aggressively. One
enemy strongpoint which had held up the
3d Battalion was taken during the afternoon, but the Japanese counterattacked
that night to recapture the position. The following day, 10 February, the 2d Battalion
resumed its march, retook the strongpoint,
and then continued to move forward steadily. By evening of the next day it had
reached the mouth of the Anyasan River,
squeezing out the Japanese and forcing
them on to Silaiim Point, between the two
rivers, and in front of the 45th Infantry
Scouts who were advancing more slowly.
The situation of Major Kimura's remaining
troops was desperate and their defeat a
certainty.
As early as the 7th the Japanese had apparently realized that their forces on the
west coast beachheads were doomed. From
Major Kimura, commander of the troops
at Silaiim, General Morioka received word
that a "bitter battle" was in progress and
that the enemy was attacking with tanks
and artillery. "The battalion," wrote Kimura, "is about to die gloriously." 85 General Morioka responded to this message by
ordering the 21st Engineer Regiment to
rescue the trapped men. On the night of the
84
85
Tactical Situation Rpt, 14th Army, ATIS Doc

56113, 3 Mar 50, p. 4, in Translation of Japanese
Documents, GHQ FEC, Mil Intel Sec, 2 vols., II,
No. 15.
7th the engineers, in thirty boats of varying sizes, left Olongapo for the beachheads.
As they came in to shore to search for their
stranded fellows they were met by artillery
and machine-gun fire, as well as bombs
from two P-40's. In the face of this strong
opposition they returned empty-handed to
Olongapo. The next night they tried again
and this time succeeded in evacuating
thirty-four of their wounded comrades.
This was their last trip.86
Unable to evacuate his men, Morioka
finally decided to relieve them from their
assignment so that they could make a last
desperate effort to save themselves. In orders sealed in bamboo tubes and dropped
from the air, he instructed Major Kimura
to bring his decimated battalion out by sea,
on rafts or floats, and get them to Moron.
If no other means were available the men
would have to swim. Included in the orders
was detailed information on tides, currents,
the time of the rising and setting of the sun
and moon, and directions for the construction of rafts. Unhappily for Kimura, copies
of the orders fell into American hands, were
quickly translated, and circulated to the
troops on the front line. Thus alerted, riflemen along the beaches north of Silaiim got
valuable target practice firing at Japanese
swimmers and machine gunners were on the
watch for rafts and floats. Only a few of the
enemy were able to escape by sea. Most of
those who were not shot or captured probably drowned.87
But before his final annihilation Major
Kimura made one last effort to break out of
86
14th Army Opns, I, 102, 108; Bell, Opns Rpt,
8-9 Feb 42. The Japanese reported a PT attack

but American records contain no mention of such
an attack.
87
Ltr, Col Wood to author, 23 Mar 48, OCMH.

the cordon which held him tight on Silaiim
Point. At dawn, 12 February, with about
two hundred men, he launched a counterattack against the 2d Battalion, 45th Infantry. A gap about 100 yards wide had
opened in that battalion's line, between
Companies E and F, on the 9th, but this
fact had never been reported to Colonel
Lilly. An effort had been made to close it
but when the Japanese counterattacked it
was covered only by patrol. Driving in
through the two companies, the Japanese
met only scattered resistance in their pellmell rush to escape. The weight of the attack was met by a machine gun section
which fought heroically but unavailingly to
stop the Japanese. One gun crew made good
its escape after all its ammunition was gone,
but the other, except for one man who had
left to get more ammunition, was killed.
The two gun crews together accounted for
thirty Japanese.
Once they broke through the line the
Japanese turned north toward the Silaiim
River. At the mouth of the river were the
command posts of the 17th Pursuit, which
was patrolling the beach along Silaiim Bay,
and of Company F, 45th Infantry. The
Japanese attacked both command posts,
wounding Capt. Raymond Sloan, commander of the 17th Pursuit, who died
later.88
A hurried call for aid was sent to Colonel
Lilly, and at about 1000, just as the 2d
Battalion, 45th Infantry, command post
came under heavy machine gun fire, the
3d Battalion, 57th Infantry, reached the
threatened area. Two of its companies
formed a skirmish line to fill in the gap left
88
Crosby, 17th Pursuit Sq, p. 48-49, Chunn Notebooks.
323
by the routed 17th Pursuit and finally tied
in with the north company of the 2d Battalion, 45th Infantry. About noon the
Scouts attacked the Japanese and during
the afternoon advanced steadily against
stiff but disorganized resistance. The next
morning the attack was resumed and by
1500 all units reached the beach, now littered with the equipment and clothing of
those Japanese who had taken to the water
to escape. The only enemy left were dead
ones, and the beach was befouled with
bloated and rotting bodies.
Few of the Japanese had been taken
prisoner. As at Longoskawayan and Quinauan they showed a reluctance to surrender
though their cause was hopeless. MacArthur's headquarters, in its first effort to use
psychological warfare, made available a
sound truck and two nisei and urged
Colonel Lilly to broadcast appeals to the
Japanese to give themselves up. But the
higher headquarters failed to provide a
script for the nisei and placed on the regiment responsibility for the truck and the
interpreters.
To the regiment's reluctance to accept
this responsibility was added its disinclination to take prisoners. The Scouts
had found the bodies of their comrades behind Japanese lines so mutilated as to discourage any generous impulse toward those
Japanese unfortunate enough to fall into
their hands. Some of the bodies had been
bayoneted in the back while the men had
had their arms wired behind them. One
rotting body had been found strung up by
the thumbs with the toes just touching the
ground, mute evidence of a slow and tortured end. Nor did the Japanese show any
signs of gratitude when their lives were
324
spared. When one of them was brought to
a battalion headquarters he had promptly
attempted to destroy both himself .and the
headquarters with a hand grenade. It is
not surprising, therefore, that "a passive
resistance to the use of the sound truck developed and there were sufficient delays so
that it was not used."89
About eighty of the enemy had made good
their escape from the beachhead during the
counterattack of the 12th. Hiding out in the
daytime and traveling only at night, they
made their way northward by easy stages.
Four days later they were discovered about
seven miles from Silaiim Point and only one
mile from the I Corps main line of resistance. Their undetected four-day march
through the congested area behind I Corps
can be attributed to the wildness of the
country and to their skill in jungle warfare.
Only the defensive barbed wire and cleared
fields of fire along the front had prevented
them from reaching their own lines. A
squadron of the 26th Cavalry was sent from
corps reserve on the 16th to root them out.
It took two days and the help of troops from
the 72d and 92d Infantry to do the job.90
The three-week-long struggle to destroy
the Japanese who had landed by accident at
Anyasan and Silaiim Points was over. The
cost on the American side was about 70
killed and 100 wounded. The 2d Battalion,
45th Infantry, which had been in action
continuously since 29 January and had
borne the brunt of the final counterattack,
lost 68 men: 26 killed and 42 wounded. The
89

Maj James C. Blanning, CO 2d Sq, 26th Cavalry (PS), War Diary, pp. 11-18, OCMH; Chandler, "26th Cavalry (PS) Battles to Glory," Part 3,
Armored Cavalry Journal (July-August 1947), pp.
18-19.
90

57th Infantry's 2d Battalion suffered fewer
casualties; the remaining units even less.91
As at Longoskawayan and Quinauan
Points the Americans and Filipinos had
wiped out an entire enemy battalion, about
900 men. A large percentage of these had
been lost on the night of 1 February when
they had tried to reinforce their fellows at
Quinauan; almost 400 had been killed on
the beachhead, 80 had been caught by the
26th Cavalry, and an undetermined number
had been drowned at sea trying to escape.
Only 34 Japanese had been evacuated.92
Since 23 January, when General Kimura
had launched his amphibious attack to cut
the West Road and take I Corps from the
rear, the 20th Infantry had lost two infantry
battalions. Committed piecemeal, inadequately prepared, attacked during the approach and disorganized before the landing,
the Japanese who finally came ashore had
presented a real threat to the American positions on Bataan. Had it not been for the
prompt action of all units involved, the
Japanese, weak as they were, might well
have succeeded in their design. Fortunately,
they were contained at each threatened
point, and by the time the beachheads had
been consolidated USAFFE had concentrated enough troops to hold them in place,
and finally to destroy them. By the middle
of February the danger along the west coast
was over.
91
For estimated casualties in each unit see the reports cited for each unit above. The totals given are
estimates reached by the author.
92
It is extremely difficult to establish the exact
number of Japanese in the 1st Battalion, 20th Infantry, or to account precisely for their fate. Various
estimates are given in all the sources cited. The author has estimated the strength on the basis of all
known factors plus the fact that the battalion had
seen little action and had suffered few casualties.
CHAPTER XVIII
Trail 2 and the Pockets

During the three weeks that the Battle
of the Points raged along the west coast,
another hard-fought battle was being waged
along the front lines. No sooner had the
troops completed their withdrawal from the
Abucay-Mauban line to the reserve battle
position then the Japanese struck again. In
II Corps the Japanese blow came in the
center where, in the confusion which accompanied the establishment of the new
line, there was a dangerous gap during the
critical hours before the attack. Fortunately
it was closed before the Japanese could take
advantage of the opening. I Corps, where a
similar gap developed, was not so fortunate.
Here the Japanese poured through the hole
before it could be plugged and set up strong
pockets of resistance behind the line. For the
next three weeks, simultaneously with the
Battle of the Points and the fight in II Corps,
Wainwright's troops were engaged in a bitter struggle to contain and reduce these
pockets. Thus, in the period from 23 January to 17 February, the American positions
on Bataan were under strong attack in three
places: along the west coast beaches and at
two points along the reserve battle line, now
the main line of resistance, in I and II
Corps.
The Orion-Bagac Line

By the morning of 26 January most of
the American and Filipino troops were in
place along the reserve battle position, their
final defense line on Bataan. The new line
extended from Orion westward to Bagac,

following a course generally parallel to and
immediately south of the Pilar-Bagac road
which it crossed in the center. (Map 17)
Having left behind Mt. Natib, "that infernal mountain which separated our corps,"
the troops were able now for the first time
to form a continuous line across Bataan and
to establish physical contact between the two
corps.1 They were also able to tighten the
defenses along the front and at the beaches,
for the withdrawal had reduced the area in
American hands by almost 50 percent.
The area into which the 90,000 men on
Bataan were now compressed covered about
200 square miles. On the north, in the saddle between Mt. Natib and the Mariveles
Mountains was the Pilar-Bagac road which
extended across the peninsula like a waist
belt. To the east, west, and south was the
sea. As Mt. Natib had dominated the Abucay-Mauban line, so did the imposing mass
of the Mariveles Mountains dominate
southern Bataan. Except for the narrow
coastal strip along Manila Bay, the entire
region was rugged and mountainous, covered with forest and thick undergrowth.
The temperature averaged about 95 degrees. Even in the shaded gloom of the jungle the heat during midday was intense.
Any physical exertion left a man bathed in
perspiration and parched from thirst. As it
was the dry season there were no rainstorms
to afford any relief. "The heat," complained
1
326
General Nara, "was extreme and the men
experienced great difficulty in movement." 2
When the sun set the temperature dropped
sharply and those who had sweltered in the
tropical heat during the day shivered with
cold under their army blankets.
Forming the boundary between the two
corps was the Pantingan River which flowed
generally northward from the Mariveles
peaks. On the east side of the river, in the II
Corps area, was 1,920-foot-high Mt. Samat,
four miles from the coast and a short distance south of the Pilar-Bagac road. Along
its slopes and on its summit were high hardwood trees, luxuriant creepers, and thorny
vines. Though movement through this jungled fastness was difficult, the heights of Mt.
Samat afforded excellent observation of the
entire battlefield below.
North of Mt. Samat, as far as the PilarBagac road, the ground was similar to that
on the slopes. Beyond, in the area held by
the enemy, it was low and swampy. To the
east of the mountain lay a plateau and along
the coast were sugar-cane fields, thickets,
and a plain. Flowing from the high ground
in the center, through the coastal plain,
were several large rivers and numerous
small streams, many of them dry at this
time of the year. But their steep, forested
banks provided natural barriers to the advance of a military force.
Wainwright's I Corps was west of the
Pantingan River. Here there were no plains
or sugar-cane fields. The ground sloped
sharply from the Mariveles Mountains al-
most to the sea, and the undergrowth was

even more luxuriant and forbidding than
on the east coast. Nowhere on Bataan was
the terrain less suitable for military operations.
In moving to the new line, the Americans
had relinquished control of the Pilar-Bagac
road, the one lateral highway across Bataan.
However, they had denied the enemy complete use of that valuable road by selecting
commanding positions from which it could
be brought under fire, and by extending the
main line of resistance across the road in the
center of the peninsula. A four-mile-long
branch road, or cutoff, had been constructed
from Orion to the Pilar-Bagac road, and
the eastern portion of the II Corps line extended along this cutoff rather than along
the road itself. To provide lateral communication behind the lines, the engineers were
directed to link the east-west trails, a task
that was completed by mid-February. The
Americans still had possession of the southern portions of the East and West Roads
and continued to use them as the main arteries for vehicular traffic. All other movement behind the line was by footpath and
pack trail.
The organization of the new line differed
in one important respect from that established for the Abucay-Mauban line. Because of the reduced size of units, the shortage of trained combat officers, and the difficulty of communications, the troops on the
Orion-Bagac line were placed under sector
commanders who reported directly to corps.
Under this arrangement unit designations
2
65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt. Samat, ATIS Enemy
lost much of their validity and some diviPub 289, p. 2. The description of the terrain and
sions functioned only as headquarters for a
the line is based upon SLF and II Corps Rpt, pp.
38-42; Collier, Notebooks, III, 37-39; Bataan- sector. Thus, one sector might consist of
Zambales, AGS, GHQ SWPA, Terrain Handbook
three or more units, all under a division
42; Skerry, Comments on Engineer Hist, No. 15;
commander who retained only his division
Trail Map, Bataan, 15 Feb 42, AG 400.41 (29 Dec
staff. This organization simplified control by
41) Phil Rcds.
TRAIL 2 AND THE POCKETS
327
corps also, for divisions and lesser units reported now to the sector commanders. There
was, it is true, a natural tendency toward
building up a large staff in the sectors, but
this inclination was quickly discouraged
by MacArthur's headquarters, which explained that the sector organization had
been adopted "for the purpose of decreasing
rather than increasing overhead." 3
General Parker's II Corps line stretched
from Orion on the east coast westward for
about 15,000 yards. Initially the corps was
linefrom his own division. Both Bluemel

and Lough retained their division staffs for
organized into four sectors, lettered alphabetically from A through D. Sector A on the
was made with a full realization of the advantages offered by the commanding
right (east), which comprised the beach

north of Limay to Orion and 2,500 yards
of the front line, was assigned to the Philippine Division's 31st Infantry (US) which
was then moving into the line. To its left and
continuing the line another 2,000 yards was
Sector B, manned by the Provisional Air
heights of Mt. Samat. On and around the

mountain, in support of General Lough's
sector, were the sixteen 75-mm. guns and
eight 2.95-inch pack howitzers of the 41st
Field Artillery ( P A ) . Along the high
ground east of the mountain, in support
of the other sectors, were the artillery components of the 21st, 31st, and 51st Divisions
(PA), with an aggregate of forty 75-mm.
guns, and two Scout battalions equipped
with 75's and 2.95's. The Constabulary
troops on beach defense, in addition to the
support furnished by the 21st Field Artillery, were backed up by about a dozen naval
guns. Corps artillery consisted of the 301st
Field Artillery (PA) and the 86th Field Artillery Battalion (PS), whose 155-mm. guns
(GPF) were emplaced in the vicinity of
Limay.4
General Wainwright's I Corps line, organized into a Right and Left Sector, extended for 13,000 yards from the Pantingan
Corps Regiment. This unit was composed of

about 1,400 airmen equipped as infantry
and led by Col. Irvin E. Doane, an experienced infantry officer from the American
31st Infantry. Sector C was under the command of Brig. Gen. Clifford Bluemel and
consisted of his 31st Division ( P A ) , less elements, and the remnants of the 51st Division (PA), soon to be organized into a regimental combat team. Together, these units
held a front of about 4,500 yards. The remaining 6,000 yards of the II Corps line
the sector headquarters. A final and fifth

sector, E, was added on 26 January when
General Francisco's beach defense troops
were incorporated into II Corps and made a
part of Parker's command. In reserve, Parker kept the 1st Battalion, 33d Infantry
(PA), from Bluemel's 31st Division, and a
regiment of Philippine Army combat engineers.
The emplacement of artillery in II Corps
in front of Mt. Samat and extending to the

Pantingan River constituted Brig. Gen.
Maxon S. Lough's Sector D. Lough, commander of the Philippine Division, had un4
SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 41, 44;
der him the 21st and 41st Divisions (PA) Bluemel, 31st Div ( P A ) Rpt of Opns, pp. 11-12;
and the 57th Infantry (PS)not yet in the Collier, Notebooks, III, 39; Capt Robert N. Chapin,
Hist of 33d Inf ( P A ) , 3-9 Apr 42, p. 3, pre-
Ltr, USAFFE to Corps Comdrs, etc., 3 Feb 42,

sub: American Officers with Combat Troops Units,
AG 210.31 (3 Feb 42) Phil Rcds; Emerson, Opns
of II Phil Corps, p. 19.
pared at author's request, OCMH; Lt Sheldon H.
Mendelson, Opns of Prov Air Corps Regt (paper

prepared for Advanced Officers Course, 1946-47,
The Infantry School); Quintard, 301st FA ( P A ) ,
OCMH.
328
River westward to the South China Sea.
Separating the two sectors was the northsouth Trail 7. The Right Sector, with a
front of about 5,000 yards to and including Trail 7, was held by the 11th Division
(PA) and the attached 2d Philippine Constabulary (less one battalion). Brig. Gen.
William E. Brougher commanded both the
11th Division and the Right Sector. Between Trail 7 and the sea was the Left Sector, commanded by Brig. Gen. Albert M.
Jones, who had led the South Luzon Force
into Bataan. The eastern portion of his
sector was held by the 45th Infantry (PS);
the western by Brig. Gen. Luther Stevens'
91st Division (PA). Like Parker, Wainwright was given responsibility for the
beach defenses in his area and on the 26th
he established a South Sector under General
Pierce. For corps reserve, Wainwright had
the 26th Cavalry (PS) which had helped
cover the withdrawal from the Mauban
line.
I Corps had considerably less artillery
than the corps on the east. Corps artillery
consisted of one Scout battalion, less a battery, equipped with 75-mm. guns. Jones had
for his Left Sector the guns of the 91st Field
Artillery and attached elements of the 71st
which had lost most of its weapons at Mauban. Supporting the Right Sector was the
artillery component of the 11th Division
and one battery of Scouts. Only a few miscellaneous pieces had been assigned initially
to beach defense but after the Japanese
landings Pierce obtained additional guns
and two 155-mm. howitzers.5
When it established the Abucay-Mauban line early in January, USAFFE had
5
Phil Div Rpt of Opns, p. 16; Jones, 51st Div

(PA) Order of Events, p. 6; Col Stuart C. MacDonald, Notes on Left Subsector, I Phil Corps, p. 2,
OCMH; ltr, Howard to TAG, 2d Bn, 88th FA
(PS), p. 5.

kept in reserve the Philippine Division (less
the 57th Combat Team). During the course
of the battle on that line both the 31st Infantry (US) and the 45th Infantry (PS)
had been assigned to II Corps and committed to action. When the withdrawal order
was prepared, Col. Constant L. Irwin,
USAFFE G-3, had placed the Philippine
Division regiments in reserve since, he explained, "these were the only units that we
had upon which we could depend and
which were capable of maneuver, especially
under fire." 6 This provision of the withdrawal plan was immediately changed by
General Sutherland who believed that the
corps commanders "needed all available
help in order to successfully occupy the new
line and at the same time hold the attackers." 7 Both corps commanders therefore assigned their Philippine Division units to
critical points along the new line, and
USAFFE approved this assignment. It
made no provision, however, for a reserve of
its own, on the assumption that "after the
withdrawal was accomplished an Army
Reserve could be formed." 8
Sometime during the 25th of January
USAFFE reversed its stand and decided
that it would require a reserve after all. The
unit selected was the Philippine Division
with its one American and two Scout regiments. This action was based, apparently,
on the danger arising from the Japanese
landings at Longoskawayan and Quinauan
Points. General Sutherland felt, Colonel
Irwin later explained, that the three regiments might be needed to contain the Japanese at the beaches and push them back
into the sea.9 When the corps commanders
6
Ltr, Irwin to Ward, 13 Jun 51, OCMH.

Ltr, Collier to author, 2 May 51, OCMH. See
also ltr, Sutherland to author, 29 May 51, OCMH.
8
Ltr, Sutherland to author, 29 May 51, OCMH.
9
Ltr, Irwin to Ward, 13 Jun 51, OCMH.
7

received the orders to send the three regiments to an assembly area to the rear, they
were thrown "into somewhat of a tailspin." 10 The new line was already being
formed and the departure of the three regiments or their failure to take up their assigned positions would leave large gaps in
the line. Corps plans, so carefully prepared,
would have to be hastily changed and shifts
accomplished within twenty-four hours.11
The shifting of units which followed
USAFFE's order was as confusing as it was
dangerous. In II Corps, where the 57th Infantry (PS) had been assigned the extreme
left and the 31st Infantry (US) the right
flank of the line, General Parker sought to
fill the gaps by sending elements of General
Bluemel's 31st Division (PA) to both ends
of the line. The Philippine Army 31st Infantry (less 1st Battalion) was fortunately
on the east coast in the vicinity of Orion, and
it was ordered to take over Sector A in the
place of the American 31st Infantry. The
33d Infantry (PA), assigned to Sector C but
not yet in position, was sent to the left of
the line being formed to replace the 57th
Infantry. In the confusion no one remembered to inform General Bluemel of these
changes, although the 31st and 33d Infantry
were a part of his division and assigned to
his sector.
In I Corps, where the 45th Infantry had
been assigned to the important area between
the Camilew River and Trail 7 in General
Jones's Left Sector, Wainwright was forced
to fill the gap with elements of the reduced
and disorganized 1st Division (PA). Two
hastily reorganized battalions of the 1st Infantry were ordered into the line on the 26th
as a stopgap until the rest of the division
10
11

Ltr, Collier to author, 2 May 51, OCMH.
329
could be brought in, but it was not until the
next day that the troops actually occupied
their positions.
When these shifts were completed the
line-up along the main battle position was
as follows: In II Corps, from right to left:
Sector A, 31st Infantry ( P A ) ; Sector B,
Provisional Air Corps Regiment; Sector C,
unsettled but temporarily held by the 32d
Infantry, one battalion of the 31st, and the
51st Combat Team; Sector D, 21st and 41st
Divisions (PA) and the 33d Infantry (less
1st Battalion). In I Corps: Right Sector,
2d Philippine Constabulary and 11th Division (PA); Left Sector, elements of the 1st
Division (PA) and the 91st Division. The
reserve of the two corps remained unchanged but was backed up now by the
Philippine Division in USAFFE reserve.
The American 31st Infantry was located
just north of Limay on the east coast, from
where it could support II Corps should the
need arise. The 45th Infantry was in bivouac
near the West Road, about three miles south
of Bagac, in position to aid I Corps. The
57th Infantry was near Mariveles, ready for
a quick move to either corps.12
Opposing the Filipino troopsthe entire
line, except for Sector B, was now held by
the Philippine Armywere the same Japanese who had successfully breached the
Abucay-Mauban line in the first battle of
Bataan. On the east, before Parker's II
Corps, was General Nara's 65th Brigade and
attached 9th Infantry; facing Wainwright
was the Kimura Detachment. While General Kimura's force of approximately 5,000
men was comparatively fresh, Nara's troops
12
Collier, Notebooks, III, 39; Phil Div Rpt of
Opns, p. 16; Col Thomas W. Doyle, CO 45th Inf
(PS), copy of lecture delivered at Army War College, 30 Jul 42, p. 6, OCMH.
330
had been hard hit during the Abucay fight.

By 25 January, with reinforcements, he had
built up his two regiments, the 141st and
142d, to a strength of about 1,200 men
each.13
Flushed with victory and anxious to end
the campaign quickly, the Japanese hardly
paused before attacking the Orion-Bagac
line. Some time earlier they had found a
map purportedly showing the American
scheme of defense. On it, marked in red,
were lines denoting the positions occupied
by the American and Philippine troops. The
main line of resistance was shown some miles
south of its actual location, extending from
Limay westward to the Mariveles Mountains. The positions from Orion westward,
shown on the map and corresponding to the
line actually occupied, were sketchy and the
Japanese concluded that they were merely
outposts. On the basis of this map General
Homma made his plans. He would push his
troops through the outpost lineactually
the main line of resistanceand strike for
Limay, where he conceived the main line to
be and where he expected the main battle
for Bataan would be fought.
At 1600, 26 January, General Homma
issued his orders for the attack. The 65th
Brigade was to sweep the supposed outpost
line into Manila Bay, then proceed south to
the presumed main line of resistance. General Kimura was ordered to drive down the
west coast as far as the Binuangan River,
which Homma apparently believed to be
an extension of the Limay line. No difficulty
was expected until this line was reached.
So confident was Homma that his estimate
was correct and so anxious was he to strike
before the Americans could establish strong
positions near Limay that he decided against
13
65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt. Samat, pp. 6, 34.
waiting for the artillery to move into position to support the attack.14
Unfortunately for the Japanese their captured map was incorrect or they read it incorrectly. The first line they met was not the
outpost at all but the main line of resistance.
The Japanese did have the good fortune,
however, to hit the line where it was weakest and at a time when the disorganization
resulting from the withdrawal of the Philippine Division was greatest.
The Fight for Trail 2

It was General Bluemel's Sector C which
bore the brunt of the 65th Brigade attack
against II Corps. For three quarters of its
total length of 4,500 yards, the front line
of this sector followed roughly the Orion
cutoff to its intersection with the Pilar River
and at that point straddled the north end of
Trail 2 which led southward along the east
slopes of Mt. Samat through the American
lines. With the exception of the East Road
this trail offered the easiest route of advance
to the Japanese.
Bluemel had organized the defense of his
sector on the assumption that he would have
most of his 31st Division and what was left
of the 51st to put into the line. Accordingly,
he had assigned the right (east) portion of
the line, from Sector B to Trail 2, to his own
division; the left to the 1,500 men of the
51st Division. On each side of Trail 2, for
a distance of about 600 yards, foxholes had
been dug and wire had been strung.15
14
USA
vs. Homma, p.
3059, testimony of
Homma; 14th Army Opns Order, Series A, No.
212, 26 Jan 42, 65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt. Samat,

p. 83; 14th Army Opns, I, 100.
15
Unless otherwise noted, the account which follows is based on Bluemel, 31st Div (PA) Rpt of
Opns, pp. 11-17, and two of its appendixes: Col
Loren A. Wetherby, Activities of 41st Inf (PA),

On the morning of 26 January General
Bluemel set out to inspect his front lines. On
the way he met the 1st Battalion, 31st Infantry, heading east away from its assigned
positions. With understandable heat, and
some profanity, he demanded an explanation from the battalion commander, who replied that he had received orders from his
regimental commander to move the battalion to Sector A to join the rest of the
regiment. This was apparently the first time
the general learned that his 31st Infantry
had another assignment. Bluemel peremptorily ordered the battalion commander
back into line and told him to remain there
until relieved by his, Bluemel's, orders.16
The general had another unpleasant surprise in store that morning. He had hardly
resumed his tour of inspection when, at
about 1000, he discovered that the 33d Infantry was not in its assigned place on the
right of Trail 2 and that this vital area was
entirely undefended. For four hours Bluemel sought to locate the missing regiment
and finally, at 1400, learned that this regiment also had been taken from him and was
now assigned to the left flank of the corps
line instead of the 57th Infantry. There was
nothing else for him to do then but spread
his troops even thinner and he immediately
ordered the 2d Battalion, 32d Infantry, and
the sixty men of the headquarters battery
1-9 Apr 42, pp. 1-4, and Col Adlai C. Young, Rcd
of Events 51st Div (PA), 25 Jan-9 Apr 42, p. 1; ltr,
Bluemel to Groce, 18 Feb 49, OCMH; Maj Brice J.
Martin, Regtl Hist, 51st Inf ( P A ) , p. 5; Cordero,
My Experiences During the War with Japan, pp.
23-24; O'Day, 21st Div (PA), I, Part 2, p. 3 and
II, 31; SLF and II Corps Rpt, pp. 39-44.
For Japanese plans and operations the following
sources were used: 14th Army Opns, I, 109-16;
65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt. Samat, pp. 7-15, 20, and
the appendixes and supplements consisting of the
orders issued by 14th Army and 65th Brigade.
16
Interv, author with Bluemel, 14 Apr 48,
OCMH.
331
of the 31st Field Artillery, acting as infantry
and armed only with Enfields, into the unoccupied area. It was not until 1730, however, that these units were able to complete
their move. Thus, for a period of almost ten
hours on the 26th, there had been no troops
cast of the important Trail 2. Only good
fortune and the action of the tanks of the
covering force averted disaster. Had General Nara pushed his men down the trail
during these hours he might have accomplished his mission and reached Limay even
more rapidly than the misinformed Army
commander expected him to.
Bluemel's troubles were not yet over. Only
thirty minutes after he had closed the gap
left by the transfer of the 33d Infantry, he
received orders at 1800 from General
Parker to transfer the 1st Battalion, 31st Infantry (PA), which he had sent back into
the line early that morning, to Sector A.
Bluemel had no choice now but to allow the
battalion to leave. Parker promised him the
41st Infantry (less 1st Battalion) from the
adjoining sector, but that unit would not
reach him until late the next day. In the
meantime he would have to fill the new gap
with one of his own units. He finally decided
to use the reserve battalion of the already
overextended 32d Infantry. Thus, on the
night of 26 January, the entire 31st Division
area was held by only the three battalions
of the 32d Infantry and the artillery headquarters battery. In reserve was the 31st Engineer Battalion with 450 men whose armament consisted exclusively of rifles.
The shifts in the line had been completed
none too soon, for by 1900 of the 26th advance patrols of the 65th Brigade had penetrated down the Orion cutoff to Trail 2,
almost to the main line of resistance.
General Nara received Homma's orders
for the attack on the morning of the 27th,
332
too late to take advantage of the confusion
in the American line. At that time the bulk
of his force was concentrated in front of
Sector C. Colonel Takechi's 9th Infantry,
the "encircling unit" of the Abucay fight,
was in position to advance down Trail 2,
and the 141st Infantry was bivouacked
about one mile to the east. Above Orion
probing Parker's right flank was the 1st
Battalion, 142d Infantry. The remainder of
the regiment was south of Pilar, along the
Pilar-Bagac road. Too far to the rear to
support the attack was the artillery.
At 1100, 27 January, Nara issued his own
orders for the forthcoming attack. These
were based on 14th Army's erroneous assumption that the American positions in
front of him constituted an outpost line and
that the main objective was a line at Limay.
Nara's plan was to make the main effort in
the area held by Bluemel's men. The center
of the attack was to be Capot, a small barrio
near Trail 2 in front of the main line of
resistance. Making the attack would be two
regiments, the 9th on the right (west) and
the 141st on the left. They were to advance
as far as the Pandan River where they
would make ready for the assault against
the supposed main line of resistance near
Limay. The advance of these two regiments
would be supported by Col. Masataro Yoshizawa's 142d Infantry (less 1st Battalion) on
the brigade right, which was to drive southeast across the slopes of Mt. Samat to the
Pandan River. Having reached the river,
Yoshizawa was to shift the direction of his
attack and advance down the river in a
northeasterly direction to take the defenders
in the rear. The regiment's initial advance
would bring it to the American main line of
resistance at the junction of Sectors C and D.
The attack jumped off at 1500, 27 January, with a feint by Maj. Tadaji Tanabe's

1st Battalion, 142d Infantry, down the East
Road. Although the Japanese claimed to
have met "fierce" fire from the Filipinos in
this sector, the 31st Infantry (PA) was not
even aware that an attack was being made.
At 1600 the rest of Colonel Yoshizawa's
regiment attacked in the area between Sectors C and D, where the 51st Combat Team
and 21st Division were posted. Without any
difficulty the regiment occupied the outpost
line, but was stopped cold at the main line
of resistance. (Map 18)
The main attack by the 9th and 141st
Infantry against Capot began as darkness
settled over the battlefield. With the exception of a single battalion of Takechi's 9th
Infantry, which managed to cross the Pilar
River and entrench itself in a bamboo
thicket about seventy-five yards north of the
main line, this attack, like that of the 142d,
failed to achieve its objective. General Nara
was forced to conclude after the returns
were in that a stronger effort would be required to drive the enemy into Manila Bay.
But he still believed that the line he had
unsuccessfully attacked on the night of the
27th was an advanced position or outpost
line.17
Meanwhile the 41st Infantry, promised to
General Bluemel on the 26th, had begun to
arrive in Sector C. Advance elements of the
regiment reported in on the evening of the
27th and by the following morning, after a
twenty-four-hour march over steep trails
carrying its own arms, equipment, and rations, the regiment, less its 1st Battalion, was
on the line. The 3d Battalion took over a
front of about 1,200 yards east of Trail 2,
relieving the 2d Battalion, 32d Infantry.
Since it had no machine guns, it was reinforced by Company H of the 32d, and the
17
65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt. Samat, p. 10.
333
MAP 18
headquarters battery of the 31st Field Artillery ( P A ) . One company of the 41st, Company F, was placed on Trail 2, well behind
the main line of resistance, in position to
support the troops on either side of the trail.
The 2d Battalion (less Company F) went
into regimental reserve.
When all units were in place, Bluemel's
sector was organized from right to left (east
to west), as follows: 32d Infantry (less
Company H); 41st Infantry reinforced by

Company H, 32d Infantry, and Headquarters Battery, 31st Field Artillery; and the
remnants of the 51st Division. To the rear,
on Trail 2, was Company F, 41st Infantry.
On the afternoon of the 28th General
Nara ordered his troops to continue the attack. This time, however, he placed more
emphasis on the northeast slopes of Mt.
Samat where he conceived the enemy strong-
334
points to be, and requested support from the
artillery. The 141st Infantry, which was
east of the 9th, was directed to move west of
that regiment, between it and the 142d, thus
shifting the weight of the attack westward.
Tanabe's battalion remained on the East
Road.
As before, the attack began at dusk. At
1830 of the 29th the 142d Infantry on the
brigade right waded the Tiawir River, in
front of the 22d Infantry (Sector D), but
was stopped there. The 141st, which was to
attack on the left (east) of the 142d, failed to
reach its new position until midnight, too
late to participate in the action that night.
Colonel Takechi's 9th Infantry was
hardly more successful than the 142d in its
advance down Trail 2. Most of the regiment had crossed the Pilar River during
the day to join the battalion in the bamboo
thickets just in front of Bluemel's sector.
From there the regiment had advanced by
sapping operations as far as the wire entanglements on the front line. Thus, when
Takechi's men moved out for the attack,
after an hour-long preparation by the artillery, they were already at the main line
of resistance.
The fight which followed was brisk
and at close quarters. The 41st Infantry
east of Trail 2, supported by machine
gun fire from Company H, 32d Infantry,
held its line against every onslaught, with
Company K, on the trail, meeting the
enemy at bayonet point. West of the trail,
elements of the 51st Combat Team were
hard hit and in danger of being routed.
Fortunately, reinforcements arrived in time
to bolster the extreme right of its line, closest
to the trail, and the enemy was repulsed.
Next morning when a count was made the
Filipinos found about one hundred dead
Japanese within 150 yards of the main line

of resistance. Some of the bodies were no
more than a few yards from the foxholes
occupied by the Filipinos, who suffered only
light casualties. Again General Nara's attempt to pierce what he thought was an outpost line had failed.
Action during the two days that followed
was confusing and indecisive. The Japanese, after nearly a month of continuous
combat, were discouraged and battle weary.
Losses, especially among the officers, had
been high. "The front line units," complained General Nara, "notwithstanding repeated fierce attacks . . . still did not make
progress.... Battle strength rapidly declined
and the difficulties of officers and men became extreme." When "the greater part of
the Brigade's fighting strength," the 9th
Infantry, was ordered by General Homma
to join its parent unit, the 16th Division,
General Nara's situation became even more
discouraging.18 With commendable tenacity,
however, he persisted in his efforts to break
through the remarkably strong "outpost
line," and on 31 January ordered his troops
to attack again that night. This time he
made provision for air and artillery support. The 9th Infantry, scheduled to move
out that night, Nara replaced by Major
Tanabe's battalion.
At 1700, 31 January, the assault opened
with an air attack against II Corps artillery
below the Pandan River. An hour later the
artillery preparation began, and "Bataan
Peninsula," in General Nara's favorite
phrase, "shook with the thunderous din of
guns." The Japanese laid fire systematically
on both sides of Trail 2 and down the trail
as far back as the regimental reserve line.
At about 1930 the barrage lifted and the infantry made ready to attack. At just this
moment the artillery in Bluemel's sector
18
Ibid., pp. 12-13.
335
opened fire on the ford over the Pilar River ammunition of the 3-inch Stokes mortar had
and the area to the north in what the Jap- proved "so unreliable as to be practically
anese described as "a fierce bombardment." worthless." 20 Since then General Parker
Simultaneously, according to the same
source, "a tornado of machine gun fire"
swept across the right portion of the Japanese infantry line assembling for the attack, effectively ending Japanese plans for
an offensive that night. The careful preparation by aircraft and artillery had been
wasted and the attack, mourned General
Nara, "was frustrated." 19
That night Colonel Takechi began to

withdraw his 9th Infantry from the bamboo
thicket in front of the main line of resistance near Trail 2. Casualties in the regiment had been severe and the withdrawal
was delayed while the wounded were evacuated. By daybreak, 1 February, only one of
the battalions had been able to pull out of
its position. The rest of the regiment, unable to move during the hours of daylight,
remained concealed in the thicket until
darkness. Then a second battalion began to
pull back, completing the move that night.
On the morning of the 2d, only one battalion of the 9th Infantry remained in the
thicket.
Meanwhile General Nara had been receiving disquieting reports of heavy troops
movements behind the American line. His
information was correct. General Bluemel
was making preparations for a counterattack. His first effort on the 30th to drive the
Japanese from the bamboo thicket had
failed because the artillery had been unable
to place its shells on the target. What he
needed to hit the thicket was high-angle fire,
but he had had no light mortars and the
19
Ibid., p. 14, contains the quotations in this

paragraph. Bluemel's account of the artillery fire
by his guns is from his letter to Groce, 18 Feb 49,
OCMH.
had given Bluemel a battery of 2.95-inch

mountain pack howitzers and ordered him
to attack again. By the morning of the 2d he
was ready. The 2.95's, 300 to 400 yards
from the thicket, were in position to deliver
direct fire and the 31st Engineer Battalion
(PA), drawn from reserve to make the attack, was in readiness behind the main line
of resistance.
At 0800 the counterattack opened. While
the pack howitzers laid direct fire on the
target, the 31st Engineer Battalion crossed
the main line of resistance and headed toward the enemy concealed in the thicket.
They were supported in their advance by
rifle and machine gun fire from the frontline units near Trail 2. The engineers had
not gone far before they encountered stiff
resistance from the single battalion of the
9th Infantry still in position. After a small
gain the attack stalled altogether, and elements of the 41st Infantry were sent into the
fight. The advance then continued slowly
and by dusk the Filipinos, at a cost of twenty
casualties, had reached the thicket. There
they halted for the night.
Next morning, 3 February, when the
engineers and infantry, expecting to fight
hard for every yard, resumed the attack,
they found their advance entirely unopposed. During the night the last of the
9th Infantry had slipped out of the thicket
and across the Pilar River. Bluemel's troops
thereupon promptly moved the outpost line
forward to a ditch about 150 yards below
the Pilar-Bagac road. The danger of a
break-through along Trail 2 was over.
General Nara's ill fortune was matched
only by his persistence. Although he had
20
336
been repulsed with very heavy casualties

three times and had lost his strongest regiment, he was still determined to push the
"outpost line" into the bay. During the next
few days, while activities along the front
were limited to patrol and harassing action
by both sides, he reorganized his brigade,
replenished his supplies, and sent out reconnaissance parties. By 8 February he was
ready to resume the offensive and that afternoon told his unit commanders to stand by
for orders. Before they could be issued, however, he received a telephone call from 14th
Army headquarters at San Fernando suspending the attack. Late that night, at 2330,
he received another call from San Fernando
canceling his plans altogether and directing
him to withdraw the brigade to a position
north of the Pilar-Bagac road and there
await further instructions.
General Homma's orders were based only
partially on Nara's inability to reach Limay.
Everywhere on Bataan the Japanese offensive had stalled. The landings along the west
coast had by this time proved disastrous and
had resulted in the destruction of two in- MAP 19
fantry battalions Homma could ill afford to
lose. But even more serious was the situation
map, the new American line was located.
along the I Corps line in western Bataan
Homma's orders to Kimura called for an
where General Kimura had launched an
advance as far as the Binuangan River,
offensive on 26 January.
along which Homma believed Wainwright
had established his main line as an extension
The Pocket Fights
of the Limay line to the east. (Map 19)
To make the attack General Kimura had
In western Bataan, as in the east, the Jap- the 122d Infantry (less two companies) of
anese had followed closely on the heels of the 65th Brigade and Col. Yorimasa
MacArthur's retreating troops. General Yoshioka's 20th Infantry, 16th Division.
Homma's orders on 26 January had di- Actually, all Yoshioka had for the fight to
rected Kimura, as well as Nara, to push follow was the regimental headquarters,
ahead rapidly without giving the enemy an service elements, and the 3d Battalion (less
opportunity to dig in. Nara, it will be re- one company)altogether about 1,000
called, had been ordered to drive toward men. The rest of the regiment was already
Limay, where, according to the captured committed or stationed elsewhere.
337
Even before he issued orders for the at- lew River to but not including Trail 7, was
tack, General Homma had made arrange- initially assigned to the 45th Infantry (PS),
ments on 25 January to increase the size of but when that regiment was withdrawn on
the force arrayed against I Corps. Hoping 26 January, on orders from USAFFE, Wainto take advantage of Kimura's easy victory wright assigned the area to General Segunon the Mauban line, he had directed Gen- do's 1st Division (PA). Although two hasteral Morioka in Manila to hasten to Olong- ily organized battalions of the 1st Infantry
apo and assume command of operations and one of the 3d Infantry moved into the
line vacated by the 45th, a gap still rein western Bataan. Morioka, 16th Division
mained in the center. The next afternoon,
commander, was to take with him two bat27 January, the 2d Battalion, 1st Infantry,
talions of infantryone of which was the
was withdrawn from its position on beach
1st Battalion, 20th Infantry, later lost in the defense near Bagac and sent in to fill the
Battle of the Pointsand the 21st Indegap.21
pendent Engineer Regiment headquarters.
Wainwright's new main line of resistance
This move, Homma directed, was to be ran through a thick jungle where it was excompleted on 27 January. Thus, in the at- tremely difficult for units to establish physitack against I Corps that followed, com- cal contact. Flowing in every direction
mand quickly passed from Kimura, who through this area was a confusing network
of streams. The Gogo River flowed into the
initiated the fight, to General Morioka.
Wainwright's main line of resistance, it Bagac River to form one continuous stream
will be recalled, was organized into two sec- along the Left Sector main line of resistance.
tors, a Right Sector under General Brougher South of this east-west water line were three
and a Left Sector commanded by General tributaries of the Gogothe Tuol, Cotar,
Jones. Brougher's line extended from the and Camilew Rivers. Behind the line was an
Pantingan River to Trail 7, which led south- equally confusing network of trails, intersecting each other as well as the main trails
ward from the Pilar-Bagac road through
running south from the Pilar-Bagac road.
the American positions to join the intricate
New Trail 5 paralleled the main line of renetwork of trails to the rear. Responsible
sistance and connected the West Road with
for both the river and the trail on his flanks,
21
Brougher placed the Constabulary on the
In addition to the sources cited below, this secright to guard the approach by way of the tion is based on two reports by General Jones: The
Pocket Fights, pp. 1-3, and Pocket Battles, pp. 1-4;
river and to tie in with the left flank of II
Townsend, 11th Inf (PA), pp. 2-4, and Part II,
Corps. Next to it was the 13th Infantry The Tuol Pocket, pp. 6-16, copy in OCMH; MacNotes on Left Subsector, I Phil Corps, pp.
(PA) of the 11th Division and on the left Donald,
1-6; Berry, Hist of 3d Inf ( P A ) , pp. 5-6; Lt Col
of Brougher's sector, defending Trail 7, was Adrianus Van Oosten, Opns of 1st Bn, 45th Inf
(PS) in Battle of Tuol Pocket (paper prepared for
the 11th Infantry led by Col. Glen R.
Advanced Officers Course, 1947-48, The Infantry
Townsend.
School), pp. 8-18; Lt Col Leslie T. Lathrop, Notes
Responsibility for the area west of Trail on Tuol Pocket, copy in OCMH; Collier, Note7 rested with General Jones. On the left he books, III, 51-52; 14th Army Opns, I, 100-102,
107-15; 65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt. Samat, Opns
placed General Stevens' 91st Division. The Orders in Supps. 23 and 27; intervs, author with
eastern portion of the sector, from the Cami- Gens Jones and Berry at various times.
338
Trail 7. Below it and generally parallel to
it was another trail, called Old Trail 5. So
bewildering was the river and trail system,
especially in the 1st Division area, that few
of the troops knew precisely where they were
at any given moment. It was in this area that
the Japanese penetration came.
Establishment of the Pockets

The Japanese opened the offensive against
I Corps on 26 January. Anxious to capitalize on his successful drive down the west
coast, General Kimura sent his troops along
the West Road against the 91st Division, on
the extreme left of the line in the vicinity of
Bagac. For two days, on the 26th and 27th,
the Japanese sought to break through the
new main line of resistance along the coast
but the 91st held ground firmly. Repelled
on the west, the Japanese, as they had done
at Abucay, then began to probe the line in
search of a soft spot. On the night of 28-29
January they found one in the 1st Division
area.
The 1st Division had been badly disorganized and had lost much of its equipment
in the first battle of Bataan and during the
withdrawal along the beach. First sent to
the rear for reorganization and a much
needed rest, the division had then been hurriedly sent to the front on 26 and 27 January
to replace the 45th Infantry. Since then the
men had worked frantically to make ready
for an attack. They dug trenches and cleared
fields of fire but the work progressed slowly.
Lacking entrenching tools and axes, many
of the men had been forced to dig holes with
their mess kits and clear the underbrush with
their bayonets.
Before the men of the 1st Division could
complete their preparations and while they
were still stringing wire, they were hit by

Colonel Yoshioka's 20th Infantry troops.
The 1,000 men of the 20th Infantry first
seized the high ground before the still unwired 1st Infantry sector. From this vantage
point they pushed in the outpost line late on
the 28th, drove back one company on the
main line of resistance, and during the night
moved rapidly through the gap up the valleys of the Cotar and Tuol Rivers, throwing
out patrols as they advanced.
It is hard to imagine heavier, more nearly
impenetrable or bewildering jungle than
that in which Colonel Yoshioka's men
found themselves. It is covered with tall,
dense cane and bamboo. On hummocks and
knolls are huge hardwood trees, sixty to seventy feet in height, from which trail luxuriant tropical vines and creepers. Visibility
throughout the area is limited, often to ten
or fifteen yards. There were no reliable
maps for this region and none of the sketches
then in existence or made later agreed. Major terrain features were so hazily identified
that General Jones asserts that to this day
no one knows which was the Tuol and
which the Cotar River.22
Under such conditions it was virtually
impossible for either side to maintain contact or to know exactly where they were.
The Japanese moved freely, if blindly,
in the rear of the 1st Division line, cutting wire communications and establishing strong points from which to harass the
Filipinos. Segundo's men were almost as
confused as the Japanese. They believed
that only small enemy patrols had penetrated the line and sought blindly to find
these patrols, sometimes mistaking friend
for foe.
Before long, Colonel Yoshioka found his
force split in two groups. One of these, less
than a company, was discovered by 1st Divi22
Interv, author with Jones.

sion patrols in a defensive position atop a
hill just southeast of the junction of the
Cotar and Gogo Rivers in the middle of the
1st Division area. This position, which became known as the Little Pocket, was about
400 yards below the main line of resistance
and about 1,000 yards west of Trail 7.23
The bulk of Yoshioka's force continued
to move east and soon was established along
Trail 7 in the area held by Colonel Townsend's 11th Infantry. Its presence there was
discovered on the morning of the 29th when
the Provisional Battalion of the 51st Division led by Capt. Gordon R. Myers, moving
north along Trail 7 to the aid of the 1st
Division, met a Japanese force moving
south. After a brief exchange of fire followed by a bayonet fight the Japanese broke
off the action and withdrew. Not long after,
11th Infantry troops moving south from
the front line along the same trail were fired
on and killed. An American sergeant, sent
forward from Colonel Townsend's 11th Infantry headquarters to investigate, met the
same fate and his body was discovered about
200 yards north of the junction of Trails 5
and 7. It was clear now that an enemy force
had established itself across the trail and the
junction, nearly a mile behind the main line
of resistance. From this position, which
later came to be called the Big Pocket, the
Japanese could block north-south traffic
along Trail 7 and hinder the movement of
troops westward along Trail 5.
There was as yet no indication of the size
of the Japanese force in the pocket. Under
the impression that only a strong patrol was
blocking the trail, Colonel Townsend, on
the afternoon of the 29th, ordered two reserve companies of the 11th Infantry to
clear the area. The reaction of the Japanese
to the attack quickly corrected Townsend's
23
Santos, 1st Regular Div (PA), pp. 39-40.
339
impression and a hasty call was put in for
additional troops. USAFFE made available to corps the 1st Battalion of the 45th
Infantry (PS) and by 2000 that night advance elements of the Scout battalion had
reached the trail junction, ready to join in
the fight the next day.
Attacks against the Big Pocket during
the next few days by the Scouts on the
South and the 11th Infantry troops on the
north made little progress and only confirmed the fact that the enemy was strong
and well entrenched. Yoshioka's troops had
by now dug their foxholes and trenches and
connected them with tunnels so that they
could move freely without fear of observation. They had skillfully emplaced their machine guns behind fallen trees and had
taken every advantage of the jungle to
strengthen and conceal their defenses. They
had even taken the precaution to dispose
of the earth from the foxhole so as to leave
no telltale signs of their position.
Artillery availed the Americans as little
here as it had in the Battle of the Points.
Poor visibility, inadequate maps, and the
lack of high trajectory weapons resulted in
shorts, overs, and tree bursts, some of which
caused casualties among friendly troops. So
dense was the jungle that one 75-mm. gun,
originally emplaced to provide antitank defense at the trail junction, was unable to
achieve any observable results though it
poured direct fire on the enemy at a range
of 200 yards. The value of the mortars was
limited by the high percentage of duds as
well as the thick jungle. Again, as on the
beaches, the fight was to be a rifleman's
fight backed up by BAR's and machine
guns whenever they could be used.
The location of the Big Pocket created
difficulties of an administrative nature. Although the pocket blocked the trail in the
340
11th Infantry area, on the internal flank of
Brougher's Right Sector, it extended over
into Jones's Left Sector, where the 1st Division was having difficulties of its own with
the Japanese in the Little Pocket. Moreover,
the pockets were not entirely surrounded
and Yoshioka's men moved at will from one
to the other. Just where the Big Pocket
ended and the Little Pocket began was not
yet clear and the 1st Division was as much
engaged against the former as was the 11th
Infantry. To clarify this situation, General
Wainwright, who was present almost daily
at the scene of the fighting, placed General
Brougher, Right Sector commander, in
charge of all troops operating against the Big
Pocket. Colonel Townsend was given command of the forces immediately engaged.
The position of the Japanese in the two
pockets was not an enviable one. Since 31
January, when 1st Division troops had shut
the gate behind them, Colonel Yoshioka's
men had been cut off from their source of
supply. Though they had successfully resisted every effort thus far to drive them out,
and had even expanded the original Big
Pocket westward, their plight was serious.
Without food and ammunition they were
doomed. General Morioka attempted to
drop supplies to them, but, as had happened during the Battle of the Points, most
of the parachute packs fell into the hands
of the Filipinos and Americans, who were
grateful for the unexpected addition to their
slim rations.
Only one course remained to Morioka if
he was to save the remnants of Yoshioka's
regiment. He must break through the main
line of resistance again and open the way
for a retreator further advance. All efforts by the 122d Infantry, which had been
pushing against the 1st and 11th Divisions
since the start of the attack, had thus far

proved unavailing. But by 6 February
Morioka had received reinforcements. One
of the two battalions he had brought with
him from Manila, the 2d Battalion of his
own division's 33d Infantry, was now in
position before the I Corps line, and the
remnants of Colonel Takechi's 9th Infantry
(less 3d Battalion) had reached western
Bataan, after its fight on the east with
Nara's brigade, to join its parent unit, the
16th Division, for the first time in the campaign.
With these forces Morioka launched a
determined effort to relieve and reinforce
the men in the pockets. The 2d Battalion,
33d Infantry, he sent down Trail 7. The
122d Infantry he strengthened by attaching
two battalions of the 9th Infantry so that it
could increase its pressure against the two
Philippine divisions in the center of the line.
The attack began late on the 6th, and
shortly after midnight those Japanese advancing down Trail 7 overran a platoon of
Company F, 11th Infantry, which was holding the critical sector across the trail.
Eighteen of the twenty-nine men in the
platoon were killed in their foxholes. For
the moment it seemed as though the Japanese would be able to advance unhindered
down Trail 7 to take the Filipinos on the
north side of the Big Pocket in the rear.
Only the quick action of Maj. Helmert J.
Duisterhof, commanding the 2d Battalion,
11th Infantry, prevented this catastrophe.
Organizing a containing force from the men
in headquarters and from stragglers, he
kept the Japanese to a gain of 600 yards,
800 short of the Big Pocket. The troops on
each side of the penetration held firm so
that what had promised to be another
break-through became a fingerlike salient,
referred to as the Upper Pocket.
Morioka had failed to reach Yoshioka but
341
next day brought similar results and the loss

of another tank.
It was during that day's action that Lt.
Willibald C. Bianchi won the Medal of
Honor. Though assigned to another unit he
had volunteered to accompany the supporting platoon sent out to destroy two machine
gun positions. Leading part of the platoon
forward he was wounded in the left hand.
Reduction of the Pockets
Refusing to halt for first aid he continued
While Morioka had been making prep- on, firing with his pistol. One of the enemy
arations for the attack which gained for him machine guns he knocked out with grenades.
the Upper Pocket, Wainwright had been Meanwhile the tank, unable to lower the
laying his own plans to reduce the pockets. muzzle of its 37-mm. gun sufficiently, had
Thus far all attacks against them had failed. been having difficulty reducing the other
Though General Segundo had sent in all the machine gun near by. Bianchi, who now
troops he could spare to destroy the Little had two more bullets in his chest, clambered
Pocket in the middle of the 1st Division area, to the top of the tank and fired its antiairhe had been unable to wipe out the small craft gun into the enemy position until the
force of Japanese entrenched there. Against impact of a third bullet fired at close range
the larger force in the Big Pocket Brougher knocked him off the tank. He was evacuated
had pressed more vigorously but with as successfully and after a month in the hos24
little success. On the north and northeast he pital was back with his unit.
By 4 February three of the four tanks of
had placed two companies, G and C, of the
11th Infantry; on the south the 1st Bat- the Company A platoon had been destroyed
talion, 45th Infantry. Guarding Trail 5, and it was necessary to assign to Brougher's
south and west of the pocket, was the Pro- force another platoon from Company B of
visional Battalion, 51st Division, which had the 192d Tank Battalion. The attack was
made the initial contact with Yoshioka's continued that day with as little success as
before, and on the night of the 4th the
men on Trail 7.
On 2 February Brougher had tried to re- Japanese were still in firm possession of the
duce the pocket with tanks. After a recon- pockets. It was evident that a co-ordinated
naissance had revealed that the jungle would and stronger offensive than any yet made
not permit an unsupported armored attack, would be required for victory and General
made
a co-ordinated
with a platoon
infantry-tank
of four attack
tanks from
was Wainwright called a meeting of the major
commanders concerned to discuss plans for
Company A, 192d Tank Battalion, closely such an offensive.
The conference opened at about 1000 of
supported by a platoon from the 1st Batthe
5th at the command post of the 1st Divitalion, 45th Infantry. The armored platoon
ran the enemy gantlet along Trail 7 and
24
Lt Arthur A. Holland, 192d Bn, pp. 44-45,
emerged on the north side of the pocket
Chunn Notebooks; Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns,
after losing one tank. The infantry, how- p. 22; Van Oosten, Opns of 1st Bn, 45th Inf (PS)
ever, made only slight gains. An attack the in Battle of Tuol Pocket, p. 2.
he had broken the main line of resistance at

still another point and attained a position
which posed a real threat to the security of
Wainwright's I Corps. The formation of the
pocketsone of them actually a salient, for
the main line of resistance was not restoredwas now complete.
342
sion. Present were Generals Jones, Brougher, and Segundo, Col. William F. Maher,
Wainright's chief of staff, and Col. Stuart
C. MacDonald, Jones's chief of staff. First
Wainwright made the point that though the
pockets overlapped sector boundaries the
forces engaged would have to be placed under one commander and be treated as a single operation. All available forces, including
the reserves, he asserted, would have to be
thrown into the fight. Brougher was to be
relieved and Jones would take command
of all troops already engaged against the
pockets. This decision gave the new commander the following force: 1st Battalion,
45th Infantry; the Provisional Battalion,
51st Division; Companies C and G, 11th
Infantry; the 1st and 2d Battalions, 92d
Infantry; the 1st Division; and the remaining tanks.
General Jones had a plan ready. First he
would isolate the pockets and then throw a
cordon of troops around each. The main attack against the Little Pocket would follow,
and after it had been reduced he would
throw all his troops against the Big Pocket.
The entire operation would be a co-ordinated one with the main attacks against
each pocket delivered along a single axis of
advance. Wainwright approved the plan
and directed that it be put into effect not
later than 7 February.
Jones immediately made preparations for
the reduction of the two pockets. All 1st
Division troops who could be released from
their posts along the main line of resistance
were given to Colonel Berry, commander of
the 1st Infantry, who was directed to make
his own plans to take the Little Pocket. Lt.
Col. Leslie T. Lathrop, commander of the
1st Battalion, 45th Infantry, was given tactical command of the troops for the assault
against the Big Pocket. Jones himself worked

out the plan for that attack. The main effort
was to be made by the 1st Battalion, 92d
Infantry, from the west. To its south would
be the Provisional Battalion, 51st Division;
to its north Company G, 11th Infantry.
Company C, 11th Infantry, and the 1st Battalion, 45th Infantry, were to remain northeast and east of the pocket to prevent a
breakout in that direction. The offensive
against the two pockets would begin at
0900, 7 February.
The night before the attack Morioka
opened his own offensive which by morning
of the 7th had resulted in the salient called
the Upper Pocket. Brougher, fearing a Japanese break-through at the salient, took
from the forces Jones had gathered for the
attack Company A, 92d Infantry, the reserve company of the battalion which was
to make the main effort against the Big
Pocket, and the tank platoon. At 0730,
when Jones learned of the unauthorized
transfer of his troops, he was forced to delay the hour of the attack against the Big
Pocket to bring in more troops. It was not
until 1500 that the replacement, Maj. Judson B. Crow's 2d Battalion, 92d Infantry,
arrived.25
The attack against the Big Pocket began as soon as Major Crow's battalion was
in place. By that time only a few hours of
daylight remained and few gains were
made. Moreover it was discovered late in
the day that the 92d Infantry troops on the
west had failed to establish contact with
Company G, 11th Infantry, to its left
(north) and that the pocket was not surrounded. Next morning the cordon around
the Big Pocket was completed when these
units tied in their flanks. Jones now waited
25
Maj Beverly N. Skardon, Opns of Co A, 92d
Inf ( P A ) , paper prepared for Advanced Officers
Course, 1946-47, The Infantry School, p. 10.

for the completion of the action against the
Little Pocket before beginning his final assault against Yoshioka's men on Trail 7.
The attack against the Little Pocket had
begun on schedule at 0900 of the 7th. Colonel Berry organized his 1st Division troops
so that they approached the pocket from all
sides, and then began to draw the noose
tight. Evening of the first day found the
Little Pocket only partially surrounded and
it was not until nightfall of the 8th that
Berry was ready to make the final attack
from the southeast. Even then the pocket
was not entirely enclosed, for a small gap
remained on the east. The attack next
morning was anticlimactic. When Berry
reached the area that the Japanese had so
stoutly defended for ten days he found only
the bodies of the slain and discarded equipment. The enemy had escaped during the
night by way of the one opening in the
otherwise tight cordon of Filipino troops.
The Little Pocket had been reduced but
now there were Japanese loose somewhere
behind the 1st Division line.
The small Japanese force which had escaped from the pocket was soon discovered
near the main line of resistance on the west
of Trail 7, evidently seeking to make its way
back into the Japanese line. By accident it
had stumbled into a trap, for in holding firm
the west shoulder of the salient created by
the Japanese attack of the 7th, the troops
had so sharply refused their flank that the
line resembled a horseshoe with the opening facing west. It was into this horseshoe
that the Japanese from the Little Pocket
stumbled on the morning of the 9th. Offered an opportunity to surrender, they replied with gunfire and in the brief fight
which followed were entirely annihilated.
With the reduction of the Little Pocket
and the destruction of the escaping Japa-
343
nese on the morning of the 9th, General
Jones was free to concentrate his entire force
on the Big Pocket. But the situation had
changed radically for earlier that morning
General Morioka had received orders to
pull back his troops to the heights north of
Bagac.26 Immediately he directed Colonel
Yoshioka to discontinue his efforts to hold
the pocket and to fight his way back through
the American lines. To cover the retreat,
the 2d Battalion, 33d Infantry, in the Upper
Pocket was to redouble its efforts to break
through the holding force and join Yoshioka's men. Thus, as General Jones was making ready for the final attack against the Big
Pocket, Yoshioka was hurriedly making his
own preparations for a withdrawal.
On the American side the 9th and 10th
were busy days. Colonel Berry, who now
commanded the 1st Division, brought his
force from the Little Pocket into the fight
against the Big Pocket. On Jones's orders
he placed his men in position to prevent a
juncture between the enemy in the Upper
Pocket and Yoshioka's troops. The rest of
the 1st Division spent these days selecting
and preparing a more favorable line along
the south bank of the Gogo River. Meanwhile units surrounding the Big Pocket kept
pressing in until they were so close that fire
from one side of the pocket became dangerous to friendly units on the other side. Pushing in from the west were the two battalions
of the 92d Infantry; on the opposite side
of the pocket were the Scouts and Company
C of the 11th Infantry. The Provisional
Battalion, 51st Division, was pressing northward along Trail 7, while Company G,
11th Infantry, pushed south down the trail.
The weakest link in the chain encircling the
26
The decision was made at 14th Army headquarters on the 8th and is discussed below in
Chapter XIX.
344
pocket was on the north and northeast
where the almost impenetrable jungle prevented close contact between the two 11th
Infantry companies and the adjoining flank
of the 45th Infantry. It was against this
link, where a break was already evident, that
Yoshioka's men would have to push if they
hoped to escape.
Yoshioka's position was critical. A withdrawal in the face of these converging attacks would be a difficult and dangerous
maneuver under the most favorable circumstances. With his exhausted troops the
task would be even more hazardous. His
men, who had been living on a diet of horseflesh and tree sap for days, were half starved,
sick, and utterly worn out by two weeks of
continuous fighting in the jungle. Until the
10th Yoshioka had been able to draw a
plentiful supply of water from the Tuol
River, but the advance of the 92d Infantry
had closed off this source to him and he was
feeling the effects of the shortage. Over one
hundred of his men were wounded and
would have to be carried or helped out during the withdrawal. Many of his officers had
been killed and the maintenance of march
discipline in the thick jungle promised to be
a difficult task.
On 11 February the Filipinos were remarkably successful in pushing in the
pocket. By 1000 that day all of Trail 7
had fallen to the Scouts. On the south the
Provisional Battalion made excellent progress during the day while the two battalions
of the 92d continued to push eastward
against light opposition. By evening, wrote
Jones's chief of staff, "it was quite obvious
that the end was in sight." 27 The attackers,
unaware that Yoshioka had begun his
weary trek northward, attributed their suc27
MacDonald, Notes on Left Subsector, I Phil
Corps, p. 6.

cess to the enemy's lack of water and to the
steady pressure exerted by the troops.
Only on the north had the Filipinos failed
to register any great successes on the 11th.
Here the two companies of the 11th Infantry and the northernmost element of the
45th Infantry, converging toward Trail 7,
had failed to establish physical contact and
one of them had lost its bearings and become dispersed. It was through these units
that Yoshioka took his men.28
Command of the forces engaged in the
Big Pocket fight changed again on 11 February. General Jones had come down with
acute dysentery on the afternoon of the 11th
and had been evacuated to the rear on a
stretcher. Colonel MacDonald, his chief of
staff, assumed command temporarily until
General Wainwright placed Brougher in
command the next day, 12 February.
By this time the fight for the pocket was
almost over. On the afternoon of the 12th
the unopposed Filipinos reached the junction of Trails 5 and 7 and on the following
day moved through the entire area systematically to mop up whatever opposition they
could find. There was none. The only living
beings in the pocket were a number of
horses and mules which the Japanese had
captured earlier in the campaign. Three
hundred of the enemy's dead and 150
graves were counted, and a large quantity
of equipment, weapons, and ammunition
some of it buriedfound.29 The Japanese
28
Ltr, Berry to Jones, with note by Jones to
author, 11 Jan 52, OCMH; interv, author with
Lt Col Russell Volckmann, formerly Exec Officer,
11th Inf (PA) ; Maj Archie L. McMasters, Memoirs
of Tuol Pocket, pp. 5-6, copy was borrowed from
Col Van Oosten, OCMH.
29
The sources do not agree on the number of
enemy dead and the figure given is an estimate by
the author. The estimates of the number of Americans and Filipinos killed and wounded vary so
widely that it is impossible to arrive at any reason-

made good their escape but they were
traveling light.
The exhausted remnants of the 20th
Infantry worked their way north slowly,
pausing frequently to rest and to bring up
the wounded. In the dense foliage and heavy
bamboo thickets, the withdrawing elements
often lost contact and were forced to halt
until the column was formed again. Passing
"many enemy positions" in their march
345
With the fight for the Big Pocket at an

end, General Brougher turned his attention
to the Upper Pocket, the enemy salient at
the western extremity of the 11th Division
line. All efforts to pinch out the Japanese
and restore the main line of resistance had
failed. Since its formation on 7 February
the salient had been contained by a miscellaneous assortment of troops. On the west
were three companies of the 3d Infantry,
north through the American lines, the Jap-
one from the 1st Infantry, and the remnants
anese on the morning of 15 February finally

sighted a friendly patrol.30 About noon Colonel Yoshioka with 377 of his men, all that
remained of the 1,000 who had broken
through the American line on 29 January,
reached the 9th Infantry lines and safety,
after a march of four days.
Colonel Yoshioka's 20th Infantry had
now ceased to exist as an effective fighting
force. Landing in southern Luzon with
2,881 men, the regiment had entered the
Bataan campaign with a strength of 2,690.
Comparatively few casualties had been suffered in the fighting along the Mauban line.
The amphibious operations that followed
on 23 January, however, had proved disastrous for Yoshioka. First his 2d Battalion had
been "lost without a trace" at Longoskawayan and Quinauan, then the 1st Battalion, sent to its rescue, had been almost entirely destroyed at Anyasan and Silaiim
Points. The pocket fights had completed
the destruction of the regiment. It is doubtful if the ill-fated 20th Infantry by the middle of February numbered more than 650
men, the majority of whom were sick or
wounded.31
of the platoon from Company F, 11th Infantry, which had been overrun in the initial
attack. Holding the east side of the .penetration was Company A, 92d Infantry, which
Brougher had taken from Jones on the
morning of the 7th, and five platoons from
the disorganized 12th Infantry. The 2d Battalion, 2d Constabulary, was south of the
salient. Not only had this conglomerate
force held the Japanese in check, but it
had pushed them back about fifty yards
before the fight for the Big Pocket ended.
On 13 February Brougher sent forward
a portion of the force that had participated
in the fight against Yoshioka to join the
troops holding back the Japanese in the salient. The 1st Battalion, 45th Infantry, took
up a position to the south while the Provisional Battalion, 51st Division, and troops
from the 92d Infantry attacked on its left in
a northeasterly direction. At the same time,
11th Infantry units and the Constabulary
pushed in from the east. By evening of the
14th, despite stubborn resistance and the
difficulties presented by the jungle, the salient had been reduced by half and was only
350 yards long and 200 yards wide. An attack from the South the next day cut that
area in half.
able estimate. For a list of the captured equipment,

see Supp. Rpt to G-2 Rpt, 11th Div (PA), 19
Feb 42, copy in OCMH.
30
31
Ltr, Chief, Hist Div, SSUSA, to G-2 GHQ
FEC, 9 Nov 48, 3d Ind, 16 Aug 49, 16th Div
Opn, ATIS Enemy Pub 355, p. 11. This figure

includes the detached company of the 3d Battalion
which did not engage in the pocket fights.
346
The infantry was aided here, as in the

Big Pocket fight, by tanks of the 192d Tank
Battalion. Hampered by the dense undergrowth and lost in the confusing maze of
bamboo thickets, vines, and creepers, the
tankers would have been impotent had it
not been for the aid of the Igorot troops of
Major Duisterhofs 2d Battalion, 11th Infantry. Hoisted to the top of the tanks where
they were exposed to the fire of the enemy,
these courageous tribesmen from north
Luzon chopped away the entangling foliage
with their bolos and served as eyes for the
American tankers. From their position atop
the tanks they fired at the enemy with pistols
while guiding the drivers with sticks.32
As a result of these tactics combined with
32
NewYork Times, February 23, 1942.

steady pressure from the troops to the southwest and west, the Japanese were slowly
pushed back. At least that was what the
Americans and Filipinos believed. Actually,
it is more likely that the Japanese in the
salient were withdrawing to their own lines
now that the necessity of providing a diversion for Yoshioka's retreat from the Big
Pocket had ended. Once the 20th Infantry
survivors had escaped it was no longer necessary for the men in the salient to hold their
position. They had accomplished their mission and could now fall back, in accordance
with Morioka's orders of the 9th. By the
16th the salient measured only 75 by 100
yards. An unopposed attack the next morning restored the main line of resistance and
ended the fight which had begun on 26
January. The fight for the pockets was over.
CHAPTER XIX
The Japanese Withdrawal

At the end of January, the time by which,
according to the prewar plans of Imperial
General Headquarters, the conquest of Luzon was to have been completed, Homma
had to face the bitter realization that he was
still far from his objective. The Battle of the
Points and the pocket fights were still in
progress, but it was already clear that the
offensive begun on 26 January had failed
miserably. General Nara's efforts to advance against II Corps on the east had been
unsuccessful and expensive for the 65th
Brigade and the attached 9th Infantry of
the 16th Division. One battalion of the 20th
Infantry had already been lost in the abortive landings along the west coast; another
was trapped at Anyasan and Silaiim Points.
The remainder of the regiment was cut off
behind Wainwright's line and encircled in
the pockets. Finally, the attacks against I
Corps by elements of the 122d, 33d, and
9th Infantrythe last of which had rejoined
the 16th Division during the first week of
Februarywere producing no results. Reluctant as he was to call off the offensive,
Homma realized that to continue with it
might well lead to disaster. The time for a
decision had come.
The crucial question was debated heatedly by the 14th Army staff at San Fernando on 8 February. During the discussions two points of view emerged. The first,
presented by Col. Motoo Nakayama, senior
operations officer of Homma's staff, held
that the offensive should be pushed aggressively. The main effort, he argued, should
be made along the east coast rather than the

west and should be closely controlled by
14th Army. Lt. Gen. Masami Maeda, Homma's chief of staff, spoke for those who believed that offensive operations on Bataan
should be discontinued, and that the blockade should be tightened while the remainder
of the Philippines were occupied. By the
time this was accomplished, the Americans
and Filipinos would have been starved into
submission. Thus the victory would be
gained at little cost.
Homma listened carefully to both views
and then made his decision. Forced by necessity to accept Maeda's argument for the
cessation of operations on Bataan, he agreed
to break off the action and withdraw his
troops to a more secure position. But he did
not agree to wait for famine and hunger to
bring him victory. Instead he decided to call
on Imperial General Headquarters in Tokyo
for reinforcements with which to launch a
final offensive to capture Bataan. Meanwhile, he would rest his men, reorganize the
Army, and tighten the blockade. That night
he issued orders for a general withdrawal.1
Homma's order of the 8th was the one
which halted Nara's operations against Sector C in II Corps and prompted Morioka
to order the troops at Anyasan and Silaiim
1
Interrog of Maeda, 10 May 47, and Statement
of Maeda, 2 Mar 50, ATIS Doc 56234, both in Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers, Mil Hist
Div, GHQ FEC, I and II; interv, Col Walter E.
Buchly with Homma, Manila, Mar 46, notes in
OCMH; USA vs. Homma, p. 3062, testimony of
Homma.
348
Points and those in the pockets to escape as

best they could. General Nara was directed
to withdraw his brigade to the area above
the Tiawir and Talisay Rivers; Morioka, to
the high ground north of the Bagac and
Gogo Rivers. There they would establish
defensive positions, reorganize, and prepare
for the next offensive.2
Nara experienced little difficulty in carrying out his orders, but Morioka's troops were
too closely engaged to withdraw easily.
Moreover, the entire 20th Infantry was behind the American line, either at the points
or in the pockets. On about 13 February,
therefore, Homma ordered the 65th Brigade
and the Army reserve unit to launch a diversionary attack against II Corps to relieve
pressure on the 16th Division. At the same
time Army artillery and supporting aircraft
would open an attack of their own to cover
Morioka's withdrawal. As soon as Morioka
had extricated his troops, General Nara
would break off the diversionary attack and
fall back again, this time to a line near
Balanga, a short distance south of the old
Abucay line.
The attack opened on 15 February after a
careful preparation by the artillery and bombardment from the air. To create the impression of heavy troop movements, vehicles
of all types were sent along the road between Abucay and Dinalupihan to the
north. While the artillery and aircraft continued their activity, the ground troops
moved out. Skeleton units less than a battalion in size advanced toward the American lines, reconnoitered, deployed as though
for attack, opened fire, but made no effort
to advance farther. The Americans, who

reported this activity as heavy patrol action,
were not deceived and made no disposition
to meet a general offensive against II Corps.
Homma, however, believed that troops had
been moved from I to II Corps and that the
diversion was successful. On 2 February,
after Morioka had completed his withdrawal, Nara was ordered to pull back also
and occupy the line near Balanga.3
Thus, less than one month after the start
of the offensive, 14th Army had been halted
and forced back to a defensive line to await

reinforcements. "The enemy has definitely
recoiled," wrote General MacArthur. "He
has refused his flank in front of my right
six to ten kilometers and in other sectors by
varying distances. His attitude is so passive
as to discount any immediate threat of
attack." 4
While these operations were in progress
on Bataan Homma put into effect his plan
to tighten the blockade. Col. Tatsunosuke
Suzuki, whose 33d Infantry (less 1st and
2d Battalions) occupied all of Luzon south
of Manila, was given the 16th Reconnaissance Regiment (less one company) and
ordered to guard the southern coast of Manila Bay to prevent friendly Filipinos from
sending food to Corregidor and Bataan.
At the same time the four 105-mm. guns
and two 150-mm. cannons stationed earlier
in the same area were ordered to intensify
their bombardment of the fortified islands
at the entrance to the bay.5
Feb 42, Supp. 29, and Plans for Feint Mvmts by
3
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 54; Bluemel,
31st Div (PA) Rpt of Opns, p. 17; 65th Brig Opns
Rpt, Mt. Samat, pp. 28-29; 14th Army Opns, I,
116.
4
Rad, MacArthur to TAG, No. 371, 26 Feb 42,
AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 2C) Far East.
5
14th Army Opns, I, 96, 104, 113-15; 14th Army
Opns Order, Series A, No. 270, 13 Feb 42, Supp. 28,
65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt. Samat. For a day-by-day
Nara Inf Gp, 14 Feb 42, App. 31, both in 65th Brig
Opns Rpt, Mt. Samat; 14th Army Opns, I, 115,
117.
account of this bombardment see Harbor Defenses

Rpt of Opns, pp. 34 ff; Bunker, Diary, daily entries
after 6 Feb 42.
14th Army Opns Order, Series A, No. 273, 14
THE JAPANESE WITHDRAWAL
349
TABLE 7WEAPONS AND EQUIPMENT CAPTURED BY 14th Army, AS OF 20 FEBRUARY

1942
Source: Tactical Situation 14th

No. 15, GHQ FEC, Mil Intel Sec.
Army, ATIS Doc 56113, App. II, in translation of Japanese Doc II,
To seal off the approaches to Manila Bay

from the inland seas Homma decided also to
occupy the island of Mindoro, off the southwest coast of Luzon, just below Batangas
Province. On the 15th he directed Colonel
Suzuki to prepare for an amphibious operation and on the 22d issued final orders for
the landing. Four days later, Suzuki, with a
force called the Suzuki Detachment and
consisting of the 3d Battalion, 33d Infantry, plus a battery of the 22d Field Artillery,
left Olongapo under naval escort. On the
morning of the 27th, the detachment landed
on the northeast tip of the island and occupied a town and near-by airfield without
any opposition. No effort was made to occupy the south end of the island where there
was an airstrip and a small garrison of fifty
men.6
6
329,
Ind, Bataan, The Judgment Seat, pp. 148, 273,

343-44; rad, Beebe (Fort Mills) to Mac-
This local success against an undefended

island and the seizure of much booty could
not disguise the fact that Homma's fortune
had by the end of February reached its
nadir. (Table 7) From 6 January to 1
March 14th Army casualties had totaled almost 7,000 men. Twenty-seven hundred
men had been killed and over 4,000
wounded. Between 10,000 and 12,000 more
were down with malaria, beriberi, dysentery,
and tropical diseases. Literally, 14th Army
had ceased to exist as an effective force, and
its two combat elements, the 16th Division
and 65th Brigade, had been reduced to impotence. Of the three infantry regiments in
Morioka's division, one, the 20th, had been
Arthur (Melbourne), 18 Mar 42, USFIP G-3
Journal. On 8 March a Japanese destroyer appeared
offshore and the Mindoro garrison of fifty men set
fire to 50,000 gallons of aviation gasoline before
taking to the hills. A week later the Japanese landed
there.
350
virtually destroyed. The single battalion of
the 33d Infantry that participated in the
offensive had lost 125 men in the Upper
Pocket. The 9th Infantry had seen action
on both sides of the peninsula and had suffered about 700 casualties. By 24 February
the effective infantry strength of the 16th
Division on Bataan did not exceed 712
men.7
The 65th Brigade had not fared much
better than the 16th Division. Entering
Bataan early in January with about 5,000
infantrymen, its three two-battalion regiments, the 122d, 141st, and 142d, had been
in continuous combat until the last week
of February. The brigade had borne the
brunt of the fighting in the first battle of
Bataan and had lost a large number of
men before 26 January. Between 25 January and 15 February, the 122d Infantry
had been attached to Morioka's force and
had sustained over 300 casualties. During
the same period the 141st Infantry lost 80
killed and 253 wounded. Casualties in the
142d were somewhat lighter. By the middle
of February the brigade and its attachments had lost altogether over 4,000 men:
1,142 killed and 3,110 wounded. Many of
those who survived were exhausted and sick
and could hardly be considered effective
troops.8
The 14th Army was indeed, as Homma
remarked at his trial in Manila four years
later, "in very bad shape." Altogether Homma had in his army at that time, he estimated, only three infantry battalions capable of effective action. Had MacArthur
chosen that moment to launch a large-scale
counterattack, Homma told the Military
7
14th Army Opns, I, 116; USA vs. Homma, Defense Exhibit Y.
8
65th Brig Opns Rpt, Mt. Natib, p. 111; 65th
Brig Opns Rpt, Mt. Samat, p. 114.

Tribunal which sentenced him to death,
the American and Filipino troops could
have walked to Manila "without encountering much resistance on our part." 9
The Japanese failure in the offensive
against the Orion-Bagac line raised American morale and led to an upsurge of optimism. So jubilant were the troops that they
accepted unquestioningly, as did MacArthur's headquarters, the report that General
Homma had committed suicide because of
his failure to take Bataan. To heighten the
dramatic effect, or for some obscure reason
attributable to Oriental psychology, Homma was thought to have selected General
MacArthur's apartment in the Manila
Hotel for the act. The fictious funeral rites
were reported to have been held there also.10
Officers were unanimous in their judgment that morale was never higher and the
troops never imbued with a more aggressive
spirit. "The morale of our front line troops,"
wrote Lt. Col. Nicoll F. Galbraith to his
chief, Col. Lewis C. Beebe, G-4 on MacArthur's staff, "appears very high and they
want to take the offensive. At the moment
there appears to be nothing on our right
except dead Japs and tons of abandoned
equipment, which is being collected. . . .
Prisoners give the impression that Jap morale is away down." 11 Wainwright, too,
9
Homma; pp. 2450, 2457, testimony of Lt Gen
Takaji Wachi, formerly Chief of Staff, 14th Army.
Col. Yoshio Nakajima estimated that as of 1 March
there were 3,000 effectives in 14th Army, USA vs.
Homma, p. 2576.
10
Ibid., p. 3063, testimony of Homma; rad, MacArthur to TAG, No. 438, 7 Mar 42, AG 381 (1127-41 Sec 3) Far East; Bunker, Diary, entry of
10 Mar 42. General Yamashita, conqueror of
Singapore, was reported as the new Japanese commander in the Philippines, a command he did not
assume until October 1944.
11
Ltr, Galbraith to Beebe, 5 Feb 42, AG 319.1
(8 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.
351
THE JAPANESE WITHDRAWAL
USAFFE HEADQUARTERS ON BATAAN, FEBRUARY 1942. Left to right:

Brig. Gen. Spencer B. Akin, Maj. Paul R. Wing (photographic officer),
Lt. Col.
Nicoll F. Galbraith, and Brig. Gen. Richard J. Marshall.

thought that the morale of his men reached
its highest point after the Battle of the
The victories of February had made

hardened veterans of the front-line troops
Points and the pocket fights.12 A naval intelligence officer, whose opinion of the
Philippine army was not high, wrote to his
on Bataan and they were eager to pursue

the enemy. Men on patrol moved forward
aggressively and Colonel Galbraith wrote
that he expected at any moment to hear that
superior in Washington on 11 February:

Army morale on Bataan is higher in the
past ten days than at any time since the beginning of the war. . . . The opinion here is
that the army has improved by many discharges and thousands of desertions, by the
realization that it has to fight its own battle
with little if any substantial aid. . . . Lastly,
fighting qualities have improved by experience. 13
12

Rad, Intel Officer, 16th Naval Dist, to Chief of
Naval Intel, 11 Feb 42, AG 319.1 (8 Jan 42) Phil
Rcds.
"they were in San Fernando next." 14 One

patrol from General Bluemel's sector in II
Corps actually pushed as far forward as the
former Abucay line whereupon the general
proposed to Parker that a reconnaissance
in force be made to that line preparatory to

a restoration of the first main line of resistance. He was not alone in urging a gen-
eral counteroffensive; many officers favored
13
14
Ltr, Galbraith to Beebe, 5 Feb 42, AG 319.1
352
a return to the Abucay position and some

wished to go even further, to Layac Junction at the base of the peninsula.15
Bluemel's proposal met with a flat rejection at corps headquarters, and undoubtedly
would have received even less consideration
from MacArthur's staff. What the proponents of a general counteroffensive failed
to consider was the fact that a local victory
could not change the strategic situation in
the Philippines. So long as the Japanese
controlled the sea and air MacArthur's
forces would be unable to gain a decisive
victory. Even if they fought their way back
to Abucay, Layac, or Manila, they would
ultimately have to retire to Bataan again,
for the Japanese could reinforce at will.
The effort required for a general offensive
might well have jeopardized the primary
mission of the Philippine garrisonto hold
Manila Bay as long as possible. To accomplish this task it was necessary to conserve
carefully all human and material resources.
Troops on the defensive in a static situation
15
Ltr, Bluemel to Groce, 18 Feb 49, OCMH;

required less food, less gasoline, less ammunition, and less of all other supplies than
those who chose to attack. Moreover, the
advance, if it proved successful, would
bring additional problems: it would
lengthen the front line, increase the area to
be defended and the line of communication,
leave exposed beaches to the rear, and
greatly complicate an already difficult supply situation. It was for these reasons that
all proposals for an offensive, while feasible
tactically and desirable for reasons of morale, were strategically unsound. The proper
task for the front-line troops was to
strengthen their defenses in the hope that
when the next Japanese attack came it
could be turned back as had the last.16
Thus, by the end of February, the Americans and Japanese were dug in behind their
defensive positions on Bataan. Separating
the two lines was a no man's land, the exclusive hunting preserve for the opposing
patrols. Over the entire peninsula settled a
lull as both sides prepared for the final
assault.
16
Mallone, Bataan Diary, II, 54-58.
CHAPTER XX
Command
While the situation on Bataan was never
more favorable to the Allied cause than it
was in mid-February, there was little hope
in Washington that the Philippine garrison
could withstand the Japanese assault for
more than a few months. What would happen to General MacArthur then? Was he to
be allowed to fall into Japanese hands or
should he be saved for the Allied war effort
still to come? The decision reached in
Washington, presumably early in February,
was that the general's services were too valuable to be sacrificed in a hopeless cause, that
he must be rescued to lead other forces in
the war against Japan.
But there were difficulties to this solution.
MacArthur would undoubtedly raise objections to any orders which might affect
his reputation. And he might show an understandable reluctance to desert his troops
in the midst of battle. Brig. Gen. Patrick J.
Hurley, former Secretary of War and an
old friend of MacArthur's, summarized
these difficulties when he told General
Wavell during a trip to the Indies that MacArthur would not leave the Philippines until "both the public and the troops were
assured that command had passed to competent leadership." He explained also "that
it would be necessary for the President to
definitely order MacArthur to relinquish
command and proceed elsewhere, and that
even if such orders were issued MacArthur
might feel that he had destroyed himself by
leaving his beleaguered command." Mac-
Arthur's departure from the Philippines,

Hurley concluded, would have to be arranged in such a way that "his honor and his
record as a soldier" would not be compromised.1 The settlement of these delicate
questions formed the substance of the
lengthy negotiations which preceded General MacArthur's departure from Corregidor on 12 March 1942.
The Evacuation of MacArthur

The subject of MacArthur's evacuation
from the Philippines and his future role in
the war against Japan was first raised by the
Chief of Staff in an oblique fashion on 2
February. The occasion was an inquiry
about MacArthur's plans for his wife and
young son who were on Corregidor with
him.2 General Marshall followed up this
inquiry two days later with the statement
that "continuous consideration" was being
given to the evacuation of officials from the
Philippines. For the first time mention was
made of the possibility of MacArthur's
transfer to another command should Bataan
fall, leaving only "the fortress defense of
Corregidor" in American hands. "Under
these conditions," Marshall explained, "the
need for your services there might well be

1
Memo, Hurley for Marshall, Melbourne, 21 Feb
42, OPD 381 SWPA, Sec 1, Case 21.
2
Rads, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 187, 2 Feb
42, and Marshall to MacArthur, 2 Feb 42, both in

WPD 3251-74.
354
less pressing than at other points in the Far

East." 3
Marshall outlined two possibilities for
MacArthur's future employment. The first
was his transfer to Mindanao. The length of
his stay there would depend on the success
of guerilla operations and the effectiveness
of the program to bring in supplies from
Australia. The second alternative was for
MacArthur to go directly to Australia and
there resume command of all Army forces
in the Far East. After describing the situation in Australia and outlining what was
being done to establish a strong base in that
area, Marshall went on to say that his purpose in raising the question of MacArthur's
evacuation from the Philippines was to secure from him a "highly confidential statement" of his views before a decision was
made. "It is to be understood," he concluded, "that in case your withdrawal from
immediate leadership of your beleaguered
forces is to be carried out it will be by direct
order of the President to you."
This request for MacArthur's views was
not answered immediately, and when it did
come was made in connection with an entirely different matter. On 8 February, four
days after Marshall's inquiry, the War Department received a message for President
Roosevelt from Manuel Quezon. In this
message Quezon proposed that the United
States immediately grant the Philippines
their independence; that the Islands be neutralized ; that American and Japanese forces
be withdrawn by mutual consent; and that
the Philippine Army be disbanded.
Quezon's disquieting proposal was accompanied by a supporting message from
General MacArthur, couched in the form
3
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, 4 Feb 42,
WDGSA 370.05 (3-17-42) Phil.

of a military estimate of the situation.4 From
this estimate the War Department learned
for the first time that the Philippine garrison
had sustained a casualty rate of 50 percent,
and that divisions were reduced to the size
of regiments and regiments to battalions.
Although morale was good the men were
"badly battle worn" and "desperately in
need of rest." "There is no denying the
fact," MacArthur told Marshall, "that we
are near done," and warned him to be prepared for "the complete destruction of this
command" at any time. It was up to the
United States to decide whether the time
the Allies so badly needed could be attained
better through Quezon's plan or by continuing the hopeless battle. After summarizing
the attitude of the Filipinos as one of "almost violent resentment against the United
States," MacArthur stated that, from the
military point of view, "the problem presents itself as to whether the plan of President Quezon might offer the best possible
solution of what is about to be a disastrous
debacle." If the plan was accepted, he
pointed out, "we lose no military advantage
because we would still secure at least equal
delay."
The reaction from Washington was
prompt and emphatic. On 9 February, one
day later, President Roosevelt in a personal
message to Quezon repudiated the scheme
and declared that the United States Government would never agree to such a solution to the war in the Philippines.5 At the
4
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, Nos. 226 and 227,
CofS Phil Situation File. The first part of the mes-
sage was addressed to Roosevelt and signed Quezon:

the second portion was addressed to Marshall and
signed by MacArthur.
5
Rad, Roosevelt to MacArthur, No. 1029, 9 Feb
42, CofS Phil Situation File. The message was
addressed to MacArthur alone because it went
through Army channels.
COMMAND
same time he expressed his sympathy for
Quezon and the Philippine people and
pledged American support "whatever happens to the present American garrison."
"So long as the flag of the United States
flies on Filipino soil," Roosevelt assured
Quezon, ". . . it will be defended by our
own men to the death ... we shall not
relax our efforts until the forces which are
now marshalling outside the Philippine Islands return to the Philippines and drive
the last remnant of the invaders from your
soil." To General MacArthur, Roosevelt
sent a personal message authorizing the surrender of the Filipino troops if necessary,
but forbidding the surrender of American
troops, "so long as there remains any possibility of resistance." 6 The President then
went on to express his belief in the importance of the fight in the Philippines and the
role of that garrison in the war against the
Axis.
I have made these decisions [he wrote] in
complete understanding of your military estimate that accompanied President Quezon's
message to me. The duty and the necessity
of resisting Japanese aggression to the last
transcends in importance any other obligation
now facing us in the Philippines.
There has been gradually welded into a
common front a globe-encircling opposition
to the predatory powers that are seeking the
destruction of individual liberty and freedom
of government. We cannot afford to have this
line broken in any particular theater.
As the most powerful member of this
coalition we cannot display weakness in fact
or in spirit anywhere. It is mandatory that
there be established once and for all in the
minds of all peoples complete evidence that
the American determination and indomitable
will to win carries on down to the last unit.
I therefore give you this most difficult
mission in full understanding of the desperate
situation to which you may shortly be re6
Ibid.
355
duced. The service that you and the American members of your command can render
to your country in the titanic struggle now
developing is beyond all possibility of appraisement. I particularly request that you proceed
rapidly to the organization of your forces and
your defenses so as to make your resistance as
effective as circumstances will permit and as
prolonged as humanly possible.
Both Quezon and MacArthur accepted

the President's decision without question.
Quezon wrote that he fully appreciated the
reasons upon which the decision was based
and that he was "abiding by it." 7 It was in
his reply to the President's "no surrender"
order that MacArthur answered Marshall's
inquiry of a week earlier for his confidential
views about evacuation. He and his family,
MacArthur declared, had decided to remain in the Philippines and "share the fate
of the garrison." 8 He planned, he said, to
fight "to destruction" on Bataan and then
do the same of Corregidor. "I have not the
slightest intention in the world," he told the
President, "of surrendering or capitulating
the Filipino element of my command. . . .
There has never been the slightest wavering among the troops."
General Marshall immediately expressed
personal concern over MacArthur's decision to "share the fate of the garrison." He
urged the former Chief of Staff to consider
the possibility of an assignment that would
force him to become separated from his
family "under circumstances of greatly increased peril" and "poignant embarrassment." 9 In the same message Marshall
made an official inquiry about antiaircraft
ammunition. The reply from Corregidor
7
Rad, Quezon to Roosevelt, No. 262, 12 Feb 42,
OPD Exec O.
8
Rad, MacArthur to Roosevelt, No. 252, 11 Feb
42, OPD Exec O.
9
WDCSA 370.05 (3-17-42) Phil.
356
answered the inquiry about the ammunition

but pointedly omitted any reference to the
personal aspects of Marshall's message.10
MacArthur's message was penned on 15
February, the same day that the supposedly
impregnable fortress at Singapore, key to
the British position in the Far East, surrendered. Already the Japanese had taken
Malaya, Borneo, and the Celebes. The early
loss of Sumatra and Java and the split of
the ABDA area was virtually certain. Again
MacArthur called for an attack against the
Japanese line of communications, declaring
with characteristic optimism that "the opportunities still exist for a complete reversal
of the situation."11
To the United States and British planners
in Washington the possibility of successful flank attack against the Japanese
positions appeared even more remote than
before. ABDA Command was clearly
doomed, and there were numerous meetings
held in Washington during the two weeks
following the fall of Singapore to consider
the effects on Allied strategy of the new
Japanese victories and the imminent collapse of Wavell's command. Gradually there
emerged a scheme by which the United
States would accept responsibility for the
eastern portion of the ABDA area, including Australia and the Netherlands Indies;
the British, the western portion. It was evident by the last week in February that the
broad outlines of such an agreement were
mutually satisfactory and that only the detailsimportant as they wereremained
to be worked out. The American planners
considered it a wise precaution, then, to select in advance a senior officer qualified to

command a large Allied headquarters in
the Southwest Pacific. Inevitably the choice
fell upon MacArthur.12 On 27 February the
Combined Chiefs of Staff finally ordered
Wavell to dissolve his headquarters and turn
command of operations in the area over to
the Netherlands authorities before leaving for India. This move placed MacArthur
technically under the Dutch, but he had already been told that "because of your special situation all procedures in your case remain as heretofore. You will continue to
communicate directly with the War Department."13
Such reassurances were by now entirely
unnecessary for on 22 February the President had directed MacArthur to leave the
Philippines. His intention to do so had been
made clear on the 21st when the Chief of
Staff had told the Far East commander that
the President was considering the advisability of ordering him to Mindanao to conduct
the defense of the Philippines from there.14
There were numerous advantages to such
a move. MacArthur himself had repeatedly
pointed out the possibility of continuing resistance from Mindanao by means of guerrilla warfare and had already taken measures to strengthen Brig. Gen. William F.
Sharp's command. If the Allies mounted an
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, 15 Feb 42,

WDCSA 370.05 (3-17-42) Phil,
11
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 297, 16 Feb
12
For an account of the reorganization of the
ABDA area and the establishment of the Southwest Pacific Area, see Matloff and Snell, Strategic
Planning for Coalition Warfare 1941-1942, and
Samuel Milner, Victory in Papua, a volume in
preparation for the series UNITED STATES
ARMY IN WORLD WAR II.
13
Rad, TAG to MacArthur, No. 1083, 24 Feb 42,
WPD 4639-54.
14
WDCSA 370.05 (3-17-42) Phil. General Eisenhower, who was handling the dispatches to MacArthur during this period from his post as Chief
of the War Plans Division, makes it clear that the
impetus to get MacArthur out of the Philippines
came from the White House. Eisenhower, Personal
42, WDCSA 381 (3-17-42) Phil.
Notebook, entry of 23 Feb 42.
10
COMMAND
357
regidor would be provided by Washington

and he was authorized to take with him his
chief of staff.
The message reached Corregidor at noon
on the 23d. According to Frazier Hunt, one
of General MacArthur's biographers, MacArthur first decided to refuse to leave and
actually drafted a blunt refusal note. When
he called in the senior members of his staff
to tell them of the President's orders and
his decision, they all argued that he would
have to obey the orders ultimately and that
he ought not to send the message already
drafted. If he persisted in his refusal, they
pointed out, he would face court-martial
charges. He had been selected to lead a
rescue force back to the Philippines and he
owed it to his men to accept the assignment.
There was enough food and ammunition,
they declared, to last into June and the
Bataan force might well hold out until his
return.16
Thus advised, says Frazier Hunt, MacArthur tore up his first message and accepted
his orders, with reservations. In his reply,
dated 24 February, he expressed his appreciation of the confidence "implied" in the
President's orders and agreement with the
objectives desired. Pointing out that the failure to send support to the Philippines had
"created a very difficult situation which I
have been able to meet only through the peculiar confidence placed in me by the Filipino people and Army," and that his abrupt
departure might result "in collapse in the
Philippine area," he asked for permission to
delay his departure until the "psychological
15
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, No. 1078, 22 time." "Please be guided by me in this matFeb 42, CofS Supersecret File entitled MacArthur's
ter," he urged the Chief of Staff. "I know the
Move to Australia. Eisenhower wrote on 22 Febru-
air and naval counterattack through the

Netherlands Indies, as MacArthur had
urged, Mindanao would be the first objective in the Philippines and the base for an
invasion of Luzon. Communication with
other areas in the Far East would also be
more practical from Mindanao than Corregidor. "The foregoing considerations underlie the tentative decision of the President," Marshall told MacArthur, "but we
are not sufficiently informed as to the situation and circumstances to be certain that the
proposal meets the actual situation."
The next day, without waiting for a reply
from Corregidor, the President made up his
mind about MacArthur's evacuation. The
USAFFE commander was to leave Fort
Mills as quickly as possible and proceed to
Mindanao where he would remain long
enough "to insure a prolonged defense." 15
From there he was to go on to Australia. In
this message MacArthur was told definitely
for the first time of the President's plans for
his future role in the war and of arrangements then in progress to secure Australian
and British acceptance of his command in
the southwest Pacific. He was urged to make
all haste in his preparations, "because of the
vital importance of your assuming command
in Australia at an early date," and directed
not to "delay in Mindanao" longer than one
week and to leave sooner if transportation
became available. Obviously, by this time,
his movement to Mindanao was secondary
to his assumption of command in Australia.
Air and submarine transportation from Cor-
ary that he had prepared the draft of a message to

MacArthur telling him to start south. The next
day he noted that the message had been approved
by the President and sent. Eisenhower, Personal
Notebook.
16
Hunt, MacArthur and the War Against Japan,
p. 64. The writer has been unable to find confirmation of this conference in the official records or
in interviews.
358
situation here in the Philippines and unless

the right moment is chosen for this delicate
operation, a sudden collapse might occur. . . . These people are depending upon
me now . . . and any idea that might develop in their minds that I was being withdrawn for any other purpose than to bring
them immediate relief could not be explained. . . ."17
Authority to leave at a time he considered
appropriate was received immediately.
"Your No. 358," Marshall told him the next
day, "has been carefully considered by the
President. He has directed that full decision
as to timing of your departure and details of method be left in your hands." 18
Since his date of departure was indefinite,
he was given authority to call on the Army
and Navy commands in Australia for a
submarine to take him to Mindanao and
B-17's for the trip to Australia.
These arrangements, MacArthur told
Marshall, were entirely satisfactory, and he
added that he expected to leave about 15
March.19 Lt. Gen. George H. Brett and Rear
Adm. William A. Glassford, the Army and
Navy commanders in Australia, though not
given the reason, were directed to place
three heavy bombers and a submarine at
MacArthur's disposal. The submarine was
to move to Corregidor, the planes to Mindanao. Brett and Glassford were also told to
expect such a call about 15 March and enjoined to keep the entire matter "highly
secret." 20 The only urging MacArthur received from Washington to hasten his de17

42, WDGSA 370.05 (3-17-42) Phil.
18
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, No. 1087, 25 Feb
42, WDCSA 370.05 (3-17-42) Phil.
19
42, WDCSA 370.05 (3-17-42) Phil.
20
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, 28 Feb 42, Supersecret Msgs to Gen MacArthur, OPD Exec O.

parture came on 6 March when Marshall
told him, at the end of a message dealing
with other matters, that the situation in
Australia "indicates desirability of your
early arrival there." 21
The "psychological time" for MacArthur's departure came six days later. On 24
February, when he had asked permission to
delay his departure, he had pointed out that
he wished to remain in the Philippines until
such time as the situation on Bataan became stabilized. The enemy's intentions
were not then clear, he had said, and it was
entirely possible that he might soon make a
major effort. MacArthur was confident that
he could defeat the Japanese and "restabilize the situation." If such an attack did not
materialize, his estimate was that "we may
be approaching the stalemate of positional
warfare." 22 By 10 March MacArthur evidently felt such a condition had been
reached and that his departure would not
result in a collapse.23 Arrangements for
transportation were quickly made by Rear
21
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, 6 Mar 42,
WDGSA 370.05 (3-17-42) Phil. Frazier Hunt
states that on 10 March MacArthur received "another peremptory order" to leave. Hunt, MacArthur
and the War Against Japan, p. 64. No such order
has been found in the records.
22
42, WDCSA 370.05 (3-17-42) Phil.

23
1-5. The account given by Wainwright of the
reasons for MacArthur's departure, as given him
by General Sutherland, is not supported by official
records. Sutherland told Wainwright, who came
to Corregidor on the 10th, that "the President has
been trying to get him [MacArthur] to leave Corregidor for days, but until yesterday the general
kept refusing." (p. 2) MacArthur told Wainwright
that same morning that he was leaving on orders
from the President and that "things have gotten to
such a point that I must comply with these orders
or get out of the Army. I want you to make it
known . . . that I'm leaving over my repeated protests." (p. 5) MacArthur also told General Moore
that he had been ordered to leave over his protest.
359
COMMAND
Adm. Francis W. Rockwell and General
Sutherland, and the officers to accompany
him carefully selected. Instead of waiting
for the submarine which the Navy had
placed at his disposal and which could not
reach Corregidor until 15 Marchby which
time the Japanese might have established
an effective blockadeMacArthur decided
to go to Mindanao by PT boat. Rockwell
assigned four of these small craft to the operation and rushed preparations for the
journey. Lieutenant Bulkeley, aboard the
boat carrying the general, was in tactical
command of the group, but Rockwell assumed personal command of the operation.24
During the negotiations leading to MacArthur's reassignment no mention had been
made of the size or character of the staff he
would take with him. It was assumed that
his family would go, and Marshall had inquired specifically about them. Only two
officers had been mentioned by name as being included in the official transfer: General Sutherland and General George, the
latter asked for specifically by the Air Forces
who were "anxious to profit by [his] experience." 25 The group finally selected to
make the trip from Corregidor to Australia
via Mindanao numbered twenty-one persons. In addition to his wife, young son,
and the nurse for the child, MacArthur
selected from his staff seventeen officers to
accompany him. They included his chief
and deputy chief of staff, the G-1 and G-2,
the signal, engineer, antiaircraft artillery,
and air officers, a public relations officer,
24
Ltr, Rockwell to Ward, 18 Jan 52, OCMH;
Rockwell, Supp. to Narrative of Naval Activities in
Luzon Area, Folder IV (Evacuation of Gen MacArthur), Off of Naval Rcds. The orders and plans
for the voyage to Mindanao are included in this
report.
25
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, 6 Mar 42,
WDCSA 370.05 (3-17-42) Phil.
Sutherland's assistant, an aide, a medical

officer, and a secretary. In addition to
Admiral Rockwell one other naval officer
accompanied the general.26
On 12 March, as darkness settled down
over Manila Bay, the party embarked from
Corregidor. Two hours later, at 2115, the
four PT boats cleared the mine fields and
sped south. Sailing all that night, they put
in next morning at a small uninhabited
island in the Cuyo group in the central
Philippines. The small craft had broken formation during the night and become separated, one of them dumping its spare fuel
when it mistook Bulkeley's boat for an
enemy vessel. The passengers on this boat
were taken aboard the others and the group
continued south through the Mindanao Sea
the next night, reaching the north central
shore of Mindanao at daybreak of the 14th.
26
Ibid.; rad, Brett to Marshall, No. 760, 19 Mar
42, AG 371 (3-19-42).

as follows:
The group was organized
PT 41 (Lt J. D. Bulkeley)
General MacArthur
Mrs. MacArthur
Arthur MacArthur, son
Chinese nurse
General Sutherland, CofS
Capt Harold G. Ray, USN

Lt Col Sidney L. Huff, Aide
Maj C. H. Morehouse, Med O
PT 34 (Lt R. G. Kelly)
Admiral Rockwell
General Marshall, DCofS
Col Charles P. Stivers, G-1
Capt Joseph McMicking (PA), Asst G-2
PT 35 (Ens A. B. Akers)
Col Charles A. Willoughby, G-2
Lt Col LeGrande A. Diller, Aide (PRO)
Lt Col Francis H. Wilson, Aide to Sutherland
M Sgt Paul P. Rogers, Secy
PT 32 (Lt (jg) V. S. Schumacker)
Brig Gen Spencer B. Akin, Sig O
Brig Gen Hugh J. Casey, Engr O
Brig Gen William F. Marquat, AA O
Brig Gen Harold H. George, Air O
Lt Col Joe R. Sherr, Asst Sig O
360
They were met by General Sharp and taken

to Del Monte airfield where MacArthur
found only one of the B-17's Brett had
sent up from Australia. Two had failed to
arrive and the third had crashed. The remaining bomber MacArthur considered
unfit to carry passengers. Incensed, he requested Brett to send other planes and
asked Marshall to make suitable planes
available if Brett did not have them. "The
best three planes in the United States or
Hawaii should be made available," he radioed the Chief of Staff, "with completely
adequate and experienced crews. To attempt such a desperate and important trip
with inadequate equipment would amount
to consigning the whole party to death and
I could not accept such a responsibility." 27
Three B-17's were dispatched from Australia immediately, two of them reaching
Del Monte safely by midnight of the 16th.
The entire group took off shortly after and
arrived at Darwin at 0900 the next morning. "This hazardous trip by a commanding
general and key members of his staff
through enemy controlled territory undoubtedly is unique in military annals,"
MacArthur reported to the Chief of Staff
on his arrival. "I wish to commend the
courage and coolness of the officers and
men . . . who were engaged in this hazardous enterprise. It was due entirely to
their invincible resolution and determination that the mission was successfully
accomplished." 28
27
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 482, 14 Mar
42, WDCSA 370.05 (3-17-42) Phil. For an account
of the journey, see W. L. White, They Were Expendable, pp. 113-43. The author has also interviewed several of the men who made the trip.
28
42, Msgs from Gen MacArthur, OPD Exec O. All
the officers and men of the four PT boats received
the Silver Star by order of General MacArthur.
USAFFE GO 43, 15 Mar 42.

Wainwright Assumes Command
As early as 4 March, a week before his
departure, General MacArthur had begun
to formulate a plan for the organization
and command of the forces remaining behind. On that day the composite VisayanMindanao Force under General Sharp was
split and the islands in the Visayas transferred to the command of Brig. Gen. Bradford G. Chynoweth. Sharp continued on as
commander of the forces on Mindanao, the
only island south of Luzon on which a
major Japanese force had landed.29 This
move was probably designed to permit General Sharp to devote all his energies to the
defense of Mindanao, the base from which
MacArthur still hoped to mount a counteroffensive against the Japanese.
The reorganization of the VisayanMindanao Force was only a part of General MacArthur's plan. He intended also, as
he told General Moore at that time, to make
some changes in command on Bataan and
Corregidor.30 These intentions were a
closely guarded secret and the news only
began to leak out to the general staff on
the 10th.31 General Wainwright was the
first to learn of it officially. On the evening
of the 9th he received a telephone call from
Sutherland to come to Corregidor the next
morning to see General MacArthur on a
matter of importance. When he arrived the
USAFFE chief of staff told him that MacArthur was leaving for Mindanao and
Australia the next day. "The general,"
Sutherland explained, "plans a number of
29
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 55; Gen

Chynoweth, 61st Div (PA) and Visayan Force, pp.
10-11. The latter report was prepared at the request of the author and is on file in OCMH.
30
31
361
COMMAND
changes." 32 These changes, it appeared, did
not include the appointment of another
commander for the forces in the Philippines. MacArthur would continue to exercise this control from Australia through
his G-4, Colonel Beebe, who would be
given a star and designated deputy chief
of staff of USAFFE.
The entire force, Sutherland told Wainwright, would be organized into four commands. In addition to the two already
created in the south and General Moore's
Harbor Defenses, a new command would be
established for the troops on Bataan and
those still holding out in the mountains of
Luzon. This command, to be known as Luzon Force, would be led by General Wainwright. General Jones, who had demonstrated his ability in guiding the South
Luzon Force during its withdrawal to
Bataan and in the pocket fight, was to be
promoted and given Wainwright's old command, I Corps.33 These arrangements,
Sutherland concluded, would become effective the day after MacArthur's departure.
The briefing completed, Sutherland
took Wainwright in to see General MacArthur. After outlining the organization to
be established on his departure and asserting his determination to "come back as
soon as I can with as much as I can," MacArthur cautioned Wainwright to defend
Bataan "in as great depth as you can."
"You're an old cavalryman, Jonathan," he
said, "and your training has been along
thin, light, quick hitting lines. The defense of Bataan must be deep." "And be
sure," he continued, "to give them everything you've got with your artillery. That's
the best arm you have." Before the cav32
33

Ibid.; rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 3, 21
Mar 42, Msgs from Gen MacArthur, OPD Exec O.
alryman returned to Bataan, MacArthur

promised him his third star "if you're still
on Bataan." "I'll be on Bataan," Wainwright pledged, "if I'm alive."34 It was
a promise that he would be unable to keep.
In his instructions to General Moore,
MacArthur explained more fully the purpose behind the reorganization. The principal function of the staff he was leaving with Colonel Beebe, he declared, would
be "to try to get supplies into Corregidor
and Bataan,"35 The advance command
post of USAFFE at Corregidor, therefore,
would be a supply not a tactical headquarters. MacArthur apparently intended to
retain control of operations in the Philippines in his own headquarters in Australia.
Moore, as commander of the Corregidor
garrison, was specifically enjoined to defend that island to the last. Some time
earlier MacArthur had ordered Moore to
set aside enough food to last 20,000 men on
half rations until 30 June 1942, in the expectation that if Bataan fell the Philippine
Division would be brought to Corregidor
for its final stand. Moore had made preparations for such a move and MacArthur's final warning to him was to maintain this level of supply against encroachment by the commanders of his other
forces. His "last instructions to me before
departing," Moore wrote, "were to hold
Corregidor until he returned." If that
proved impossible, "I was to make sure
that the armament was destroyed to such
an extent that it could not be used against
an American effort to recapture the Philippines." 36
Promptly on the morning after the four
PT boats sped out of Manila Bay, General
34
35
36

Ibid., pp. 42-43, 33.
362
Wainwright "lined up" the general officers
in his I Corps and told them what MacArthur had said to him. "They realized
as well as I," he noted, "what the score
was."37 He then turned over command
of the corps to General Jones and left for
his new headquarters which would control
both the corps on Bataan. Two days later
a general order announced the creation of
Luzon Force, General Wainwright commanding.38
Although the War Department was
fully informed about MacArthur's movements from 12 March on, it was completely
ignorant of the command arrangements
which went into effect on his departure.
Whatever the reason, MacArthur neglected
to inform the War Department of his plans
to control operations in the Philippines
from Australia. It was therefore assumed
in Washington that Wainwright, the
senior officer in the islands, was now in
command. All correspondence was addressed to him as commander and dispatches spoke of him as the successor to
MacArthur.39
The War Department's ignorance of the
organization of forces in the Philippines
placed Colonel Beebe, promoted to brigadier
general on 17 March, in a difficult situation.
His own orders from General MacArthur
made Wainwright a subordinate commander to USAFFE. As deputy chief of
staff of USAFFE and MacArthur's representative on Corregidor he was superior to
Wainwright. But higher headquarters was
now directing its correspondence and orders
to Wainwright as commander. His position
37
38
Ibid.; USAFFE GO 42, 14 Mar 42. The Luzon
Force was "constituted effective 11 March."

39
See AG 311.23 (4 Feb 42), GHQ SWPA. This
file contains a number of messages from Beebe to

General MacArthur complaining of this situation.

was an embarrassing one. Belatedly, on the
16th, a general order was published announcing his appointment as deputy chief of
staff, USAFFE.40 This did not solve the difficulty for the War Department was still
unaware of the situation. Beebe thereupon
told MacArthur that it was imperative the
War Department be informed of the change
in order to preserve morale.41
Events soon overwhelmed General Beebe.
On the 18th (Washington time) he received
a message from the Chief of Staff addressed
to the commanding general of USAFFE at
Fort Mills but obviously meant for Wainwright. In it General Marshall defined MacArthur's new area of responsibility as including the Philippines and explained that "he
[MacArthur] retains supervisory control of
you and your forces." The "CG USAFFE"
was instructed to communicate directly with
the War Department and to submit daily
reports. "Nothing in these instructions," the
message concluded, "will be construed as
altering in any way your subordination to
MacArthur." 42
General Beebe was in a quandary.
The m e s s a g e was addressed to "CG
USAFFE," who he knew was MacArthur, but it was evidently meant for Wainwright. Was he authorized to deliver it to
him? On his own initiative he decided to
withhold the message from Wainwright and
to acknowledge its receipt himself in a message to the War Department sent in MacArthur's name. To his chief he explained what
he had done, declaring, "It is not clear to me
who the Chief of Staff had in mind when
40
USAFFE GO 44, 16 Mar 42. The order was
effective 11 March.
41
Rad, Beebe to MacArthur, n.d., AG 311.23 (4
Feb 42) GHQ SWPA.

42
Rad, Marshall to USAFIA, No. 740, 18 Mar 42,
OPD 381 Phil, Sec 1, Case 13. This is a paraphrase
of the original message that went to Corregidor.
COMMAND
the message was written." Again he urged
that General Marshall be informed of the
command in the Philippines and asked for
instructions on what to do about the Chief
of Staff's order for a daily report.43
The next day the situation became even
more confused. First came a message from
President Roosevelt for General Wainwright. The President was obviously addressing Wainwright as commander of the
forces in the Philippines. He told him that
he had been nominated for appointment to
the rank of lieutenant general "because of
the confidence I have in your leadership and
in the superb gallantry of the devoted band
of American and Filipino soldiers under
your command." There was no mistaking
the President's belief that he was addressing
MacArthur's successor when he told Wainwright that the whole nation realized the
"extreme difficulty" and "vast importance"
of his task and pledged "every possible
means and method" to send him help.44
Later in the day Beebe received two messages from the Chief of Staff for "CG
USAFFE" but clearly intended for Wainwright. In the first, Marshall told Wainwright that the Senate had confirmed his
nomination to lieutenant general.45 The
second message made it clear that the War
Department considered Wainwright the
successor to MacArthur. No confusion was
possible in the wording of this message.
"Upon the departure of General MacAr-
363
thur," Marshall wrote, "you became commander of U.S. forces in the Philippines.
You are to communicate directly with the
War Department in rendering daily operational reports." These reports, he told
Wainwright, "are to be dispatched over your
name." 46
Beebe had no choice now but to turn
over command to Wainwright.47 Late on the
night of the 20th he telephoned the Luzon
Force commander at his headquarters on
Bataan and informed him of his promotion
and designation as commander of U.S.
forces in the Philippines. The next morning
Wainwright pinned the third star on his
shoulders and moved to Corregidor where
Beebe turned over to him the messages from
General Marshall and the President.48
Wainwright's first official act was to assume command of U.S. Forces in the
Philippines (USFIP), the name of his new
headquarters, and to make Beebe his chief
of staff.49 His command, like MacArthur's,
included Navy as well as Army elements.
Under Admiral Hart and for a time under
his successor, Admiral Rockwell, naval
forces in the Philippines had been organized as an independent command, not subject to orders from USAFFE. Joint operations had been conducted on the basis of
co-ordination between the two headquarters. At the end of January General Mac46
Rad, Marshall to Wainwright, No. 1203, 20
Mar 42, OPD 381 PI, Sec 1, Case 15.
47
The author has been unable to find MacArthur's
replies to Beebe. Internal evidence of the radios
311.23 (4 Feb 42) GHQ SWPA.
cited makes it clear that throughout he was acting
44
Rad, Roosevelt to CG USAFFE, No. 1198, 19 under instructions from MacArthur.
Mar 42, Msgs to Wainwright, OPD Exec O. The
48
message was sent on the recommendation of General
68-69.
Marshall.
49
45
Rad, Wainwright to AGWAR, No. 538, 21 Mar
42, AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 3) Far East. The mesMar 42, OPD 381 PI, Sec 1, Case 14. In tracing
sage was sent at 0620. At the same time he accepted
this correspondence, the reader must keep in mind
his appointment as lieutenant general. A similar
the 13 hours' difference between Washington and
Manila time.
message went to General MacArthur in Australia.
43
Rad, Beebe to MacArthur, 19 Mar 42, AG
364
Arthur had asked that naval forces, includ- intention that Wainwright should command
ing the marines, be placed under his all the forces in the Philippines.53
General Marshall's comments on Maccommand "due to restricted area of combat
and the intimacy of liaison that is re- Arthur's plan were made to the President
quired." Army and Navy authorities in on 22 March. The four separate commands,
Washington quickly agreed to this request Marshall pointed out, would have to report
and on 30 January all naval forces in the to MacArthur in Melbourne, 4,000 miles
Philippines had been put under Mac- away. In the Manila Bay area alone there
Arthur's control. Unity of command had would be two separate commanders, and
thus been established for the first time in it was Marshall's opinion that MacArthur
the campaign.50 Wainwright inherited this would have to arbitrate matters between
arrangement, with Capt. Kenneth M. these two from Australia.54 Although the
Chief of Staff did not know it, the disadHoeffel as naval commander.
Wainwright's assumption of command vantages of the arrangements had already
brought from General MacArthur an in- been noted by Wainwright, who, on the
quiry for the basis of the action. Wain- 15th, had gone to Corregidor to try to get
wright explained that he had received a more supplies for his Luzon Force. In this
message from the President and instructions effort he had been unsuccessful. "I had no
from the Chief of Staff, and had had no control over it [supplies]," he noted,
choice but to assume command. "I trust "which irked me a bit. MacArthur had left
you will understand and appreciate my posi- the matter of Bataan supplies in the hands
tion in this matter," he wrote. "The ap- of ... Beebe, over on Corregidor."55
pointment came as a surprise to me without
General Marshall found MacArthur's arany previous intimation that I was to be rangements for command in the Philippines
selected for this command." 51
unsatisfactory and told the President so. He
Now, on 21 March, General MacArthur was "fearful," he said, that they would have
for the first time informed General Mar- "a very depressing effect" on General Wainshall about his own arrangements for four wright, "on whom we must now depend for
separate commands and his intention to the successful continuance of the fight on
control operations in the Philippines from Bataan." 56 These arrangements, Marshall
his headquarters in Australia through a observed, were also contrary to the principle
deputy chief of staff on Corregidor.52 This
53
Interv, author with Sutherland, 12 Nov 46.
arrangement, he explained, was based upon
Wainwright's appointment, Sutherland said, had
"special problems" and "deemed most ad- been made by the War Department "after Mac-
vantageous" because of "the intangibles of
the situation in Philippines." As Sutherland

later explained, it was never MacArthur's
50
Rads, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 156, 30 Jan
42, AG 381 (11-27-41 Gen) Far East, and Marshall to MacArthur, 30 Jan 42, WPD 3251-75.
51
Rad, Wainwright to MacArthur, 19 Mar 42,
AG 311.23 (4 Feb 42) GHQ SWPA.

52
42, AG 311.23 (4 Feb 42) GHQ SWPA.
Arthur left and without his knowledge." Actually,

MacArthur seems to have been informed of the
War Department's intentions before Wainwright
through the messages he received from Beebe.
54
Memo, Marshall for Roosevelt, 22 Mar 42,
sub: Comd in Phil, Msgs from Gen MacArthur,
OPD Exec O; interv, author with Collier, 20 Nov
46.
55
56
Memo, Marshall for Roosevelt, 22 Mar 42, sub:
Comd in Phil, Msgs from Gen MacArthur, OPD
Exec O.
COMMAND
365
of combined command. As a supreme commander of Allied forces in Australia, MacArthur was no longer eligible to command
directly U.S. forces any more than he could
command those of other nations. Such command would properly be exercised through
a U.S. Army headquarters.57 Marshall therefore recommended to the President that
MacArthur be informed that his plan was
unsatisfactory and that Wainwright should
continue in command of the Philippines.
The President agreed and that day, 22
March, a conciliatory message went out to
Melbourne. Refraining from specific criti-
as well as Australia, New Guinea, and most

of the Solomon Islands and the Netherlands
Indies.60
Wainwright's elevation to the highest
command in the Philippines left vacant the
post of commander of the Luzon Force,
created only ten days earlier. To fill this vacancy Wainwright selected Maj. Gen. Edward P. King, Jr.61 He could instead have
left the post vacant and dissolved Luzon
Force altogether. Such a step could easily
have been justified after the creation of
USFIP. No such organization had existed
on Bataan during MacArthur's regime and
cism of the earlier arrangements, the message nevertheless made it clear that unless
there were strenuous objections Wainwright
would remain in command.58
MacArthur expressed no objections. He
no headquarters had ever been interposed

between the high command on Corregidor
and the combat forces on Bataan. Instead,
MacArthur had established an echelon of
USAFFE on Bataan and through the of-
replied that he understood thoroughly the

difficulties of the Chief of Staff and would
ficers assigned had exercised close supervision over combat elements.
accommodate himself to the arrangements

already made. "Heartily in accord with
Wainwright's promotion to lieutenant general," he said. "His assignment to Philippine command is appropriate."59 Thus
ended the uncertainty and confusion. General Wainwright was now confirmed as the
commander of all forces in the Philippine
Islands, with the large authority and heavy
Wainwright's decision to retain Luzon

Force created what was in effect an Army
headquarters controlling the two corps on
the peninsula. This decision, MacArthur's
chief of staff thought, was a serious mistake
because it removed Wainwright from direct
contact with the forces in front of the
enemy. "Actually, there was no necessity
for King's headquarters," Sutherland deresponsibilities formerly possessed by Gen- clared. "That headquarters had been estaberal MacArthur. He remained in a subordi- lished by MacArthur to compensate for the
nate position to MacArthur, however, absence of a commander on Corregidor and
whose new command, officially sanctioned to leave Wainwright free to conduct operaon 18 April, included the Philippine Islands tions on Bataan. When the War Department created a command on Corregidor,
57
This principle was well established and was incorporated in the doctrine for joint operations, Joint.
Action of the Army and Navy, 1927.
58
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, No. 810, 22 Mar
42, Msgs from Gen MacArthur, OPD Exec O. The
President's agreement is assumed from the fact that
the text of the message formed part of Marshall's
memorandum to the President.
59
42, AG 311.23 (4 Feb 42) GHQ SWPA.
60
For a detailed description of MacArthur's
command in Australia see Milner, Victory in
Papua, Ch. II. Unlike most subordinate commanders, Wainwright was authorized to commu-
nicate directly with the War Department.
61
King assumed command 21 March 1942 on the
basis of oral instructions from Wainwright. A general order followed later. Luzon Force Rpt of Opns,
p. 1.
366
that headquarters [Luzon Force] should

have been dissolved." 62
The man chosen to lead Luzon Force,
General King, was an artilleryman of wide
experience with a distinguished career in
the Army. After receiving a law degree
from the University of Georgia he had entered the service through the National
Guard in 1908. In addition to tours of
duty with troops, he had been assigned to
the Artillery School as student and instructor, served in the Office of the Chief of Field
Artillery at three separate times, attended
the Command and General Staff School,
where he later taught, and the Army War
College. After attendance at the Naval
War College he was appointed director of
the War Plans Section of the Army War
College, a post he held for three years. On
14 September 1940 he was ordered to the
Philippine Islands, where he had served
from 1915 to 1917, to command Fort

62
Interv, author with Sutherland, 12 Nov 46.

Stotsenburg. Appointed brigadier general
on his arrival, he later supervised the artillery training of the Philippine Army, commanded the North Luzon Force for a short
time before the war, and served as MacArthur's artillery officer with the rank of
major general. When Luzon Force was
first created he had been assigned artillery
officer of that command.
Soft-spoken, modest, innately courteous
to all ranks, King had achieved a reputation as an extremely able soldier of high
intellectual caliber. His assignment to command the Luzon Force, while a recognition
of his ability and reputation, was destined to
end tragically. On him fell the terrible responsibility for making the hard decision less
than three weeks later to surrender his
starved and defeated troops to the enemy.63
63
The material on General King's career is drawn
from the Official Army Register, the standard public relations releases, and interviews with a large
number of officers on his staff, including Maj.
Achille C. Tisdelle, his aide.
CHAPTER XXI
The Battling Bastards

We're the battling bastards of Bataan;
No mama, no papa, no Uncle Sam;
No aunts, no uncles, no cousins, no nieces;
No pills, no planes, no artillery pieces.
. . . And nobody gives a damn.
The lot of the individual soldier on
Bataan was hardly affected by changes in

command. The search for food was his
constant pursuit; hunger and disease his
deadliest enemies. Literally, he faced star-
of rations. The issue varied from day to

day and was based not on the number of
calories required or the vitamins necessary
to maintain the health and efficiency of the
command, but solely on the amount of food

vation. When measured against this ter- on hand. Since rice was most plentiful it
rible and inescapable fact all else was of

secondary importance.
Food and Clothing
Since 6 January, when the ration had
been cut in half, the 80,000 soldiers and

26,000 civilians on Bataan had received a
steadily diminishing and unbalanced allowance of food. Theoretically, the half
ration supplied the American soldier with
6 ounces each of flour and canned or fresh
meat daily; the Filipino with 10 ounces of
rice and 4 of meat or fish. In actual fact
the ration varied with time and circumstances and never on Bataan did it equal a
full half ration. From January through
February, the daily issue averaged less than
30 ounces, as compared to the peacetime

garrison ration of 71 ounces for Americans
and 64 for Filipinos.1
From the start it proved impossible to
establish any theoretical basis for the issue
1
AR 30-2210.
became the basic element in the diet and all

other foods were rationed to last as long
as it did.
As the supply of food dwindled the
amount issued was steadily reduced. The inventory of 5 January had disclosed that
there was only enough canned meat and fish
to last 50 days, canned milk for 20, flour

and canned vegetables for 30, and small
amounts of sugar, lard substitutes, coffee,
and fruits.2 By the end of the month this
supply had diminished to an 11-day supply
of meat and fish, 6 days of flour, 5 of fruit,
and 4 of vegetables.3 On 23 February the
Philippine Department quartermaster, Col.
Frank Brezina, reported that he had on
hand only a 2-day supply of meat and

fish, enough flour to last 4 days, and only
228 cans of tomatoes, 48 cans of fruit, 30
pounds of coffee, 1,100 pounds of raisins,
2
QM Rpt of Opns, p. 31. Rice was not included
in the inventory.
3
Memo, Gen Drake for Gen R. J. Marshall, 2
Feb 42, sub: Rations, copy in OCMH.
368
27,736 cans of milk, and 21,700 pounds of

sugar.4 A few days later he told Brig. Gen.
Charles C. Drake, the USAFFE quartermaster, that there was no corned beef,
corned beef hash, or bacon left on Bataan.
"We are entirely dependent upon the shipments of salmon from Fort Mills," he declared, "as it is impossible to slaughter sufficient carabao to make an issue to all
units." 5 Before the end of the campaign the
amount of canned meat, usually corned
beef, issued to the troops had been reduced
from 6 ounces to 1.2 ounces.
The Filipinos, whose ration, except for
flour, was the same as the American ration,
did not suffer as much, for the allowance of
rice rarely dropped below 8 ounces. The
stock of canned vegetables, limited in quantity and variety from the very start, shrank
steadily until its issue was virtually discontinued. Within a month after the troops
reached Bataan, butter, coffee, and tea had
practically disappeared from the menu.
Sugar and canned milk were extremely
scarce and were doled out in the most
minute quantities.
By the middle of February the ration had
already dropped far below the standard half
ration. On the 17th of the month the men
on Bataan received only 27.7 ounces, consisting of 9 ounces of rice, 4 of meat, 5 of
bread, plus a small allowance of sugar, coffee, bacon, juice, and canned tomatoes and
fruit, amounting altogether to 10 ounces.6
4
Rpt, QM Phil Dept to QM USAFFE, 24 Feb

42, sub: Class I Supplies, AG 319.1 (29 Jan 42)
Phil Rcds. Other reports in this file provide detailed information on the quantity and type of food
in Bataan stocks.
5
Rpt, QM Phil Dept to
42, sub: Class I Supplies,
Phil Rcds.
6
Rpt, QM Phil Dept to
42, sub: Class I Supplies,
Phil Rcds.
QM USAFFE, 27 Feb
AG 319.1 (29 Jan 42)
QM USAFFE, 17 Feb
AG 319.1 (29 Jan 42)
As the days went by the ration was cut again

and again. By the end of March it had been
so reduced and the fare offered had become
so monotonous as to amount to little more
than a token diet barely sufficient to sustain
life. The bareness and inadequacy of this
diet is revealed strikingly in the ration for 25
March, shown in Table 8. At that time the
men were receiving less than one quarter
the amount of food allotted soldiers in
peacetime.
TABLE 8RATION, 25 MARCH 1942

[Ounces]
Based on memo, Gen Funk for CG USFIP, 25 Mar 42, sub:

Status of Rations, AG 430.2 (3 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.
Hospital patients, though allotted a

double ration, ate none too well. Rice was
the chief component of their diet and it was
extremely difficult to provide the special
foods required for postoperative and intestinal cases. "It was quite a sight," wrote one
doctor, "to see . . . those who should have
received adequate soft and liquid diet trying
to eat a gob of sticky, gummy, half-cooked
rice." 7
7
Lt Col Walter H. Waterous, Statement of Experiences and Observations concerning the Bataan
Campaign . . ., p. 51, copy in OCMH.
THE BATTLING BASTARDS

Every effort was made to exploit the slender food resources of Bataan. The two rice
mills constructed by the engineers began operations in mid-January. Under the supervision of the quartermaster foraging parties
gathered the palay (unhusked rice), which
stood ripe in the narrow rice belt along Manila Bay, and brought it to the mills for
threshing. Before the supply was exhausted
sometime in March a total of 250 tons of
palay had been collected. Since the rate of
consumption was fifteen tons a day, this impressive total amounted to only a seventeenday supply. Had modern farm machinery
been available the quantity of palay recovered, one officer estimated, would have been
ten times greater.8
Since it was the most abundant food on
Bataan rice ultimately replaced wheat in
the diet of the American soldiers. Accustomed to potatoes and bread they found rice
a most unsatisfactory substitute. Consisting
mostly of starch and with scarcely any vitamins it possessed little nutritive value. Without seasoning or other foods it had little
flavor of its own and tasted like "wall-paper
paste." As one wit remarked, "Rice is the
greatest food there isanything you add to
it improves it." 9 But it had one virtue none
could deny; it filled empty stomachs, and on
Bataan that was a most important consideration.
While it lasted fresh meat was issued to
the troops at regular intervals, usually every
third day. This meat was obtained principally from the carabao slaughtered at the
recently established abattoir near Lamao
and at scattered, small slaughterhouses con8
Class I Supplies, AG 319.1 (29 Jan 42) Phil
Rcds; Capt Harold A. Arnold, "The Lessons of
Bataan," Quartermaster Review, XXVI (November-December 1946), 14.
9
Maj. Calvin E. Chunn, ed., Of Rice and Men
(Los Angeles: Veterans Publishing Co., 1946), p. ii.
369
sisting of little more than platforms over
rapidly running fresh-water streams. In the
absence of refrigeration the carabao were
kept in enclosures until a fresh meat issue
was due, then quickly slaughtered and issued
to the troops. Toward the end of the campaign about 600 of the butchered carabao
were sent to Corregidor for storage in the
refrigeration plant and later returned to
Bataan for issue. When forage for animals
was exhausted, the 250 horses of the 26th
Cavalry and 48 pack mules were regretfully
slaughtered also. Maj. Achille C. Tisdelle,

a cavalry officer and General King's aide,
wrote on 15 March that the 26th Cavalry
and other units had that day finished the last
of their horses.10 Altogether the amount of
fresh meat slaughtered on Bataan totaled
approximately 1,300 tons.11
For a time the meat component was supplemented by fresh fish caught by local fishermen. At one period of the campaign the
daily catch reached as high as 12,000
pounds. This supply ended when Japanese
and indiscriminate American gunfire discouraged the nightly fishing trips.12
To these sources of food must be added
the amounts procured by the individual
soldier. The Filipino was most adept at
fending for himself in the jungle. In various
localities he could secure chickens, pigs,
camotes (sweet potatoes), bamboo shoots,
mangoes, and bananas. He could supplement his diet with dog and monkey meat;
with the chickenlike meat of the iguana
lizard, so relished by the natives; and with
10
Tisdelle, Diary, entry of 15 Mar 42. This diary
has been published under the title, "Bataan Diary
of Maj A. C. Tisdelle," edited by present author, in
Military Affairs, XI (Fall 1947).

11
QM Rpt of Opns, p. 35; Luzon Force Rpt of
Opns, G-4 Annex, p. 1.
12
QM Rpt of Opns, p. 35; Tisdelle, Diary, entry
of 15 Mar 42.
370
the edible from the inedible. The wild

carrot, highly toxic in its native form,
caused numerous violent intestinal disturbances and frequent deaths. Some types of
berry were also poisonous and resulted in
illness or death. But the troops continued to
eat every berry and root they could find
and by April the peninsula "had been
broken dry of all edible vegetation . . .
which anyone thought he could eat."17
In addition to the food obtained from
the quartermaster and that secured by individuals through their own initiative and
ingenuity, men soon found other ways to
supplement their ration. A large amount of
fresh meat was procured by units which
seized any livestock unlucky enough to come
within their reach. There was always the
possibility that the animals might be diseased, but men were willing to take that
chance. Headquarters frowned upon this
practice for reasons of health and because it
curtailed the supply of fresh meat for regular issue, and early in February prohibited
the slaughter of carabao "by any individual,
unit, or organization . . . except at the
Field Abattoir under the direct supervision
of the Department Veterinarian." 18 Despite these orders about 1,000 carabao were
butchered privately during the campaign.19
Many units had their own private reserves of food, secured in various ways, regular and irregular. The chief source of
these caches was the supplies picked up at
13
Memo, Lt Col James O. Gillespie for Surgeon,
USAFFE, 27 Feb 42, sub: Diet of American Sol- depots during the withdrawal and never
diers, AG 430.2 (11 Sep 41) Phil Rcds; memo, Asst
turned in. One unit, investigation disclosed,
G-4 for G-4 USAFFE, 3 Feb 42, with ind by Gen
had
"a considerable cache of subsistence
Drake, 9 Feb 42, AG 319.1 (8 Jan 42) Phil Rcds;
Cooper, Med Dept Activities, pp. 98-99; Alexan. . . well guarded behind barbed wire";
der, Personal Recollections of Bataan, p. 102;
another
had 8,500 C Rations in its private
intervs, author with numerous officers who served
the meat of the large python snake whose

eggs the Filipinos considered a great delicacy. On his own initiative he picked rice
in the fields near him and threshed it in
his foxhole. Those in the front lines could
make their way through the outposts to
near-by barrios and at exorbitant prices
purchase food not obtainable by the quartermaster. Ofttimes patrols would return
with sacks of milled rice.13
The Americans soon learned that hunger
is a great leveler and sought the meat of
dogswhich tasted like lambiguanas,
and monkeys as avidly as their native
comrades-in-arms. "Monkeys and iguanas
are quite scarce," wrote one officer regretfully, "and about all we have is rice." 14
Colonel Mallone's experience was wider.
After a varied diet on Bataan, the 195pound six-footer offered this advice to epicures: "I can recommend mule. It is tasty,
succulent and tenderall being phrases of
comparison, of course. There is little to
choose between calesa pony and carabao.
The pony is tougher but better flavor than
carabao. Iguana is fair. Monkey I do not
recommend. I never had snake," 15 To supplement this report there is the judgment of
another gourmet who declared "that
monkey meat is all right until the animal's
hands turn up on a plate." 16
The search for food sometimes had tragic
results for those who could not distinguish
on Bataan, at various dates during the preparation

of this volume.
14
Tisdelle, Diary, entry of 15 Mar 42.
15
16
Chunn, Of Rice and Men, p. 34.
17
Waterous, Statement of Experiences, p. 53.

Ltr Order, USAFFE, 12 Feb 42, sub: Slaughter
of Carabao, AG 431 (17 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.
19
Luzon Force Rpt of Opns, G-4 Annex, p. 1.
18

dump.20 In one case the driver of a ration
truck had accumulated 520 cans of tomatoes, 111 cans of evaporated milk, 297 cans
of tomato sauce, 114 cans of tomato juice, 6
cans of oleomargarine, 12 sacks of rice, and
three fourths of a sack of wheat.21 So large
was the private supply of one unit that MacArthur's chief of staff ordered an investigation which revealed a situation even worse
than had been thought.22 Orders had been
issued at the start of the campaign directing
the return of these supplies to the quartermaster, but few units obeyed. Even the requirement of a detailed, certified report of
stocks from all unit commanders failed to
bring in the private caches.23
One of the most persistent irregularities
in the issue of rations was the padding of
strength reports by units so that they could
draw more than their share. At one time,
122,000 rations were being issued daily. "It
appears," wrote Lt. Col. Frank F. Carpenter, Jr., of the Bataan echelon of
USAFFE, "that many units are doubling
up." 24 A warning from MacArthur brought
the figure down to 94,000 for military personnel alone, which was still considerably
higher than it should have been.25 One
flagrant example of padding that came to
the attention of USAFFE was that of the
division, with two regiments detached,
which drew 11,000 rations on 6 February.
20
Memos, Asst G-4 for G-4 USAFFE, 8 Jan,
9 Feb 42, AG 319.1 (8 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.
21
Ibid.
22
Ibid.; memo, G-4 for Asst G-4 USAFFE, 5
Feb 42, AG 430.2 (11 Sep 41) Phil Rcds.
23
Ibid.; intervs, author with Drake at various
times.
24
Memo, Asst G-4 for G-4 USAFFE, 16 Jan 42,

AG319.1 (8 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.
25
Memo, CG USAFFE for Corps and Div
Comdrs, 17 Jan 42, sub: Noncompliance with
Orders, AG 430 (8 Dec 41) Phil Rcds; memo,
Asst G-4 for G-4 USAFFE, 19 Jan 42, AG 319.1
371
At full strength this division did not have
more than 6,500 men.26 But despite the
strictest orders and the most careful procedures, the number of rations issued continued to exceed the troop strength.
Even within units rations were sometimes
distributed unequally. Reports that complete ration components were not being
pushed forward from division quartermaster dumps to the front-line troops reached
USAFFE and on 17 January commanders
were told that "in some cases subsistence
has been forcibly diverted from the units
for which it was intended."27 This reminder, like most dealing with the ration,
was ignored when it was safe to do so.
While such practices existed the fare of
units was uneven. Some ate well, others
poorly, and it is a truism of warfare that the
units to the rear always live best. "There is
nothing quite so controversial as the Bataan
ration," wrote one reflective officer. "Some
units got corned beef, others none. Some had
corned beef hash in lieu of fish. Some got
eight ounces of rice, others 3.7. Some got
flour in place of bread, some hard tack. But
there is nothing controversial about the fact
that the ration was grossly inadequate." 28
Even when no irregularity interrupted
the normal distribution of rations, the confusion and hazards of war often robbed men
of their food. General Stevens justly complained that his 91st Division was receiving
an unbalanced ration when, by some misadventure, the quartermaster issued for his
5,600 men 19 sacks of rice, 12 cases of sal26
Memo, Asst G-4 for G-4 USAFFE, 10 Feb 42,

AG 319.1 (8 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.
27
Memo, CG USAFFE for Corps and Div
Comdrs, 17 Jan 42, sub: Noncompliance with
Orders, AG 430 (8 Dec 41) Phil Rcds; memo,
Asst G-4 for G-4 USAFFE, 15 Jan 42, AG 319.1
28
372
mon, 3 sacks of sugar, 4 carabao quarters,
plus a few miscellaneous items. That same
day another division received nothing but
canned goods.29 Sometimes a change in assignment would leave one unit without a
ration for one day while another received a
double issue. The movement of units from
one sector to another, usually made at night
when the rations were issued, resulted as
frequently in a double issue as in none at all.
The long and difficult supply lines on
Bataan often slowed up the delivery of food,
and vehicles carrying supplies broke down
on the mountain trails. The distribution of
fresh meat was extremely difficult under
these conditions. Since refrigeration and an
adequate road net were lacking, the meat
had to be transported in open trucks during
the heat of the tropical day on hauls lasting
as long as twelve hours. It is not surprising
that the meat which reached the front-line
troops was not always fresh.
Sometimes an accident could have tragic
results for the starved garrison. A lucky hit
by a Japanese bomber knocked out a freezing unit in the Corregidor cold-storage
plant, and 194 carabao quartersabout
24,000 pounds, almost one day's supply
was thereupon sent to Bataan for immediate issue. Five successive air raids delayed
the loading of the meat which did not reach
Bataan until the next morning. Since it
could not be unloaded during daylight the
meat remained on the barge the entire day.
By evening it was unfit for distribution.30
The difficult supply routes and the everpresent threat of starvation were responsible
for large-scale pilferage, looting, and hijack29
AG319.1 (8 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.
30
Memo, CG USFIP for G-4, 29 Mar 42, with
ind, AG 431 (17 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.

ing by civilians and troops alike. Supply
trucks moving slowly along the narrow, tortuous trails of Bataan were ideal targets for
hungry men with guns. Guards were posted
but even they were not above temptation.
Philippine Army military police placed
along the supply routes helped themselves
generously from the vehicles they halted.
Officers also sought to secure food and
supplies in this way, and on one occasion
two officers, an American and a Filipino,
were caught red-handed looting a quartermaster dump. So serious was the situation
that it was proposed that guards be instructed to shoot anyone caught looting. A
similar fate was proposed for those in the
vicinity of a supply dump without "proper
reason or authority." 31 Despite threats of
dire consequences, looting and hijacking
continued. It was comparatively easy to toss
off a sack of rice to a waiting friend asa
truck moved forward, and the closer the
ration trucks came to the front lines the less
food they contained.32
One item of issue that created serious difficulty was cigarettes. Never present in sufficient quantity for general distribution, they
were doled out to the front-line troops from
time to time. No item disappeared so quick
between the point of supply and destination
The loss was a heavy one. In mid-January
an officer of the Bataan echelon of USAFFE
urgently recommended that cigarettes be
sent from Corregidor to the men at the front,
and a month later Colonel Beebe told the
chief of staff that the demand for cigarettes
31
AG 319.1 (8 Jan 42) Phil Rcds, also draft orders
atchd as Incl I.
32
Rpt, QM Phil Dept to QM USAFFE, 2 Mar 42,
sub: Class I Supplies, AG 319.1 (29 Jan 42) Phil
Rcds, All survivors interviewed agreed that these
practices continued until the end of the campaign.

was rapidly creating "a real morale problem." 33 Finally, early in March, USAFFE
authorized the issue of five cigarettes daily
to men in front-line units, and 104 cases
less than one pack a manwere shipped to
Bataan.34
This issue did not even begin to satisfy
the need for cigarettes. While inspecting
a battalion position, Brig. Gen. Hugh J.
Casey, USAFFE engineer, took out a pack
of cigarettes. He was immediately mobbed.
Every Filipino within fifty yards left his
foxhole and rushed to get one.35 Rumors
began to reach Corregidor that cigarettes
sent from there had been hijacked, that they
had been held back by rear echelons, and
that favored treatment had been accorded
higher headquarters. An investigation disclosed
... a dire lack of cigarettes among the front
line units. Soldiers will pounce on any discarded cigarette stub for a single puff. There
is in time of war no difference between the
needs of smokers as between front and rear
echelon unit, unless the need at the front is
greater. It would appear only just to make
an equal allocation between all officers and
men, at the front, in rear echelons, and at Ft.
Mills. Troops should not be in a position of
paying 2 Pesos [$1.00] on the black market
for a package of cigarettes and even then
being unable to get them when those in the
rear can secure them in plenty at ten centavos
[5 cents].36
A visitor from Corregidor who had heard
that cigarettes would bring a fantastically

33
Memo, G-4 for CofS USAFFE, 28 Feb 42,

AG 430 (25 Dec 41) Phil Rcds; memo, Asst G-4
for G-4 USAFFE, 13 Jan 42, AG 319.1 (8 Jan 42)
Phil Rcds.
34
Ltr Order, USAFFE, 3 Mar 42, sub: Issue of
Cigs, AG 435.8 (3 Mar 42) Phil Rcds; rpt, QM
Phil Dept to QM USAFFE, 2 Mar 42, sub: Class I
Supplies, AG 319.1 (29 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.
35
36
Memo, Engineer for CofS USAFFE, 8 Mar 42,
373
high price on Bataan decided to test the

validity of the rumor on his Philippine
Scout driver. He was able to get ten pesos
($5.00) for a single pack and the thanks
of the driver as well. "I gave the soldier
back his ten pesos," he wrote, "and told

him that if anyone ever wanted to charge
him more than twenty centavos a package
for cigarettes he should shoot them." 37
Altogether, it is estimated, only 400
cases, each consisting of fifty 200-cigarette
cartons, were sent from Corregidor to
Bataan between 6 January and 2 April.
In concrete terms this meant that each
front-line soldier received less than one cigarette a day.38 Deprived of the solace of
tobacco and coffee, the soldier living on 17
ounces of food a day could be very miserable indeed.
To the lack of food and tobacco must
be added the shortage of clothing, as well
as personal and organizational equipment
of every kind. General Wainwright tells
how, at the beginning of January, his ex-
hausted and unshod troops stumbled into

the thorny jungles of Bataan after their
long withdrawal from Lingayen.39 Regular Army units were comparatively well
off at the start of the campaign, but the
Philippine Army had reached Bataan with
the scantiest supplies. A large percentage
of the Filipinos had no raincoats, blankets,
or shelter halves, and there were almost
none for issue. General Stevens reported

on 13 January that his men had only wellworn denims and were badly in need of
underclothes and shoes. The 11th Division
was in a similar plight. Its need was par37
S Sgt Bernard O. Hopkins, Personal and Official Notes of Btry C, 60th CA (AA), p. 15, copy in
OCMH. The writer was probably the battery
commander, Capt. Roland G. Ames.
38
39
374
STANDING FORMATION, 10 January 1942.
tially met by a shipment of 10,000 pairs of

socks, 3,000 leggings, and 10,000 pairs of
drawers. This issue, it must be noted, was
for the entire force, not for the two divisions alone.40
As time passed, uniforms became more
ragged and threadbare, offering little protection against the cold nights and the cruel
thorns so abundant on Bataan. Unit commanders were instructed to limit their clothing requisitions "to minimum replacement
requirements" without regard to normal
army standards. Most did not secure even
this minimum. In one unit, comparatively
well clad, the uniforms were considered 90
40
Memos, Asst G-4 for G-4 USAFFE, 13 and 16

Jan 42, AG 319.1 (8 Jan 42) Phil Rcds; Luzon
Force Rpt of Opns, G-4 Annex, p. 1; memo, QM
Phil Dept for QM USAFFE, 16 Jan 42, Incl 2,
percent unserviceable. Less than 25 percent

of the enlisted men in this unit had blankets,
shelter halves, or raincoats. Fully one quarter of the command was without shoes; the
rest went about in shoes so badly worn that
under normal conditions they would have
been considered unfit for use.41 For a time
the most desperate needs were met by a
salvage unit which "renovated, repaired,
washed, and ironed" the clothing taken
from patients in hospitals.42 Such a measure
merely robbed Peter to pay Paul.
The inequities in the issue of supplies
favored the troops to the rear. "Morale on
the front is high," wrote a visitor from Corregidor, "though the supply situation is
enough to justify dissatisfaction." Many of
41

Rpts, QM Phil Dept to QM USAFFE, 10 and
18 Mar 42, AG 319 (29 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.
42
375

the men, he noted, were without underwear and shoes and most had only one uniformblue denims. The meals, too, he
noticed, became progressively worse as one
neared the front. "Supply and service
troops," he concluded, "eat better than the
line troops." 43
Late in March one last effort was made
to provide clothing, blankets, raincoats, and
shoes for the tatterdemalion soldiers on Bataan. On the 29th Beebe, now a brigadier
and Wainwright's chief of staff, asked his
G-4 whether there were any supplies on
Corregidor which could be released to units
along the front. Since the reserve of uniforms and blankets was under the control of
the Harbor Defenses commander, General
Moore, the request was passed on to him.
Four days later came the reply: no blankets
or uniforms were available, but there were
10,000 pairs of shoesoriginally sent from
Bataan for safekeepingin odd lot sizes
that could be spared. On 4 April, at the
height of the final Japanese attack, General
King was asked whether he desired this heterogeneous mass of footgear. To this inquiry
there is no recorded answer.44
While the men on the line believed that
their comrades to the rear dined more fully
and richly than they, all were convinced
that those on Corregidor ate best of all. Actually such distinctions were purely relative
and no one lived well. But there was enough
truth in these generalizations to create a
strong feeling of dissatisfaction and a serious
morale problem. General Wainwright discovered this when he moved to Corregidor.
Accustomed to the omnipresent and ominous shortages of Bataan, he found Corregidor relatively a land of plenty. The troops
there, it is true, ate two meals a day and subsisted on half rations, but it was a full half
ration and its components provided a wellbalanced diet. It included such "luxury
items" as bacon, ham, fresh vegetables, and
occasionally coffee, milk, and jamfoods
which had long since disappeared from the
Bataan diet.45
The disparity between the Corregidor
and Bataan rations was sharply raised when
the Bataan military police halted a supply
truck and confiscated its waybill. This truck
was delivering food to three antiaircraft
batteries stationed on Bataan but receiving a
Corregidor ration, to which they were entitled as organic elements of the harbor defense. What they were not entitled to was
the Bataan ration, which they were also
drawing. Such an irregularity would not
have been surprising but when the waybill
was examined it revealed a scandalous situation. The items listed in the shipment would
make any Bataan soldier envious. They included a case each of ham and bacon, 24
cans of Vienna sausage, one sack of cracked
wheat, 25 pounds of raisins, 33 pounds of
lard substitute, 24 cans each of peas, corn,
tomatoes, and peaches, 6 cans of potatoes,
24 bottles of catsup, 50 cartons of cigarettes,
and even 600 pounds of ice.
The news of this sumptuous fare, so
unlike the Bataan ration, spread rapidly to
the front-line troops, adding fuel to their
smoldering resentment. The incident was
noted by all headquarters and the matter
43
Hopkins, Btry C, 60th CA (AA), p. 13.

Memo, CofS to G-4 USFIP, G-4 USFIP to
CG Harbor Defenses, with five inds, and memo,
QM USFIP to G-4 USFIP, both dated 29 Mar 42,
in AG 431 (8 Oct 42) and AG 420 (2 Jan 42)
Phil Rcds.
44
45
Col Chester H. Elmes, QM Opns, Fort Mills,

pp. 4-5, App. F, QM Rpt of Opns; memo, CG
USAFFE for CG Harbor Defenses, 13 Mar 42, sub:
Field Rations, Incl I, AG 430.2 (3 Jan 42) Phil
Rcds.
376
quickly closed with a promise for remedial

action.46 The postscript was written by Colonel Carpenter in a personal note to General Beebe:
Bataan troops feel they are discriminated
against. There is no way of preventing this
sort of thing getting to the front line troops
and you can appreciate the effect on morale.
The clandestine manner of getting the socalled luxury items to the Harbor Defense
troops on Bataan . . . does not seem ethical.
Realize there are not sufficient luxury items
for general issue but General Wainwright was
assured troops assigned to Harbor Defense on
Bataan received approximately the same
ration components. However, such is war.47
Despite the admitted superiority of the

Corregidor ration, no one could contend
that the men on Corregidor had an adequate diet. They did not. And it is doubtful that the reduction of their ration would
have materially altered the situation. The
equal distribution of food between the 100,000 men on Bataan and the 10,000 on Corregidor could not have saved Bataan and
might have led to the weakening of the
harbor defenses.
Health
In the wake of starvation and want came
dread disease. Malaria, dengue, and the
evil consequences of avitaminosis (vitamin
deficiency)scurvy, beriberi, and amoebic
dysenterymade their appearance soon
after the troops reached Bataan. On 10
January General King's aide wrote prematurely in his diary that the effects of the
enforced diet of half rations was already
becoming evident in the condition of the
46
Memo, Provost Marshal for G-4 Service Comd,

19Mar 42, with ind and incls, AG 430.2 (11 Sep
41) Phil Rcds.
47
Ibid.
men. Two weeks later he thought he saw

signs of emaciation and nerve fatigue. The
ration, he believed, had so reduced the
stamina of the men that they were "being
incapacitated by minor sickness they [formerly] had been able to throw off without
medication." 48 Another layman described
the symptoms of malnutrition he had

noticed about the middle of February. In
the morning, he observed, men's legs "feel
watery and, at intervals, pump with pains
that swell and go away again." Rapid
movement brought an attack of vertigo and
a thumping of the heart "like a tractor
engine bogged in a swamp." For an hour
after breakfast a feeling of normality was
restored, followed by lassitude. The hour
after noon, when men doubled up with
intestinal pains, was the worst of the day.49
Unknowingly, this officer was describing
incipient beriberi resulting from the absence
of fresh meat, vegetables, and dairy productsall rich in Vitamin Bfrom the diet.
Medical men began to warn commanders of the effects of the inadequate diet at
the end of January. The caloric content
of the ration then being issued, one medical officer reported, was "well under the
requirements for the physical work demanded," and was resulting in serious loss
of weight. In one unit, composed of Americans, the men had lost 15 to 25 pounds
since the start of the campaign. The absence of fats and juices, as well as Vitamins
A, B, and C, was evident, this medical officer
declared, in "varying degrees of apathy,
depression, lack of aggressiveness and
irritability." 50
48
Tisdelle, Diary, entries of 10 and 22 Jan and
15 Mar 42.
49
Ind, Bataan, The Judgment Seat, p. 296.
50
Memo, CO Far East Air Service Comd for Med
Officer, Far East Air Service Comd, 2 Feb 42, sub:
Ration Deficiency, AG 430 (25 Dec 41) Phil Rcds.
377
The alarm of medical and combat officers became so great during the next few
weeks that Lt. Col. James O. Gillespie, the
medical officer in the Bataan echelon of
USAFFE, told his chief on Corregidor, Col.
Wibb E. Cooper, that "it appears to be the
consensus of surgeons attached to American front line troops that the diet provided
is inadequate for the maintenance of health
and combat efficiency." The lack of protein, fat, minerals, and certain vitamins, he
pointed out, was resulting in common diarrhea and dysentery. The effects of the unbalanced diet on the Filipino, accustomed
to the food and climate, were not as pronounced. Colonel Gillespie's recommendations included an increase in the allowance of beef, vegetables, and fruit, the issue
of four ounces of evaporated milk daily, and
the procurement of native fruits and vegetables. If these foods could not be secured
in adequate amounts, he urged strongly
that vitamin concentrates should be secured
for the American troops at least.51
The number of men brought down by

malnutrition and vitamin deficiency diseases increased in geometric proportion
with the passage of time and the successive
cuts in the ration. During January, the
ration had provided, in terms of energy, approximately 2,000 calories a day. The
next month the figure declined to 1,500 and
during March it was only 1,000 calories
daily. Defense of the line on Bataan, Lt. Col.
Harold W. Glattly, the Luzon force surgeon
estimated, required an expenditure of energy of at least 3,500 to 4,000 calories a day
for each man. He found the results of this
caloric deficit alarming in the extreme.
Serious muscle waste and depletion of fat
reserve were evident everywhere and beriberi in its incipient stages had become almost universal throughout the command.
Moreover, malnutrition had so weakened
the troops that they were particularly vulnerable to even the most minor ailment.
The spread of any disease, he warned,
would be of epidemic proportions. Men's
General Wainwright lent his support to

these recommendations in a separate communication to General MacArthur in which
he declared that if the campaign lasted two
to six months longer "it is certain that a
fairly high percentage of the troops will suffer from varying degrees of malnutrition. . . ." 52 By the end of February, the
effects of the food shortage were clearly
evident and well understood. Already
MacArthur was sending urgent and eloquent pleas for aid to Washington and Australia, and efforts were being made to
break through the Japanese blockade.53
physical reserves had disappeared by early

March; at the end of the month the men
were deteriorating rapidly.54
Even more serious than malnutrition and
avitaminosis was the spread of malaria.
This disease had made its appearance
shortly after the troops reached Bataan, but
was kept under control by prophylactic
doses of quinine. There was a small supply
of atabrine but it was quickly exhausted. A
malaria control program such as existed
later in the war was not possible on Bataan.
Most of the Filipino troops were never issued
mosquito nets, and those who had them left
them behind during the withdrawal for they
were of a bulky and heavy type. The area
51
Memo, Surg Bataan Ech for Surg USAFFE, 27
Feb 42, sub: Diet of American Soldiers, AG 430.2
(11 Sep 41) Phil Rcds.
52
Ltr, Wainwright to CG USAFFE, 26 Feb 42,
sub: Rations, AG 430.2 (11 Sep 41) Phil Rcds.
53
For an account of these efforts, see Chapter
XXII below.
54
Luzon Force Rpt of Opns, pp. 1-2; memo, Surg
LF to CG LF, 28 Mar 42, sub: Vitamin Deficiencies, OCMH.
378
occupied by the troops contained native villages where mosquitoes could breed freely,
and there were always large numbers of Filipino civilians behind the lines. These civilians were "a reservoir for malaria," and
nullified the effect of any limited control
program adopted by the troops.55
Malaria did not affect the efficiency of the
troops until the beginning of March, but at
the end of January most of the men were
already infested with malarial parasites.
Medical officers made gloomy predictions
for the future, when the supply of quinine
would give out. "If all troops take the prescribed 5 grams prophylactic dose," wrote
a medical officer to General R. J. Marshall
on 26 January, "the supply will be exhausted
in a month." 56 As early as the beginning of
February there were signs that the disease
would soon increase at an alarming rate.
Only the regular dosage of quinine kept the
disease in check that month, but the supply
of this drug dwindled rapidly. During the
first week of March, its use as a prophylactic
in most units was discontinued. Thereafter
the drug was administered only to those actually ill with the disease.
The consequences were frightful. The
number of daily admissions to the hospitals
for malaria alone jumped to 500 during the
first week in March.57 After an inspection of
fortifications on Bataan, General Casey reported that the incidence of malaria was as
55
Lt Col William J. Kennard, Observations on
Bataan, notes taken at conf held by Lt Col Roger
G. Prentiss, Jr., 22 Aug 42, pp. 5-6, copy in

OCMH.
56
Memo, Gillespie for Marshall, 26 Jan 42, sub:
Med Supplies, AG 440 (26 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.

57
Kennard, Observations on Bataan, p. 5; Luzon
Force Rpt of Opns, pp. 1-2. There is a good deal
of disagreement on the number of hospital admissions for malaria. The author has accepted the figures given in the report just cited.
high as 35 percent among front-line units.58

Two weeks later Colonel Cooper declared
that already there were 3,000 active cases of
malaria among the troops on Bataan and
that the disease was spreading with appalling rapidity.59 Colonel Glattly took an even
more pessimistic view of the situation. The
relapse rate, he noted, was high and since no
quinine was available for any but active
cases, the command could expect a frightful
increase in the morbidity rate.60 By the end
of the month the number of daily admissions to the hospitals was approaching the
fantastic figure of 1,000, and 75 to 80 percent of the men in front-line units had the
disease.61
Every effort was made to secure quinine
as well as vitamin concentrates and other
medical supplies from sources outside the
Philippines. Some quinine was brought to
Corregidor by plane from Australia via
Mindanao, and an effort was made to manufacture a drug from the bark of a tree native
to the Islands that was thought to have the
properties of quinine. Despite every expedient there was never a large enough supply of the drug after 1 March to permit its
use as a prophylaxis. On 23 March, when
the malarial rate was 750 cases daily, there
was only enough quinine in the medical
depot to provide inadequate treatment for
about 10,000 men. "When the present stock
is gone," Colonel Glattly warned General
King, "a mortality rate in untreated cases
58
Memo, Casey for CG USAFFE, 8 Mar 42, AG
319.1 (5 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.

59
Memo, Surg USFIP for CG USFIP, 22 Mar
42, AG 440 (26 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.

60
Memo, Surg LF for CG LF, 22 Mar 42, AG
440 (26 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.
61
Luzon Force Rpt of Opns, p. 1; memo, Funk
to Beebe, 31 Mar 42, AG 710 (24 Mar 42) Phil

Rcds; Kennard, Observations on Bataan, p. 5.
379

of 7 to 10 percent can be expected." 62 A
week later Wainwright's surgeon reported
that approximately 758,000 quinine tablets
had been received by air and that the medical depot had only 600,000 left. The inadequacy of this supply can be measured against
the 3,000,000 tablets which Colonel Cooper
estimated as the minimum necessary each
month to prevent the wholesale spread of
malaria.63
The rapid spread of the disease can be
attributed not only to the lack of quinine
but also to the area in which the troops were
stationed. The withdrawal from the Abucay-Mauban line late in January had placed
the men in a low, malaria-infested valley
between the high ground formed by Mt.
Natib on the north and the Mariveles Mountains to the south. Even under the most
favorable circumstances, it is probable that
a large part of the command would have
ultimately been debilitated by the disease
endemic in this valley.
A notable disregard for sanitary precautions, combined with the natural unhealthfulness of the battle position, added greatly
to the spread of malaria, as well as other
diseases. Lack of training in the elementals
of military hygiene was universal in the
Philippine Army. Many of the Filipinos
drank unboiled water from streams and
pools and failed to sterilize their mess gear.
Latrines were neither well constructed nor
properly used. Kitchens were dirty and garbage buried near the surface. Huge flies,
attracted by these malodorous dumps,
swarmed everywhere. "The fly menace,"
wrote a medical officer, "spread beyond
62
Memo, Surg LF for CG LF, 23 Mar 42, sub:

Present Malarial Rate, borrowed from Col Glattly,
copy in OCMH.
63
Memo, Surg USFIP for G-4 USFIP, 2 Apr
42, AG 710 (24 Mar 42) Phil Rcds.
comprehension." 64 "Sanitation," remarked

another officer, on duty with Filipino troops,
"was ghastly. Straddle trencheswhen
builtadjoined kitchens. . . . The calls of
nature were responded to when and where
heard." 65
Even in the hospitals sanitation was far
from ideal. There were no screens and the
supply of lysol was limited. The hospital
waste was emptied into latrine pits and the
stench at times was so offensive that men relieved themselves elsewhere. Despite the
desperate efforts of the nurses to keep the
hospital areas sanitary, there were, one doctor thought, "undoubtedly many cross infections." 66
Under these circumstances it is not surprising that common diarrhea and various
forms of dysentery appeared soon after the
troops fell back to fixed positions. While
never as serious as malnutrition or malaria,
the incidence of both ailments was high and
their treatment limited by the shortage of
drugs. Filipino troops, often barefoot, frequently developed hookworm also. Carbon
tetrachloride for treatment was available
only in limited quantities, the medical depot
reporting fifty-one bottles on hand at the
end of March.67
As the men on Bataan grew more gaunt
and disease-ridden it became increasingly
difficult to isolate the specific causes which
rendered men ineffective for combat. One
surgeon believed that the high malarial rate
was "covering up" the prevailing "mental
and physical exhaustion" caused by a pro64

See also memo, Surg 21st Div ( P A ) for Surg Subsector D, 3 Mar 42, OCMH.
65
66
67
Cooper, Med Dept Activities, p. 36; memo,
CO Phil Med Depot for Surg USFIP, 2 Apr 42, AG
710 (24 Mar 42) Phil Rcds.
380
tracted starvation diet.68 It was Colonel
Cooper's judgment that "the basic cause of
all the trouble was the lack of food, of
proper food." 69 At the time he wrote, 2
April, there were no vitamin concentrates
on hand in the medical depot.
Less tangible but fully as serious as any
of the diseases prevalent on Bataan was
nerve fatigue. The majority of the combat
troops had received no rest in a rear area
since the first Japanese attack on 8 December. Even reserve units behind the line had
been subjected to daily air and artillery bombardment. In the opinion of Colonel Glattly, "The fatigue resulting from constant
nervous tension definitely decreased the ability of these troops to endure heavy bombardment." 70 The physical signs of this
ailment were observed toward the end of
the campaign when many of the men proved
unable to stand the nervous strain of combat. At an earlier period stragglers had been
rallied and sent back into battle. Later in
the campaign stragglers discarded arms and
equipment and could not be returned to the
front except by force. "They were surly and
physically exhausted as well as mentally unequal to further combat duty," said one
medical officer.71
The number of men hospitalized for
psychotic disorders was remarkably small
and presented no serious problem to the
medical authorities.72 This may have been
due to the fact that there was "no possible
68
Ltr, Bill Ruth to Col Glattly, 20 Mar 42, copy

lent to author by Col Glattly, OCMH.
69
Memo, Surg USFIP for G-4 USFIP, 2 Apr 42,
AG 710 (24 Mar 42) Phil Rcds.
70
Rpt, Surg LF, 30 Jun 42, sub: Med Aspects of
the Surrender. Written in prison camp, this report
was lent to the author by Colonel Glattly and a copy
is on file in OCMH.
71
Luzon Force Rpt of Opns, p. 2.
72
Cooper, Med Dept Activities, p. 18.

retreat from reality," as the medical officer
of USAFFE believed, or to the failure to
evacuate such cases to the hospitals. Facilities for the isolation and treatment of
mental patients were limited. One ward in
General Hospital No. 2 was set aside for
these patients, but they could not be confined and seem to have been allowed to
roam the hospital area.73
With the exception of quinine, dysentery
serum, gas antitoxin, and some sulfa drugs,
the supply of medicine held out to the end
of the campaign. Large amounts of blood
plasma were used. The marines had brought
twenty-five cases from Shanghai and these
were placed in the common pool. The shortage of antitoxin led to an abnormally large
number of gas gangrene cases. Wounds
which ordinarily would have presented no
difficulty failed to respond to treatment and
became infected. If the wound did not heal
after it was opened and drained, then amputation followed.74
There were two general hospitals on
Bataan. Until the end of January one of
these, General Hospital No. 1, was located
at Limay and because of its proximity to
the front lines took all battle casualties requiring surgery. Its eight operating tables
were housed in a building 14 by 40 feet. In
a period of one month more than 1,200
battle casualties requiring major surgery
were admitted to the hospital, the larger
number being received on 16 January when
the staff performed 182 major surgical operations. Usually all the operating tables were
occupied and other patients lay on litters
close by awaiting surgery. "It was neces73
Waterous, Statement of Experiences, p. 100;

Lt Col Stephen C. Sitter, Psychiatric Reactions Observed on Corregidor and Bataan and in Japanese
Captivity, pp. 5-6, copy lent to author, OCMH.
74
Kennard, Observations on Bataan, p. 4.
381
sary," one medical officer recalled, "for the not inflict as serious a wound as the Amerinurses to walk around patients when assist- can .30-caliber rifle. It was one doctor's
ing in the operations." 75 After the with- opinion, after examining men with eight
drawal, the hospital was moved back to and ten wounds in their arms, shoulders,
Little Baguio, on the slopes of the Mariveles, and chest, that these men would have been
near the ammunition and quartermaster de- killed if similarly wounded by .30-caliber
pots. When these installations were bombed, bullets.78
Abdominal wounds were the most comthe hospital area, though clearly marked by
a large cross, was vulnerable to air attack. mon. There was no established method of
Twice toward the close of the campaign it

was hit.
General Hospital No. 2 was located about
three miles south of Cabcaben, in the bamboo thickets and jungle along the Real
River. Close by was the medical supply
depot. The thicket and jungle provided concealment from air observation and the river
a fresh-water supply which was filtered and
chlorinated, then stored in a 3,000-gallon
storage tank.76
Evacuation of the sick and wounded was
accomplished in two waysby ambulance
directly from the aid and clearing stations
and by shuttle buses. There were only a few
ambulances and these were sent out on special cases. The shuttle buses had about fifteen litters instead of seats and made regular trips along designated routes on schedule. Most of the wounded were brought in
at night to avoid the daytime traffic and
reduce the possibility of enemy air attack.
Normally it took about eight hours to get a
casualty from the battlefield to the hospital,
but in some Philippine Army units this
period was as long as thirty-six hours.77
The majority of the wounds treated in the
hospitals were from shell fragments and
small-arms fire; relatively few were from
bombs. The small caliber Japanese rifle did
75
Ibid.; Cooper, Med Dept Activities, p. 55.

Cooper, Med Dept Activities, pp. 57-61.
Kennard, Observations on Bataan, p. 3.
treatment; each surgeon used his own judgment. But there was an adequate supply of
sulfa drugs for external use and no necessity
for unusual methods. It was only when gas
gangrene set in that difficulties arose because
of the lack of antitoxin. Wounds healed
slowly because of the weakened condition of
the men, and the period of hospitalization
was normally longer than might otherwise
have been the case if there had been enough
food for a proper diet.79
The large and ever-increasing number of
sick and wounded strained all medical installations to the utmost. Fortunately, the
number of battle casualties in the period between 15 February and 3 April was small
and the beds ordinarily used by the wounded
could be given to the starved and malariaridden soldiers. The capacity of the two general hospitals, designed to accommodate
1,000 patients each, was steadily increased
until it reached a figure three times that
number.
The sick rate continued to outstrip even
this notable expansion. This fact, combined
with the shortage of gasoline, made it necessary at the beginning of March to limit
evacuation to the general hospitals to two
types of cases: first, those requiring medical or surgical treatment not available at
the clearing stations: and, second, those in
76
78
77
79
Ibid.
Waterous, Statement of Experiences, pp. 83-84.
MEDICAL CARE ON BATAAN. Filipino soldiers waiting for treatment outside

an aid station, above; interior of hospital, below.

which the period of disability was expected
to exceed twenty-one days.80 To care for all
other patients the clearing station of each
medical battalion was converted into a
hospital with 300 or more beds. Under ideal
circumstances the clearing station was
neither organized nor equipped to provide
hospitalization. On Bataan, where conditions were far from ideal and where the
Philippine Army medical units lacked much
of the standard equipment normal in such
elements, clearing stations were even less
383
surgeon, the main objective, the saving of

lives and the relief of suffering, was
achieved.81
The health of the command had a disastrous effect upon combat efficiency.
This fact was noted first early in February
and Wainwright had expressed his concern
to MacArthur on the 26th of the month.
The next month the situation grew more
alarming. "The doctors say," wrote King's
aide on 14 March, "that our combat efficiency is a little below 45 percent." 82 When
qualified to handle patients.
Col. Harry A. Skerry inspected I Corps
As the volume of patients increased,

downward echelonment of hospitalization
continued. Soon the collecting companies,
designed to provide only emergency treatment to casualties, were converted into hospitals with 100 to 150 beds. Even with the
addition of these units, hospital facilities
had become so inadequate by the end of
March that patients with minor ailments
were treated in battalion and regimental
aid stations. All medical installations on
Bataan were bursting with patients and still
positions with General Casey early in

March he found that in the sector held
by a battalion of the 71st infantry the
commander was so sick with dengue
fever he could hardly accompany them.
Of the 426 men in the battalion 126 were
"clear off their feet." "From the standpoint of trained, well-fed troops . . .,"
wrote Skerry, "it was an utter nightmare." 83 In another unit, the 21st Division in II Corps, the men were so weak that
many "were just able to fire a rifle out of
they were not able to care for all the sick
the trench, and no more."84
and wounded. The two general hospitals

had about 7,000 patients; another 4,000
were being treated in a provisional hospital
established by I Corps. Undetermined numbers were ill in division clearing and collecting companies. The 91st Clearing Company, 4,000 yards behind the front lines,
had 900 beds; the 11th was handling 600
patients. And the number was growing
daily. Everyone recognized that the hospitalization provided was "in direct conflict
These conditions were not confined to

Philippine Army units; Americans and
Philippine Scouts were equally debilitated
by malnutrition and malaria. At a medical
inspection of the 45th Infantry (PS), almost 20 percent of the command showed
the physical effects of vitamin deficiency
diseases, and over 50 percent complained
of the symptoms of these diseases. Nutritional edema (swellings) and night blindness were the commonest symptoms. "Men
with the recognized principles of division
were becoming so weak from starvation,"
medical service" and "a violation of all

standard medical tactics," but, wrote the
80
Memo, Surg Subsector D for Surgs 21st Div
(PA) and 41st Div (PA), 6 Mar 42, copy in
OCMH; Cooper, Med Dept Activities, p. 32.
81
Cooper, Med Dept Activities, pp. 32-33. See
also Luzon Force Rpt of Opns, Annex II, p. 1.
82
Tisdelle, Diary, entry of 14 Mar 42.
83
84
384
wrote the regimental surgeon, "that they
could hardly carry the packs and in our last
move I saw more Scouts fall out of the line
of march than I had ever seen fall out any
march before."85
The 31st Infantry, composed entirely of
Americans, was as badly off as most other
units. Though it had been in the front
lines for only short periods during the campaign, and from 8 February to 3 April had

Estimates of combat efficiency by division
and corps commanders on Bataan bore out
fully the tragic picture painted by junior officers. By the middle of March General Parker, II Corps commander, placed the combat efficiency of the troops in his corps at
only 20 percent, adding that it was becoming less with the passing of each day. He
attributed the deterioration of his men to the
starvation diet of 1,000 calories daily, the
been in a rest area to the rear, the regiment
rapid spread of malaria, the high incidence
was hardly more effective than Philippine

Army units which had been in the line since
8 December. The constant preoccupation
of the American infantryman was food.
"We were existing," wrote one of the officers, "on the little we received from quar-
of dysentery, diarrhea, and beriberi, nerve

fatigue, and the shortage of clothing and
equipment.89 The situation in I Corps was
no better. Fully 75 percent of the men,
wrote Wainwright, were unfit for action by
12 March, the date he relinquished command to General Jones. The reasons he gave
were similar to those presented by Parker,
with the addition of hookworm and the lack
of shelter halves, blankets, and raincoats.90
termaster and what edible plants, roots,

snails, snakes, wild chickens, bananas, wild
pigs and anything else that we could find
to eat."86 Disease was taking a heavy toll
and approximately 50 percent of the regiment was sick with malaria or dysentery.
By 3 April "what had once been an effective fighting unit was only a pitiful remains."87 When the 31st Infantry, in
Luzon Force reserve, was ordered into the
line on 4 April, it was necessary to leave
behind for evacuation to the hospital more
than one third of the men. Some left sick
beds to join their outfits. The efficiency of
those who moved out was estimated at less
than 50 percent. Along the line of march,
many dropped out. "Hunger and disease,"
wrote the service company commander,
"were greater enemies than the Japanese
soldiers."88
85
Rpt of 45th Inf (PS) Med Det in Cooper, Med

Dept Activities, p. 44.
86
Conrad, Opns of 31st Inf (US), p. 20.
87
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 21; Bess, Opns of Service Co, 31st Inf
(US), 5 Jan 42-9 Apr 42, p. 40; Mead, Opns of
31st Inf (US), pp. 24-25.
88
Morale
The ability of the men on Bataan to fight
could not be measured by physical standards
alone. Where all men bore the signs of enforced privation and suffering, there was no
question of separating the fit from the unfit.
Only necessity and the will to fight could
give meaning to the tactical dispositions
assumed by the troops.
The Japanese knew this and made crude
attempts to corrupt the spirit of resistance.
Flying low over Bataan, their aircraft often
dropped propaganda leaflets instead of
bombs on the Americans and Filipinos below. These leaflets appealed to the basest
emotions: race prejudice, jealousy, hate,
89
SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 48, Annex
V, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns.
90
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 28, Annex
IV, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns.

avarice, and deceit. Some were designed to
induce the desertion of the Filipinos; others
pointed out that the pay of the Philippine
Army troops would be worthless in the
future. "Take my word you are exposing
your life in danger without any remuneration," declared one handbill. "There is
nothing so pointless." 91 The life of the Filipino under the Japanese occupation was
painted in glowing colors. "I am enjoying
life as a Filipino of the New Philippines,"
said a former Philippine soldier in one of
the leaflets. "Throw away your arms and
surrender yourself to the Japanese Army,"
proclaimed another handbill, "in order to
save your lives and enrich your beautiful
future and the welfare of your children." 92
MacArthur's departure was also exploited by the Japanese in their effort to
create dissatisfaction. Some leaflets exploited the theme of starvation, and one
pictured Corregidor entirely surrounded by
heaping plates of turkey, meat, fruit, cake,
and bottles of whiskey and wine. Other
illustrated leaflets dwelt on the theme of sex
and crudely pictured the soldier's wife in the
arms of a war profiteer.
So far as is known the effect of these
propaganda sheets was negligible. Some
men made a hobby of collecting them, and
exchanged duplicates to fill out their collections. "Majors Poole, Crane, and Holmes
got me some," exulted Col. Ray M. O'Day,
"including the red and white ribbon streamers attached to the beer cans and addressed
to General Wainwright." 93 This acquisition was particularly prized for it contained
a demand for Wainwright's surrender.
91
Rad, MacArthur to AGWAR, No. 387, 3 Feb
42, WPD Ready Ref File, Phil.

92
Copies of these and other Japanese propaganda
leaflets are on file in Mil Intel Library.
93
385
Japanese radio propaganda was more

effective than the leaflets. The Japanesecontrolled Station KZRH in Manila broadcast a special program for American soldiers
every night at 2145. The program was much
like that presented by Tokyo Rose, to whom
so many American soldiers listened at a
later period of the war. The theme song of
the program was "Ships That Never Come
In," followed by popular recordings calculated to make the men homesick. "The
damned Nips," wrote Major Tisdelle,
"have got a new propaganda program that
does not help our morale any. The men
joke happily, but underneath they are
disquieted."94
The Americans had their own radio station on Corregidor, "The Voice of Freedom," which broadcast three times a day.
Records, evidently collected at Corregidor,
were played during these programs, which
also consisted of news commentaries and
items of local interest. At least one officer
had a low opinion of the program, describing its offerings as propaganda "so thick
that it served no purpose except to disgust
us and incite mistrust of all hopes." 95 Station KGEI in San Francisco also broadcast
a "Freedom for the Philippines" program
each night to which most of the men
listened. The reaction to these programs
was mixed.
During the early part of the campaign,
most officers are agreed, morale was high
despite the shortages of food and equipment. The victories of early February raised
the spirit of the troops and confirmed them
in the belief that they could hold out until
reinforcements arrived. Aid had been promised time and again, and officers and men
alike placed all their hopes for the future
94
95
Tisdelle, Diary, entry of 16 Feb 42.

JAPANESE PROPAGANDA LEAFLETS
387

on the fulfillment of this pledge. Without it
there was nothing left but defeat and
disaster.
While much of the faith in the timely arrival of reinforcements was based only on
the desperate desire to believe it to be so,
there was at least one tangible assurance to
which men could point. On 15 January, a
week after the troops had reached Bataan,
General MacArthur had addressed a message to the entire command. Every unit
commander was made personally responsible for reading and explaining the message,
and all headquarters were directed to be
sure that these instructions were carried out.
MacArthur's message to the troops was a
promise of aid and a call to valor. "Help is
on the way from the United States," he had
said. "Thousands of troops and hundreds of
planes are being dispatched. The exact time
of arrival of reinforcements is unknown as
they will have to fight their way through.
. . ." Declaring that no further retreat
was possible, he asserted that "our supplies
are ample" and that it was imperative to
hold until aid arrived.96 Though the message carefully stated that the date of arrival
was not known, the hungry men, grasping
eagerly at every straw, assumed that it
would come soon. A soldier-poet expressed
the mood of the men when he wrote:
. . . MacArthur's promise in every mind.
"The time is secret but I can say
That swift relief ships are on the way
Thousands of men and hundreds of planes
Back in Manila before the rains!
With decorations and honors, too."
MacArthur said it, it must be true.97
96
Ltr Order, USAFFE to All Unit Comdrs, 15
Jan 42, sub: Msg from Gen MacArthur, copy in
OCMH.
97
Lee, "Abucay Withdrawal," Nothing But Praise,
p. 22.
Disillusionment came hard. The weeks

went by, January gave way to February,
and still no large reinforcements had come.
Many men began to doubt that aid would
arrive at all. Only a few men had definite
knowledge of what was on the way and
they confided in no one. When Colonel
Mallone jokingly asked Colonel Brezina
about the relief expedition, Brezina's "eyes
went poker-blank" and "his teeth bit his
lips into a grim thin line." 98 Most regular
officers had made their own estimate of the
situation and had reached the conclusion
that time was against them. They could
see their men growing weaker every day,
the hospitals fuller, and the supplies smaller.
But they continued to hope for the relief
expedition, the TNT (Terrible 'N' Terrific) force, which would arrive in storybook fashion before the end.
These hopes received a rude blow on
Washington's Birthday, 22 February, in
President Roosevelt's fireside chat on the
progress of the war. Inviting his listeners
to look at their maps, the President emphasized the global nature of the struggle, the
vast distances to be spanned, the large areas
to be held, and the desperate situation of
the United Nations. As he spoke of the
tremendous tasks facing the American people and the sacrifices that must be made, it
became clear to his listeners on Bataan that
he was placing the Philippines in their
proper perspective "in the big picture of
the war." 99 No prospect of the arrival of
relief could be found in the President's message. One officer wrote in his diary that
though "the President means to cheer us
up," his talk "tends to weaken morale."
"We are not interested in what the production will be in 1943-44 and 1945," he said.
98
99
Ibid., 69.
388
"VOICE OF FREEDOM" broadcasts to the men on Bataan.
"All we want are two things, but we need

them right now." 100 Others took a more
pessimistic view. "Plain for all to see,"
wrote Colonel Mallone, "was the handwriting on the wall, at the end of which the
President had placed a large and emphatic
period. The President hadwith regret
wiped us off the page and closed the
book." 101
Despite the explanations of the "Voice
of Freedom," MacArthur's departure for
Australia on 12 March struck another blow
at morale. A large part of the faith in the
timely arrival of reinforcements had been
based on the presence of General MacAr100
101
Mallone, Bataan Diary, II, 69. See also Samuel I. Rosenman, compiler, The Public Papers and
Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Humanity on
the Defensive, 1942 (New York, 1950), pp. 105-16.
thur. His prestige among the Filipinos can

hardly be exaggerated. Among American
officers, to many of whom he was already a
legend, his reputation placed him on a lofty
eminence with the great captains of history.
Mallone undoubtedly expressed the feelings of many when he affirmed his belief
that MacArthur "would reach down and
pull the rabbit out of the hat." 102 With
MacArthur gone, those who refused to give
up hope argued that if anybody could bring
supplies to the Philippines it was MacArthur. His presence in Australia, they declared, was the best guarantee that help
was coming. As proof they could repeat
the assertions broadcast so often over the
"Voice of Freedom," or cite MacArthur's
102
Manonee, Bataan Diary, II, 67. See also
Alexander, Personal Recollections of Bataan, p. 104
389
The Filipino could expect ultimately to be

returned to his home. For the American
there was no such bright prospect. Death
or capture was his certain fate. Strangely
enough, he did not become despondent or
pledged.103
There were others, however, including bitter. He knew the worst now and there
the old-timers of World War I, who rea- was little he could do other than to make
soned that the best place from which to the enemy pay dearly for victory. Meandirect the organization of the relief expedi- while he made the best of his bad fortune,
tion was Corregidor. MacArthur's depar- joked grimly about his fate, and hid his
ture, they asserted, was proof that the prom- feelings under a cloak of irony.105 It was
ised reinforcements would never arrive.104 in this vein that Lt. Henry G. Lee of the
When, by the end of March, no rabbits Philippine Division wrote the poem,
had been pulled out of the hat, most Amer- "Fighting On."
icans realized that the end was near. There I see no gleam of victory alluring
was nothing left but to wait for the inevi- No chance of splendid booty or of gain
table defeat and prison camp, or death. If I endureI must go on enduring
first public statement on reaching Australia.

At that time he had said that the relief of
the Philippines was his primary purpose. "I
came through and I shall return," he had
103
New York Times, March 21, 1942,

This paragraph and those immediately preceding are based on a large number of interviews and
informal conversations with survivors of the campaign. For a printed reaction to MacArthur's departure, see Miller, Bataan Uncensored, pp. 191-92.
104
And my reward for bearing painis pain

Yet, though the thrill, the zest, the hope are
gone
Something within me keeps me fighting on.106
105
106
Mallone, Bataan Diary, II, 69-70.

Lee, Nothing But Praise, p. 33.
CHAPTER XXII
"Help is on the Way"

Since early January strenuous attempts
had been made to get food and medical supplies to the men on Bataan and Corregidor.
General MacArthur, and later General
Wainwright, urged constantly and persistently, in the strongest terms, that the Japanese blockade must be broken, that greater
efforts must be made and more drastic measures taken to relieve the Philippine garrison.
These requests were received in Washington with the greatest sympathy. Despite the
fact that Allied strategy called for the defeat
of Germany first, the bulk of the troops and
supplies sent overseas during the early part
of 1942 went to the Pacific. A blockaderunning program was organized, first in
Australia and the Netherlands Indies, and
then in the United States. Surface vessels,
combat aircraft, and even submarines were
dispatched to the Philippines in the hope
that some would get through with supplies
for the weary and hungry men. No expense
was too high, no effort too great to relieve
the embattled garrison.
The total result of these activities was
negligible. The Japanese hold on the Southwest Pacific and southeast Asia was too firm,
their victories too rapid to allow the poorly
prepared Allies time to organize the resources necessary to come to the aid of the
Philippine garrison. The story of the attempt
to break through the Japanese blockade, like
the entire story of the campaign in the
Philippines, is one of heroic efforts and final
failure.
Running the Blockade

On 4 January, unaware that the War
Plans Division of the General Staff had concluded only a day earlier that relief of the
Philippines would require so large a force as
to constitute "an entirely unjustified diversion," General MacArthur had suggested to
the Chief of Staff that a plan for blockaderunning be developed and put into effect
immediately. "Some relief," he had added,
"might be obtained on use of submarine
transportation." 1 The suggestion to initiate
blockade-running was not acted upon immediately, but the funds to organize such a
program had already been allotted to two
officers on their way to Australia.2
The proposal to send supplies by submarine did not secure such ready acceptance.
Admiral Hart, when asked to send antiaircraft ammunition to MacArthur by submarine, replied that no underwater craft
were available for such a mission.3 MacAr1
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 9, 4 Jan 42,
AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 1) Far East. See Chapter
XIV above for a discussion of the WPD study of
3 January.
2
Ltr, Moore, DCofS to Brett, 19 Dec 41, G-4
33861. The two officers were Col. Stephen J.
Chamberlin and Lt. Col. Lester J. Whitlock, later
MacArthur's G-3 and G-4.
3
MacArthur's radio had been forwarded to the

commander in Australia with instructions from
Marshall to consider all means of getting supplies
through to the Philippines. Rad, Marshall to Brett,
No. 671, 5 Jan 42, WPD Ready Ref File, Phil.
Admiral Ernest J. King also instructed Hart to
assist in this effort, Rad, COMINCH to CINCAF,
391
"HELP IS ON THE WAY"
ence a "revulsion of feeling" if something

was not done to send help quickly and that
"hungry men are hard to handle," he asked
was a defeatist one. "He accepts complete that simultaneous efforts to send food be
blockade which probably does not exist made from the United States and the Nethwithout effort to penetrate," he declared, erlands Indies. "I am professionally cerand cited the case of two destroyers and a tain," he declared, "that his [the enemy's]
cargo vessel which had successfully made so-called blockade can easily be pierced.
their way south from Manila Bay during the The only thing that can make it really eflast ten days. "I urge," he wrote Marshall, fective is our passive acceptance of it as a
"steps be taken to obtain a more aggressive fact."
and resourceful handling of naval forces in
Actually, every effort was being made in
this area." 4
Washington to send aid to the beleaguered
Concrete plans to run supplies into the garrison. But these efforts were not enough,
Philippines through the Japanese blockade nor were they being pushed, General Marbegan to take shape about the middle of shall believed, with the vigor and singleJanuary. The impetus was provided by mindedness required to break the blockade.
MacArthur, who, on the 17th, after his The command in Australia had no organifailure to secure any strong support from zation capable of quickly executing such a
Australia or the Netherlands Indies, re- mission and no such sense of urgency as
counted his difficulties in a long message to impelled MacArthur to insist that "the disthe Chief of Staff.5 He reminded General astrous results" of the failure to provide aid
Marshall that his men had been on half "will be monumental." 6
rations for some time and that "the food
General Marshall himself undertook to
situation here is becoming serious." Meas- impart this sense of urgency to his suborured in ship capacity his needs were not dinates. To the commander in Australia he
large and could easily be met by small or wrote that the situation in the Philippines
medium-sized vessels, which he recom- was most serious and that "comprehensive
mended be dispatched to the Philippines efforts" to run the blockade must be organalong various routes. It seemed "incredible" ized. His directions were concise and clear
to him that such an attempt had never been
Use your funds without stint. Call for more
made. He had no doubt that if it were, "un- if required. Colonel Chamberlin has a credit
questionably" the ships would get through. of ten million dollars of Chief of Staff's fund
Warning that the Filipinos would experi- which can be spent in whatever manner latter
thur's message to the Chief of Staff on this
subject was a strong one. Hart's attitude, he
declared for the second time in a month,
5 Jan 42, WPD Msg File. At the time all submarines but one, "which was lost about then," were
to the north on other missions. Ltr, Hart to Ward,
19 Dec 51, OCMH,
4
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 26, 9 Jan 42,
WPD Ready Ref File, Phil. Admiral Hart points
out that he never accepted "complete blockade"
with regard to submarines. Ltr, Hart to Ward, 19
Dec 51, OCMH.
5
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall No. 72, 17 Jan 42,
AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 1) Far East.
deems advisable. I direct its use for this purpose. Arrange for advance payments, partial
payments for unsuccessful efforts, and large
bonus for actual delivery. Your judgement

must get results. Organize groups of bold and
resourceful men, dispatch them with funds by
planes to islands in possession of our associates, there to buy food and charter vessels
for service. Rewards for actual delivery
6
Ibid.
392
the headquarters in Australia prepared an

ambitious schedule for the shipment to the
Indies, and then the transshipment from
there, of 3,000,000 rationsa sixty-day
supply for 50,000 menand a large quantity of ammunition.10 Col. John A. Robenson, with six assistants and large funds, was
sent from Darwin to Java with instructions
to comb the Indies for food and small ships.
These plans apparently were not enough
Similar instructions were sent to General
for General Marshall and he told General
Brett, General Wavell's deputy in the reBrereton, then commanding in Australia, so
cently established ABDA Command. "The
in plain terms. Time did not permit the shipresults of even partial success in this effort,"
ment of food to the Indies for transshipment,
Marshall told him, "would be incalculable,
the Chief of Staff declared. Local resources
and it is my purpose to spare no effort or
in every port should be exploited by purexpense to achieve results." 8 That same
chase, and agents with hard cash should be
day in Washington, Marshall selected Genflown to every Dutch and British island in
eral Hurley, former Secretary of War, to
the area to collect food and ships. "Urgency
lend his "energetic support" to the scheme
of my instructions not fully appreciated,"
of blockade-running, and made available to
Marshall told Brereton, and closed with the
MacArthur one million dollars, to be used
injunction that "action and results are
as rewards to ship masters in the Islands.
imperative."11
Less than twenty-four hours after receivThe difficulties which faced the men reing MacArthur's message urging that the
sponsible for procuring supplies, ships, and
blockade be pierced, Marshall was able to
crews were formidable. There were few vesinform the USAFFE commander that two
officers from Washington with "practically sels in Australia fast enough to run the blockunlimited funds" and with instructions to ade and large enough to carry sufficient
organize blockade-running "on a broad cargo and fuel to make the round trip profitfront" had already reached Australia; that able. The assignment of a ship to such a mishe had one million dollars at his disposal sion was regarded by most as tantamount
to reward those who broke through the to its permanent loss. Finally, if a ship was
chartered, it was exceedingly difficult to find
blockade; and that Hurley was leaving for
the crew willing to embark on so perilous a
9
Australia the next day.
Under the impetus of Marshall's urgent voyage, no matter how high the reward. Alinstructions for a comprehensive program together, about ten old coastal vessels of
Philippine and Chinese registry were proand the use of "bold and resourceful men,"
cured in Australia. In an effort to protect
7
Rad, Marshall to CG USAFIA, 17 Jan 42, AG these vessels from hostile attack, they were
Bataan or Corregidor must be fixed at level
to insure utmost energy and daring on part
of masters. At same time dispatch blockade
runners from Australia with standard rations
and small amounts of ammunition on each.
Movement must be made on broad front
over many routes. . . . Only indomitable
determination and pertinacity will succeed
and success must be ours. Risks will be great.
Rewards must be proportional. Report
initiation of plan.7
381 (11-27-41 Sec 1) Far East.

8
Rad, Marshall to Brett, 17 Jan 42, WPD
4560-9.
9
Rads, Marshall to MacArthur, No. 949, 17
Jan 42, OGS 18136-196; Marshall to Brett, 19 Jan
42, AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 1) Far East.
10
Maj Gen Julian F. Barnes, Rpt of Orgn of
USAFIA, 7 Dec 41-30 Jun 42, AG Opns Rpt F-17.
11
Rads, Brereton to TAG, and Marshall to Brereton, 19 Jan 42, both in AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 1)
Far East.
393
Within two weeks the number of ships en

route or scheduled to sail for the Philippines
had grown to five. The Don Isidro, Maj.
Gen. Julian F. Barnes reported from Australia, had already departed with 700 tons
of rations. The Coast Farmer, an Army
freighter with a speed of 10 knots, was loading at Brisbane and would sail immediately.
The Dona Nati, with a capacity of over
6,000 tons, was also loading in Australia and
was scheduled to depart within the week.
Finally, the Anhui, a vessel of Chinese registry with a capacity of 2,500 tons, had been
chartered and was then loading. It would
follow the Dona Nati. The Mormacsun,
Barnes told Marshall, was already loaded
with 6,000 tons of balanced rations and ammunition, but was being held in port pending the completion of arrangements to
charter two smaller vessels to carry its cargo
northward from the Indies.15
General MacArthur was kept fully informed of the plans to break the Japanese
blockade, but still felt that stronger measures were required. On 4 February, in a
message to General Marshall, he called for
a more aggressive strategy in the Far East
and expressed the hope that his views
would be presented "to the highest authority." 16 The message opened with the
startling statement that Allied strategy,
aimed at building up forces before the Japanese advance, was "a fatal mistake on the
part of the Democratic Allies." He urged
that the Japanese line of communications,
"stretched over 2,000 miles of sea," be atvessels.
tacked instead. To counter the argument
12
Ltr, CG USAFIA to CO Base 3, 20 Jan 42,
that naval forces for such attacks were not
Material on USAFIA Hist in AG Opns Rpt; ltr, available, he pointed out that a great naval
CofS USAFIA to CO Base 1, 21 Jan 42, sub: Phil-
provided with guns, dummy stacks, neutral

or Axis flags, and "all imaginable types of
deceit." 12
Colonel Robenson's difficulties in Java
were fully as great as those encountered in
Australia. Imbued with the importance of
his mission, he was quickly disillusioned
when he found that the British and the
Dutch would not release ships for the hazardous run to the Philippines. Robenson had
more success in securing rations and ammunition, but at the end of January still had
no vessel on which to load the cargo.13
Despite these difficulties surprising progress was made in the plan to run the blockade. By 22 January, three days after his
rebuke from Washington, Brereton reported
to the Chief of Staff that the Don Isidro, a
small Philippine freighter, had been chartered and was then being loaded with rations
and ammunition at Brisbane. It would sail
directly for Corregidor. The Mormacsun,
with a larger capacity, was also loading at
Brisbane. Since this vessel was under orders
from Washington not to go farther north
than the Netherlands Indies, it would sail
to a Dutch port and there transfer its cargo
to smaller vessels for the last leg of the journey. Additional rations and ammunition,
Brereton told Marshall, were being assembled in Australia for shipment to the Indies.
There they would be placed aboard small
blockade-runners and sent to the Philippines.14 He neglected to mention that he had
had no success as yet in securing these small
ippine Relief, AG, Effort to Supply Phil.

13
Barnes, Rpt of Orgn of USAFIA, AG Opns
Rpt F-17.
14
Rad, Brereton to Marshall, No. 88, 22 Jan 42,
AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 1) Far East
15
Rad, Barnes to TAG, No. 154, 2 Feb 42, AG
381 (11-27-41 Sec 2A) Far East.
16
42, WDCSA 381 (2-17-42) Phil.
394
victory was not necessary; "the threat alone
would go far toward the desired end." He
predicted that the plan to build a base and
acquire supremacy in the Southwest Pacific
would fail and that the war would be indefinitely prolonged. The only way to defeat
the enemy was to seek combat with him.
"Counsels of timidity," he warned, "based
upon theories of safety first will not win
against such an aggressive and audacious
adversary as Japan."
This was bold counsel indeed and was
carefully considered in Washington from
where the effort to send MacArthur the
supplies he needed was being pushed with
vigor and determination. General Marshall replied that he welcomed and appreciated MacArthur's views and "invariably"
submitted them to the President.17
Summarizing the considerations which
had determined Allied strategy, Marshall
went on to explain that everyone recognized
the advantages of an attack against Japan's
line of communications. Two grim disasters
had prevented the adoption of such a course.
First, the Japanese had achieved flank security at the start of the war by seizing
Wake and Guam and additional protection by their control of the Marshall and
Gilbert Islands. At all these places they
had strong air protection. Secondly, by
their initial attack on Pearl Harbor, the
Japanese had virtually eliminated the Battle Force of the Pacific Fleet. Much of the
remaining naval strength of the Pacific
Fleet was required to keep open the Allied
line of communications to Australia and to
assist in the establishment of bases in the
South Pacific.
17
WDCSA 381 (2-17-42) Phil.

But rather than do nothing at all, the
Allies had decided to oppose Japanese
expansion along the Malay Barrier simply
because that was the only area in which
they possessed the necessary bases from
which to launch an attack. "The basis
of all current effort," the Chief of Staff
went on, "is to accumulate through every
possible means sufficient strength to initiate operations along the lines you suggest. ... In the meanwhile we are endeavoring to limit the hostile advance so
as to deny him free access to land and sea
areas that will immeasurably strengthen his
war making powers or which will be valuable to us as jump off positions when we
can start a general offensive."
Not only was MacArthur's efforts to secure a reorientation of Allied strategy in the
Far East unsuccessful, but his doubts about
the value of the help from Australia soon
proved to be well founded. In spite of elaborate preparations and the expenditure of
large funds, only three of the vessels which
set out for the Philippines were successful in
piercing the blockade. The Don Isidro and
Coast Farmer left Australia on the same
day, 4 February. The first went from Fremantle to Java to take on ammunition.
There she was joined by the Florence D., a
Philippine freighter under U.S. naval control. To get the ship Colonel Robenson had
had to offer the Filipino crew handsome
bonuses ranging from more than $10,000
for the master to lesser amounts for other
ranks, and life insurance in values of $500
to $5,000. On 14 February the Don Isidro
and Florence D. set sail. Both vessels sailed
eastward through the Timor Sea to Bathurst
Island, then north. Five days after the start
of the voyage they were discovered by Japanese planes and bombed. The first was left

a disabled hulk and had to be beached; the
Florence D. was sunk.18
The voyage of the Coast Farmer was
more successful. She finally put in at a Mindanao port fifteen days after leaving Brisbane. The Dona Nati and the Anhui also
made the trip successfully, arriving at Cebu
in mid-March. These were the only vessels
to reach the Philippines; they brought in
more than 10,000 tons of rations, 4,000,000
rounds of small-arms ammunition, 8,000
rounds of 81-mm ammunition, and miscellaneous medical, signal, and engineer supplies.19 The two Chinese ships of British
registry chartered to carry the Mormacsun
cargo left Fremantle in February, but the
crews mutinied when dangerous waters
were reached and brought the two vessels
back to Darwin where they were unloaded.
On 14 February the Dutch released four old
freighters to Colonel Robenson for use on
the Philippine run. By offering large bonuses
and other financial inducements, he persuaded the Chinese crew of one of these vessels to make the voyage. It finally left on 26
February with a cargo of 720,000 rations,
but was never heard from again. The others
never left port.20
The unloading of the three ships that successfully completed the voyage to southern
Philippine ports left their cargoes far from
the battlefield. From Mindanao and Cebu
the supplies still had to be transported northward through the inland seas to Manila Bay.
For this leg of the journey fast interisland
18
Barnes, Rpt of Orgn of USAFIA, AG Opns
Rpt F-17; rad, TAG to CG USAFFE, 15 Feb 42,
WPD 4560-21.
19
Development of the U.S. Supply Base in Australia, a monograph prepared in 1949 by Maj.
Richard M. Leighton and Mrs. Elizabeth Bingham,
Control Div, ASF, copy in OCMH.
20
Ibid.; rad, Brett to TAG, No. 1058, 25 Mar 42,
WPD Msg File.
395
motor ships were used. The need for such
a transport system had been recognized early
in the campaign and General Sharp, commander of the Visayan-Mindanao Force,
had requisitioned the best of the small boats.
Altogether, about twenty-five boats, ranging in capacity from 300 to 1,000 tons, were
chartered.21
The plan for running the blockade
through the inland seas provided for the
transfer of the cargo brought in from Australia and the Netherlands Indies to the
smaller interisland craft. This would be
done at night, at places rarely visited by the
Japanese air and surface patrols. The small
boats would then move northward in easy
stages, traveling during the hours of darkness only. American officers would be placed
aboard each vessel with orders to make certain that a real effort was made to run the
blockade and to scuttle the ship rather than
let it fall into enemy hands.22
The plan called also for the transportation to Corregidor of such food as could be
procured locallyrice, sugar, fruits, coffee,
and meat. In Manila Bay, for example, two
400-ton motor ships picked up the food collected by agents in southern Luzon and ran
it across the bay to Corregidor. These two
vessels were able to make several round
trips, raising the total quantity of rice stocks
by 1,600 tons.23 But the bulk of the ships
and supplies came from Cebu where the
Army Transport Service and the Cebu Advance Depot were located. Originally estab21
V-MF Rpt of Opns, pp. 23, 35; QM Rpt of
Opns, p. 39.
22
V-MF Rpt of Opns, p. 36. The boats were first
under the control of Sharp's headquarters, but on 8
February were placed under a branch of the Army
Transport Service established in Cebu. Rad,
USAFFE to Sharp, 8 Feb 42, Sharp Papers,
OCMH.
23
396
and Anhui were loaded for transshipment at

Cebu, but the ships failed to break through
the tightening Japanese blockade. Ten of
the interisland steamers were sunk by the
enemy or scuttled by their crews to avoid
capture, resulting in the loss of 7,000 tons
of food, petroleum, and other miscellaneous
supplies.25
In terms of supplies delivered to the
battlefield, the blockade-running program
from Australia and the Netherland Indies
was a dismal failure. Of the 10,000 tons of
rations which reached Mindanao and Cebu
only about 1,000 tonsa four-day supply
for the 100,000 soldiers and civilians on
Bataanreached Manila Bay. Even more
distressing was the condition of the food
when it finally reached the men. The confully in the south ever reached Manila Bay. tainers in which the food was packed had
The total could not have been more than a broken open and the holds of the ships
few thousand tons. The Legaspi, with a ca- contained a miscellaneous pile of canned
pacity of 1,000 tons, was the first of the in- goods. All of it had to be sorted and reterisland steamers to make the journey packed before it could be issued to the
safely. On 22 January she brought a cargo troops. Practically all the paper labels on
of rice and other food from Panay to Cor- the cans were destroyed so that they could
regidor, and in February completed another not be identified without opening them.
trip. On 1 March, while she was on her Flour and sugar sacks had broken open and
third trip, she was sunk by a Japanese gun- the contents were spread loosely among the
boat off the north coast of Mindoro and her cans. Shovels had to be used to get these
crew captured.
precious commodities back into new sacks.
Late in February the Princessa made the Onions and potatoes, piled on the decks
run from Cebu to Corregidor with a cargo during the voyage through tropical waters,
of 700 tons of food. At Mindanao the 2,500 were rotted and had to be destroyed almost
tons of rations and 2,000 rounds of 81-mm. before the eyes of the starving men. These
ammunition from the Coast Farmer were "heart-breaking" conditions resulted in detransferred to the Elcano and Lepus. The lays in unloading and, what was much
first got through to Manila Bay, but the worse, considerable loss of food to the
Lepus was captured off Palawan on 28 weakened and hungry garrison.26
February. The cargoes of the Dona Nati
lished to issue supplies received from Luzon,

the Cebu depot became the central collection point for supplies to be shipped to Bataan and Corregidor. Procurement offices
were set up in the Visayas and in Mindanao
and vast quantities of material were gathered. To these were added the food and
equipment from Australia. By 10 April,
when the Japanese occupied Cebu City, the
depot had on hand a twelve-month food
supply for the troops on Cebu and Panay
and at least a six-month supply for the men
on the other islands. In the hills and in scattered warehouses were another 12,000 tons
of food, medicine, gasoline, and other supplies.24
Only a very small portion of the supplies
gathered so painfully and hoarded so care-
25
24
Col John D. Cook, Cebu Depot QM Opns, pp.

1-5, App. A, QM Rpt of Opns; Col Melville S.
Creusere, QM Supply, V-MF, V-MF Rpt of Opns,
pp. 526-32.
V-MF Rpt of Opns, p. 49; QM Rpt of Opns,

pp. 59-60; Cook, Cebu Depot QM Opns, App. A,
QM Rpt of Opns; Drake, Comments on Draft MS,
Comment 14, OCMH.
26
397
The Japanese invasion of the Netherlands Indies and the Allied naval defeats
in the waters of the Dutch archipelago in
late February and early March released
Japanese naval and air forces for patrol of
the seas just north of Australia. With that
continent now under direct attack and in
danger of invasion all plans to run the
blockade from Australia came to an end.
Ships and cargoes were desperately needed
in Australia itself to meet the threat of
hostile landings. This possibility had been
foreseen earlier, and General Hurley, when
he reached Java on 17 February, had told
the Chief of Staff that the sea routes north
of Australia were becoming increasingly
hazardous. On his return to Melbourne a
few days later he again made this point in
a message to Marshall and referred to the
"almost insuperable difficulties" in getting
supplies to MacArthur.27
Oh 2 March Batavia in Java fell to the
Japanese and the Dutch Government
moved to the mountains. Clearly the end
of resistance in the Netherlands Indies was
in sight, and both Brett and Hurley agreed
that it was no longer possible to continue
the blockade-running program. This view,
they told the Chief of Staff in a joint
message, was shared by the officers directly
responsible for running the blockade. In
their opinion,
Recommend therefore that Philippines be

supplied from the United States via Hawaii
through open sea areas in which the chance
of reaching destination is much greater than
through narrow channels between island and
blockade areas of the southwest Pacific.28
Already the possibility of sending block-
Routes to Philippines from Australia and

vicinity are becoming increasingly hazardous
and risking of ships and cargoes that cannot
well be spared here appears no longer justified.
Routes to avoid the areas controlled by the
enemy are as long as from Hawaii to
Philippines.
The size of the problem [he said] is greater

than the means now being used to solve it.
The prime requisite is the making available
in the United States of the necessary ships and
material, especially the former, and their continuous dispatch to destination. Nowhere is
the situation more desperate and dangerous
27
Rad, Hurley for Marshall, ABDACOM No. 2,
17 Jan 42, ABDACOM Msgs, SWPA Collection,
OPD; memo, Hurley for Marshall, 21 Feb 42, OPD
381 PI, Sec 1, Case 21.
ade-runners from the United States

through Hawaii was under study in the
War Department. This study had been requested by the President as a result of a
strong message from MacArthur on 22 February.29 The Coast Farmer, MacArthur had
pointed out, had had no difficulty in penetrating the Japanese blockade, thus proving
what he had been asserting all the time:
that the blockade was ineffective. He suggested, therefore, that in view of the "thinness of the enemy's coverage" other routes
including that across the central Pacific
from Hawaii be utilized. The entire program to send him supplies, he declared
bluntly, should be controlled from Washington rather than Australia where the commanders, "however able they may be, have
neither the resources nor the means ... to
accomplish this mission." Nor did he believe
it possible for commanders in Australia,
"the actual zone of immediate or threatened conflict," to devote all their energies
to the task of sending him supplies when
their own problems seemed so urgent to
them.
28
Rad, Hurley and Brett for Marshall, No. 483,

4 Mar 42, AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 3) Far East.
29
42, WPD Ready Ref File, Phil.
398
than here. . . . The quantities involved are
not great but it is imperative that they be
made instantly available in the United States
and that the entire impulse and organization
be reenergized and controlled directly by you.
If it is left as a subsidiary effort it will never
be accomplished.30
were delays in assembling the cargoes and in

selecting the best routes for the ships to follow. The Navy had no gun crews to put on
the ships and there was further delay till
they could be secured. Finally, the first vessel, originally scheduled to leave on 28 FebOn the receipt of this message, the supply ruary, sailed from New Orleans on 2 March.
experts in the War Department began a Two others followed during the month.
quick survey of the problem. Maj. Gen. Routed through the Panama Canal to Los
Brehon B. Somervell, then G-4, summed Angeles and then to Honolulu, these ships
up their findings in a series of recommenda- were still in Hawaiian waters when the
tions to the Chief of Staff on the 22d.31 De- campaign in the Philippines ended. Three
claring that direct supply of the Philippines other converted destroyers left the west coast
from Honolulu was "practical and desir- between 16 March and 11 April but before
able," he recommended that three World they were long at sea it was clear they could
War I destroyers, converted to cargo ves- not reach the Philippines before the camsels with a capacity of 1,500 tons each, be paign ended and they were diverted to other
33
assigned this mission. One of these could be areas. Thus ended the effort to run supplies through the blockade by surface ships.
sent immediately from New Orleans to MinSubmarines and aircraft as well as surface
danao, and the others could follow in early
vessels
were utilized in the desperate attempt
March. He recommended also that three
to
bring
aid to the Philippine garrison. The
additional converted destroyers then in the
use
of
submarines
for this purpose, as has
Caribbean should be procured by the Army
and placed on this run. Arrangements were been noted, was opposed most strongly by
quickly made to send supplies to New Orle- Admiral Hart, commander of naval forces
34
ans and to procure the additional vessels. in Wavell's headquarters. General Wavell
Marshall then reported these arrangements supported this view and when he assumed
to the President and notified MacArthur of command declared that with his present
the new efforts being made to send supplies resources he could see no possibility of "afacross the Pacific directly to the Philip- fording General MacArthur support he appines.32
pears to expect." 35 When, on 17 January,
The schedule for shipments from the Marshall sent strong messages to Australia
United States called for six sailings, the first and Java calling for an all-out effort to
vessel to leave New Orleans on 28 February, break the Japanese blockade, Wavell had
the last on 22 March. But numerous diffi- replied that the diversion of submarines to
culties arose to upset the schedule. There
33
30
Ibid.
31
Memo, Somervell for Marshall, 22 Feb 42, sub:
Supply of U.S. Forces in Phil, OCS 18136-258.
32
Memo, Marshall for Roosevelt, 24 Feb 42,
WPD 4560-26; memo, Marshall for Roosevelt, 28
Feb 42, sub: Blockade-Runners via Hawaii, OCS
18136-268.
Messages dealing with these vessels can be

found in AG 384.3 GHQ SWPA, and in Hist
Branch, Off of Chief of Trans, SWPA files, Phil
Shipping.
34
Rads, COMINCH to CINCAF, and Brett to
Marshall, 9 Jan 42, both in WPD Msg File.
35
Rad, Wavell to Marshall, ABDACOM No. 53,
15 Jan 42, WPD SWPA Collection.

transport duty would reduce the opposition
he could bring to bear against the enemy.36
General Marshall granted the validity of
Wavell's and Hart's objections and admitted they were correct in principle. But he
also pointed out that Wavell had overlooked
the moral effect of receiving even occasional
small shipments. MacArthur, he reasoned,
was containing a large number of Japanese,
planes, and ships, and the longer he held out
the more chance there was that the Japanese would be unable to put all their forces
in the ABDA area. This consideration, he
declared, justified the use of submarines to
carry small quantities of critical items to
Corregidor.37 "As you know," he wrote Admiral King, "we are making strenuous efforts to organize blockade running on an
extensive scale. . . . However, under present conditions, I think it is important that
small shipments of supplies reach MacArthur by submarine or otherwise every ten
days or two weeks." 38 King agreed with this
view and Wavell's orders to send aid to
MacArthur, by submarine if necessary, remained unchanged.
Altogether, ten submarines made the effort to reach the Philippines. One, loaded
with ammunition, had been sent out by
Hart on King's instructions. Another, with
a cargo of 3-inch antiaircraft ammunition,
had left Hawaii on 12 January. MacArthur reported the safe arrival of these two
submarines in February, the last one reaching the Islands from Hawaii on 3 Febru36
Rad, Wavell to Combined CsofS, 24 Jan 42,
WPD Ready Ref File, Australia. Marshall's message
of the 17th is discussed on page 3, above.
37
Memo, Marshall for King, 29 Jan 42, sub:
Atchd Msg from Wavell ... on use of Submarines,
WPD 4560-9.
38
Ibid.
399
ary.39 During that month three more submarines made the voyage to the Philippines: Swordfish arrived on the 19th and
evacuated President Quezon; Sargo
brought one million rounds of 30-caliber
ammunition to Mindanao; and Permit,
sent to evacuate General MacArthur, took
on instead torpedoes and naval personnel.
The next month only two submarines
reached the Islands. Seadragon, en route
to patrol off the Indochina coast, was ordered to Cebu to carry a load of rations to
Corregidor. Though she picked up 34 tons
of rations and almost 12,000 gallons of
petroleum, she was able to unload only one
fifth of her cargo before being ordered out.
Snapper, assigned the same mission, succeeded in unloading 46 tons of food and
29,000 gallons of diesel oil before leaving.
The Swordfish made one more trip.
Leaving Fremantle in Australia on 1 April
with a cargo of 40 tons of food, she was
diverted en route and after a short patrol
returned to port and unloaded her cargo.
Searaven left the same port a day after the
Swordfish with 1,500 rounds of 3-inch antiaircraft ammunition, but was also diverted and failed to deliver any of the shells
to Corregidor. The final trip was made at
the beginning of May, when the Spearfish,
on patrol off Lingayen Gulf, picked up
twenty-five men and women, including
twelve nurses, just before the surrender.40
One other submarine from Hawaii attempted to reach Corregidor with a cargo
39
Combined CsofS, 1st Mtg, 23 Jan 42, ABC 381

Phil, OPD Reg Doc; rad, MacArthur to Marshall,
No. 274, 13 Feb 42, WDCSA 381 (2-17-42) Phil.

40
Rpt, COM TF 51 to COM SWPA, 15 May 42,
sub: Submarine Relief Activities, Phil, Serial FF6-4,
A16-3, copy in OCMH. This document lists all the
submarines and their cargo.
400
of 100 tons of medical supplies but turned

back when Bataan fell.
The total effort by the submarines added
only 53 tons of food to MacArthur's stores
enough for only one meal for two thirds of
the men on Bataan3,500 rounds of 3-inch
antiaircraft ammunition, 37 tons of .50-caliber and 1,000,000 rounds of .30-caliber
ammunition, and about 30,000 gallons of
diesel oil. In terms of results the effort
seemed hardly worthwhile.
The amount of supplies brought into the
Philippines by aircraft from Australia and
the Netherlands Indies was more substantial but limited to items which weighed little and were small in size. Obviously rations, which were most desperately needed,
could not be sent in sufficient quantity to
make any difference to the garrison on
Bataan and Corregidor. Altogether, there
were ten air shipments, starting on 26 January and continuing through 3 May. The
first consisted of two planes, an LB-30 and
a B-24, which carried 10,000 morphine
tablets, other medical supplies, and ammunition. MacArthur reported their safe arrival
at Del Monte Airfield in Mindanao to the

Chief of Staff early in February.41 There
was time for only one more shipment, including 50,000 quinine tablets, before the
Japanese destroyed the hangar at Darwin,
where the supplies destined for the Philippines were stored. As a result air transport
operations were delayed until other supplies
could be gathered at Batchelor Field near
Darwin.42
41
Rads, MacArthur to Marshall, Nos. 177 and
188, 1 and 2 Feb 42, AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 2 A)
Far East.
42
Ltr, CING SWPA to CG U.S. Army Air Serv-
ices, 14 May 42, sub: Phil Relief Shipments, with

incls, AG 384. 3M. The inclosures provide a detailed
breakdown of each shipment by type of supply and
quantity, the plane, and the name of the pilot. A
consolidated report is included among the inclosures.

During the month of March three shipments by air were made to Mindanaoon
the 11th, 16th, and 26th. These flights were
more notable perhaps for what the planes
brought out than for what they took in. Of
the four B-17's that left on the 11th, only
one reached Mindanao with a cargo of 1,600
pounds of medical supplies, some signal
equipment, and antiaircraft spare parts.
The group of B-17's that made the flight
on the 16th and 17th brought back to Australia General MacArthur, his family, and
his staff. The final March flight took in
5,000 pounds of critical signal equipment
and 1,160 pounds of medical supplies (including 1,000,000 quinine tablets). On the
return journey the planes carried President
Quezon, who had gone only as far as Panay
by submarine, and his staff. The largest
number of shipments was made in April,
and a respectable quantity of medical, signal, and ordnance equipment reached
Mindanao during that month. The pilot of
the last flight, made on 3 May, found the
airdrome occupied by the Japanese and
hastily turned around.43
The total air effort from Australia resulted in the accumulation of a large quantity of critically needed supplies on Mindanao. Some reached Corregidor by air, in
small aircraft which flew in at night to land
on the navy strip on the tail of the island.
But the bulk of the supplies could not be
moved northward where they were desperately needed. Like the rations brought in
by the blockade-runners, only a very small
amount of the precious air cargo ever
reached the battlefield.
By mid-March the opportunity to bring
supplies to Bataan and Corregidor had been
lost. During the first month and a half of
the campaign such an effort might well have
43
Ibid.
401

been successful. But time was required to
gather vessels and cargoes and to organize
the men and resources. The Japanese did
not give the Allies the time so badly needed.
They advanced so rapidly in the Netherlands Indies that they closed the routes between Australia and the Philippines before
the blockade-running program was well
under way. The route northward from Mindanao and the Visayas to Manila Bay was
blocked not long after. Thereafter, no matter
how many tons reached the depot at Cebu
or the airfield at Del Monte, they would be
of little use to the men on Bataan.
While the effort to run the blockade may
not have paid dividends in terms of tonnages
delivered to the troops, it was nevertheless
one that could be amply justified on military

and political grounds. The effort had to be
made, no matter what the cost. The American people demanded that much at least.
Strategically, any measure that might upset
the Japanese timetable and contain a large
number of Japanese troops was worth try-
the War Department received concrete

figures on the number of troops in the Philippines when Wainwright reported that he
had 90,000 men on Bataan alone. This fact
could hardly be believed in Washington and
Marshall asked for specific figures, declaring
that 90,000 "is greatly in excess of what we
understood was there." 44 When Wainwright's reply arrived it proved even more
startling than his first statement. On Bataan
and Corregidor alone, the strength of the
command, including naval elements and
civilians subsisted by the Army, was
110,000.45
There was not the slightest possibility that
sufficient food for even a fraction of this
force could be sent, but Marshall told Wainwright not to hesitate to ask for any assist-
ance that was practicable. "It is a matter of

continuing concern to me," he assured the
recently appointed USFIP commander, "as
to what additional measures the War Department might take to strengthen and sus-
ing. Nor could the moral effect on the troops
tain your gallant defense. . . . Your recommendations always receive my immediate
in contact with the enemy be overlooked.
personal attention."
No one could be sure in January and February that the blockade would prove unbreakable; politically, strategically, and morally
it was necessary to make the attempt. The
had already been given by the President.

Following a lengthy, eleven-page requisi-
gallant stand of the Philippine garrison required it; MacArthur demanded it; and the
American people supported it.

Last Efforts
Toward the end of March, with Wain-
46
Similar assurances
tion to the War Department, which could
not possibly have been filled even under

more favorable circumstances, Wainwright
reviewed for General Somervell the supplies
received from outside sources since the start
of the campaign and explained his present
situation. "Our desperate needs at the mo44
frantic effort was made to get food, vitamin

Mar 42, OPD 320.2 Phil (3-31-42).
45
Memo, Actg CofS
President, 8 Apr 42, sub:
Food Situation in Phil, CofS File, Bataan-Corregi-
concentrates, and medicine. In the messages

to Washington a new and desperate note of
urgency became evident. For the first time
dor; rad, Wainwright to WD, 2 Apr 42, OPD 381

PI (3-1-42).
46
Rad, Marshall to Wainwright, 26 Mar 42, Msgs
to Gen Wainwright, OPD Exec O.
wright's assumption of command, a final and
402
merit," he told the War Department G-4,
"are subsistence and limited medical supplies, particularly quinine sulphate." 47
The urgency of the request was emphasized in a separate message to the War Department in which he spoke of the high
incidence of malaria and other diseases on
Bataan and asked for a one-month supply of
various drugs essential to the health of his
command.48 Two days later he bluntly
warned the Chief of Staff that disaster was
imminent unless supplies arrived soon.
There was only enough food on Bataan, he
stated, to last until 15 April "at one-third
ration, poorly balanced and very deficient
in vitamins." If, by that time, supplies did
not reach him, "the troops there will be
starved into submission." 49
To this estimate, MacArthur, who received a copy of the message, took sharp exception. Without minimizing the critical
conditions on Bataan he maintained that
there had been enough food there before he
left to last until 1 May. "It is of course possible," he told the Chief of Staff, "that with
my departure the vigor of application of
conservation may have been relaxed." 50 To
Wainwright he expressed his confidence that
the efforts then being made to break the
blockade would bring in enough food to last
for an indefinite period and categorically
repudiated any idea of surrender. "I am utterly opposed," he asserted, "under any
circumstances or conditions to the ultimate
capitulation of this command. If food fails,"
47
Rad, Wainwright to Somervell, No. 600, 26

Mar 42, AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 3) Far East.
48
Rad, Wainwright to TAG, No. 605, 26 Mar 42,
WPD Ready Ref File, Phil.
49
Rad, Wainwright to Marshall, No. 625, 26 Mar
42, Msgs from Gen Wainwright, OPD Exec 0.
50
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 56, 1 Apr 42,
WPD Ready Ref File, Phil.

he directed Wainwright, "you will prepare
and execute an attack upon the enemy." 51
But the chief problem, to reach Wainwright with supplies, still remained unsolved. From Washington General Marshall
used all his authority to send Wainwright
the things he so desperately needed. In messages to Australia and Hawaii he ordered
that every means at hand be utilized to send
aid; all supply agencies in the War Department were impressed with the urgency of
the situation; and the Navy was asked to
make submarines available, Lt. Gen. Delos
C. Emmons, Hawaiian Department commander, was directed to send a vessel loaded
with 3,600 tons of concentrated food to
Manila Bay immediately. "Spare no effort
to push this movement," the Chief of Staff
ordered. "You are authorized to pay crew
liberal bonus." 52 Within the week a vessel
manned by a Navy crew and loaded with
1,000,000 rations, 340 tons of meat, 20 tons
of cigarettes, 158 tons of milk, 200 tons of
rice, and 548 tons of ammunition had left
Honolulu. The journey would take twentytwo days, sixteen more than the Japanese
were to allow the Bataan garrison.53
MacArthur was asked to intensify his efforts from Australia to relieve Wainwright
and to send small boats capable of running
the Japanese blockade between Mindanao
and Corregidor. The need for quinine was
so pressing, Marshall told MacArthur, that
he was to send all he could collect by air
immediately to Mindanao. Submarines
51
Ibid.; rad, MacArthur to Wainwright, No. 68,
4 Apr 42, AG 384.1, GHQ SWPA.
52
Rads, Marshall to Emmons, No. 2030, 29 Mar
42, Emmons to Marshall, No. 3088, 31 Mar 42,
and Wainwright to Marshall, No. 632, 31 Mar 42,
all in WPD 400 Phil (2-27-42).
53
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, No. 885, 4 Apr
42, WPD 400 Phil (2-27-42).

furnished by the Navy would carry other
supplies. "Report date of initial shipment by
plane, type, and quantity of items," the
Chief of Staff directed.54 In reply MacArthur asserted that he had already, at
Wainwright's request, sent all the quinine
and vitamin concentrates he had been able
to gather on short notice. In addition he was
planning to send another load by air soon
and would station the plane in Mindanao
to fly supplies northward.55
Marshall even sought to get Wainwright
help from China. On 30 March he asked
Lt. Gen. Joseph W. Stilwell to look into the
possibilities of sending food to the Philippines by ship. Stilwell replied that there was
no chance of getting blockade-runners, but
that he would try to secure planes and food
for such a venture. While he was still trying, Bataan fell.56
As each expedient failed to bring in supplies, more and more desperate and extreme
measures were proposed in a vain attempt
to break through the blockade. When Wainwright requested three submarines to transport supplies from Cebu, they were quickly
made available although their transfer seriously limited naval operations. Two underwater craft on patrol west of the Philippines
were ordered to Cebu to load supplies for
Corregidor, and two others were readied at
Fremantle for the trip north. The meager
results of this mission have already been
recounted.57
54
Rad, Marshall to MacArthur, No. 91, 27 Mar
42, AG 381 (11-27-41 Sec 3) Far East.

55
The file marked Messages from General MacArthur in Operations Division, Executive Office
Files, contains a series of messages detailing MacArthur's efforts to send critically needed items to
Wainwright.
56
57
WPD 400 Phil (2-27-42), Cases 9 and 10.

Rad, Wainwright to Marshall through COM-
INCH, 300940 Mar 42, Msgs to MacArthur, OPD

Exec O. Other messages dealing with this matter can
403
Wainwright proposed, on 27 March, still

another scheme to break through the blockade. This proposal, first made to MacArthur, called for a surprise attack against
Japanese naval forces in Visayan waters
and in Subic Bay by medium or heavy
bombers sent from Australia to Mindanao.
Such an attack would have a fair chance,
Wainwright thought, of temporarily disrupting the blockade so that some of the
food tied up in Cebu could be brought in.
As a last resort, he suggested that ten B17's be stationed at Del Monte and, "by
making a round trip each day, deliver a few
days reduced ration for Bataan troops."
Where these heavy bombers would land was
never made clear.58
MacArthur agreed to send the bombers
at some indefinite date in the future and
Wainwright completed his arrangements.
Within a few days all was in readiness. Two
ships of 500 tons each, one loaded with
food and the other with gasoline, were waiting at Cebu and Iloilo. Others were standing by and would be loaded and ready to
sail when the first bombers attacked. During
the voyage to Corregidor, the vessels would
be covered by three P-40's then being assembled in Mindanao. Wainwright had
convinced himself by this time that the air
attacks would disrupt the blockade "for a
considerable period of time," and that he
would be able to move all the supplies on
Cebu, an amount sufficient to subsist the
be found in the same file and in WPD Ready Ref
File, Phil. Col. Stuart Wood, G-2, USFIP, prepared
a staff study on the use of submarines to bring in
supplies on 20 March 1942, a copy of which is in
OCMH.
58
Rad, Wainwright to MacArthur, No. 154, 27
Mar 42, AG 311.23 (4 Feb 42) GHQ SWPA. This

scheme seems to have originated with Colonel Wood,
G-2, USFIP, who, on 25 March, submitted a staff
study proposing that heavy bombers be used to disrupt the blockade. A copy of this study is in OCMH.
404
Bataan garrison for one month, to Corregidor. All he needed to carry out this ambitious plan, he told MacArthur, was heavy
bombers.59 On the 4th MacArthur told him
that the planes were being prepared and
would "be available sometime the following week."60
Days passed but no planes came. At Cebu
and Iloilo eight ships, fully loaded with
rations and medicine, lay at anchor. They
were still there when the Japanese occupied
Cebu on the morning of 10 April. The
bombers finally reached Mindanao the next
day, too late to help the men on Bataan.61

Despite every effort it had proved impossible to relieve the men on Bataan. The
beginning of April found them at their
weakesttheir fighting edge blunted and
their capacity to resist at the lowest ebb.
The effects of a three-month-long starvation diet, incessant air and artillery bombardment, and the ravages of disease could
be seen in the gaunt bodies and sunken eyes
of Americans and Filipinos alike. The loss
of hope and the psychological impact of
war are recorded only in the diaries and
speech of those fortunate enough to survive.
By 1 April, wrote General King's surgeon,
the combat efficiency of the troops in Luzon
Force "was rapidly approaching the zero
point." 62
59
Apr 42, AG 384.1, GHQ SWPA.
60
Rad, MacArthur to Wainwright, No. 25, 4 Apr
42, AG 384.1, GHQ SWPA.
61
pp. 43, 50, 54; Craven and Cate, The Army Air
The ships, fortunately, had been scuttled before
Forces in World War II, I, 417-18.
the Japanese arrived. Cook, Cebu Depot QM Opns,
62
p. 3, App. A, QM Rpt of Opns; QM Rpt of Opns,
CHAPTER XXIII
Preparations for Battle

During the lull which settled over the
battlefield on Bataan after the middle of
February, both sides completed their
preparations for the coming offensive.
Throughout March General Homma
trained and organized the fresh troops
which poured into the Philippines from all
parts of the rapidly expanding empire, and
made careful and elaborate plans for a
fresh assault against the stubborn American-Filipino line. The defenders, dug in
along the line occupied late in January, used
the interlude in battle to train and to improve their positions. What they needed
most to strengthen their capacity to resist
was food and medicine, but none was
forthcoming. At the end of March, when
the combat efficiency of the defenders was
lowest, the Japanese moved into position
for what Homma fully intended would be
the final attack.
The American Line
With the exception of a few scattered
detachments hiding out in the mountains
of Luzon, all of the troops of General King's
Luzon Force were crowded into the southern tip of Bataan. In this area, less than 200
square miles, were I and II Corps, force
reserve, the Service Command, two coast
artillery (antiaircraft) regiments, the Provisional Tank Group, two battalions of 75mm. guns (SPM), plus engineer and signal
troops. So crowded was Bataan that enemy
aircraft "could drop their pay loads at al-
most any point or place and hit something

of military value."1
The total strength of the units in the
Luzon Force was 79,500. Fully three quarters of that total were Philippine Army
troops; the rest were Philippine Scouts
(8,000) and Americans (12,500). In addition, Luzon Force employed approximately 6,000 civilians and fed another 20,000 Filipino refugees.2 A detailed breakdown of the strength of the combat elements
is revealing. Not one of the eight Philippine
Army divisions had its authorized strength
of 7,500. General Bluemel's 31st Division
was numerically the strongest, with 6,400
men; the 71st, whose combat elements had
been absorbed by General Stevens' 91st Division, had only 2,500. The othersthe 1st,
2d, 11th, 21st, 41st, and 51sthad less than
6,000 men each.3
The organization and deployment of the
forces on Bataan at the end of March did
not differ much from what they had been
during the preceding two months. (Map
17) The front line still stretched across the
peninsula, behind the Pilar-Bagac road,
from Orion on the east to Bagac on the west,
a distance of thirteen miles. The right half
of the line was held by Parker's II Corps;
the left, now commanded by General Jones,
by I Corps. The corps boundary roughly
bisected the southern portion of the peninsula, extending southward along the Pantin1

Luzon Force Rpt of Opns, G-1 Annex, p. 1.
3
Ibid., table in G-1 Annex.
406
gan River across the heights of the Mariveles Binuangan River. Defense of the beaches
and thence to Mariveles Bay via the Pani- below this river was assigned to the 1st Constabulary, a battalion of the 88th Field
kian River.4
Parker's corps on the Manila Bay side of Artillery (PS), and miscellaneous Air
the peninsula consisted in mid-March of Corps units. Jones's reserve consisted of the
approximately 28,000 men. The eastern 45th Infantry (PS) and the horseless 26th
anchor of the line was still held by Col. Cavalry. Total strength of the corps was
John W. Irwin's 31st Infantry (PA), which 32,600 men.
Elements of the Philippine Division,
was stretched along the coast from Limay
northward to Orion. To its left was the pro- which never saw action as a unit during
visional regiment composed of Air Corps the campaign, were retained by General
troops and led by Col. Irvin E. Doane. The King in Luzon Force reserve. Numbering
31st Division (less most of two regiments) over 5,000 men, this reserve force was comextended the line about a mile westward posed of the American 31st Infantry, the
where the remnants of the 51st Division, 57th Infantry (PS), and the Provisional
organized as a combat team, tied in with it. Tank Group. During the first days of April
The left anchor of II Corps was formed by two engineer battalions were taken off conthe 21st and 41st Divisions (PA) deployed struction work on the trails and road and
in front of Mt. Samat. Guarding the beaches brought into reserve as combat troops. One
from Limay southward to the corps bound- of these was the 14th Engineer Battalion
(PS) of the Philippine Division; the other,
ary were the 2d Division (less the 1st and
2d Philippine Constabulary Regiments), a the American 803d Engineer Battalion.
The inadequacy of communications and
company of tanks, and a battery of SPM's.
the
large number of separate units on the
In corps reserve Parker had the 33d Infanline
made it necessary to continue the sector
try (PA), less its 1st Battalion, and two
organization
established late in January. In
engineer battalions.
II
Corps
these
sectors were designated as
In the I Corps sector, from east to west,
before,
alphabetically
from A to E. Sectors
were the 2d Philippine Constabulary RegiA
and
B
consisted
of
the
two right elements
ment, the 11th, 1st, and 91st Divisions
of
the
line.
In
each
the
unit
commander was
(PA), the last with the 71st and 72d Inalso
the
sector
commander.
General
Bluemel
fantry attached. The 2d Constabulary held
commanded
Sector
C,
which
included
his
the important position on the right flank,
31st
Division
elements
as
well
as
the
51st
tying in with II Corps in the Pantingan
River valley, a potentially dangerous cor- Combat Team. Sector D coincided with the
ridor leading deep to the rear of the Orion- front held by the 21st and 41st Divisions
Bagac line. On the I Corps left, the 91st and was commanded by General Lough
Division was responsible not only for that who used his Philippine Division staff as
portion of the line which included the West the sector staff. The beach defenses were
Road but for the coast as far south as the organized as Sector E under General Francisco, commander of the 2d Division.
4
The description of the line is from Luzon Force
The sector organization in I Corps difRpt of Opns, G-3 Annex, pp. 1-3; NLF and I
fered
from that of the corps to the right.
Corps Rpt of Opns, pp. 22 ff; SLF and II Corps
Here only three sectors were established. On
Rpt of Opns, pp. 37-46, 50.
PREPARATIONS FOR BATTLE

the east of the line, from the corps boundary
midway to the coast, was the Right Sector,
commanded by General Brougher. Next to
it was the Left Sector which included the
1st and 91st Divisions. General Stevens had
assumed command of this sector when Jones
took over command of the corps. Corresponding to Sector E in II Corps was the
South Sector under General Pierce, responsible for defense of the beaches. Thus, Jones
dealt with only three subordinate commanders for his entire force, and Parker
with five.
The large number of artillery pieces concentrated in the small area held by Luzon
Force represented the main support of the
infantry. In I Corps there were 50 pieces,
most of which were of 75-mm. caliber.
There were no 105's, and of the 16 155-mm,
pieces only 2 were howitzers. The artillery
on Parker's side, where the danger was considered greatest, numbered twice as many
pieces. Seventy-two of these were 75-mm.
guns, 12 were 2.95-inch mountain guns, and
the remainder were GPF's of 155-mm. caliber. In addition, 31 naval guns, ranging in
size from one-pounders to 3-inchers, had
been allotted the two corps for use in beach
defense. Army artillery consisted of 27 75mm. guns (SPM); two antiaircraft regiments, the 200th and 515th, in position to
cover the airfields and rear installations,
with one battery of 3-inch guns and two batteries of 37-mm. guns in support of the forward area; and one seacoast gun. Despite
this imposing array of artillery, the effectiveness of its support was limited by the
terrain, the absence of air observation, and
the lack of 105-mm. howitzers, fire control,
and communications equipment, as well as
motor transportation.5
5
Luzon Force Rpt of Opns, p. 7; Mallone, Bataan Diary, II, 80.
407
Dominating the battlefield and offering
excellent observation over a large portion of
the front was Mt. Samat, on the left of II
Corps. From the coastal plain on the east
the ground rises gently at first, then more
precipitately, to a height of almost 2,000
feet at the peak of Samat. The mountain
and the surrounding country is covered with
heavy, hardwood timber. Huge trees, six
feet in diameter, rise to a height of 80 to 100
feet. Beneath, the foliage is dense, much of
it covered with large thorns to impede the
soldier and tear his clothing to shreds. Numerous streams and rivers drain the northern slopes of the Mariveles Mountains, cutting across the Orion-Bagac line and
forming river valleys which provided pathways to the south. Heavy forests line the
steep banks of the rivers and the undergrowth makes movement difficult even
along the narrow trails. Only on the east
coast, with its swamps and cane fields, is
the ground flat and clear enough to offer
fields of fire.
Movement throughout this forbidding
area was limited to pack trails and the
coastal road. In front and paralleling the
line was the Pilar-Bagac road, to which the
engineers had constructed a cutoff from KP
136 in front of the 51st Combat Team to
Orion on the coast. From the Pilar-Bagac
road a number of trails led south. In the II
Corps sector, the main north-south trails
were 2 and 4 on the east slopes of Mt.
Samat and 6 and 29 on the west. Connect-
ing 4 and 29 was Trail 429. In I Corps

Trails 15 and 7 offered the enemy a choice
of routes into the American position. Lateral communication behind the lines was provided by a series of east-west trails which
the engineers had connected during January
and February. In general, this road linked
Trails 7 and 9 on the west with Trail 8 on
408
the east and intersected the north-south
trail system. But all movement, though free
from observation, would be closely restricted by the nature of the roads.6
Radiating in all directions from the Mariveles Mountains are a large number of
rivers and streams which trace their way,
like the veins on the back of a man's hand,
across the southern portion of Bataan. The
Pantingan, which formed the corps boundary, flows north from the Mariveles Mountains to meet the Tiawir River near the
Pilar-Bagac road. The Tiawir flows east,
changes its name to Talisay, then continues
on to Manila Bay. Parallel to the Pantingan
and only a short distance to the east is the
Catmon which also flows north from the
Mariveles Mountains to join the TiawirTalisay River. Flowing northeast and east
from Mt. Bataan and Mt. Limay to Manila
Bay are numerous rivers, the largest of
which are the San Vicente, Mamala, Alangan, and Lamao. These rivers derived their
military importance from the fact that they
lay across the axis of an enemy advance
from the north. Only the southernmost of
these rivers, however, the Lamao, which
flows between steep, heavily wooded banks,
presented a serious obstacle. The others,
reduced to a trickle during the dry season,
could only delay an enemy momentarily.
Since the middle of February, when the
pocket fights had ended, there had been
little action on Bataan. During this lull
every effort had been made to improve the
battle line and to train the Philippine Army
soldier. Schools were established and a
training program organized which utilized
fully the knowledge of the enemy acquired
through bitter experience during the preceding months. Success in jungle warfare,
6
Skerry, Comments on Engineer Hist, Nos. 10
and 15; SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 37.

it was now clear, depended upon the ability
of the individual soldier to a larger degree
than in any other type of warfare. One of
the first lessons learned was that no soldier
should carry more than the absolute minimum required in combat, an old lesson that
had to be learned time and again. All the
soldier needed was his primary weapon,
ammunition, hand grenades, entrenching
tools, which few had, and first-aid packet.
Everything else should be left behind, for it
would only impede his progress through the
dense undergrowth and limit his efficiency
when he finally met the enemy.
To prepare the soldier for combat, commanders were enjoined to impress upon
him the necessity for keeping under cover
at all times. This elementary precaution was
especially necessary for the Philippine
Army troops whose knowledge of military
matters was often limited to close order
drill and the elements of military courtesy.
"We are gradually getting the Philippine
Army personnel to lay flat on the ground
instead of cowering under trees . . .," remarked one officer, "and we are suffering
fewer casualties." 7 Americans and Filipinos
alike were cautioned to be on the alert for
the many tricks used by the Japanese
soldier. One favorite Japanese ruse, the
men were told, was to demoralize the
enemy by creating the impression that he
was being fired on by his own artillery.
This effect the Japanese easily produced by
timing their own artillery and mortar fire to
that of the Americans. In particular, the
men were warned against stopping to examine dead Japanese or abandoned equipment. Even at this early stage of the war
the Japanese ruse of shamming death until
the enemy was near enough for attack had
already been observed. "The only safe
7

solution," it was concluded, "is to consider
each Japanese as potentially dangerous unless he has surrendered or is dead."8
The validity of the tactical doctrines
summarized in the manuals and taught in
the schools of the Army was proved sound
on the battlefield of Bataan. Unit commanders were reminded to pay close heed to
first principles. Thorough and careful
reconnaissance, experience had shown,
should precede the selection and establishment of a position. Stress was placed on the
necessity for a clear understanding of responsibility for maintaining contact between adjacent units. At all times units
would have to patrol vigorously to the front
and flanks, in recognition of the Japanese
skill in finding gaps in the line and unprotected flanks. In an effort to train the Filipino a school for scouting and patrolling
was established. Instruction was provided
by selected officers and men from the Philippine Division who went forward to the
front-line units to conduct the school.9
"Constant and aggressive patrolling between strong points and centers of resistance" was recommended as the most effective method of combating infiltration.
Strong points were to be made mutually
supporting, with an all-around defense, and
organized in checkerboard manner for a
defense in depth. If a small enemy force
should succeed in infiltrating to the rear, a
USAFFE training memorandum advised,
front-line units should remain in place
and not be stampeded. The reserve would
be used to drive out the Japanese while
front-line units provided supporting fire.10
8
Tng Memo 5, USAFFE, 26 Feb 42, AG 353

9
SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 46; Bluemel,
31st Div (PA) Rpt of Opns, p. 17.
10
Tng Memo 4, USAFFE, 12 Jan 42, AG 353
409
In attacking through the jungle the
troops were taught to advance slowly. Japanese foxholes and machine gun nests, it
was pointed out, would have to be reduced
one by one, usually by individuals armed
with hand grenades. These men would have
to be supported by continuous fire from the
squad or platoon. The necessity for halting
the advance one to two hours before darkness was stressed in all training. At that
time defensive perimeters would be established to prepare for the customary Japanese night attack. The period before nightfall, it was noted, was the best time to serve
the one cooked meal of the day.
During the advance the infantry was advised it could not expect close support from
the artillery. To provide this support an
elaborate wire communications system extending to each assault company would be
required, an obvious impossibility on
Bataan where wire was in short supply.
Battalion commanders were told that artillery units would be placed in direct support and that they could call for fire as
needed. Unlike the artillery, mortars could
be used with effect in close combat in the
jungle when ammunition was available.
One of the most valuable lessons learned
during the early days of the fighting was
that the light tanks of the Provisional Tank
Group could be extremely useful in jungle
warfare. Many infantry commanders had
expressed dissatisfaction with the support
received from the tanks, while the tankers
felt that their arm was not understood by
the others. Part of the difficulty undoubtedly stemmed from the fact that the tanks
were under the control of the group commander who was himself subordinate only
to MacArthur's headquarters. Contributing
to the misunderstanding was the relative
newness of armor and the lack of apprecia-
410
tion by infantry commanders of the potentialities and proper use of tanks.
USAFFE headquarters attempted to
remedy this shortcoming. Tanks and infantry, it taught, should operate as a team,
with the foot soldier following close behind
the tank. This advice was based upon the
observation that the Japanese usually remained in concealed positions until the
tanks had passed and then opened up on the
infantry at a moment when it was deprived
of armored support. Experience had shown
that, except under unusual circumstances,
armor was most effective in attacks against
limited objectives where it could be supported by infantry fire. Although a co-ordinated infantry-tank attack would of necessity be slow, the advantage gained by the
tank's ability to destroy the enemy's prepared positions, it was believed, would more
than compensate for the loss of speed.
Under no circumstances, warned USAFFE
in a training memorandum, were the tanks
to be employed as pillboxes or left forward
without infantry protection.
The Americans learned valuable lessons
from the Japanese landings behind I Corps
late in January. The best defense against
these landings, it had been observed, was the
occupation of all bays and beaches with
"vigilant and aggressive" troops armed with
machine guns.11 Since there were not enough
men to cover all possible landing sites, only
the most likely could be covered in this
manner. Mobile reserves could be used in
the event of a landing at an unguarded
beach. As the enemy approached close to
shore he would be extremely vulnerable to
automatic weapons fire. "Get the Japanese
before he lands," advised USAFFE. "Ten
minutes of accurate fire placed on the Japa-

nese just prior to and during the period of
attempted landing may save three or four
days necessary to hunt him in the brush
and woods." 12
While these lessons were of undoubted
importance in the training of the troops during the lull in battle, of more immediate importance was the improvement of fortifications and the strengthening of the OrionBagac line. Staff officers from Corregidor as
well as from headquarters on Bataan made
frequent inspections of the front lines and
pointed out deficiencies in the defenses.
Among the faults noted were the failure to
clear fields of fire, the improper placement
and camouflage of foxholes, and the location of wire entanglements without regard
for tactical dispositions. These faults were
summarized by USAFFE late in February
and instructions issued for strengthening the
line. "Organization of positions must be
continued beyond the foxhole stage," it directed; "reserve and support positions prepared; trenches dug; drainage arranged
for; camouflage improved; clearing of fields
of fire extended to the front to include all
foliage and cover afforded the enemy within
small arms range."13 Commanders and
their staffs were enjoined to supervise and
check the positions established, suggest improvements, and correct errors. Particular
attention was to be given to sanitation
which, USAFFE noted, had been neglected
by front-line units. "The health of the command," it warned, "may be seriously endangered by neglect of these measures." 14
The improvement of the defenses along
the main line of resistance and the beaches
circling the southern tip of Bataan contin12
Ibid.
14
Ibid.
13
11

411
ued throughout March. Trained technicians of the 14th Engineer Battalion (PS)
visited all units on the line and gave instruction and assistance in fortifications.15
was made on 28 March under cover of darkness.18 In I Corps General Jones ordered
the establishment of four switch positions
in the Pantingan River valley, on his right
Though limited by shortages of equipment

and defense materials, the men along the
flank, on the assumption that the main effort, as before, would be made between the
two corps.19
front strung barbed wire and constructed

tank traps and obstacles. In I Corps the
engineers planted three large mine fields
along the most probable routes of hostile advance and laid about 1,400 improvised
Luzon Force made its own preparations.
These included the pooling of buses and

trucks, gassed and ready for immediate
movement, in the reserve area. In this way
box mines and thirty-five submarine depth
the 31st Infantry (US) and the 57th In-
charges, secured from Corregidor. In the
fantry (PS), in force reserve, could be

moved quickly to any threatened portion of
11th Division (PA) sector, by the end of

March, the entire front was covered by a
wall or palisade of bamboo poles twelve
feet high. Though it had little value as protection against enemy attack, this wall did
provide concealment and bolster morale.16
While much work remained, the main
line of resistance and the beach defenses had
been considerably improved by the end of
the month. In the opinion of General Casey,
defensive positions on Bataan were well con-
ceived and constructed, deriving their

strength from cleared fields of fire and "suitably emplaced" automatic weapons with
"both grazing and enfilade fire." 17
Anticipating the possibility that all combat troops would be needed to halt a breakthrough, General King ordered all II Corps
service units to be ready to take over defense
of the beaches to release the 2d Division for

counterattack. Service unit commanders
were required to reconnoiter the trails leading to their assigned sectors to determine the
quickest route to the beach and a trial run
15
16
Skerry, Comments on Engineer Hist, No. 19;
NLF and I Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 29; Note by Gen

Brougher on 11th Div Tng Memo, 4 Mar 42, copy
in OCMH.
17
Memo, Chief Engineer, GHQ SWPA for CofS
GHQ, AG 307.24 (10-25-42E) GHQ SWPA.
the line. Fearful also of the "pitifully thin"

beach defenses, Luzon Force organized a
battery of 75-mm. guns (SPM) and a company of tanks into a mobile reserve and
ordered them "to reconnoiter roads and
avenues of approach."20 By the end of
March the half-starved and poorly equipped
Americans and Filipinos had done all they

could to prepare for attack. The signs that
such an attack would soon come were clear;

"the handwriting was vivid on the wall." 21
Japanese Preparations
During. March General Homma completed his own plans and preparations. He
had every reason to believe that this time
his efforts would be crowned with success.
Since 8 February, when he had abandoned

his fruitless efforts to reduce Bataan,
Homma had received large reinforcements.
Like the Americans he had utilized the lull
in battle to reorganize his force and to train
and rest his weakened troops. They were
now ready, he thought, for the final effort
to bring the campaign to a quick close.
18

20
21
19
412
with but one month's supply of quinine and

in January its use as a prophylaxis for all
but front-line troops had been discontinued.
After 10 March even troops in combat were
Both the 65th Brigade and the 16th Division denied the drug which was thereafter rehad been so sadly depleted that the 14th served for those hospitalized with malaria.
Army chief of staff described them as "a Those sick with diphtheria received no medication and the treatment of actual or povery weak force." 22 These heavy losses had
been due only in part to battle casualties; tential tetanus, gangrene, and dysentery
disease and shortages of food and medicine cases was limited by the very small amount
of the drugs on hand. Between 1 January
had also taken their toll.
Even by Japanese standards the lot of and 31 March approximately 13,000 Japthe soldier on Bataan was not an enviable anese soldiers were hospitalized as nonbattle
one. Certainly he was not well fed. During casualties alone. Since the military hospiJanuary 14th Army's supply of rice had run tals could accommodate only 5,000 patients
low and efforts to procure more from Tokyo in the period when battle casualties were
and from local sources in the Philippines greatest, it was impossible to provide adehad proved unavailing. As a result the ra- quate medical treatment for the sick and
24
tion had been drastically reduced in mid- wounded.
The condition of his men, therefore, as
February. Instead of the 62 ounces normally
well
as the unexpectedly strong resistance
issued the troops of Japan, the men on
from
the American and Filipino troops, had
Bataan received only about 23 ounces, plus
small amounts of vegetables, meat, and fish forced Homma to discontinue offensive opwhich were distributed from time to time. erations in February. Imperial General
To this they added whatever they could Headquarters in Tokyo, which had earlier
buy, steal, or force from an unwilling civil- taken from Homma the 48th Division and
most of his air force, now became concerned
ian populace.23
Severe shortages of medical supplies and over the failure to bring the campaign to an
equipment had further limited the effec- end.25 Elsewhere Japanese armies had met
tiveness of Japanese operations on Bataan. with spectacular success and General HeadThe 14th Army had begun the campaign quarters felt that it could now spare the
forces necessary to complete the conquest of
22
USA vs. Homma, p. 2457, testimony of Gen
the Philippines.
Wachi. See also ibid., Homma's testimony on p.
This decision was in no sense an indi3062, Nakajima's on p. 2575, and Defense Exhibit
cation
that the Army high command
Y, a casualty chart prepared by the 14th Army surgeon. 65th Brig Opns Rpt, p. 34; 14th Army Opns,
was satisfied with the performance of
I, 116, 231.
23
14th Army. It was not and soon made its
USA vs. Homma, pp. 2536, 2876-79, 2848,
3122, testimony of Homma and of Col Shusuke
displeasure evident by shifts in Homma's
Horiguchi, 14th Army surgeon.
staff. Inspecting officers from Tokyo visiting
The normal Japanese field ration consisted of
At the end of February the Japanese had

been in desperate straits. At that time their
infantry strength on Bataan had been reduced to approximately 3,000 effectives.
rice, fish, vegetables, soup, and pickled plums or

radishes. Other items, such as meat, sweets, and
fruits, were issued on special occasions. Handbook
Horiguchi. See also testimony on pp. 2680-83, 2792,
of Japanese Military Forces, TM-E 30-480, 15 2799, and Defense Exhibit Y.
24
25
Sept 44, pp. 177-79.
USA
Hist, Army
vs. Homma,
Sec, Imperial
pp. 2831-50,
GHQ, p.testimony
42.
of

Manila had found many 14th Army officers
comfortably settled in the capital while the
battle for Bataan was at its height. "If the
tactical situation went well," General Homma later commented wryly, "that would
have been all right for everybody.'' 26 Unfortunately for these officers the battle did
not go well and on 23 February General
Headquarters relieved General Maeda,
Homma's chief of staff, as well as the operations and training officer and the supply officer of 14th Army headquarters. Maeda's
place was taken by Maj. Gen. Takaji Wachi
who arrived in the Philippines about 1
March.27
During the latter part of February and
throughout the month of March Japanese
reinforcements poured into the Philippines.
With the individual replacements received
during this period both the badly hit 65th
Brigade and 16th Division were strengthened and revitalized. In February General
Nara received about sixty officer replacements and, the following month, 3,500 men
to take the place of the troops he had lost
during the January attack against II Corps.
The 16th Division received a similar number of men about the same time.28
The largest single addition to Homma's
14th Army came when the 4th Division, led
by Lt. Gen. Kenzo Kitano, arrived from
Shanghai. Kitano had learned "unofficially"
that his division was to be transferred on 4
February but it was not until a week later
413
that he received orders to move out. By the
27th of the month the first convoy, comprising division and infantry group headquarters, one infantry regiment, plus artillery
and service troops, had reached Lingayen
Gulf. The remainder of the division followed
in successive convoys and by 15 March
almost the entire 4th Division was on Luzon.
The arrival of the 4th Division did not
produce any great enthusiasm at 14th Army
headquartersthe division was poorly
equipped and numbered only 11,000 men;
its infantry battalions had three instead of
four rifle companies; it lacked antitank guns
and two of its four field hospitals.29 In General Homma's opinion, Kitano's division
was the "worst equipped" division in the
entire Japanese Army, and, he later noted,
had he been forced to rely on it alone to
begin his offensive he would not have been
"competent to attack." 30
On 26 February, the day before Kitano's
first group landed, a strong detachment
from the 21st Division arrived in the Philippines. This force, led by Maj. Gen. Kameichiro Nagano, 21st Infantry group commander, and called the Nagano Detachment, numbered about 4,000 men and was
composed of the group headquarters, the
62d Infantry, a battalion of mountain artillery, and a company of engineers. Nagano
had been en route from China to French
Indochina with the rest of the 21st Division
when he had received the orders from
26

Ibid., and Defense Exhibit A; Southern Army
Opns, p. 19. General Maeda gives his own reasons
for his relief in Interrog of Maeda, 10 May 47, Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers, Mil Hist
Div, GHQ FEC, I.
28
14th Army Opns, I, 123; 65th Brig Opns Rpt,
Mt. Samat, p. 34; ltr, Chief, Hist Div, SSUSA, to
G-2, GHQ FEC, 9 Nov 48, 3d Ind, 16 Aug 49.
27
Horiguchi; Interrog of Gen Kitano, 1 May 47,

Hist Div, GHQ FEC, I; 14th Army Opns, I, 119;

ltr, Chief, Hist Div, SSUSA, to G-2 GHQ FEC,
9 Nov 48, 3d Ind, 16 Aug 49.
30
Kitano had served under Homma in 1935-36 as
a regimental commander when the latter com29
manded
of the pp.
4th Division.
USAa brigade
vs. Homma,
2841-42, testimony of
414
Southern Army that sent him to the Philippines.31 Arriving too late to participate in
the final offensive was the 10th Independent
Garrison which landed at Lingayen Gulf
on 2 April. Intended as an occupation
force, this organization consisted of five
independent battalions of infantry but
lacked supporting arms and services.32
Artillery reinforcements began to reach
the Philippines in the middle of February
and continued to arrive in increasing numbers until the first week in April. Included
among these units were a balloon company
and an artillery intelligence regiment. To
control the large number of artillery units,
Homma was also given the 1st Artillery
Headquarters, led by Lt. Gen. Kishio Kitajima, which was shipped from Hong Kong
late in March.33 Imperial General Head31
Hist of Indo-China Opns, 1941-45, Japanese
Studies in World War II, No. 24, pp. 12-13,
OCMH; Southern Army Opns, pp. 4-5, 19.
32
14th Army Opns, I, 119. The unit was led by
Col. Torao Ikuta and is referred to in some sources
as the Ikuta Detachment.
In addition to the strong reinforcements sent to
Luzon, Imperial General Headquarters dispatched
units to other portions of the Philippine Archipelago to hasten the occupation of the Visayas and
Mindanao. Thus far only Mindoro, a portion of
Mindanao, and a few small islands seized at the
start of the war were in Japanese hands. On 10
March elements of the 5th and 18th Divisions from
Malaya and Borneo were assigned the task of occupying the central and southern Philippines. In
early April these units arrived in Lingayen Gulf,
were augmented by 14th Army supporting and service troops and organized into two detachments for
operations in the south. See below, Ch. XXVIII.
33
14th Army Opns, I, 119-20; USA vs. Homma,
p. 2635, testimony of Kitajima. The artillery reinforcements consisted of the following units:
1st Arty Hq
1st Field Heavy Arty Regt (240-mm. howitzers)
2d Independent Heavy Arty Btry (240-mm.
howitzers)
3d Independent Mountain Arty Regt (75-mm.
mountain guns)
3d Mortar Bn
14th Independent Mortar Bn (300-mm. mortars)

quarters also provided air reinforcements
for the coming offensive by giving Homma
two heavy bombardment regiments consisting of a total of sixty twin-engine bombers.
The two regiments flew in from Malaya
and landed at Clark Field on 16 March.
Naval air units were also dispatched to
Luzon to assist 14th Army air elements
which were reorganized into the 22d Air
Brigade under Maj. Gen. Kizo Mikami. By
the beginning of April, therefore, Homma
had a sizable air force to throw against the
defenders of Bataan.34
While recently arrived and veteran units
alike were put through a rigorous training
program, 14th Army staff officers made
preparations for the coming offensive. The
final plan, completed on 22 March, was
based on the incorrect assumption that the
defenders numbered 40,000 men and were
deployed along three lines: the first along
Mt. Samat, the second along Mt. Limay,
and the final line near Mariveles at the tip
of the peninsula.35 (Map 20) To break
through this defense in depth, 14th Army
proposed to make a co-ordinated infantry2d Independent Mortar Bn (150-mm, mortars)
20th Independent Mountain Arty Bn (75-mm.
mountain guns)
One Co, 21st Field Heavy Arty Bn (150-mm.
howitzers)
5th Arty Intel Regt
3d Tractor Unit
1st Balloon Co
34
14th Army Opns, I, 156; 5th Air Gp Opns, pp.
58, 70-71; ltr, Chief, Hist Div, SSUSA, to G-2
GHQ FEC, 9 Nov 48, 3d Ind, 16 Aug 49.
35
USA vs. Homma, pp. 2457, 2576. At his trial
General Homma explained that his intelligence
officer had estimated enemy strength on Bataan as
25,000 men, but that he, Homma, believed this
figure to be too low. He had told his intelligence
officer so and had directed him to "go back and
estimate again." The next estimate was 40,000.
"So," explained Homma at his trial, "in my estimation, I told him it must be 60,000, but I have no
data to contradict you, so I accept your estimation."
Ibid., pp. 3064-65.
415
MAP 20
artillery-air assault along a narrow front,
with Mt. Samat as the initial objective.
From here the Japanese would push on to
the Mt. Limay line, supported, if necessary,
by an advance along the East Road. Once
this line was gained, 14th Army would
bring the campaign to an end by seizing
Mariveles. Preparations for the assault
against Corregidor would begin immediately thereafter.36
36
The description of the Japanese plan is based

upon: 14th Army Opns, I, 128-42, 146-56, II,
17-42; 5th Air Gp Opns, pp. 54-63; Interrog of
Kitano, 1 May 47, Interrogations of Former Japanese Officers, Mil Hist Div, GHQ FEC, I;
Statements of Lt Col Hiromi Oishi, 4th Div staff,

2 Oct 50, ATIS Doc 62639, and Col Motohiko
Yoshida, CofS 4th Div, 28 Jul 49, ATIS Doc
62642, both in Statements of Japanese Officials on
World War II, GHQ FEC, Mil Intel Sec, III,
113, IV, 548.
In contrast to his expectations for a

speedy victory in January, Homma, who
had by this time acquired a healthy respect
for his opponent, now believed that it
would take about a month to complete the
conquest of Bataan: one week to seize Mt.
Samat, two weeks to crack the Limay line,
and one more week to mop up. "I do not
know," Homma wrote, "whether the enemy
on Bataan will try to fight to the end at
their first and second line, whether they will
retreat back to Corregidor and fight, escape
to Australia, the Visayas or Mindanao, or
give up at the right time, but I still propose
to prepare for the worst." 37
37
14th Army Opns, II, 16, Homma Notes, and I,
129; USA vs. Homma, p. 3065, testimony of
Homma.
416
Instructions for the coming offensive
were issued to all major commanders on 23
March at a meeting in San Fernando. General Kitano, commander of the 4th Division, was told that his division would carry
the burden of the main assault in front of
Mt. Samat and that he would receive close
support from General Nara's 65th Brigade.
Protection of the left (east) flank of the
advance was assigned to General Nagano's
21st Division detachment, and the 16th Division commander, General Morioka, was
given the mission of making a feint attack
in front of I Corps. Beginning the next day,
24 March, General Mikami's 22d Air Brigade, aided by naval aircraft, would begin
an intensive air assault against the American line, and just before the ground assault
opened General Kitajima's artillery would
join in the attack to soften up the opposition.
There was no disagreement over the selection of 3 April as D Day. But zero hour was
not fixed without a good deal of discussion.
General Kitano and his 4th Division staff
urged that the ground assault begin at noon.
To delay until later in the day, they argued,
would needlessly expose the troops to enemy
artillery fire before the attack. The 65th Brigade commander, General Nara, with three
months' experience on Bataan, felt that the
Americans would take advantage of the
daylight hours to mass their extremely effective artillery fire against the advancing
infantry if the attack jumped off too early.
He preferred to delay zero hour until dusk
and move forward under cover of darkness.
Since no agreement could be reached,
Colonel Nakayama, 14th Army operations
officer, presented a compromise plan fixing
the time of the infantry attack at 1500. A
disagreement over the objectives of the first
day's attack was also settled by compromise;

thereafter the detailed planning proceeded
with few interruptions.
The plans finally drawn up for the 3
April offensive provided for a heavy air and
artillery bombardment on the morning of
D Day. After a five-hour preparation the assaulting infantry would move out to the
attack, the 65th Brigade on the right (west),
the 4th Division on the left. The first objective, Mt. Samat, was to be taken at the end
of the first week of operations.
The Japanese would advance in three
columns. The right (west) column would
consist of General Nara's 65th Brigade
whose main force would march up the Pantingan River valley, along Trail 29, on the
extreme left of the II Corps line. One element of the brigade was to remain west of
the Pantingan River, in I Corps, to maintain contact with the 16th Division. Nara's
objective was control of the area west of
Mt. Samat. When he had gained this objective, he was to halt his troops, reorganize,
and prepare to seize the commanding
heights of the Mariveles Mountains.
The 4th Division was to advance in two
columns. On the right, next to the 65th
Brigade and making the main effort, was
Maj. Gen. Kureo Taniguchi's Right Wing,
consisting of the 61st Infantry, one battalion
of the 8th Infantry, the 7th Tank Regiment
(less two companies), and artillery and service units. Taniguchi, the infantry group
commander of the 4th Division, was to take
his men across the Tiawir River and down
along the Catmon River, in the center of
Sector D, toward Mt. Samat. The 4th Division's Left Wing, organized around the 8th
Infantry and led by Col. Haruji Morita, the
regimental commander, was to form the
easternmost column of the Japanese drive.
It was to advance down Trail 4, against the

Philippine Army's 21st Division on the right
of Sector D, directly toward the first objective, Mt. Samat.
Supporting the advance of the 4th Division and the 65th Brigade would be the
16th Division and the Nagano Detachment,
initially in Army reserve. The former, with
attached artillery and tanks, was to protect
the right (west) flank of the assault. On 31
March, three days before the main effort
began, Morioka would begin a feint attack
against I Corps, and thereafter maintain
constant pressure against that corps to pin
down General Jones's troops. By 8 April
Morioka was to be ready to move the bulk
of his division eastward to support the advance of the 4th Division. An element of
the Nagano Detachment was to protect the
4th Division's, east flank and later the entire
detachment was to divert the enemy and
pin down his beach defense troops by feinting landings along the east coast of Bataan,
between Orion and Limay.
By the end of the first week of operations,
General Homma estimated, the 4th Division
would be approaching the Mamala River,
and the 65th Brigade, the foothills of the
Mariveles. Along the river Homma expected
to encounter the strong defenses of the
Limay line, a line which existed only in
Japanese estimates and plans. With the 16th
Division ready to move east to the support
of the 4th Division and with the Nagano
Detachment poised to advance down the
East Road, Homma hoped to be able to
pierce the defenses of this line and defeat
the American and Filipino force in two
weeks. After that, operations would consist
largely of mopping up. Homma's estimates
in this case, unlike those he had made earlier
in the campaign, were extremely conservative. General Kitano, who had not yet been
in combat on Bataan, was far more sanguine
417
about the results of the initial attack. Once
Mt. Samat had been taken and the II Corps
front rolled back, he believed, only "a pursuit of the Americans" would be required.38
For once the more optimistic of the Japanese estimates proved correct.
Prelude to Attack
During the second week of March the
month-long lull which had followed the
Japanese withdrawal from the OrionBagac line came to an end. American and
Philippine patrols now began to meet opposition from a counterreconnaissance screen
which Homma had thrown forward to mask
preparations for the coming offensive. As
the days passed Japanese patrols became
more active, and troops along the outpost
line reported skirmishes with the enemy who
was already moving out to the line of departure. By the last week of March the
Japanese had pushed forward their screen
to within 1,000 yards of the American line.39
There were other equally obvious signs
after the middle of March that the Japanese would soon renew the attack. Observers reported that they were moving supplies and troops into Bataan and building
roads. Enemy aircraft, rarely seen in the
month following the Japanese withdrawal,
now began to appear in increasingly large
numbers, attacking front-line troops, artillery positions, and supply areas to the rear.
38
Interrog of Kitano, 1 May 47, Interrogations of

Former Japanese Officer, Mil Hist Div, GHQ
FEC, I.
39
Collier, Notebooks, III, 52, 59; O'Day, 21st Div
(PA), II, 35-36; 14th Army Opns, I, 122-23; Luzon Force Rpt of Opns, G-2 Annex. A daily report
on the enemy build-up is contained in the messages
of General Beebe to MacArthur, and Wainwright to
the War Department in G-3 USFIP Journal, 19
Mar-19 Apr 42, AG 461 (1 Apr 42) Phil Rcds.
418
The presence of many small boats and native craft at the mouth of the Pampanga
River on the north shore of Manila Bay
hinted at the possibility of amphibious attacks along the east coast of Bataan, similar
to those made earlier against I Corps.
Through the month the Japanese shelled
the American positions intermittently with
75-mm. guns mounted on the largest of
these boats. Though their marksmanship
was poor, their fire increased apprehension
of a landing behind the lines.40
Japanese artillery activities increased
also. The Japanese guns which had been
silent for several weeks began to sound
again and an observation balloon floating
over the high ground west of Abucay gave
notice of the arrival of larger Japanese
pieces than the Americans had yet encountered.41
To these portents of a new Japanese offensive General Homma added a direct
warning of dire consequences if the Bataan
defenders did not surrender. In a message
to General Wainwright, copies of which
were dropped over Bataan in beer cans,
Homma praised the valiant stand made by
the Americans and Filipinos but declared
that he now had large enough forces and
supplies "either to attack and put to rout
your forces or to wait for the inevitable starvation of your troops. . . ." He urged
Wainwright to be sensible and follow "the
defenders of Hongkong, Singapore and the
Netherlands East Indies in the acceptance
of an honorable defeat." To do otherwise,
he pointed out, would be disastrous. The
40
Luzon Force Rpt of Opns, p. 2 and G-2 Annex;

Collier, Notebooks, III, 52, 58-59; Mallone,
Bataan Diary, II, 79-80.
41
Quintard, Diary, entries of 19 Mar-1 Apr 42;
Luzon Force Rpt of Opns, p. 7; Collier, Notebooks,
III, 59, 62.

message closed with the ominous warning
that if Wainwright did not reply by
noon of the 22d, Homma would consider
himself "at liberty to take any action
whatsoever." 42
More specific information about Homma's intentions came on the night of 24
March when some Filipino troops found on
the body of a Japanese officer a detailed
order for a reconnaissance in force of the
Mt. Samat area. The order specified that
information was to be obtained about
routes of advance for tanks, favorable points
for river crossings, and American artillery'
positions around Mt. Samat. The document
further revealed that, following the reconnaissance, some time after 26 March the
Japanese would attack in the Mt. Samat
region and even indicated "with considerable exactitude" the plan of the attack.43
By now the Japanese air and artillery
bombardment had made life for the sick
and hungry men on Bataan a living hell.
Enemy planes, unopposed except for a few
antiaircraft guns, were over the American
lines at all hours of the day, bombing and
strafing at will. "Every few minutes," wrote
an American officer, "one plane would drop
down, lift up the tree branches and lay one
or two eggs. Every vehicle that tried to
move, every wire-laying detail, infantry
patrols, even individuals moving in the open
were subject to these spot bombings."44
Japanese artillery concentrated on frontline positions and on the Americans' larger
42
The text of the surrender message is in the exhibits of the trial of General Homma, Prosecution
Exhibit 421.
43
Luzon Force Rpt of Opns, G-2 Annex; SLF
and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 47; Emerson, Opns of
II Phil Corps, 10 Jan-8 Apr 42, pp. 21-22; Fortier,
Notes on 41st Div (PA), p. 5; ltr, Fowler to author,
22 Mar 49, OCMH.
44
419
SEEKING COVER IN A TRENCH NEAR LAMAO during an air attack.
guns, co-ordinating with the air forces in

an effort to knock out the American artillery. Though the effort was unsuccessful, by
destroying communications and shelling
observation posts and battery positions, the
Japanese lowered the efficiency of the artillery "to a considerable extent." 45
While the matriel losses from the bombings were not very great, the effect of the
air-artillery attack, which increased in
severity daily, on the efficiency of the troops
was pronounced. The men were under
shelter a good part of the time and many
began to show a marked reluctance to move
far from cover. The alert might sound in the
midst of a meal or while the men were at
rest, and everyone would dash for shelter.
Rank made no difference; the men headed
45
for the nearest foxhole and remained there

until the attack was over. One Filipino
officer, three times wounded and returned
to duty each time, strangely enough usually
found himself in sole possession of any foxhole he selected. The men estimated that
his luck had run out and when he hopped
into a foxhole they promptly jumped out
and ran for another.46 Work was constantly
being interrupted by the bombardment, and
officers inspecting the defenses spent fully
half their time in a ditch. "These high
bombers get my goat," wrote Colonel
Quintard in his diary. "You never know
when they are going to unload, and the
waiting gets hard; when they do unload any
46
Capt Andrew D. Shoemake, 41st FA ( P A ) ,

p. 32, Chunn Notebooks. Shoemake was instructor
of the 2d Battalion, 41st Field Artillery (PA).
420
place near, it sounds like an express train
bearing down on you for a few seconds before they hit."47
On 28 March, 14th Army issued final
orders for the offensive, and all troops began to move forward to the line of departure. The 65th Brigade, with elements on
both sides of the Pantingan River, pushed
in the outpost line of the 21st and 41st Divisions and took up a favorable position for
the attack, To its east, the 4th Division advanced from the assembly area to the front
and by 2 April both wings of the division
were posted along the north shore of the
Tiawir-Talisay River. The Nagano Detachment, the easternmost unit of the Japanese
advance, was already in position to carry
out its mission. Far to the west, in front of
I Corps, the 16th Division had already tied

in with the 65th Brigade and begun to make
feint attacks against General Jones's line.48
By 2 April all preparations had been completed and the Japanese could announce
publicly over the radio that they were ready
to begin "an all out offensive in Bataan." 49
"Our four groups [the 4th and 16th Divisions, the Nagano Detachment, and the
65th Brigade] have been brought into line
and on a front of 25 kilometers ten flags are
lined up," wrote General Homma on the
eve of the attack. "Artillery is plentiful.
There are also enough special guns, and
supply arrangements have been completely
prepared . . . . There is no reason why this
attack should not succeed."50
48
14th Army Opns, I, 143-44; Luzon Force Rpt

of Opns, p. 2; SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p.
49; Oster and Richards, 21st Inf (PA), p. 10,
Chunn Notebooks.
49
47
Quintard, Diary, entry of 28 Mar 42.
50

14th Army Opns, II, 17, Homma notes.
CHAPTER XXIV
The Final Japanese Offensive

Friday, 3 April, was not only the day
Homma had selected to open the offensive;
it was also a religious and national holiday
for the soldiers on both sides of the battle
line. For the Christian defenders it was the
Friday of Holy Week, and the more devout
observed the anniversary of the Crucifixion
with prayers and fasting. For the Japanese,
the 3d of April marked the anniversary of
the death of the legendary Emperor Jimmu,
the first ruler to sit on the imperial throne.
In Japan there would be religious ceremonies and feasting; on Bataan the soldiers of
Hirohito, a direct descendant of the Emperor Jimmu, would celebrate the day in
more warlike manner. If all went well, they
might gain victory in time to make the emperor's birthday, 29 April, a day of special
rejoicing.1
Capture of Mt. Samat
On Good Friday the sun rose in a cloudless sky and gave promise of another hot,
dry day so like those which had preceded
it with endless monotony. From the top of
Mt. Samat two American officers serving as
artillery observers could plainly see the
heavy Japanese guns, two to three miles
behind the line, making ready to fire. Before their view was obscured they counted
nineteen batteries of artillery and eight to
ten mortar batteries. Observers to their east
reported many more batteries of light artillery massed in close support of the infantry.2
At 0900 this large array of guns, howitzers,
and mortars, altogether almost 150 pieces,
began to register on their targets.
The Japanese began firing for effect at
1000 and continued to fire with only one
1
Japanese sources used in the preparation of this
half-hour pause until 1500, in what was unchapter include: 14th Army Opns, I, 147-50, 156doubtedly
the most devastating barrage of
63, II, Maps 12 and 13; 5th Air Gp Opns, pp. 7274; USA vs. Homma, p. 2651, testimony of Kitathe campaign, equal in intensity, many
jima; Statements of Col Oishi, 2 Oct 50, ATIS Doc
thought, to those of the first World War.3
62639, and Col Yoshida, 28 Jul 49, ATIS Doc
Simultaneously,
the bombers of the 22d
3
62642, both in Statements of Japanese Officials on
Mallone, Bataan Diary, II, 81; Ellis, 23d Inf
World War II, GHQ FEC, Mil Intel Sec, III, Air Brigade came out in force to add the
113-15, IV, 548-51.
American sources of a general nature include:
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, pp. 57-59; Luzon
Force Rpt of Opns, pp. 3-4; SLF and II Corps Rpt
of Opns, pp. 50-56; Collier, Notebooks, III, 71-74;
Quintard, Diary, entries of 3-6 Apr 42; Phil Div
Rpt of Opns, pp. 24-27; Mallone, Bataan Diary,
II, 81, 90-91. References to the detailed accounts
of operations are cited below.
Mallone, Bataan Diary, II, 81; Shoemake, 41st

FA (PA), p. 32, Chunn Notebooks; interv, author
with Maj Winston A. Jones, 41st FA (PA), 8 May
49. Shoemake and Jones were the two American
observers.
(PA), p. 14, Chunn Notebooks; ltr, Col Wetherby
to author, 22 May 51, OCMH.
422
weight of their bombs to the constant stream
of shells falling upon the defenders huddled
in their foxholes. In the 150 sorties flown
that day, General Mikami's air force
dropped more than sixty tons of bombs.
Smaller aircraft swooped low over the front
lines, strafing troops and vehicles at will,
while far above them observation planes
guided the bombers toward those batteries
brave enough to reply to the Japanese
barrage. "It was agonizing," wrote the
commander of an antiaircraft battery, "to
watch the heavies sail serenely over us,
1,000 yards beyond our maximum range." 4
The effect of the air-artillery bombardment was devastating. So violent and continuous were the explosions, so thunderous
the din that it seemed as though "all hell"
had broken loose.5 Many of the defenses so
carefully constructed during the weeks preceding the attack "were churned into a
worthless and useless mess."6 Telephone
lines and artillery positions were knocked
out. Fire spread rapidly when the cane fields
and bamboo thickets were set ablaze and
the smoke and dust lay so thick over the
battlefield that observers atop Mt. Samat
were unable to direct fire. By 1500 the
artillery and aircraft had done their work.
At that time the infantry and armor moved
out to the attack.
Penetration
The air and artillery preparation which
had begun at 1000 that morning had been
concentrated against the comparatively
narrow front on the extreme left of II Corps,
4
Maj John McM. Gulick, Memoirs of Btry C,

91st CA (PS), p. 106, copy lent to author by Major
Gulick, OCMH.
5
Quintard, Diary, entry for 3 Apr 42.

held by the troops of Sector D. It was in
this sector, commanded by General Lough,
that the American line was stretched thinnest, and it was in this sector that the Japanese first came.
Sector D extended from KP 136 on the
Pilar-Bagac road westward for about 5,000
yards to the corps boundary along the Pantingan River. Bisecting the sector front was
the Catmon River, which, with the Pantingan, offered a natural route of advance
southward. (Map 21) In addition to these
two river valleys, Sector D contained three
excellent north-south trails, two of which
connected with the main east-west trail system. The westernmost of these was Trail 29,
between the Pantingan and the Catmon.
About five miles in length, this trail ran from
the Pilar-Bagac road along the western
foothills of Mt. Samat to Trail 8, the main
east-west line of communication in II Corps.
Along the east bank of the Catmon was
Trail 6, which also began at the Pilar-Bagac
road and ran to Trail 8. East of Mt. Samat
was the third of the north-south trails in
Sector D, Trail 4. In addition to Trail 8,
lateral communication in Sector D was
provided by Trail 429. This trail ran due
east from Trail 29 to Trail 6 which it joined
until it cleared the western foothills of Mt.
Samat. At that point it branched east again,
skirting the southern edge of the mountain
6
to
meetNotebooks,
Trail 4III,
near
Collier,
71. the boundary of
Sectors D and C.
Sector D was held by two Philippine
Army divisions. On the right (east), in front
of Mt. Samat, was the 21st Division, led
by Brig. Gen. Mateo Capinpin, and next to
it, on the extreme left of the II Corps line,
was General Lim's 41st. Both divisions had
their three infantry regiments posted along
the main line of resistance which generally
paralleled the Pilar-Bagac road just south
THE FINAL JAPANESE OFFENSIVE
423
MAP 21
of the Tiawir-Talisay River. About 1,500
yards to the rear was the regimental reserve
line. With their three regiments on the line
and with the few remaining elements deployed elsewhere, both divisions would be
hard pressed if the need for reserves should
arise.
In the 21st Division area General Capinpin had placed two of his regiments, the
22d and 23d, east of the Catmon River,
with the former holding the division right

flank and tying in with Sector C to the right.
The 21st Infantry on the division left flank
held both banks of the Catmon as well as
Trail 6, which cut diagonally across the
regimental area from the right front to the
left rear. General Lim's regiments were
posted in order, with the 43d on the right,
tying in with the 21st Infantry, the 42d in
the center, and the 41st holding down the
424
division and sector flank along the Pantingan. Across the river, on the extreme
right of the I Corps line, was the 2d Philippine Constabulary.
Against this front the Japanese had
massed the entire force committed to the
assault, the 65th Brigade and the 4th Division both heavily reinforced. With the exception of one battalion west of the Pantingan, all of General Nara's reinforced
brigade was concentrated before the 42d
Infantry where Trail 29 joined the PilarBagac road. The Right Wing of the 4th
Division, led by General Taniguchi and
consisting of tanks, the 61st Infantry, a
battalion of the 8th Infantry, plus supporting and service elements, had taken up a
position north of the Tiawir, opposite the
center of Sector D, and was poised to strike
down Route 6 and the Catmon River valley.
The division's Left Wing (8th Infantry),
which was not scheduled to attack until the
5th, was farther to the east and north,
facing the two right regiments of the 21st
Division.
At 1500, when the air and artillery
bombardment shifted south, the 65th
Brigade and Taniguchi's Right Wing
moved out to the assault. Nara's troops on
the left (west) bank of the north-flowing
Pantingan, supported by heavy mortar fire,
pushed hard against the 2d Philippine Constabulary to reach the I Corps main line
of resistance. Though it was unable to penetrate the I Corps line, this force, a reinforced battalion, presented a real threat to
Jones's right flank and prevented him from
coming to the aid of the adjacent units in
Parker's corps. Nara's main effort, however,
was made against II Corps. Here, the bulk
of his brigade, led by tanks, pushed down
against the center of the 41st Division and
by late afternoon reached the 42d Infantry

main line of resistance, where, according to
plans, it should have halted. The Japanese
had expected to meet opposition there, but
the line was not occupied, whereupon Nara
ordered his men to continue southward
along Trail 29. By nightfall the brigade had
scored an advance of about 1,000 yards.
Taniguchi's force to the left (east), led
by tanks of the 7th Tank Regiment, crossed
the Tiawir just north of the boundary between, the 43d and 21st Infantry, in the
center of Sector D. Two 37-mm. antitank
guns had been emplaced here to oppose a
crossing, but they had been put out of action by the heavy bombardment earlier in
the day. Once across the river Taniguchi
led his men against the main line of resistance. After desultory fire the Filipinos scattered and Taniguchi advanced without
difficulty. Before halting for the night he
had taken his men about 1,000 yards down
Trail 6. The Japanese advance for the first
day of the attack exceeded even their most
optimistic estimates.7
The lack of opposition to the Japanese
advance on the afternoon of 3 April was
due entirely to the effects of the air and artillery bombardment earlier that day on the
hungry and weakened troops of the 41st
Division. It was upon this division that the
weight of the shells and bombs had fallen
and in its area that the damage had been
greatest. Dazed and demoralized by the in7
The account of action in the 41st Division sector is based on the American and Japanese sources
cited at the beginning of the section and upon the
following records of the 41st Division: Fortier, 41st
Div (PA) Rpt of Opns, pp. 5-6, copy in OCMH;
Fortier, Notes on 41st Div (PA), pp. 12-14, 91;
Shoemake, 41st FA (PA), pp. 32-33, and Lt Max
Kissel, Hist of 42d Inf (PA), 3-9 Apr 42, p. 29,
both in Chunn Notebooks; Wetherby, Opns of 41st
Inf (PA), 2-10 Apr 42, in Fortier, Notes on 41st
Div (PA), pp. 164-69; ltr, Wetherby to author, 22
May 51, OCMH; interv, author with Maj Jones,
41st FA (PA), 8 May 49.

tensity of the five-hour-long artillery concentration and the ferocity of the strafing
and bombing attacks, choked and blinded
by the smoke and dust, literally burned out
of their positions by the brush fires which
sprang up everywhere along the front lines,
the Filipinos had fled south in disorganized
and unruly mobs. Nothing and no one could
stop them. When one officer ordered some
of his men back into the line, they "stared
dumbly" at him and continued on their way
to the rear.8 Even before the Japanese tankinfantry attack had begun to roll, the 41st
Division had ceased to exist as an effective
military organization.
The units most affected by the bombardment and the assault were the 42d and 43d
Infantry. The first, in the center of the division front where bamboo fires burned
fiercely, had retreated in a disorderly fashion, some of the men following Trail 29 into
the 41st Infantry area, and others drifting
eastward to join the retreating 43d on the
western slopes of Mt. Samat. Only the 41st
Infantry on the extreme left of the line,
which had escaped the full weight of the
preliminary bombardment, had withdrawn
in an orderly fashion. Augmented by a continuous stream of stragglers from the 42d,
the regiment had fallen back to its regimental reserve line near the junction of
Routes 29 and 429 and held firmly there all
afternoon. Early in the evening, on the basis
of misunderstood or garbled orders, the regiment began to move south toward Trail 8.
The 21st Division had also suffered heavily from the day's bombardment, but only
its westernmost element, the left battalion
of the two-battalion 21st Infantry, had
broken. Posted in front of the Pilar-Bagac
road, on the west bank of the Catmon River,
8
Lt Henry Harris, Hist, 41st Engineer Bn (PA),
p. 34, Chunn Notebooks.
425
this battalion stood in the path of Taniguchi's powerful Right Wing, and when the
enemy tanks appeared the Filipinos, "shattered by incessant shelling and bombing,
weak from dysentery, malaria, and malnutrition," fled to the rear.9 The right battalion
of the regiment, however, held firm. Hurriedly organizing the scattered elements of
the left battalion, the regimental commander, Lt. Col. William A. Wappenstein,
was able by nightfall to re-establish his line
with a refused left flank along the east bank
of the Catmon.
News of the rout of the 41st Division and
the disintegration of the corps left flank
reached General Parker, the corps commander, late in the afternoon of Good Friday. The danger was immediate and compelling and he quickly released the only unit
he had in reserve, the 33d Infantry (PA),
less the 1st Battalion, to General Lough,
commander of Sector D. The regiment, led
by Maj. Stanley Holmes, moved out at dusk,
under orders to establish a defensive position
across Trail 6 between Mt. Samat and the
Catmon River by morning of the 4th.
Sector D headquarters, too, took prompt
measures to stem the rout of the 41st Division and set up a line in front of the advancing Japanese. The 42d Infantry, hopelessly
disorganized and scattered, it apparently
wrote off as a total loss, but General Lough
9
thought
there
still
O'Day, 21st
Div was
(PA),
II, a5.chance to salvage
the shattered 43d and use it against the Japanese. On the evening of the 3d he sent Col.
Malcolm V. Fortier, senior instructor of the
41st Division, northward to help reorganize
the regiment and lead it back up the Catmon valley to a position west of the 33d
Infantry. Later that night, the sector G-3,
Col. Robert J. Hoffman, learning that the
41st Infantry had retreated to the junction
426
of Trails 29 and 8, sent the regiment back

along Trail 29 with orders to occupy the
vance were only partially successful. When
regimental reserve line. Thus, by the morning of the 4th, if all went well, there would
be three regiments, the 41st, 43d, and 33d,
in position to oppose a Japanese advance
remnants of the 42d Infantry on the western slopes of Mt. Samat on the night of
the 3d, he found the men still bewildered
and demoralized. American officers had
sought vainly to calm them and restore some
semblance of order, and Fortier was able to
round up only several hundred men from
the two regiments. After the men had been
served hot coffee, they started advancing
along the trail in the darkness toward their
new position west of the Catmon River.
There was no difficulty with the 41st Infantry. This regiment, which Colonel Hoffman had ordered forward on the night of
3-4 April, reached its former regimental
reserve line between Trail 29 and the Pantingan River without incident by 0930 of
the 4th.
south along the Pantingan and Catmon

valleys.
Homma's original plan had been a cautious one, calling for a limited advance on
4 April to gain positions from which to
launch the drive on Mt. Samat. But the
unexpected success of the first day's action
justified a bolder course and on the evening
of the 3d he ordered the 4th Division
and the 65th Brigade to disregard earlier
orders and to continue their advance toward Mt. Samat next day. Their attack
would be preceded by a co-ordinated air
and artillery bombardment almost equal in
intensity to that which had preceded the
Good Friday attack.
When Homma's orders reached them,
both commanders quickly revised their
plans and prepared to attack the next morning. The 65th Brigade on the west would
continue its drive south up the Pantingan
valley, on both sides of the river. The 4th
Division's Right Wing would advance along
the line of the Catmon River, and the 7th
Tank Regiment east along the Pilar-Bagac
road. Colonel Morita's Left Wing, which
had not been in action on the first day of
the offensive, would cross the Tiawir-Talisay River in front of the right half of Sector
D, the area held by the 22d and 23d Infantry, during the morning. Once across the
river it would pause to reorganize, then attack in force at about noon, at the same
time that Taniguchi's infantry moved out
to the assault.
American plans to place three infantry
regiments in the path of the Japanese ad-
Colonel Fortier reached the 43d and the
Major Holmes's 33d Infantry, numbering about 600 men, had begun its march
west along the section of Trail 429 which
extended south of Mt. Samat early on the
evening of the 3d.10 The men, many of
whom had just risen from sick beds, moved
slowly in the darkness, passing large numbers of stragglers pouring back to the rear.
"Few had arms of any kind. . . . Few even
had packs . . .," wrote Capt. Robert M.
Chapin, 3d Battalion commander. "I asked
several what unit they were from but they
just looked at me blankly and wandered
on." 11 When the regiment turned north on
Trail 6, the stream of stragglers ended and
the advance was more rapid. At a zigzag
about a mile north of the intersection Major
10
In addition to the general sources cited, the
account of the 33d Infantry (PA) is based upon:
Maj Holmes, Hist, 33d Inf ( P A ) , p. 27A, and
Harris, 41st Engineer Bn ( P A ) , p. 34, both in
Chunn Notebooks; Chapin, Hist of 33d Inf (PA),
3-9 Apr 42, pp. 1-4, 9, OCMH.
11
Chapin, Hist of 33d Inf (PA), p. 3.
427
Holmes found a platoon of the 41st Engineer Battalion busily constructing tank obstacles and decided to set up his line there,
in position to block the Japanese advance in
the Catmon valley. By dawn the regiment
was deployed in depth across the trail with
flank guards out to warn of an unexpected
attack.
Filipinos withdrew to a new line about 600

yards to the rear. Here they held until 1700
when the 65th Brigade moved around their
unprotected right flank, threatening to take
them from the rear. For the second time
that day the 41st withdrew, this time to a
point about 1,000 yards farther south,
where it established a semicircular position
on the Pantingan River with the arc facing
east, just short of Trail 29. Though its own

position was more secure, the regiment
The Japanese resumed the offensive on could no longer block General Nara's route
the morning of 4 April with another heavy south along Trail 29.
The advance of the 4th Division against
artillery preparation, co-ordinated with
bombing and strafing attacks by the 22d Air the center and right elements of Sector D
Brigade. The first salvos passed over the 33d met with the same success that attended
Infantry astride Trail 6 to fall on the luck- Nara's efforts that day. Arrayed against the
less men of the 42d and 43d Infantry about center of the line was General Taniguchi's
a mile to the south. Again they stampeded, Right Wing, strongly supported by the
heading back along Trail 6 "for all they armor of the 7th Tank Regiment. This force
were worth." Until they reached the junc- opened its attack at about 0830 of the 4th
tion of Trails 6 and 8, about 4,500 yards to with an armored thrust across the Tiawir
the south, that evening, wrote Colonel For- River to the Pilar-Bagac road. Having
tier, "we could do nothing to stop them." 12 gained the road, the tanks moved eastward
Thus, even before the Japanese infantry to strike the refused left flank of the 21st
had moved out, one third of the force ex- Infantry. The main line of resistance in this
pected to hold the Pantingan and Catmon area ran in front of the Pilar-Bagac road,
with the result that the advancing armor
valleys had given way.
turned
the defender's line and penetrated
The advance of the 65th Brigade in the
to
the
rear
of his positions.
Pantingan valley met with little serious opThe
21st
Division, hurt badly by the
position. Only the 41st Infantry, now back
morning's
bombardment,
was ill prepared
on its original reserve line between Trail 29
and the Pantingan River, stood in its way. to meet the attack. On the left the 21st InShortly after 0930, after Japanese planes fantry fell back in disorder before the crushhad strafed the trail to clear the way for the ing attack of the Japanese tanks. The 23d
infantry advance, Nara's men hit the front on the right bent back its exposed flank, ofand right of the 41st Infantry line. Unable fering protection to the retreating men of
to stand against the weight of the assault the 21st. The entire attack lasted for only
and in danger of being outflanked, the a short time and at its conclusion, even
The Disintegration of Sector D
12
Fortier, 41st Div ( P A ) Rpt of Opns, p. 6.

The Japanese that day flew 133 sorties and dropped
a total of 87 tons of bombs on II Corps alone. 5th
Air Gp Opns, p. 73.
before his infantry had moved into action,

Taniguchi was in control of both banks of
the Catmon River and the area formerly
occupied by the 43d and 21st Infantry.
428
General Lough's troops now held only about
one-third of the original main line of resistance in Sector D.13
That same morning the third column of
the Japanese assaulting force, the Left
Wing of the 4th Division, composed of
Colonel Morita's reinforced 8th Infantry
(less one battalion), entered the action for
the first time. Jumping off from the north
bank of the Tiawir-Talisay, opposite the 23d
and 22d Infantry (the only two units in
Sector D still on the main line of resistance),
Morita's men crossed the river under cover
of artillery and air support at about 0900,
occupied the line of departure, and prepared to attack south later in the day. The
23d Infantry, already under pressure from
the tank column to the west, and now threatened by a strong force on its front, began to
fall back at about 1000. The 22d, on the
division and sector right flank, followed
suit soon after, thus completing the withdrawal of the last unit from the sector main
line of resistance.
Though the Japanese had already scored
important gains, neither of the 4th Division's two columns had yet begun the day's
offensive. The advance of the Right Wing's
tanks along the Pilar-Bagac road and the
Left Wing's main force across the Tiawir
had been designed to secure positions from
which the infantry would jump off at noon.
At 1100 General Taniguchi asked for an
hour's grace, explaining that he needed
more time to prepare after the rapid advance of the day before. This request was
readily granted.
13
This account of action in the 21st Division area
is based upon the general sources cited in note 1
and upon the following records dealing with the
21st Division ( P A ) : O'Day, 21st Div ( P A ) , I,
Part 2, 4-6, II, 40-42; Capt J. C. Ellis, 23d Inf

Colonel Morita, too, was directed to hold
up his attack for an hour so that both wings
would move out simultaneously. These new
instructions never reached Morita, however,
for the American artillery had cut his telephone lines, and promptly at noon he began
the attack. Japanese artillery, unaware of
Morita's assault, laid down a barrage in the
area into which the Left Wing was moving,
firing "at both friendly and enemy units
simultaneously ." 14 Fortunately for the Japanese cause, Morita's men suffered few casualties and a disaster was narrowly averted.
Aside from this misadventure, the advance
of the Left Wing was uneventful. The 22d
and 23d Infantry had already abandoned
the main line of resistance and Morita's 8th
Infantry continued south for about one mile
before halting for the night.
At 1300 the Right Wing moved out,
crossing the Catmon and pushing southeast
through the area abandoned by the 21st
Infantry earlier in the day. By nightfall it
had reached the northern foothills of Mt.
Samat.
Untouched by the Japanese attack of the
4th was the 33d Infantry at the zigzag on
Trail 6, west of Mt. Samat. What artillery
fire it received during the day was not directed at it specifically but was intended to
neutralize the area on Taniguchi's right
flank. The Japanese seemed to be unaware
of the regiment's existence, and Holmes,
though he sent out patrols to the north, east,
and west, had little knowledge of the situation along the front. Aside from the few
stragglers who came down the road and a
battalion of the 41st Field Artillery some
distance to his right rear, on the south slopes
14
Statement of Col Oishi, 2 Oct 50, ATIS Doc
(PA), p. 14, and Oster and Richards, 21st Inf 62639, Statements of Japanese Officials on World
War II, GHQ FEC, Mil Intel Sec, III, 114.
(PA), p. 10, both in Chunn Notebooks.
429
of Mt. Samat near Trail 6, the regiment

was alone.
At the end of the day's action, the Japanese were in possession of the entire main
line of resistance in Sector D. The 41st Division had been routed and the 21st forced
back to the reserve line in front of Mt.
Samat, its left flank hanging in the air. The
65th Brigade had pushed south up the Pantingan valley, twice outflanked the 41st Infantry, and now stood ready to march unimpeded down Trail 29. The 4th Division had
taken the 21st Division on its left flank,
forced it off the main line of resistance, and
then launched a co-ordinated flank and
frontal assault to gain control of the Catmon valley. The Japanese were now one
day ahead of schedule and in position to
storm the heights of Mt. Samat, the first
objective of the offensive begun on the
morning of Good Friday.
Nagano Detachment to prepare for an attack against Orion.15

The regrouping of the 4th Division for
the attack against Mt. Samat was accomplished with little difficulty on the night of
4-5 April. General Taniguchi, taking his
tanks and one battalion of the 61st Infantry,
moved over to the Left Wing. Reorganized
and strengthened, this wing became the
main striking force of the 4th Division.
Command of the Right Wing, reduced to
less than one regiment, the 61st, plus attached troops, passed to Col. Gempachi
Sato. Division artillery moved south of the
Talisay to provide the necessary support for
the infantry advance, and the 37th Infantry, in division reserve, took up a position
behind the Left Wing. It was the Left Wing
under Taniguchi which was to make the
main effort down Trail 4 next morning.
Sato's wing was to seize the heights of Mt.
Samat then continue down the south side
of the mountain to the line of the Tala
River, the jumping-off point for the next
attack.
At dawn, 5 April, the Japanese resumed
their devastating air and artillery bombardment. It was Easter Sunday and many of
the Americans and Filipinos were attending
dawn services "in the fastness of the jungle"
when the shells and bombs began to fall.16
For them the day of the Resurrection was
16
not
the joyous
O'Day,
21st Divoccasion
(PA), II,it4.had been in peacetime. The services, wrote one officer, had "a
serious atmosphere for us," and chaplains,
invoking divine guidance, did not fail to
ask as well for "deliverance from the power
of the enemy." 17
Easter Sunday
Homma's original plan for the seizure of
Mt. Samat had called for a regrouping of
the 4th Divisions two columns once the
northern foothills of the mountain had been
reached, shifting the strength of the division
from the right to the left wing, then attacking in force along the east slopes down Trail
4. At the same time the 65th Brigade was to
continue its drive west of Mt. Samat toward
Mariveles, while the 16th Division and the
Nagano Detachment prepared to join in the
attack against the Limay line. The only
change made in this plan as a result of the
unexpected gains won on 3 and 4 April was
to move the schedule ahead. Anticipating
an earlier attack against the Limay line
than originally planned, Homma, on the
night of the 4th, ordered the 16th Division
to move east "as soon as possible" and the
15
17
Ibid.; INS Summary 101, 5 Apr 42, AG 000.75

(4-13-42) MB. The sermon cited was delivered by
Chaplain J. K. Borneman, a Protestant.
430
The attack began at 1000 when both
columns of the 4th Division moved out. The
strengthened Left Wing, making the main
attack against the right flank of the 21st
Division, soon ran into unexpectedly stubborn resistance. The Filipinos, supported by
two battalions of the 41st Field Artillery on
the south slope of Mt. Samat and by artillery
from the adjoining sectors, put up so stiff
a fight that one Japanese officer described
it as "the fiercest combat in the second Bataan campaign." 18 Against this determined
opposition, Taniguchi's men made little
headway and by early afternoon were still
pinned down on Trail 4, far short of their
objective.
The Right Wing under Colonel Sato had
meanwhile been pushing ahead unopposed
on the exposed left flank of the 21st Division, up the northwest slopes of Mt.
Samat. Near the summit it met a single
platoon of the 21st Infantry which it easily
routed and at 1250 secured possession of
the mountain top. The position of the 41st
Field Artillery, whose fire was so effectively
pinning down General Taniguchi's Left
Wing on Trail 4, was now untenable, and
the artillerymen were forced to evacuate.
Before they did, they destroyed their equipment and rolled their guns over the cliffs.
No longer pinned down by the artillery
General Taniguchi promptly resumed the
offensive. At 1400 he sent one of his battalions across the northeast slopes of the
mountain in a flanking movement while increasing pressure on the defenders to his
front. The disorganized but hard-fighting
21st Division troops, deprived of their artillery support, were in no condition to stand
against the powerful Left Wing alone and
18
Statement of Col Oishi, 2 Oct 50, ATIS Doc
War II, GHO FEC, Mil Intel Sec, III, 114.

shortly before 1530 began to fall back. Only
scattered elements along Trail 4 barred
Taniguchi's way south and he and his men
easily pushed toward the line of the Tala
River, below Mt. Samat.
That same afternoon Sato's Right Wing
made its way unopposed down the southern
slopes of Mt. Samat. At 1630 advance elements of this force reached the command
post of the 21st Division near the junction
of Trails 4 and 429. Taken by surprise, officers and men of the headquarters took
flight, the majority moving west along Trail
429 to set up a new command post a mile
away, at the junction of that trail and Trail
6. General Capinpin, the division commander, was not among those who reached
safety; he had become separated from his
staff during the disorganized flight and been
captured by the Japanese.
Hardly had the new command post been
established when it had to be abandoned
because of the appearance at 1700 of Japanese troops near the trail junction. These
troops were a part of Sato's force which
had come down the west side of Mt. Samat
during the afternoon. After routing the 21st
Division headquarters, the Japanese hit the
remaining battalion of the 41st Field Artillery still in position west of Mt. Samat. The
artillerymen fled to the rear, leaving their
guns behind. "No Americans killed,
wounded or decorated," wrote an officer of
the battalion at the conclusion of the action.19 That night Taniguchi and Sato
joined forces at the old 21st Division command post near Trail Junction 4-429.
Between dawn of Good Friday and nightfall of Easter Sunday, in three days of infantry and tank assaults accompanied by
the largest artillery and air bombardments
19
Shoemake, 41st FA (PA), p. 33, Chunn Notebooks.

of the campaign, the Japanese had gained
the first objective in their final drive to end
the siege of Bataan. They had broken
through the American line, swept aside the
troops of Sector D, virtually destroyed two
Philippine Army divisions, and seized Mt.
Samat. Homma's hopes, twice frustrated,
of turning General Parker's flank and driving II Corps into Manila Bay, thus ending
the campaign, were near realization. Only
a successful counterattack, or an unexpectedly strong stand by a foe already reduced
to near impotence by starvation and disease, could deprive him of the long-delayed
victory.
6 April: The Day of Decision

The events of 6 April determined the fate
of the Bataan garrison. On that day the
weary American and Philippine troops
made a desperate effort to drive back the
enemy and regain the main line of resistance. At the same time the Japanese
launched a fresh offensive to the south and
east. The two forces met head on and by
evening the issue had been decided.
Plans and Preparations
Since the Japanese penetration on the

afternoon of Good Friday, the Americans
had been laying plans for a counterattack
while seeking vainly to halt the enemy advance. The means with which to launch
such an attack were extremely limited.
Corps reserve, consisting of less than one
regiment, had been committed on the first
day of the offensive without any visible
effect on the enemy's operations. Most of
the troops in Sector D had been routed and
could not be relied upon for a counterattack. By the second day of the offensive
431
it had become evident that, if the Japanese
were to be stopped and the main line of
resistance regained, fresh troops would have
to be thrown into the battle.
At the start of the attack Luzon Force had
in reserve the American 31st Infantry, the
Scouts of the 57th Infantryboth a part of
the Philippine Divisionthe Provisional
Tank Group, and two battalions of combat
engineers. The third regiment of the Philippine Division, the 45th Infantry (PS), was
in I Corps reserve. Only a few days before,
General King, the Luzon Force commander,
had ordered the 31st to Lamao, behind
II Corps, and the 45th Infantry to the junction of Trails 7 and 9, behind I Corps. The
57th remained farther south, in position to
move to the support of either corps.
When news of the Japanese attack first
reached General King on 3 April he ordered
the 31st Infantry to move under cover of
darkness to "a position of readiness" near
the junction of Trails 10 and 2.20 From there
it could move north on Trail 2 or west on
Trail 10 to almost any point along the front.
At the same time King ordered the Provisional Tank Group (less two companies) to
move to the direct support of Parker's imperiled corps. There was nothing more that
General King could do that day. Parker had
already released his reserve to the Sector D
commander and every effort was being
made to re-form the shattered 41st Division and to establish a line in front of the
advancing Japanese.
When, on the morning of 4 April, the 21st
Division fell back from the main line of resistance, General King took prompt measures to avert the threatened disaster in II
Corps. He gave to Parker, who already had
the support of the Provisional Tank Group,
the American 31st Infantry, possibly the
20
432
most carefully hoarded unit of the Philippine campaign, and ordered the battletested 45th Infantry (PS), less the 1st
Battalion, east across the Pantingan to
the junction of Trails 29 and 8 in the II
Corps area. The 57th Infantry King retained in force reserve, but ordered it to
move forward that night to the bivouac area
vacated by the 31st Infantry. The 14th Engineer Battalion (PS), part of the Philippine Division, and the Americans of the
803d Engineer Battalion (US) were ordered to discontinue all engineering activities and to assemble immediately in preparation for combat. Thus, at the end of the
second day's attack, Luzon Force had given
General Parker two regiments of the Philippine Division, placed the third in "a position of readiness" behind his line, and ordered the tanks to give him direct support.
With these forces the corps and sector
commanders made their plans for a counterattack.21 On the 4th, before the reinforcing
units had reached their designated assembly
21
In addition to the sources cited below for

specific or controversial points, this section is based
upon the following: Ltr, Doyle to Ward, 8 Jan 52,
OCMH; Diary, Col Brady, CO 31st Inf ( P A ) ,
filed in a separate folder entitled Brady Papers,
OCMH; Capt William E. W. Farrell, 31st Inf S-2,

Notes for Regtl Hist, in Brady Papers, pp. 20-21,
OCMH. Another version of the same source entitled
Farrell Diary is filed in Bluemel, 31st Div (PA)
Rpt of Opns, p. 70. Three studies prepared by students at The Infantry School were also used for
31st Infantry (US) operations: Conrad, Opns of
31st Inf (US), pp. 20-21, 24; Mead, Opns and

Mvmts of 31st Inf (US), pp. 25-26; Bess, Opns of
Service Co, 31st Inf (US), p. 29.
For armored operations, the following were used:
Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 23; Miller, Bataan
Uncensored, pp. 196-202.
Many of the sources for the counterattack disagree on times and places, and the author has
often had to adopt a reconstruction at variance with
the majority of the sources, but one which seemed
most reasonable and was in accord with those facts
which were not in dispute.

areas, Parker released to General Lough the
31st Infantry, the 45th Infantry (less the 1st
Battalion), and one company of tanks. With
these troops, and those already in his sector,
Lough was to launch a counterattack on the
morning of the 6th to regain first the reserve
line and finally the main line of resistance.
At 1600 of the 4th the 45th Infantry began its march east toward II Corps. By dawn
the next morning it had crossed the Pantingan and reached Trail Junction 8-29. The
31st Infantry and Company C, 194th Tank
Battalion, began their march north along
Trail 2 toward the battle area at 2000 of the
4th. They found the road almost completely
blocked by retreating Filipinos and took
three hours to reach the San Vicente River,
where, at an abandoned bivouac area, the
31st Infantry halted for the night. The tankers presumably camped near by and next
day marched west to join the 45th Infantry.
Easter Sunday was a hectic day at Sector
D headquarters. Between frantic phone calls
to and from units in front of the advancing
Japanese the staff prepared its plan for the
counterattack. This plan, completed late on
the afternoon of the 5th, provided for a
co-ordinated drive, starting at 0600 on the
6th, north on the three trails in Sector D
toward the reserve line. On the right, east
of Mt. Samat, the 31st Infantry would attack north on Trail 4. The remnants of the
21st Division, the extent of whose disastrous
rout that afternoon was still not fully
known at Sector D headquarters, would
advance up the slopes of Mt. Samat. The
33d Infantry, in position at the zigzag on
Trail 6, was to advance along that trail,
between the Catmon River and the western
slopes of Mt. Samat. The remnants of the
42d and 43d Infantry, about four hundred
men, were to push north from Trail Junction 6-8 along Trail 6 behind the 33d In-
433
The main effort that day would be made by

the 4th Division, one portion of which would
strike east to seize the Capot area in Sector
C while the bulk of the division pushed
southeast toward the Limay River. The
right (west) flank of the Japanese advance
would be guarded by the 65th Brigade on
Trail 29. Elements of the brigade had already moved overland toward Trail Junction 6-8, and Nara was directed to continue
his efforts to seize that important road junction while protecting the 4th Division's
right flank. The division's east flank would
be protected by the Nagano Detachment.
Reinforced with a company of tanks, Nagano was to send one column forward to
the Talisay River in position to join later in
the attack against the Limay line, while the
remainder of his detachment maintained
pressure against the enemy line across the
East Road. As before, 14th Army artillery
would fire a preliminary bombardment
while the 22d Air Brigade would strike at
enemy artillery positions, vehicles, and troop
concentrations.24
Under cover of darkness, Easter Sunday,
both sides prepared for the next day's attack. The Japanese were confident and the
odds were in their favor. For the Americans
it was a gamble, but one that had to be
taken. To it they had committed most of
their reserves. If the counterattack failed
they would be hard pressed to prevent the
enemy from rolling up the rest of the line
and driving the corps into Manila Bay.
All hopes for success rested on the com22
paratively
fresh troops of the Philippine
For the movements and preparations of the 41st
Division,
two
of whose regiments were in the
Div (PA) and 33d Inf (PA), see: Fortier, 41st Div
(PA) Rpt of Opns, p. 6; Fortier, Notes on 41st line and one in reserve. Understrength,
Div (PA), pp. 14, 15, 170-71; ltr, Wetherby to
weakened by disease and starvation, these
author, 22 May 51, OCMH: Holmes, 33d Inf
(PA), p. 27A, Chunn Notebooks; Chapin, Hist of regiments were hardly a match for the Japa-
fantry. If they could not advance they were

to hold Trail Junction 6-8, near which
Sector D headquarters was located. Farther
west, the Scouts of the 45th Infantry, supported by a company of tanks, would advance north on Trail 29 to the reserve line
formerly held by the 41st Infantry. That
regiment, which had crossed the Pantingan
to the safety of I Corps area during the day,
was directed in separate orders to re-cross the
river that night and establish a line across
Trail 29.22
For the counterattack General Lough
would have the support of the troops in
Sector C to his right. The 51st Combat
Team, on that sector's left flank, would
launch its own attack when the 31st Infantry reached its line. General Bluemel,
the Sector C commander, also promised
artillery support in addition to the scheduled 30-minute artillery barrage preceding
the counterattack.23 In sector reserve General Lough had the 57th Infantry (PS),
recently released by Luzon Force. Elements
of that regiment were already moving toward the San Vicente River, behind the
31st Infantry.
General Homma had no intention of waiting passively for an American counterattack.
He had the initiative and had scored a victory which he intended to exploit fully. His
plans for 6 April called for an attack against
Sector C, which now formed the left flank
of II Corps line, and a continuation of the
drive southward toward the Limay River.
33d Inf (PA), p. 10.

23
24
434
nese. The 31st Infantry, when it moved out yards east of the original starting position.27
from its bivouac area at Lamao on 3 April, The regiment now would have to recapture
had to leave behind about one third of the Trail Junction 4-429 before it could even
men for evacuation to the hospital. Many begin its counterattack along Trail 4.
On the evening of the 5th the regiment
who should have remained behind rose from
their sick beds to join their comrades. Along moved out from its bivouac near the San
the line of march, men fell out of rank, too Vicente River toward its new assembly area,
exhausted to continue. The efficiency of with the 1st Battalion in the lead. The batthose who reached the front line could not talion's mission was to secure Trail 44 from
have been more than 50 percent.25 It is not its starting point on Trail 2 to its junction
surprising, therefore, that General Wain- with Trail 429, a distance of about 1,300
wright, when he visited Bataan on the 5th, yards. The remaining battalions were to
approved the plans for the morrow's pass through the 1st, the 2d taking position
counterattack "with misgivings as to the west of the trail junction and the 3d to the
south. As it passed through the 1st Battalion
outcome."26
shortly after midnight, the 2d Battalion
came under fire from the Japanese who had
The American Counterattack
secured Trail Junction 4-429 and were adThe mission of the 31st Infantry in the vancing along Trail 429 toward the 31st
counterattack of the 6th was to advance Infantry's new assembly area. If unchecked
north on Trail 4, east of Mt. Samat, to the they might seize Trail Junction 44-429
reserve line of the 21st Division. The regi- too, depriving the Americans of even this
ment, in position at the intersection of the jump-off point. Lt. Col. Jasper E. Brady,
San Vicente River and Trail 2 when it re- Jr., now commander of the 31st Infantry,
ceived its orders, was to move to Trail Junc- ordered his 2d Battalion to press forward
tion 4-429, the designated jump-off point, quickly to occupy this last trail junction besometime during the evening of the 5th and fore the Japanese. The battalion accommove out from there at 0600 the next plished its mission, but only with difficulty
and after a fight lasting several hours.28
morning.
Almost immediately this plan miscarried.
27
Trail 44 extended from the intersection of
Late on the afternoon of the 5th General Route
2 and the San Vicente River southward along
Taniguchi's powerful Left Wing, advancing the west bank of the river to Trail 8.
28
In addition to the sources cited in the precedsouth on Trail 4, had routed the 21st Diviing section, this account is based upon: Amato
sion elements along the trail and Colonel and Murphy, 2d Bn, 45th Inf (PS), pp. 14-15,
Sato's Right Wing had hit the division com- Croom, Hist, 3d Bn, 45th Inf (PS), pp. 15-16, and
mand post on Trail Junction 4-429. When Anderson, 57th Inf (PS) Opns, p. 6, all three in
Chunn Notebooks; Lt Col Joaquin Esperitu, Brief
informed of these events, sector headquar- Hist of 22d Inf (PA), p. 8; ltr, C. A. McLaughlin
to author, 14 Jun 49, OCMH; Col Young, CO 51st
ters changed the 31st Infantry's jump-off
Combat Team, Opns of 51st Combat Team, in
point to Trail Junction 44-429, about 1,300 Bluemel,
31st Div (PA) Rpt of Opns, p. 23; Capt
25
Mead, Opns and Mvmts of 31st Inf (US), pp.

25-26; Conrad, Opns of 31st Inf (US), pp. 20-21;
Bess, Opns of Service Co, 31st Inf (US), p. 29.
26
Robert A. Barker, Opns of

(PA), Brady Papers, pp.
[CO 21st Inf] to TAG PA,
of 21st Inf ( P A ) , copy
Bataan Diary, II, 90.
Antitank Co, 31st Inf

13-14, OCMH; ltr,
30 Dec 45, sub: Opns
in OCMH; Mallone,
435
While this action was in progress, the

main body of Taniguchi's Left Wing was
attacking the remnants of the 21st Division
on Trail 4. Encircled and isolated, the Filipinos sought desperately to break through
the Japanese ring and make their way back
to safety. Most were killed or captured, but
some escaped. Of these a small number
reached the American lines. The news they
brought of the disintegration of the 21st
Division and the strength of the Japanese
on Trail 4 was disquieting. On the basis of
these reports Colonel Brady concluded that
his regiment of about 800 men, most of
them in poor condition, was faced by a
much stronger force than had been thought.
Even if he could launch a successful counterattack he doubted that he could hold any
gains made with the few men he had. He
therefore halted his men until he had presented his conclusions to General Lough.
Unable to reach Sector D headquarters by
telephone, he sent Lt. Col. Peter D. Calyer,
his operations officer, together with some of
the 21st Division men, in a jeep to General
Lough's command post to present these new
facts and to get further instructions.29
Not long after Calyer had left, the main
force of Taniguchi's Left Wing approached
the 31st Infantry outposts on Trail 429. The
situation was urgent and Brady again
sought to reach sector headquarters by telephone. This time he was successful and soon
had General Lough's G-3 on the line. Informed of the situation, the G-3 changed
Brady's orders and assigned the 31st Infantry a defensive mission. Instead of attacking,
the regiment was to hold Trail Junction 44429 at all costs. A short time later Colonel
Calyer returned from sector headquarters

with written confirmation of the new orders.
On receipt of these orders Brady pulled
back the tired men, who had been trying
29
Brady, Diary, entry of 6 Apr 42, and Farrell,
Notes for Regtl Hist, pp. 20-21, both in Brady
Papers, OCMH.
all night to advance west along Trail 429

toward the original jump-off point, and issued new orders for the establishment of a
defensive line facing west across the trail
junction. The 1st Battalion would take up a
position on the right (north) and the 2d on
the left. Contact by patrol would be maintained with the 51st Combat Team to the
north, on the refused left flank of Sector C.

Regimental headquarters and the reserve 3d
Battalion would take up a position about a
mile to the east near the former bivouac
area at the intersection of Trail 2 and the
San Vicente River. By morning these moves
had been completed and the men of the 31st
Infantry settled down to hold the trail junction.
On the west, along the line of the Pantingan, the counterattack of 6 April got off
to a good start. Shortly after midnight, 5
April, the 300 men of the 41st Infantry

moved out from their position on the west
bank of the Pantingan, climbed the 300-foot
bluffs of the river and struck east toward
Trail 29. Their aim was to establish a
line across the trail, about 200 yards
below Trail Junction 29-429, to which

the Scouts of the 45th Infantry could
advance the next morning. At about 0200
the 41st Infantry reached its former bivouac
area, occupied by a small number of men
from the 65th Brigade, and succeeded in
routing the surprised Japanese, bayoneting
those who lay asleep. The regiment then
pushed ahead and reached the trail by daybreak. There it was met and halted by a
65th Brigade counterattack. The Japanese,

whose strength finally reached that of a re-
436
on the trail fell back so quickly that the

Scouts pushed into the breach before the
tanks could move up. It was fortunate that
they did for the trail had been heavily mined
and a tank advance might have proved
disastrous.
Despite his success, Colonel Doyle was
uneasy. Patrols sent out to establish contact
with I Corps to the west and the 33d Infantry to the east had either failed to return
or reported they had met only enemy units.
It was now late afternoon and Colonel Doyle
decided that it was too risky to continue the
advance as long as his flanks were unprotected. He therefore halted his men and
ordered them to dig in for the night. With
his executive officer and the tank commander, he went back to his command post
in the rear to report to General Lough and
ask for instructions. When reached on the
telephone, Lough confirmed Doyle's decision and ordered him to consolidate his
gains that evening in preparation for a fresh
attack the next morning. Several thousand
yards to the north, in position along the high
bluffs of the Pantingan, the men of the 41st
Infantry were still waiting for the Scouts to
reach them.
It was in the center, along the line of the
Catmon River and Trail 6, that the counterattack of 6 April ended disastrously. There
the plan called for an advance by the 33d
Infantry, backed up by the remnants of the
42d and 43d Infantry. But the Japanese had
begun moving into this area the day before,
and on the 5th General Nara had sent the
bulk of his brigade overland in two columns
to seize Trail Junction 6-8. A portion of
this force had struck the "hungry, spiritless"
30
stragglers of the 42d and 43d as they were
Wetherby, Opns of 41st Inf (PA), in Fortier,
Notes on 41st Div (PA), pp. 171-72; ltr, Wetherby moving north on Trail 6 to join in the counto author, 22 May 51, OCMH. Japanese sources
terattack. At the first sign of the enemy, the
do not mention the action of the 41st Infantry
men had broken and fled. All efforts to put
(PA).
inforced battalion, hit the Filipinos on three

sides and by noon had forced them back to
a defensive line along the river. Here the
41st Infantry held, hoping that the 45th
Infantry, attacking north along Trail 29,
would soon arrive.30
The counterattack of the 45th Infantry
(less 1st Battalion) had begun at 0200 of
the 6th. At that time the regiment, with the
3d Battalion in the lead, had moved out to
the line of departure. From there, the Scouts
had advanced cautiously along Trail 29 in
the dark. Company C, 194th Tank Battalion, supporting the attack, did not catch
up with the Scouts until daylight, after an
all-night march over the mountains from the
east. It was not until midmorning that the
regiment made contact with the enemy
when it pushed aside the 65th Brigade outposts. Resistance thereafter was stronger and
early in the afternoon the Scouts had to beat
off a flanking attack. The tanks, held to the
trail by the dense undergrowth on each side,
could be of little assistance. At about 1500,
after an advance of approximately 2,500
yards, the regiment came to a halt before
a strong Japanese position astride the trail.
The 45th Infantry had been under heavy
enemy mortar fire all day but, with a limited
supply of shells, had refrained from returning fire. At this point the Scout commander,
Colonel Doyle, decided to use half of the
3d Battalion's ten 81-mm. shells to open a
hole in the Japanese line through which the
tanks could thrust. The tank commander
agreed to this plan and later in the afternoon
the mortars opened fire. The few shots
proved surprisingly effective. The Japanese
437
them back in place were fruitless; they

simply disappeared into the jungle, leaving
the vital Trail Junction 6-8 open to the advancing Japanese. The 33d Infantry, like
the 41st, waited in vain for the counterattacking troops to reach it. During the afternoon the 33d, too, came under attack and
its last communications to the rear were destroyed. Presumed lost, the regiment spent
the night in fearful apprehension of an enemy attack the next morning.
Before the day was over it was already
evident that the carefully planned counterattack was a failure. On the east the 31st
Infantry had not even been able to reach
the line of departure. The 21st Division,
routed on the night of 5-6 April, made no
effort to carry out its part of the plan to restore the line. In the center the 42d and 43d
had again been routed and the 33d Infantry
surrounded. Only on the west, along Trail
29, had the Americans met with any success
that day. But the victory was a hollow one,
for the 41st Infantry was still cut off and the
Japanese were threatening a move which
would isolate the 45th from the rest of the
troops in Sector D.
Nara's advance on the 6th, though not

a part of the main drive planned for that
day, proved far more decisive than the
Japanese had thought. His two columns
advancing overland in a southeasterly direction from Trail 29 hit and routed the
42d and 43d Infantry with no difficulty.
The Japanese kept going down Trail 6 and
shortly after noon advance elements of the
brigade reached and seized Trail Junction
6-8 where General Lough had his headquarters. By this move the Japanese bisected Sector D and cut General Lough off
from his forces to the east.
Just east of the trail junction was a portion of the 57th Infantry (PS). This regiment, sector reserve for the counterattack,
was in the process of moving up to the front
line when its 1st Battalion met General
Nara's forward elements around noon. The
arrival of the 2d Battalion later in the day
coincided with the arrival of additional
troops from the 65th Brigade. Any chance
of regaining the trail junction was now
gone; the Scouts were finding it difficult
even to maintain their position east of the
trail junction. The situation was extremely
serious and at 1600 General Lough, who
had moved his command post west to the
vicinity of Trail Junction 8-29, ordered
Colonel Doyle to withdraw his 45th Infantry along Trail 29 and establish contact
with the 57th Infantry.
Colonel Doyle, whose men had made the
only gains of the day, had only a short time
before halted his men and ordered them to
dig in for the night. He now had to move
the tired Scouts out of their position, turn
them around, and march them back to the
point from which they had started at 0200
the night before. That prospect alone was
discouraging enough but at the conclusion
The Japanese Attack

The Japanese attack on 6 April, which
began simultaneously with the American
counterattack, accomplished decisive results.
This attack, made by the 4th Division and
65th Brigade, had a double objective: to
seize the high ground in Sector C, near Capot, and to push forward to the line of the
Limay River. The task of the 65th Brigade
was a subordinate one. It was to protect the
right flank of the 4th Division drive while
seizing the high ground near Trail Junction 6-8.
438
of the march they were expected to continue east along Trail 8, then fight their
way through the roadblock at Trail Junction 6-8 to re-establish contact with the
57th Infantry. Until they did, General
Lough and his forces west of the block
would be separated from the rest of Sector
D and from II Corps.
The attack of the 4th Division against

Sector C, the main Japanese effort of the
6th, was equally disastrous to the American
cause. This sector, whose main line of resistance at the start of the Japanese offensive
had extended for 4,500 yards eastward from
Sector D, had by 6 April given way on the
left. On the 4th, on orders from corps, General Bluemel had pulled back his outpost
line to the Pilar-Bagac road and prepared
for an attack against his left flank. This
attack had not materialized, but when the
21st Division had fallen back before Taniguchi's Left Wing on the 5th, leaving the
left flank of Sector C exposed, General Bluemel had requested permission to fall behind
the San Vicente River. Plans for the counterattack had already been made and corps
turned down Bluemel's request, ordering
him instead to bring his left flank unit, the
51st Combat Team, back to the Pilar River,
thus refusing his line sharply.
Bluemel's desire to fall back to the San
Vicente River was an understandable one.
That river formed a natural obstacle to the
advance of an enemy moving, as the Japanese were, in a southeasterly direction. It
cut diagonally across the rear of Sector C to
the right of the sector main line of resistance,
then turned east to Orion and the bay. Behind its banks a line could be formed which
would protect the most vital portion of the
corps main line of resistance covering the
East Road, as. well as Trails 8 and 2. If it
should prove necessary to fall back, there

were other rivers, the Mamala, the Alangan,
and the Lamao, which would provide natural defensive positions for a planned withdrawal.
The abortive counterattack by the 31st
Infantry had begun in Sector C, at the intersection of the San Vicente River and Trail 2.
By morning of the 6th that regiment had
established a line facing north and west
across Trail Junction 44-429, maintaining
contact by patrol with the refused left flank
of the 51st Combat Team to the north. It
was in this area that the Japanese attack
came.
When he received his orders on the night
of the 5th to seize the area around Capot,
General Kitano, the 4th Division commander, was already convinced that his
troops had scored a major success. He decided therefore to commit his reserve, the
37th Infantry (less one battalion), to this
new enterprise rather than weaken his main
force on Trail 4. Convinced also, by the experience of the 65th Brigade in its attacks
against Sector C in late January and early
February, that a frontal assault would be
hazardous, he decided upon a flanking attack. Orders to Col. Jiro Koura, therefore,
specified that the 37th Infantry, reinforced
with tanks, artillery, and engineers, would
step off from the northeast foothills of Mt.
Samat and strike the sharply refused left
flank of Sector C in an effort to take the
objective from the rear.
At 1030 of the 6th Colonel Koura's force,
led by six or seven tanks of the 7th Tank
Regiment, jumped off. The tanks hit the
main line of resistance from the north, just
above Trail 2 where a portion of the Antitank Company of the 31st Infantry (US)
was posted. Heavy fire from two 37-mm.
guns halted the tank attack, but the guns,
lacking armor-piercing shells, were unable

to knock out the enemy tanks. But this was
not the main Japanese effort. The bulk of
Koura's infantry had struck from the west
against the 51st Combat Team in place behind the Pilar River. Before the morning
was over, they had overrun the 51st Engineers and forced the entire line back. Trail
2 now lay open to the advancing Japanese
and the entire left of Sector C was imperiled.
The main force of the 4th Division, meanwhile, had been increasing its pressure
against the 31st Infantry (US) guarding
Trail Junction 44-429 to the south. Here
Taniguchi's men, advancing east along
Trail 429, had been pushing strongly against
the 2d Battalion on the left (south) in an
effort to turn the American flank and get
behind Sector C. By 1400 the pressure had
become so great that Colonel Brady had to
commit Companies L and K from his reserve battalion to the threatened flank.
Enemy planes, which had been overhead
all day, now intensified their attacks while
the Japanese infantry pushed ever harder.
Finally, at 1500, when he had lost all contact with the withdrawing 51st Combat
Team to the north, Colonel Brady gave the
order to withdraw.
The possibility of a withdrawal had been
foreseen by sector headquarters. Brady's
first orders had been to hold the trail junction at all costs. Around noon General
Lough had modified these orders to allow
Brady to withdraw if necessary to the San
Vicente. At 1500, therefore, the regiment
began to move to its new position behind
the river, with the two reserve companies
covering the withdrawal. The maneuver
was a difficult one for the tired men, many
of whom were too weak to carry their machine guns through the jungle and up the
steep ravines. Companies L and K, using
to good advantage their small supply of
439
81-mm. mortar shells, succeeded in disengaging the enemy and rejoined the regiment which by nightfall was in its new
position. There was nothing now to prevent
a juncture between Taniguchi's men and the
37th Infantry advancing south on Trail 2.
By 1600 of the 6th it was evident that a
line in front of the San Vicente could not
be held and at that time General Parker
directed a general withdrawal to the river.
Bluemel, who had three times before requested permission to pull back to the San
Vicente, was given command of the 31st
Infantry and the 3d Battalion, 57th, and
directed to establish his line along the river's
east bank.
From the main line of resistance in
Sector B, the new line would extend in
a southwesterly direction through Sector C
to link up with the 57th Infantry troops
facing the Japanese on Trail Junction 6-8.
On the north, to the left of Sector B, was
the 32d Infantry (PA). Next to it, across
Trail 2, were the remaining elements of the
51st Combat Team and some 31st Division
(PA) troops. Below the trail was the
American 31st Infantry with the 31st Engineer Battalion (PA) to its left. The 3d
Battalion, 57th Infantry, under Major
Johnson, which moved up to the San
Vicente on the night of the 6th, took up a
position on the left of the engineers, on the
south flank.
Southwest of this line, east of Trail Junction 6-8, was the rest of the 57th Infantry.
In the same order which established the San
Vicente line, Parker placed all the Sector D
troops east of Trail 6 under Col. Edmund J.
Lilly, Jr., the 57th commander, and gave
him the 201st and 202d Engineer Battalions
(PA) from corps reserve. Lilly's mission was
to recapture the trail junction and establish
contact with the 45th Infantry to the west.
440
The two engineer battalions were to move
up that night and take a position on the
right of the 1st and 2d Battalions of the
57th, to tie in Lilly's force with the 3d Battalion of the regiment on the south flank of
the San Vicente line. When this move was
completed, the II Corps line would extend
west from Orion along the Orion cutoff,
then southwest behind the San Vicente
River across Trail 2 to Trail 8 east of the
trail junction.
When the action of the 6th was over the
Americans and Filipinos found themselves
in a desperate situation. The carefully prepared counterattack launched that morning
had failed dismally and the enemy had
quickly seized the initiative to score decisive
gains. He had secured the vital Trail Junction 6-8 to cut off General Lough, with the
45th and 41st Infantry, from II Corps. All
of the important north-south trails in Sector
D29, 6, and 4as well as Trail 44 and a
portion of Trail 2, were now in his hands.
He had driven in the left half of the II
Corps line, split the two corps, occupied
Mt. Samat, and threatened to turn the unhinged II Corps flank and push on to the
bay.
To forestall this move the Americans had
established a sharply bent and shortened
line behind the San Vicente River. The men
on this line were already weakened and
partially disorganized. Two entire divisions
and a regiment had been lost. Another two
regiments and a sector headquarters had
been cut off. The remaining troops, in poor
condition at the start, were hardly fit for
combat. Most of the reserves had been committed, and additional forces would have to
come largely from Jones's intact I Corps.
The outlook was bleak.

For the men on Bataan there was only
one bright spot in an otherwise gloomy picture. At the start of the offensive General
Wainwright had ordered an increase in the
rice ration, to be taken from the Corregidor
reserves, and had sent to General King all
but 5,000 cases of C rations of the supplies in
the Bataan reserve held on the island. By
the 5th the ration issue had been increased
to 27 ounces, still far below the minimum
required but double the daily issue since 22
March. The allotment of flour to American
troops was increased from 1.44 to 2.88
ounces; the rice ration went up from 8.5
to 17 ounces and canned meat from 1.22 to
2.44 ounces. The Filipinos, instead of wheat,
received an additional allowance of rice and
canned fish.31 An antiaircraft battery commander was surprised one morning when he
received more rations than he expected.
"There were," he noted, "a few cans of
Abalone, which defied preparation; a little
more salmon and tomatoes and some type C
[rations], and wonder of wonders, some
cigarettes." 32
In an Army Day broadcast General Wainwright spoke bravely of those who were
"privileged to be charged with the defense
of this distant bastion." 33 But his official dispatches show a clear appreciation of the
catastrophic
events of the past twenty-four
33
INS Summary 102, 6 Apr 42, AG 000.75
hours. To Washington he reported that the
enemy had driven a wedge into the right
center of his front, that the air and artillery
31
QM Rpt of Opns, p. 51; Luzon Force Rpt of
Opns, G-4 Annex, p. 3. It is entirely possible that
many of the units did not receive the increase. Ltr,
Doyle to Ward, 8 Jan 52, OCMH.
32
Gulick, Memoirs of Btry C, 91st CA, p. 108,
OCMH.
(4-13-42) MB.

bombardment begun on the 3d had continued without letup, and that fresh enemy
troops had been thrown into the battle and
were gaming ground slowly.34
In his message to General MacArthur,
Wainwright added the significant details
which would enable the commander of
USAFFE to form his own estimate. The
enemy, Wainwright explained, had penetrated to Trail 8, 7,000 yards south of the
main line of resistance, seized Mt. Samat,
34
Rad, Wainwright to AGWAR, 7 Apr 42, USFIP
G-3 Journal, 19 Mar-19 Apr 42, AG 461 (1 Apr
42) Phil Rcds.
441
and routed three Philippine Army divisions.
To MacArthur these events signified imminent disaster. "It is apparent to me," he
told the Chief of Staff, "that the enemy has
driven a wedge between I and II Corps and
is still advancing." 35 By the time this estimate reached Washington, disaster had
already overtaken the luckless men on
Bataan.
35
Rads, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 116, 8 Apr

42, Msgs from Gen MacArthur, OPD Exec O;
Wainwright to MacArthur, 7 Apr 42, USFIP G-3
Journal, 19 Mar-19 Apr 42, AG 461 (1 Apr 42)
Phil Rcds.
CHAPTER XXV
The Disintegration of II Corps

The story of the last two days of the
defense of Bataan is one of progressive disintegration and final collapse. Lines were
formed and abandoned before they could
be fully occupied. Communications broke
down and higher headquarters often did not
know the situation on the front lines. Orders
were issued and revoked because they were
impossible of execution. Stragglers poured
to the rear in increasingly large numbers
until they clogged all roads and disrupted
all movement forward. Units disappeared
into the jungle never to be heard from again.
In two days an army evaporated into thin
air. (Map 22)
presenting a bent but unbroken line to the

advancing Japanese.
The 45th Infantry's plan for the attack
against the trail junction was a cautious one.
Of the regiment's two battalions only one,
the 2d, reinforced with a platoon of two
tanks, was to attack. The 3d Battalion and
the rest of the tank company would remain
at Trail Junction 8-28, where General
Lough had his command post, to prevent
the Japanese on Trail 29 from cutting off
the route of withdrawal. If the 2d Battalion's attack proved successful, the 3d Battalion would move forward later.1
General Nara's troops at the trail junction were well prepared for the 45th Infantry's attack. Just west of the junction they
7 April: Disintegration
had established a strong defensive position,
Action on the 7th opened with an attempt ideal for an ambush. South of the trail was
to wrest from the Japanese control of Trail a steep, thickly forested hill; to the north the
Junction 6-8. This was to be accomplished ground dropped sharply to a deep, rocky
by simultaneous attacks against the junction ravine. The trail itself bent sharply at this
from the east and west, along Trail 8. The point so that advancing troops, limited to
attack from the east was to be made by a the trail by the terrain on both sides, would
force led by Colonel Lilly and consisting of have no warning of an attack.
two battalions of the 57th Infantry, plus the
At about 0100, 7 April, the reinforced 2d
201st and 202d Engineer Battalions (PA)
Battalion moved out in column of comfrom corps reserve. The 45th Infantry and
1
The account of the fight for the trail junction is
Company C, 194th Tank Battalion, were based upon: Amato and Murphy, 2d Bn, 45th Inf
to drive east from Trail Junction 8-29 to (PS), pp. 15-16, and Croom, Hist, 3d Bn, 45th Inf
(PS), pp. 16-17, both in Chunn Notebooks; Miller,
meet Colonel Lilly. When contact was es- Bataan
Uncensored, pp. 202-05; Wetherby, Opns
tablished between the two forces, the II of 41st Inf (PA), in Fortier, Notes on 41st Div
Corps line would extend from the San (PA), pp. 172-73; Lilly, 57th Inf (PS) Opns Rpt,
p. 6, OCMH; Phil Div Rpt of Opns, pp. 27-28;
Vicente River westward along Trail 8 to Luzon Force Rpt of Opns, p. 4; 14th Army Opns,
the Pantingan and tie in with I Corps, thus I, 164, II, Map 12.
THE DISINTEGRATION OF II CORPS

panies, with battalion and regimental headquarters bringing up the rear. In the van
were the two tanks and a platoon of Company F. The Scouts and tankers, in almost
continuous action since the night of the 5th,
trudged along uncomplainingly in the darkness. An hour and a half after the first elements moved out, the point of the column
reached the bend in the trail and marched
unsuspectingly into the ambush. At almost
the same moment that the Scouts sighted the
roadblock, the Japanese opened fire and
knocked out the lead tank. The second tank
escaped with slight damage, but a jeep carrying six officers was destroyed, the driver
and two riders killed, and three others
wounded. Within a short time the infantry
had formed a line and were laying down a
heavy concentration of fire on the Japanese
roadblock.
At the first burst of fire Colonel Doyle
had gone forward to the head of the column
to take command. The situation was confused and the units disorganized, but Doyle
kept his men in action until the coming of
daylight, when it became evident that there
was no possibility of breaking through to
the trail junction. At that time he ordered
his troops to withdraw to the Pantingan
River. Under cover of heavy machine gun
fire, the battalion and the remaining tank
turned around and began their weary
march back along Trail 8, past their starting
point, Trail Junction 8-29, and on to the
Pantingan River. By about 1000 the withdrawal of the 2d Battalion was completed.
The 3d Battalion and the remainder of the
tanks, which had been under pressure from
the Japanese advancing down Trail 29, had
to fight their way out. Enemy infantrymen
tried to cut off their retreat, but the tankers
fought a successful delaying action and at
443
1800 the last of the 3d Battalion reached

the river.
The inability of the 45th Infantry to
break the Japanese hold on Trail Junction
6-8 ended all hopes of uniting the separated
elements of Sector D and General King attached General Lough's headquarters, the
45th Infantry, and the remaining troops of
Sector D still west of the trail junction to
I Corps. These troops thereupon crossed the
Pantingan and established a defensive line
along its west bank. The 41st Infantry to
the north was also ordered across the river
that day and completed the maneuver
without interference.
The scheduled attack of the 1st and 2d
Battalions, 57th Infantry, was never made.
The Japanese maintained steady pressure
against these battalions whose left (west)
flank was unprotected and before the day
was far advanced had worked around that
flank. At the same time another Japanese
force, consisting of elements of Colonel
Sato's 61st Infantry, moved into the gap
between the southern extremity of the San
Vicente line and the 57th Infantry. This
space was to have been filled by the 201st
and 202d Engineer Battalions who were
just moving in when the Japanese struck.
The Filipinos promptly turned and fled into
the jungle when they found themselves in
the midst of the Japanese. With both flanks
in danger of envelopment, the Scouts, at
1700, were forced to pull back to the east.
The use of Trail 8 was now lost to the
Americans.
The 33d Infantry (PA), the only unit remaining west of Mt. Samat, met a disastrous
end on the 7th. Isolated by the tide of battle
and presumed lost, the regiment had spent
the night of 6-7 April preparing for an attack that was inevitable now that its position
444
had been discovered by the enemy. At 0600,

after an hour-long mortar preparation, the
Japanese infantry began the assault. The
Filipinos held up well at first but by midafternoon began to break. Once the reaction had set in, the regiment quickly became
demoralized. The men, overwrought and
jumpy after five days of intense mental
strain and physical hardship, became panic
stricken and fled into the jungle. Major
Holmes, their commander, reluctantly issued orders for a withdrawal. The wounded
remained in place with the medical officers
to surrender. The rest of the men, singly and
in small groups, slipped into the jungle to
try to make their way back to safety. Few
succeeded.2
While the 65th Brigade and the 61st Infantry were consolidating their hold on the
area formerly occupied by Sector D, the
4th Division and the Nagano Detachment,
aided by artillery and air power, were reducing the recently established San Vicente
River line. Signs of the disintegration of the
units posted along the river were apparent
almost as soon as the demoralized troops
took their new positions. During the night
of 6-7 April, even before the Japanese artillery had opened fire, large groups of soldiers began to move back to the rear. Some
were stopped and put back into the line, but
panic was spreading and the ominous signs
of demoralization were too clear to be ignored.
At dawn the Japanese artillery opened up
with a repetition of the terrific bombardment that had preceded every attack since
the 3d, and Japanese aircraft appeared overhead. During the day the bombers flew 169
sorties and dropped approximately 100 tons
of explosives on II Corps installations alone.

At least ten bombs fell on General Hospital
No. 2 at Little Baguio which had been hit
a week earlier. One ward was demolished,
extensive damage caused to other buildings,
and 73 men killed. Of the 117 injured, 16
died later. When the attack was over, the
hospital area was covered with debris and
fallen trees. The pharmacy was hit and most
of the drugs destroyed. Kitchen utensils were
strewn over the grounds and the hospital
records blew about like confetti. Under the
wreckage were the mangled bodies of
patients, and "the air was rent by the awful
screams of the newly wounded and the
dying." 3
The Japanese infantry and armor moved
out on the heels of the artillery preparation,
hitting the Filipino troops before they could
recover from the effect of the shelling. First
to cross the San Vicente was the Nagano
Detachment which, at 0730, struck the 32d
Infantry on the right of Sector C, then
turned east along the Orion cutoff to strike
the Provisional Air Corps Regiment in Sector B. Supported by tanks, Nagano's men
advanced rapidly into the area held by the
grounded airmen who, lacking antitank
weapons to oppose the armored point of the
attack, fell back without a fight. The 31st
Infantry (PA) in Sector Anot to be confused with the American 31st Infantry on
2
4
the
left
of
theofSan
Vicente
linewithdrew
14th
Chapin,
Army
Hist
Opns,
33d
I, 164-65,
Inf ( P
II,A
Maps
) , pp. 12
16-21,
and
in disorder after a heavy air and artillery
attack, leaving to the Japanese the last remaining portion of II Corps' original main
line of resistance.4
OCMH; Holmes, 33d Inf (PA), p. 27A, Chunn

Notebooks.
13; 5th Air Gp Opns, pp. 74-75. The account of

the loss of the San Vicente line is based upon:
3
Juanita Redmond, I Served on Bataan (New
York: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1943), p. 111. See
also Cooper, Med Dept Activities, pp. 56-57. The
Japanese later apologized for the bombing.
445
Even before the Japanese ground forces

attacked, the Sector C line had begun to
crumble. The first unit to break under the
impact of the air-artillery bombardment was
the 51st Combat Team. It was followed
soon by the 32d Infantry (PA) and other
elements of General Bluemel's 31st Division
which had fled at the appearance of Nagano's troops. Soon a disorganized mass of
Filipino troops, many without arms, uniforms, or equipment, began to stream to the
rear. When General Bluemel, rifle in hand,
attempted to place some stragglers in the
line, they bolted at the first sign of an enemy
air-artillery attack. "It seemed," wrote Colonel Young, the 51st Combat Team commander, "that whenever a stand of any kind
was made, low flying airplanes bombed or
fired on the troops." 5
The American and Scout units holding
the left (south) half of the San Vicente line
fared little better than the Philippine Army
troops. They held firm under the heavy bombardment which began at 0700, but at
about 1030, when Colonel Morita's 8th Infantry, 4th Division, crossed the San Vicente, they, too, began to fall back. By noon
Colonel Brady had ordered his 31st Infan-
try (US) to withdraw by battalions and to

reassemble near the intersection of Trails 2
and 46, about 2,000 yards to the southeast.6
Though the 3d Battalion, 57th Infantry, on
the left of the line, had not yet come under
attack, its position was now untenable and
it began to withdraw. Its orders were to fall
back to Trail 46 and to take up a position
on the left of the 31st Infantry. By early
afternoon the San Vicente line had evaporated.
The withdrawal of the 31st and 3d Battalion, 57th, was a difficult one. With the
Japanese in control of Trail 44 and a portion of Trail 2, the men had to travel crosscountry to reach their new position. Many
were wounded and all were weak from lack
of food and sleep. Units, already partially
disorganized, became further disorganized
so that it was almost impossible to maintain
contact. Before long, the line of march became a line of stragglers in which "it was
almost every man for himself." 7
Late on the afternoon of the 6th General
King had taken the 26th Cavalry (PA)
from I Corps reserve and ordered it to
Trail Junction 2-10. By morning of the 7th
the horseless cavalrymen were in position
at that trail junction, only a short distance
Bluemel, 31st Div (PA) Rpt of Opns, pp. 24-25;
in front of the Mamala River and about
Young, 51st Combat Team, p. 3, in Bluemel, 31st
one mile behind Trail 46, the destination
Div (PA) Rpt of Opns; Bess, Opns of Service Co,
31st Inf (US), pp. 32-33; Mead, Opns and
of the last two elements to evacuate the San
5
7
Mvmts of 31st Inf (PA), pp. 26-27; Mendelson,
Conrad,
Young, 51st
OpnsCombat
of 31st
Team,
Inf morning,
(PA),
in Bluemel,
p. when
25, 31st
See
Vicente
line.
During
the
the
Opns of Prov Air Corps Regt, pp. 21-22; Blanning,
disintegration
of
that
line
had
already
beCO 2d Sq, 26th Cav (PS), War Diary, p. 4,
OCMH; Johnson, 57th Inf (PS) Diary, pp. 18-19;
come evident, General King released the
Maj Karol Bauer and Lt Gregory Williams, 31st cavalry regiment, together with the 803d
Inf (PA), pp. 20-21, Lt Harold A. Morey, 32d Inf
Engineer Battalion (US) and the 14th
(PA), p. 23, and Lt Walter S. Strong, Hist, 31st
Inf (US), p. 3, all three in Chunn Notebooks;
Brady, Diary, p. 5, Brady Papers, OCMH; Farrell,
p. 71; Farrell, Notes for Regtl Hist, Brady Papers,
pp. 21-22, OCMH.
6
Trail 46 extended about five miles in a northeasterly direction from Trail Junction 8-44, across
Trails 2 and 38, to join the East Road about a
half mile south of Orion.
Div (PA) Rpt of Opns, p. 3.
also Johnson, 57th Inf (PS) Diary, p. 18.
Diary, in Bluemel, 31st Div ( P A ) Rpt of Opns,
446
alry line and were directed to an assembly

area on the south bank of the Mamala River,
at Trail 2. Not long after, the 2d Squadron
of the 26th Cavalry, at Trail Junction 2-46,
was hit by Colonel Morita's 8th Infantry
which was moving rapidly along Trail 2.
Unable to rout the cavalrymen by a frontal
assault, Morita sent his men around the
flanks, forcing the Filipinos back through
the 1st Squadron to Trail Junction 2-10.
As soon as this maneuver was completed,
the 1st Squadron began to fall back, past the
trail junction, toward the Mamala River.
At that moment the Japanese artillery
opened up and "a storm of interdiction fire
fell on the junction."11 Simultaneously,
planes of the 16th Light Bombardment Regiment dive-bombed the men and vehicles on
the trail. Losses, especially in the 1st Squadron, were heavy, and it was late afternoon
before the decimated regiment crossed the
Mamala River.
General Bluemel had spent the afternoon
assembling his forces along the south bank
of the river. In addition to the cavalry regiment he now had the remnants of 31st and
57th Infantry, and the 14th and 803d Engineer Battalions. None of his men had eaten
since breakfast, and many of them had had
8
The Mamala River flows east from Mt. Limay, their last meal on the morning of the 6th.
parallel to and south of Trail 10, across Trail 2,
He had few vehicles and almost no heavy
to empty into Manila Bay at Limay.
weapons. The prospects of holding off a
the Mamala River is based upon: Luzon Force
12
9
determined
with
The
Bluemel,
account
31stofJapanese
Div
the (PA)
effort Rpt
toattack
establish
of Opns,
ap.line
28.these
at
Rpt of Opns, p. 5; ltr, Parker to Ward, 16 Jan 52,
troops
were
not
bright.
OCMH; Chandler, "26th Cavalry (PS) Battles to
Glory," Part 3, Armored Cavalry Journal (JulyAround dusk, when he began to receive
August 1947), pp. 20-21; Chandler, Outline Hist
artillery fire and when Japanese troops
of 26th Cavalry (PS), p. 12; Blanning, War Diary,
were observed working their way forward,
pp. 4-6; Bluemel, 31st Div (PA) Rpt of Opns,
pp. 26-28;
l
Collier,
o
Notebooks,
n
III, 75-77;
e
Mal,
BataandeDiary,
firing sporadically, General Bluemel
cided "that the Mamala River line could
Regtl Hist, Brady Papers, p. 21, OCMH; Farrell,
not be held." 12 Actually, the Japanese had
Diary, in Bluemel, 31st Div (PA) Rpt of Opns,
p. 71; SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 57.
not yet crossed the river. Forward elements
10
Engineer Battalion (PS), to the II Corps
commander, who by now had decided to
establish the next line at the Mamala
River.8 Parker thereupon directed the 26th
Cavalry commander, Col. Lee C. Vance,
to report to General Bluemel, who was now
the only general officer on the front line.9
While the cavalrymen moved up to Trail
Junction 2-46, Maj. William E. Chandler,
the regimental S-2 and S-3, walked ahead
to find General Bluemel whose exact whereabouts was unknown. About 1,000 yards
north of the junction he met the general,
who "cheered up a bit" on learning of the
presence of the 26th Cavalry.10 Bluemel
and Chandler then traveled together to the
cavalry command post where the general
ordered the regiment to establish a holding
position behind which he could form a line
along the Mamala.
Colonel Vance quickly deployed his men
in two lines. In front, on a hill at Trail Junction 2-46, was the 2d Squadron; the 1st
held a delaying position some distance to the
rear, just north of Trail Junction 2-10. During the afternoon elements of the 31st Infantry (US) and the 3d Battalion, 57th
Infantry (PS), straggled through the cav-
Chandler, "26th Cavalry (PS) Battles to

Glory," Part 3, Armored Cavalry Journal (JulyAugust 1947), p. 20.
11
Ibid., p. 21.
II, 9

of the 4th Division had reached the north
bank, but the Nagano Detachment was still
north of Trail 46. Since the high bluffs on
the north bank "completely commanded"
the line on the south shore, it is doubtful if
the position would have been tenable in any
event.13 Hoping to gain twenty-four hours
to rest and feed his men and prepare a
stronger position, Bluemel ordered a withdrawal to the Alangan River, 4,000 yards
to the south. The men were to break off all
contact with the enemy, withdraw under
cover of darkness, and be in position by
dawn of 8 April. There he hoped to have
time to prepare for a fresh Japanese attack.
Corps headquarters approved this plan and
at Bluemel's request ordered the retreating
troops of Sectors A and B to fall in on
Bluemel's right the next morning.
During the day both Wainwright and
King had sought desperately to find some
way to stem the Japanese advance. While
Bluemel was striving to establish a line at
the Mamala, General King had decided
"to place everything possible" there.14
Since all his reserves as well as the reserves
of both corps had already been committed,
he took a desperate chance that the Japanese would not attempt to land behind the
lines and ordered Jones and Parker to withdraw the troops on beach defensethe 1st
and 4th Philippine Constabulary Regimentsand throw them into the line then
forming. To General Wainwright he sent
word by his chief of staff, Brig. Gen. Arnold
J. Funk, that the situation on Bataan was
critical.
Wainwright's scheme for retrieving the
situation was to launch an attack eastward
from I Corps along the general line of Trail
8. He hoped in this way to tie in I Corps
13
14

447
with the troops along the Mamala River and

again form an unbroken line across the peninsula. Unaware that the Mamala line was
already being evacuated and that II Corps
had so far deteriorated that even if the
attack succeeded the I Corps troops would
find no line to tie into, General Wainwright
ordered the attack at 1600. The 11th Division (PA) would make the assault.15
On receipt of this order, General King
sent his G-3, Col. James V. Collier, to I
Corps headquarters to transmit the order
orally. When General Jones received the
order he expressed his belief that it was
impossible of execution. In his opinion the
men of the 11th Division were too weak to
cross the Pantingan gorge even if unopposed; certainly they would be unable to
drag any heavy equipment or artillery with
them. Furthermore, Jones told Collier, at
least eighteen hours would be required to
get the division out of the line and in position to attack. After telephone conversations
between Wainwright, King, and Jones, the
USFIP commander decided to leave the
execution of his order to General King's
discretion.
The decision was now King's. On the
basis of Jones's estimate, he withheld the
order to attack. Instead, he directed Jones
to pull back to the line of the Binuangan
River, about five miles south of the main line
of resistance, in four phases. This move
would place I Corps' right flank, exposed by
the withdrawal of II Corps, on the slopes
of the Mariveles Mountains, and reduce
substantially the lightly defended beach line.
15
The account of this order is based upon the following conflicting sources: Luzon Force Rpt of
Opns, p. 5; USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 60;
Collier, Notebooks, III, 77; intervs, author with
Gen King, 12 Feb 47, Gen Jones, and Col Collier,
20 Nov 46, OCMH; Brougher, 11th Div (PA) Surrender, p. 1, copy in OCMH.
448
That night General Wainwright could report to Washington only a succession of retreats.
Continued heavy enemy pressure, constant
bombing, strafing, and shelling of front line
units [he wrote] forced all elements of the right
half of our line in Bataan to fall back. A new
defensive position is forming on the high
ground south of the Alangan River. . . . The
left half of our line, due to an exposed flank,
withdrew on orders and is taking up a defense position south of the Binuangan River.
Fighting is intense, casualties on both sides
heavy.16

With the Americans and Filipinos in full
retreat, General Homma decided to push
on "without delay'' instead of pausing at the
Mamala River as he had originally planned.
His next objective, he decided, would be
Cabcaben on the southeast tip of the peninsula, and at 2300 he issued orders for the
next day's attack. The 4th Division would
strike for the Real River west of Cabcaben.
The 65th Brigade to its west would occupy
Mt. Limay and the heights of Mariveles,
and the Nagano Detachment would advance
down the East Road on the left (east) of
the division toward Cabcaben itself. The
16th Division, then assembling near Balanga
where Homma had his headquarters, was
to advance behind Nagano's troops and prepare for the final thrust toward Mariveles.
As before, the attacking units would have
the support of 14th Army artillery and the
22d Air Brigade.19 For the first time the
artillery commander received orders to open
fire on Corregidor when he got within range
of the island fortress.
For the Japanese, the offensive which

General Homma had expected to last a
month was all but won by the night of the
7th. They had gained possession of the entire main line of resistance in II Corps, and
forced the evacuation of the Mamala River
line where they had supposed the Americans
and Filipinos had their main defenses.
"That," remarked General Homma, "was
beyond our expectation." 17
The cost had been light. The 4th Division,
the spearhead of the assault, had lost 150
men killed and 250 wounded during a rapid
8 April: Chaos
advance which had netted about 1,000
Orders for the establishment of a line
prisoners and a large number of small caliber weapons. Losses in the 65th Brigade, along the south bank of the Alangan River
which captured over 100 prisoners and con- called for a withdrawal during the night
siderable equipment, totaled 77 dead and of 7-8 April by the forces under General
152 wounded. The Nagano Detachment Bluemel and Col. John W. Irwin, and the
18
occupation
the I,new
position
dawn of
14th Army of
Opns,
165.
ColonelbyYoshida,
had suffered no casualties.18
the 8th. The units under Bluemelthe 31st
16
Infantry (US), the 57th Infantry (PS), the
Rad, Wainwright to AGWAR, 8 Apr 42, and
26th Cavalry (PS), the 803d Engineer
notes of telephone conversation between G-3
USFIP, and CofS Luzon Force, made at 1745, 7
Battalion (US), and the 14th Engineer
Apr 42, both in USFIP G-3 Journal, 19 Mar-19 Battalion (PS) were to hold the left (west)
Apr 42, AG 461 (1 Apr 42) Phil Rcds.
of the line, from Trail 20 to the confluence
17
of the Alangan and the Paalungan River,
4th Division chief of staff, confirmed these figures
and stated that casualties for the 4th Division on
Bataan totaled 400 killed and wounded. Statement
of Yoshida, ATIS Doc 62642, 28 Jul 49, Statements
of Japanese Officials on World War II, GHQ FEC,

Mil Intel Sec, IV, 548.
19
449
a distance of about 2,500 yards.20 Colonel

Irwin's force, consisting of the 31st Infantry
(PA) and Constabulary troops taken from
beach defense; was to hold the right portion
of the line and block the East Road. Artillery support would be provided by the intact
21st Field Artillery (PA), a Provisional
Field Artillery Brigade formed from three
battalions of Scouts, a few fixed naval guns,
and the three remaining 155-mm. guns of
Col. Alexander S. Quintard's 301st Field
Artillery (PA). 21
The positions taken by the troops on the
morning of the 8th did not conform to plan.
In the confusion of the withdrawal, units
crossed and took up positions some distance
from those assigned. The American 31st
and the Scout 57th Infantry, for example,
had to exchange positions. The 803d Engineer Battalion did not occupy its position
at all but continued south after it crossed
the river. Only the 14th Engineers and the
26th Cavalry went into their assigned positions. The engineers took over the left of the
line astride Trail 20, and the cavalrymen
fell in on their right (east). From there-eastward there were large gaps in the line. Between the cavalry regiment and the 31st
Infantry (US) was an open space of over

1,000 yards. To the right of the Americans
was another gap, and the 57th Infantry,
Bluemel's right flank unit, had both its
flanks exposed. The unauthorized withdrawal of the 803d Engineers had made the
establishment of contact between Bluemel
and Irwin a physical impossibility.
All units on the line were so decimated as
to make their designations meaningless. The
31st Infantry (US) had but 160 men; the
26th Cavalry, 300; the 57th Infantry, 500.
Altogether Bluemel had 1,360 men in the
three regiments and one battalion under
his command. Irwin's force of two regiments
numbered but 1,200 men. All the troops
were half starved and exhausted. "We were
all so tired," wrote one officer, "that the only
way to stay awake was to remain standing.
As soon as a man sat or laid down he would
go to sleep." 22 After five days under intense
air and artillery bombardment and successive defeats, it was doubtful if the men
"cared very much what happened." 23
Even before the Japanese infantry struck
the Alangan line it was already crumbling
under heavy and sustained air bombardment lasting most of the morning. Japanese
observation planes had spotted the troops
20
Trail 20 extended for about eight miles in an
hastily organizing their positions and at
arc from Limay southward to Lamao. It crossed
about 1100 fighters and light bombers apthe Alangan, which is midway between the two
peared over the Alangan. Flying low, they
villages, about two and a half miles from the coast.
The Paalungan River joins the Alangan about one
23
dropped
on the
Quintard,incendiary
Diary, entrybombs
of 7-8 Apr
42. area held
and a half miles east of Trail 2 and the two then
by
the
31st
Infantry
(US)
and
the 57th Inflow east as one stream to empty into Manila Bay.
21
fantry, setting fire to the dry cogon grass
The account of operations on 8 April is based
upon: Luzon Force Rpt of Opns, p. 5; SLF and II
and bamboo thickets. The infantrymen
Corps Rpt of Opns, p. 58; Bluemel, 31st Div (PA)
turned
fire fighters to avoid being burned
Rpt of Opns, pp. 29-32; Quintard, Diary, entry of
out of their positions.
7-8 April 42; Chandler, "26th Cavalry Battles to
Glory," Part 3, Armored Cavalry Journal, (JulyFarther east Colonel Irwin's 31st Infantry
August 1947), pp. 21-22; Lilly, 57th Inf (PS)
(PA)
along the East Road came under
Opns Rpt, pp. 6-7; Brady, Diary, pp. 5-6, Brady
Papers, OCMH; Farrell, Diary, in Bluemel, 31st heavy air attack about the same time. The
Div ( P A ) Rpt of Opns, p. 71; Farrell, Notes for

Regtl Hist, in Brady Papers, p. 22, OCMH; Mallonee, Bataan Diary, II, 99103.
22
Blanning, War Diary, p. 5.
450
Filipinos, who were digging their foxholes
when the planes came over, fled for cover
and had to be rounded up after the planes
had passed. When the bombers came back
again, the men again threw down their entrenching tools and fled, and again they had
to be brought back. With each successive attack, the number of men on the line, some
of them forced into position at pistol point,
became fewer. The Constabulary troops east
of the 31st Infantry also fled, and by about
1500, before a single Japanese soldier had
appeared, Colonel Irwin's portion of the
line was entirely deserted.
Enemy planes did not limit their attacks
that morning to the men along the Alangan
River. They struck at artillery positions,
supply points, troops, and vehicles. The most
profitable targets were the trails, clogged
with dazed and weakened men stumbling
to the rear. A Japanese pilot could hardly
miss on a strafing run over this uninterrupted line of disorganized troops, and the
ditches along the trails were lined with the
dead and wounded.24
The Japanese infantry reached the Alangan River at about 1400, when advance
patrols appeared in front of the 57th Infantry. Before long the enemy infantrymen
found the exposed right flank and began to
filter to the rear of the Scouts. At about the
same time other small groups of Japanese
struck the 31st Infantry (US) to the west.
The Americans, reduced to less than company strength, were forced to fall back at
1700, and the 57th, with both its flanks
exposed, followed suit.
The main Japanese effort that afternoon
was made against the 14th Engineer Battalion and the 26th Cavalry by a force
consisting of the 8th Infantry and the 7th
24
Tisdelle, Diary, entry of 8 Apr 42; Mallone,

Bataan Diary, II, 100.

Tank Regiment. The tanks, advancing
along Trail 20, reached the engineers shortly
after 1600, but were stopped in their tracks
at the block the Scouts had established.
The tanks could not turn on the narrow
trail, and the crewmen were kept inside by
small-arms fire from the engineers. Without
the help of infantry, the Japanese tanks
became, in effect, pillboxes from which the
tankers fired their small arms, machine guns,
and 47-mm. guns without visible effect on
the block. The engineers, though they had
the tanks at their mercy, lacked the antitank
guns to knock them out.
To the right (east) of the roadblock, the
26th Cavalry had come under attack from
the 8th Infantry whose advance elements
had forced back the 31st and 57th. The
Japanese worked their way around the
hastily refused right flank of the cavalrymen, threatening to take them from the
rear. By late afternoon it appeared doubtful
if the 26th Cavalry, which was now under
fire from the tanks at the block, would be
able to maintain its position.25
About this time, General Bluemel, whose
only communication with the front-line
units was by runner, learned that the 31st
and 57th Infantry were falling back. "To
hold the Alangan River line," he concluded,
"was now an impossibility." 26 Reluctantly
he gave the order for the 14th Engineer Battalion and the 26th Cavalry to withdraw,
and at 1830, as darkness settled over the battlefield, the men began to fall back again.
That evening, the main force of the 4th Division crossed the river and pushed on
toward Cabcaben.
The advance of the Nagano Detachment
along the East Road met with little re25
Blanning, War Diary, p. 6; 14th Army Opns, II,
Map 12.
26

sistance. By 1700 Nagano's troops were on
the river line and ready to move on behind
the rapidly retreating Philippine Army and
Constabulary troops. Only the tanks and the
remaining 75-mm. guns (SPM) stood in the
way of the advancing Japanese. But the effectiveness of the armor and self-propelled
75's was severely limited by the absence of
infantry support and their inability to move
freely along the crowded trails. Though they
made every effort to organize a holding position they, too, were forced to pull back.27
The East Road, which the Japanese had
carefully avoided since their disastrous assault early in January, now lay open.
The situation everywhere along the front
was obscure. With troops jamming all roads
and with communications so uncertain as to
be nonexistent, even front-line commanders
did not know where their units were at any
given moment. Higher headquarters, forced
to rely on runners and the armored group
radio net for information, were even less informed than the unit commanders. It was
not until 1800, for example, that General

King learned that the Alangan line had
451
passage to Mariveles. With the tanks and

75-mm. guns (SPM) in retreat and already
nearing Cabcaben and with his last reserves
committed, General King attempted to
form a line with the only organized unit
remaining, the Provisional Coast Artillery
Brigade (AA). 28 At about 1900 he directed

Col. Charles G. Sage, the brigade commander, to destroy all his antiaircraft
weapons except those which could be used
by infantry and to form his men along the
high ground just north of Cabcaben. At
the same time he released the 1st Philippine
Constabulary, then in transit from I Corps,
to II Corps and ordered it into position on
the left of the brigade.29
While the artillerymen were attempting

to establish a line at Cabcaben, Bluemel's
scattered force was nearing the Lamao
River. The retreat from the Alangan had
been a difficult one. The men of the 31st Infantry (US) and the 57th Infantry had
been forced to fall back through the jungle
and by now were in the last stages of exhaustion. The 14th Engineer Battalion and
the 26th Cavalry, which had withdrawn
been penetrated on the east. By that time

the two Japanese columnsthe Nagano
Detachment and the 4th Divisionwere
along Route 20, had found the march less

trying, but had suffered other mishaps, and
already south of the river and pushing forward rapidly along the East Road and
Trail 20.
the withdrawal, had been lost in the jungle
To Luzon Force headquarters, the chief

threat seemed to be developing along the
one element of the 26th Cavalry, covering

and never again joined the regiment.
It was about 2130 when General Bluemel
29
and
the last
of the covering
forceLuzon
reached
the
Collier,
Notebooks,
III, 79-80;
Force
Lamao. At that time he received telephone
East Road, which provided the enemy clear

27
Material on the action of the tanks and SPM's

during the last days of the campaign is scanty and
vague. This account is based upon: Capt L. E.
Johnson, 194th Tank Bn, S-3 Rpt, 14 Sep 43, in
Diary of Lt Col E. B. Miller, CO 194th Tank Bn;
Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 24; Bluemel, 31st
Div (PA) Rpt of Opns, pp. 30-31. The Japanese
aircraft were under orders to pay particular attention to vehicular movements. 5th Air Gp Opns, pp.
74-75.
28
The brigade had been formed on 7 April from
Groupment A and consisted of the 200th Coast
Artillery (AA) and the 515th Coast Artillery (AA),
both composed of Americans. The former was a

New Mexico National Guard unit and had provided
the personnel for the latter when it was organized
just after the start of war. Prov CA Brig (AA) Rpt
of Opns, Annex IX, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns.

Rpt of Opns, p. 6; SLF and II Corps Rpt of Opns,
p. 69.
452
orders from General Parker to form a line
along the Lamao River and within the hour
he had his men across the river and in an
assembly area.30 But the establishment of a
line was not so easily accomplished. None
of the officers knew the area and the moonless night made it difficult to find defensible
positions along which to deploy the troops.
After a discouraging reconnaissance in the
darkness Bluemel, who by now was using the
26th Cavalry staff as his own, concluded
that a line behind the Lamao "was not feasible." 31 Unable to reach either corps or
Luzon Force headquarters, he finally turned
for aid to General Wainwright, who could
only advise him to use his own judgment.32
Even without precise information on
Bluemel's situation it was already evident to
General King that II Corps had disintegrated. Reports from officer patrols and
from the tanks and the self-propelled 75's
clearly reflected the chaotic state of the com-
mand. There was no chance that the 1st

Philippine Constabulary would reach Colonel Sage before daylight, and little possibility that any of the retreating troops
could be organized in time to be placed on
the line Sage was trying to establish near
Cabcaben. Nevertheless orders were issued
directing the 26th Cavalry to fall in on the
right of Provisional Coast Artillery Brigade.
The cavalrymen evidently did not receive
these orders and when the artillerymen, a
half hour before midnight, occupied the last
remaining line, they stood alone.33
31
p. 81.
Rpt of Opns, p. 8; Chandler, "26th Cavalry (PS)

(July-August 1947), p. 22; Bluemel, 31st Div (PA)
Rpt of Opns, p. 34. The G-3 Annex of the Luzon

At 2330, when his position was already
hopeless, General King received fresh orders
from Corregidor directing him to launch an
offensive with I Corps northward toward
Olongapo, the Japanese base at the head of
Subic Bay. In issuing these orders Wainwright was merely carrying out his own orders from General MacArthur, who, on 4
April, had instructed him to "prepare and
execute an attack upon the enemy along the
following general lines," when the situation
became desperate.
1. A feint by I Corps in the form of an "ostentatious" artillery preparation.
2. A "sudden surprise attack" by II Corps
toward the Dinalupihan-Olongapo Road at
the base of the peninsula, made with "full
tank strength" and "maximum artillery concentration."
3. Seizure of Olongapo by simultaneous
action of both corps, I Corps making a frontal
attack and II Corps taking the enemy "in reverse" by an attack from the west, along the
Dinalupihan-Olongapo Road.
"If successful," MacArthur explained, "the

supplies seized at this base might well rectify
the situation. This would permit operation
in central Luzon where food supplies could
be obtained and where Bataan and the
northern approaches to Corregidor could be
protected." Even if the attack did not succeed, many of the men would be able to
escape from Bataan and continue to fight
34
as
30 guerrillas.
33
32
Bluemel,
Ibid.;
Collier,Wainwright,
Notebooks,
31st Div General
IV,
(PA)
2; Rpt
Prov
Wainwright's
ofCA
Opns,
Brig p.
Story,
(AA)
32;
Even before he issued the orders for an
attack, Wainwright already knew it was
impossible of execution. Earlier that day he
had notified the War Department that the
Force Report of Operations states that the 26th
Cavalry (PS) did go into the line as ordered, but
other records do not confirm this view. Colonel
Vance states that the orders were not received,
and even if they had been could not have been
executed. Ltr, Vance to Ward, 18 Dec 51, OCMH.
34
Rad, MacArthur to Wainwright, No. 68, 4

withdrawal of both corps had become necessary because of the weakness of the troops
who had subsisted for so long on one-half
to one-third rations. Even the best of his
regiments, he said, "were capable of only a
short advance before they were completely
exhausted." 35
In his message to MacArthur he had
given clear warning that the end was near.
The tactical situation, he explained, was
fast deteriorating and the men were so
weakened by hunger and disease that they
had "no power of resistance" left. "It is
with deep regret," he had written, "that I
am forced to report that the troops on
Bataan are fast folding up." 36 When he received no change in orders, he had no
recourse but to direct General King to
launch the attack toward Olongapo.
The attack order was received at Luzon
Force headquarters during the height of
confusion and chaos caused by the disintegration of II Corps. Except for a single issue
of half rations, the food stocks on Bataan
had been exhausted. Already the depot commanders were standing by for orders to destroy their equipment and the Chemical
Warfare Service was dumping its chemicals
into Manila Bay. At Mariveles the Navy
had begun demolitions an hour before and
the flames were already lighting up the sky.
Nevertheless General King put in a call to
the I Corps commander and explained that
he had received orders to launch an attack
immediately. General Jones replied that his
corps was in the midst of a withdrawal to the
Binuangan River, ordered the night before. Moreover, he declared, the physical
35

Apr 42, USFIP G-3 Journal, 19 Mar-19 Apr 42,
AG 461 (1 Apr 42) Phil Rcds. This message is a
paraphrase of the one sent to Washington.
36
Apr 42, USFIP G-3 Journal, 19 Mar-19 Apr 42,
AG 461 (1 Apr 42) Phil Rcds.
453
condition of his troops was such that an attack under any condition was impossible.
General King accepted this estimate without question and with it the responsibility
for refusing to transmit to Jones an order
which he knew could not be executed.37
Apparently he did not inform General
Wainwright of this decision.
As the precious hours went by and no
word reached Corregidor about the attack,
General Wainwright had his chief of staff,
General Beebe, telephone directly to General Jones to ask if he had received the order.
When Jones replied that the order had not
been transmitted, Beebe told him that he
would probably receive instructions to attack shortly. General King soon learned of
Beebe's call and at three o'clock in the morning, 9 April, he telephoned USFIP at Corregidor to inquire if I Corps had been removed from his command. Through his
chief of staff who took the call, Wainwright
assured the Luzon Force commander that
he was still in command of all the forces on
Bataan. There was no further discussion of
the attack order, but Wainwright apparently still believed that an effort would be
made to carry it out.38 This telephone call at
0300 of the 9th was the last conversation
Wainwright had with King. Already two
emissaries had gone forward with a white
flag to meet the Japanese commander.
38 37 Cooper, Med Dept Activities, p. 35; Luzon
Force Rpt of Opns, p. 6; Collier, Notebooks, IV, 2;
intervs, author with Gen King, 12 Feb 47, Gen
Jones, and Col Collier, 20 Nov 46, OCMH;
Brougher, 11th Div (PA) Surrender, p. 1; Alexander, Personal Recollections of Bataan, p. 122.
81-82; USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 61. Colonel Alexander, who was in King's command post
that night, confirms this telephone conversation.
King, he says, declared, "I want a definite answer
as to whether or not General Jones will be left in
my command regardless of what action I may take."
Alexander, Personal Recollections of Bataan, pp.
123-24.
CHAPTER XXVI
Surrender
When, late in the evening of 8 April,
General Wainwright ordered a counterattack by I Corps in the direction of Olongapo, General King had already reached
the conclusion that he had no alternative
but to surrender. By that time all chance
of halting the Japanese advance, much less
launching a successful counterattack, was
gone. The last of his reserves as well as those
of the two corps had been committed. On
the left, I Corps was still intact but was in
the process of withdrawal in an effort to tie
in its right flank with the rapidly crumbling
II Corps. General Parker's corps on the right
had completely disintegrated and no longer
existed as a fighting force. Efforts to hold at
the Alangan River had failed and General
Bluemel had reported soon after dark that
his small force of 1,300 Scouts and Americans was in retreat. The Provisional Coast
Artillery Brigade (AA) had been ordered
to destroy its antiaircraft equipment and
form as infantry along the high ground just
south of the Cabcaben airfield, near the
southern tip of the peninsula. On the night
of 8 April this unit formed the only line between the enemy and the supply and service
elements around Cabcaben and Mariveles.
"II Corps as a tactical unit," wrote King's
G-3, "no longerexisted."1
The deterioration of the line in the II
Corps sector gave the enemy free passage
to the south where the hospitals with their
1
Collier, Diary, III, 80.
12,000 defenseless patients, already within

reach of Japanese light artillery, were located. Philippine Army troops were in complete rout and units were melting away
"lock, stock, and barrel." Headquarters had
lost contact with the front-line troops and
could no longer control the action except
through runners or the armored vehicles of
the SPM battalion. The roads were jammed
with soldiers who had abandoned arms and
equipment in their frantic haste to escape
from the advancing Japanese infantry and
armored columns and the strafing planes
overhead. "Thousands poured out of the
jungle," wrote one observer, "like small
spring freshets pouring into creeks which in
turn poured into a river." 2
Even if General King had been able at
the last moment to muster enough arms and
men to oppose the Japanese advance it is
extremely doubtful that he could have
averted or even delayed the final disaster,
The men on Bataan were already defeated
and had been for almost a week. Disease
and starvation rather than military conditions had created the situation in which
General King now found himself. The men
who threw away their arms and equipment
and jammed the roads and trails leading
south were beaten men. Three months of
malnutrition, malaria, and intestinal infections had left them weak and diseaseridden, totally incapable of the sustained
2
Ibid., IV, 2.
SURRENDER
physical effort necessary for a successful
defense.
General Wainwright was well aware of
the disintegration of the Luzon Force. His
messages to Marshall and MacArthur on
the 8th gave a clear picture of impending
doom. Late that night he had told MacArthur, "with deep regret," that the troops
on Bataan were "fast folding up," and that
the men were so weak from malnutrition
"that they have no power of resistance." 3
MacArthur, in turn, had alerted Washington to the danger. "In view of my intimate
knowledge of the situation there," he
warned the Chief of Staff, "I regard the
situation as extremely critical and feel you
should anticipate the possibility of disaster
there very shortly." 4 By the time this warning reached Washington silence had fallen
on Bataan.
If the situation appeared critical to those
on Corregidor and in Australia, how much
blacker was the future to General King on
whom rested the responsibility for the fate of
the 78,000 men on Bataan. As early as the
afternoon of 7 April, when the last of the
Luzon Force and I Corps reserves had been
committed without appreciably delaying
the enemy, he had realized that his position
was critical. It was then that he sent his
chief of staff, General Funk, to Corregidor
to inform Wainwright that the fall of Bataan was imminent and that he might have
to surrender. Funk's face when he told
Wainwright about the physical condition of
the troops and the disintegration of the line,
"was a map of the hopelessness of the Ba3
Rad, Wainwright to MacArthur, No. 199, 8 Apr
42, USFIP G-3 Journal, AG 461 (1 Apr 42) Phil
Rcds.
4
Msgs from Gen MacArthur, OPD Exec O. A note on
this copy states that only one copy of the radio
exists, in the Chief of Staff files.
455
taan situation." 5 While he never actually
stated during the course of his conversation
with Wainwright that General K i n g
thought he might have to surrender, Funk
left the USFIP commander with the impression that the visit was made "apparently with a view to obtaining my consent
to capitulate." 6
Though Wainwright shared King's feelings about the plight of the men on Bataan,
his answer to Funk was of necessity based
upon his own orders. On his desk was a message from MacArthur which prohibited surrender under any conditions. When Wainwright had written ten days earlier that if
supplies did not reach him soon the troops
on Bataan would be starved into submission, MacArthur had denied his authority
to surrender and directed him "if food fail"
to "prepare and execute an attack upon the
enemy." 7 To the Chief of Staff he had written that he was "utterly opposed, under any
circumstances or conditions to the ultimate
capitulation of this command. ... If it is
to be destroyed it should be upon the actual
field of battle taking full toll from the
enemy." 8
5

See also Funk, Comments on Draft MS, p. 16,
OCMH.
6
Rad, Wainwright to MacArthur, No. 398, 4 May
42, AG 384.1, GHQ SWPA. This message was written almost a month after the surrender in answer to
MacArthur's request for a complete explanation of
King's action.
7
Rad, MacArthur to Wainwright, No. 68, 4 Apr
42, AG 384.1, GHQ SWPA; Wainwright, General
Wainwright's Story, p. 79.
8
AG 384.3, GHQ SWPA. In this message MacArthur
had explained that he had "long ago" prepared a
"comprehensive plan," and that he had not told
Wainwright about it "as I feared it might tend to
shake his morale and determination." He offered
also to attempt to return to the Philippines "to rejoin
this command temporarily and take charge of this
movement." General Marshall's reply was noncom-
456
Wainwright was further limited in his

reply to Funk by President Roosevelt's "no
surrender" message of 9 February. This
message, it will be recalled, had been given
MacArthur at the time Quezon had made
his proposal to neutralize the Philippines.
On Wainwright's assumption of command
a copy of the original text had been sent to
him, with the statement that "the foregoing
instructions from the President remain unchanged." 9 In his reply to the President,
Wainwright had promised "to keep our flag
flying in the Philippines as long as an American soldier or an ounce of food and a round
of ammunition remains." 10
him to believe, either that capitulation was

contemplated, or that he had authority to
send a flag of truce. On the contrary I had
expressly forbidden such action. General
King did not personally broach the subject
of capitulation to me." 11 When Funk left
Wainwright's office with the orders to attack there were tears in his eyes. Both he
and Wainwright knew what the outcome
would be.12
While Wainwright's orders are understandable in terms of his own instructions,
they placed General King in an impossible
position. He was now under orders to
launch a counterattack which he knew
Under direct orders from the President

and MacArthur "to continue the fight as
long as there remains any possibility of resistance," Wainwright, therefore, had no recourse but to tell General Funk on the 7th
that Bataan must be held. In the presence of
his chief of staff he gave Funk two direct
orders for General King: first, that under
no circumstances would the Luzon Force
surrender; and second, that General King
was to counterattack in an effort to regain
the main line of resistance from Bagac to
Orion. "I had no discussion with General
King," Wainwright later explained to MacArthur, "which might in any way have led
could not be carried out. If he could hold

his position he might avert the necessity of
surrender but even this proved impossible,
as the events of the 7th and 8th showed.
The only alternative remaining to King if
he followed Wainwright's orders was to accept the wholesale slaughter of his men
without achieving any military advantage.
Under the circumstances, it was almost inevitable that he would disobey his orders.
Wainwright evidently appreciated King's
position, and even expected him to surrender. Some years later, after his return
from prison camp, he wrote: "I had my
orders from MacArthur not to surrender on
Bataan, and therefore I could not authorize
King to do it." But General King, he added,
11
"was
the ground
and confronted
Rad, on
Wainwright
to MacArthur,
No. 398,by4 a
situation in which he had either to surrender
or have his people killed piecemeal. This
would most certainly have happened to him
within two or three days." 13
mittal. He stated that "we were interested to learn

of your intentions in the event that efforts to supply
the Philippines should prove inadequate," and
agreed that any action was preferable to surrender.
In answer to MacArthur's offer to lead the last desperate attack himself, Marshall wrote: "Should it
become necessary for you to direct a last resort
attack with the objectives you outline, we feel sure
that Wainwright and his forces will give a good account of themselves." Rad, Marshall to MacArthur,
No. 1087, 4 Apr 42, AG 384.3, GHQ SWPA.
9
Rad, Marshall to Wainwright, No. 1234, 24 Mar
42, Msgs to Gen Wainwright, OPD Exec O.
10
Rad, Wainwright to Marshall for the President,
No. 598, 26 Mar 42, Msgs from Gen Wainwright,
OPD Exec O.
May 42, AG 384.1, GHQ SWPA.

12
79; Intel Rpt, Lt Comdr Denys W. Knoll, Intel
Officer, 16th Naval Dist, to Director of Naval Intel,
p. 12, Off of Naval Rcds.
13
SURRENDER
At just what point in the last hectic days
of the battle of Bataan General King made
his decision is not clear. He may already
have decided to surrender on the 7th when
he sent Funk to Corregidor, for even at that
time it was evident that defeat was inevitable. The next day, sometime during the
afternoon, King instructed his senior commanders to make preparations for the destruction of all weapons and equipment,
except motor vehicles and gasoline, but to
wait for further orders before starting the
actual destruction. At the same time he
told General Wainwright that if he expected
to move any troops from Bataan to Corregidor, he would have to do it that night
"as it would be too late thereafter." 14 When
Colonels Constant Irwin and Carpenter
came to Bataan to discuss the withdrawal
of the 45th Infantry (PS) with the Luzon
Force staff they "gained the impression"
after a conversation with King that he felt
the decision to surrender "might be forced
upon" him.15
The inability of General Bluemel's force
to hold the line at the Alangan River on the
8th must have been the deciding factor in
General King's decision to surrender. He
learned of Bluemel's predicament after dark
when General Parker reported that the
May 42, AG 384.1, GHQ SWPA; interv, Lt J. C.
Bateman with Maj Tisdelle, aide to Gen King, 22
Jan 46, copy in OCMH; Tisdelle, Diary, entry of
8 Apr 42.
May 42, AG 384.1, GHQ SWPA. Colonel Irwin

states that he made only one trip to Bataan during
the last days before its surrender and that was on
7 April to request General King to release the 31st
Infantry (US) for movement to Corregidor. At that
time, he asserts, General King told him that it might
be necessary to surrender. Wainwright, when informed of this, "was not surprised or interested."
Irwin, Comments on Draft MS, p. 6, OCMH.
457
Alangan River position had been turned
from the west and that all units were withdrawing. As a last desperate measure he
ordered Colonel Sage's antiaircraft brigade
to establish a line south of the Cabcaben airfield. By 2300 it was evident that it would
be impossible to reinforce the last thin line,
which was still forming, and that there was
nothing to prevent the enemy from reaching
the congested area to the south. It was at this
time that General King held "a weighty,
never to be forgotten conference" with his
chief of staff and his operations officer.16
At this meeting General King reviewed
the tactical situation very carefully with his
two staff officers and considered all possible
lines of action. Always the three men came
back to the same problem: would the Japanese be able to reach the high ground north
of Mariveles, from which they could dominate the southern tip of Bataan as well as
Corregidor, as rapidly if the Luzon Force
opposed them as they would if their advance
was unopposed. The three men finally
agreed that the Japanese would reach Mariveles by the evening of the next day, 9 April,
no matter what course was followed. With
no relief in sight and with no possible
chance to delay the enemy, General King
then decided to open negotiations with the
Japanese for the conclusion of hostilities on
Bataan. He made this decision entirely on
15
14
Rad,own
Wainwright
to MacArthur,
No,
No. the
398,full
44
his
responsibility
and with
16
Collier, Notebooks, IV, 2; Luzon Force Rpt of
Opns, p. 6; intervs, author with Gen King, 12 Feb
47, and Col Collier, 20 Nov 46, OCMH. Colonel
Alexander, who was in King's command post that
night, states that as soon as General King finished
his telephone conversation with Jones, presumably
in connection with Wainwright's order to counterattack, he sent for General Parker and his chief of
staff. Parker, therefore, may have been present at the
conference. Alexander, Personal Recollections of
Bataan, p. 122.
458
knowledge that he was acting contrary to

orders.17
Having made his decision, General King
called his staff to his tent at midnight to tell
them what he had determined to do and
why. At the outset he made it clear that he
had not called the meeting to ask for the
advice or opinion of his assistants. The "ignominious decision," he explained, was entirely his and he did not wish anyone else to
be "saddled with any part of the responsibility." "I have not communicated with
General Wainwright," he declared, "because I do not want him to be compelled to
assume any part of the responsibility." Further resistance, he felt, would only be an unnecessary and useless waste of life. "Already
our hospital, which is filled to capacity and
directly in the line of hostile approach, is
within range of enemy light artillery. We
have no further means of organized resistance."18
Though the decision to surrender could

not have surprised the staff, it "hit with an
awful bang and a terrible wallop." Everyone had hoped for a happier ending to the
grim tragedy of Bataan, and when General
King walked out of the meeting "there was
not a dry eye present." 19
There was much to do in the next few
hours to accomplish the orderly surrender
of so large and disorganized a force: all
units had to be notified of the decision and
given precise instructions; selected individuals and units had to be sent to Corregidor;
and everything of military value had to be
destroyed. The first task was to establish
contact with the Japanese and reach agreement on the terms of the surrender. Col.
E. C. Williams and Maj. Marshall H. Hurt,
Jr., both bachelors, volunteered to go forward under a white flag to request an interview for General King with the Japanese
commander. Arrangements for their departure were quickly made. They would time
17
Intervs, author with Gen King, 12 Feb 47, Col
their journey so as to arrive at the front lines
Collier, 20 Nov 46, and Maj Tisdelle, OCMH. Times
at daylight, just as the destruction of equipdiffer in all accounts and no participant presents
exactly the same version as the others. Under tre- ment was being completed.
mendous emotional strain men's memories are not
In the event the Japanese commander
too reliable. King, for example, did not mention the
refused
to meet General King, Williams was
meeting with Funk and Collier but spoke of a staff
meeting; Collier did not mention what had hap- authorized to discuss surrender terms himpened at the meeting but fixed the time and circumself. These terms were outlined in a letter of
stances. The account of this meeting, as well as of
the negotiations for the surrender which follows, is
instructions King prepared for Williams.
based on these interviews and on numerous informal
The basic concession Williams was to seek
conversations, diaries, and scattered accounts. Diffrom the Japanese was that Luzon Force
ferences in time and in substance have been adjusted
on the basis of internal evidence.
headquarters be allowed to control the
18
Collier, Notebooks, IV, 3-4. There is no copy
movement of its troops to prison camp. Wilof King's remarks in existence and the present version is taken from Collier's notes. The substance is liams was also instructed to mention specorroborated by General King and other officers.
Colonel Alexander states that when King made
his decision to surrender he telephoned Corregidor
and spoke to General Beebe, Wainwright not being
available. "Tell General Wainwright," Alexander
reports King as saying, "that I have decided to surrender Bataan. . . . This decision is solely my own,
no member of my staff nor of my command has
helped me to arrive at this decision. In my opinion,
if I do not surrender to the Japanese, Bataan will be

known as the greatest slaughter in history." Alexander, Personal Recollections of Bataan, p. 123. This
statement conflicts with the statements of the principals that the decision to surrender was not communicated to Wainwright.
19
Collier, Notebooks, IV, 4.
SURRENDER
cifically the following points if he discussed
terms with the Japanese:
a. The large number of sick and wounded
in the two General hospitals, particularly Hospital #1 which is dangerously close to the area
wherein artillery projectiles may be expected
to fall if hostilities continue.
b. The fact that our forces are somewhat
disorganized and that it will be quite difficult
to assemble them. This assembling and organizing of our own forces, necessary prior to their
being delivered as prisoners of war, will necessarily take some time and can be accomplished
by my own staff and under my direction.
c. The physical condition of the command
due to long siege, during which they have been
on short rations, which will make it very difficult to move them a great distance on foot.
d. . . .
e. Request consideration for the vast number of civilians present at this time in Bataan,
most of whom have simply drifted in and
whom we have to feed and care for. These
people are in no way connected with the
American or Filipino forces and their presence
is simply incidental due to circumstances under
which the Bataan phase of hostilities was
precipitated.20
While Williams and Hurt were making

preparations to leave, every effort was made
to warn all unit commanders of the decision to surrender. There was no difficulty
in alerting II Corps since Parker's command
post was now adjacent to King's; General
Jones was notified by telephone. The two
corps commanders in turn informed the
units under their control. Bluemel, whose
troops had reached the Lamao River, was
instructed by Parker to hold his line only
until daylight. When he asked what would
happen at that time he was told that "a car
carrying a white flag would go through the
lines on the east road . . . and that there
must be no firing after the car passed." 21
structions for Col E. C. Williams, copy in OCMH.
459
Bluemel told his regimental commanders
and directed them to alert their own officers
immediately. Not all units were informed
so promptly, and it was only by a narrow
margin that these units escaped disaster the
next morning.
When Colonel Williams and Major Hurt
finally started toward the front lines about
0330 of the 9th, the destruction of equipment was already under way.22 Depot and
warehouse commanders had been alerted
about noon of the 8th to prepare for demolitions and about midnight the order to
begin the destruction was given by Luzon
Force headquarters. Some commanders
anticipated the order and destruction of
equipment began somewhat earlier than
midnight. The Chemical Warfare depot began to dump chemicals into the bay during
the afternoon and completed the task during
the night.23
As though nature had conspired to add
to the confusion, an earthquake of serious
proportions shook the peninsula "like a leaf"
at about 2130.24 About an hour later the
Navy started to destroy its installations at
Mariveles. "Pursuant to orders from General Wainwright," Captain Hoeffel informed the Navy Department, "am destroying and sinking Dewey Drydock, Canopus,
Napa, Bittern tonight." 25 Soon the rumble
of explosions could be heard from Mariveles
21
20
22
Extract
Bluemel,
Memo, King
from
31stthe
for
DivDiary
Williams,
(PA)ofRpt
Major
8 of
Apr
Opns,
Hurt,
42, sub:
p.copy
33.Inin
OCMH. The section of the diary dealing with

Hurt's experiences on 9 April has been published in
Chunn, Of Rice and Men, pp. 5-9. Major Tisdelle
states the two men started forward at 0200. USA vs.
Homma, p. 2302, testimony of Tisdelle.
23
Activities of the Chemical Warfare Service in
the Philippines, Sec C, CWS Hist Sec, p. 57; Luzon
Force Rpt of Opns, p. 7; USFIP G-4 Journal, 8-9
Apr 42, AG 461 (25 Dec 41) Phil Rcds.
24
25
Rad, Com 16 to COMINCH, 8 Apr 42, 081430,
Off of Naval Rcds.
460
while flames shot high above the town,
lighting up the sky for miles around. The
climax came when the Canopus blew up
with a tremendous roar: "She seemed,"
wrote an observer, "to leap out of the water
in a sheet of flame and then drop back down
heavily like something with all the life gone
out of it."26
The Navy's fireworks were but the prelude to the larger demolitions that were to
follow when the Army's ammunition was
destroyed. Though stored in the congested
area adjacent to General Hospital No. 1,
the engineer and quartermaster depots, and
Luzon Force and II Corps headquarters,
the TNT and ammunition had to be destroyed where they were. There was no
time to move them to a safer place and
hardly time to transfer the hospital patients
away from the danger area. In the dumps
were hundreds of thousands of rounds of
small-arms ammunition and artillery shells
of all calibers. Powder trains were laid to the
separate piles of ammunition, and shells of
larger caliber were set off by rifle fire.
Destruction began shortly after 2100 and
at 0200 the first TNT warehouses went up
with an explosion that fairly rocked the area.
Then followed a most magnificent display of
fireworks. Several million dollars worth of
explosives and ammunition filled the sky
"with bursting shells, colored lights, and
sprays of rainbow colors. . . . Never did a
4th of July display equal it in noise, lights,
colors or cost." 27 After the explosion shell
fragments of all sizes fell like hail and men
in the vicinity took refuge in their foxholes.
The headquarters building at King's command post, a flimsy structure about 200 by
115.

20 feet, was knocked over by the blast and
the furniture was scattered in all directions.
When morning came the men were surprised to note that all overhead cover was
gone. "It is miraculous," wrote one officer,
"that we came through this." 28
In the confusion and disorganization of
the last night of the battle, the evacuation of
personnel to Corregidor proved difficult and
sometimes impossible. The 45th Infantry
(PS), which Wainwright had requested,
never reached Mariveles where the barges
waited. The regiment was in the I Corps
area in the Pantingan valley when it received the orders to move, but it was unable
to make the journey in time and was caught
on Bataan.29
The nurses were more fortunate. Most of
them did escape but only after harrowing
experiences. Given thirty minutes to make
ready for the journey, the nurses were cautioned to take with them only what they
could carry. They boarded trucks in the
darkness and made their way south at a
snail's pace along the congested East Road.
The group from General Hospital No. 2 was
held up by the explosions from the ammunition dump which went up just as the convoy reached the road adjacent to the storage
area. These nurses almost failed to get
through. The barge left without them
shortly before daylight and it was only
27
26
28
29
through
the
"vim,
vigor,
and
Gulick,
Tisdelle,
NLF
Collier,
and
Memoirs
Notebooks,
Diary,
I Corps
entry
ofRpt
IV,
Btry
ofof
86.Apr
C,
Opns,
91st
42.p,swearing"
CA
30;(PS),
intervs,
p.of
General Funk that a motor boat was sent
from Corregidor to carry them across the
North Channel. They left the Mariveles
dock after daylight and despite the bombs
author with Gen King, 12 Feb 47, and Col Collier,

20 Nov 46, OCMH; memo, QM USFIP to CofS
USFIP, 8 Apr 42, sub: QM Plan, Evacuation of
Bataan, AG 401 (2 Jan 42) Phil Rcds.
SURRENDER
and bullets from a lone Japanese plane
reached Corregidor in safety.30
Altogether about 2,000 persons, including
300 survivors of the 31st Infantry (US),
Navy personnel, some Scouts from the 26th
Cavalry, and Philippine Army troops, escaped from Bataan in small boats and barges
that night. The remainder of General King's
force of 78,000 was left behind to the tender
mercy of the Japanese.31
Meanwhile, Colonel Williams and Major
Hurt had gone forward to meet the Japanese commander. They began their journey
in a reconnaissance car with motorcycle
escort, but, unable to make progress against
the heavy traffic moving away from the
front lines, were soon forced to abandon the
car. Williams climbed on the back of the
motorcycle and continued forward, leaving
Hurt to make his way as best he could on
foot. "After talking to myself," wrote the
major in his diary, "saying a few prayers,
wondering what is in store for me in the
future, bumming rides and a lot of walking"
against the tide of "crouching, demoralized,
beaten foot soldiers," he met Williams again
on the East Road, two miles south of the
front lines.32 By this time the Colonel had
acquired a jeep and driver and the two men
started forward again. Except for the far-
461
Lt. Col. Joseph Ganahl with some tanks,
two 75-mm. guns (SPM), and a few troops.
At 0530 Ganahl and his men withdrew,
leaving Williams, Hurt, and the driver
alone. An hour later, as the sky was turning
light, they drove forward into Japanese-held
territory. Soon after about thirty "screaming" Japanese with "bayonets flashing"
rushed at them.33 Waving a bedsheet, their
improvised white flag, both men descended
from the jeep with raised hands. For the
moment the entire mission was in jeopardy
but fortunately a Japanese officer arrived
and Williams was able to make him understand by signs and by waving his instructions in the officer's face that he wished to
see the commanding officer. The Japanese
got into his car, motioning for Williams and
Hurt to follow. With a sigh of relief they
drove on, past American prisoners with
wrists tied behind them and Japanese
soldiers making ready for the day's tasks.

After a three-mile ride, their jeep was halted
and the two Americans were taken to meet
General Nagano whose detachment was
moving down the East Road. An interpreter
read Williams' letter of instructions, and,

following a brief discussion, Nagano agreed
to meet General King at the Experimental
Farm Station near Lamao, close to the front
34
away explosions and "the chattering teeth lines.
Hurt was sent back to get the general and
of our driver," all was quiet.
34
32
33
kept
Japanese
headWilliams and Hurt reached the front line Williams
Ibid.,
Hurt, Diary,
p.
pp.7.was
7-8;
in Chunn,
Collier,
OfatRice
Notebooks,
and Men,
IV,p.
7-8.
6.
without further incident. There they found quarters. Escorted to the front lines by
Japanese tanks, Major Hurt made his way
30
Collier, Notebooks, IV, 7; Funk, Comments on
down the East Road, "past blown-up tanks,
Draft MS, p. 17, OCMH; Wainwright, General
burning
trucks, broken guns," and reached
Wainwright's Story, p. 81; Redmond, I Served on
Luzon Force headquarters at 0900.35 WithBataan, pp. 123-28.
31
in a few minutes General King was ready
86-87.
to go forward.
The present account is based largely on this source.
Colonel Williams did not prepare any notes of his
experience and efforts to secure additional information from him have not been successful.
35
Hurt, Diary, in Chunn, Of Rice and Men, p. 8.
462
SURRENDER ON BATAAN
On Corregidor General Wainwright
spent the night in ignorance of these events.
At 0300 he spoke to King on the telephone
but King did not mention his decision to
surrender.36 It was only three hours later, at
36
81. General King's aide states that King spoke to
General Beebe, not Wainwright, at this time. This
is borne out by Wainwright, who explained in a
message to General MacArthur that he could not
hear well because of a poor connection and had
given the phone to Beebe. Rad, Wainwright to
MacArthur, No. 398, 4 May 42, AG 384.1, GHQ
SWPA; interv, Bateman with Tisdelle, 22 Jan 46.
Colonel Alexander reports that after this telephone conversation King told his staff that Wainwright would not agree to the surrender of Bataan
but that he would not interfere. King then went on
to say, Colonel Alexander recollects, that if he
survived he expected to be court-martialed, and he
was certain that history would not deal kindly with
0600, that General Wainwright learned

from his assistant operations officer, Lt. Col.
Jesse T. Traywick, Jr., that General King
had sent an officer to the Japanese to arrange terms for the cessation of hostilities.
Shocked, he shouted to Traywick, "Go back
and tell him not to do it." 37
But it was too late. Williams and Hurt
were already on their way to meet Nagano
and General King could not be reached by
telephone or radio.38 Regretfully General
Wainwright wrote to MacArthur:
a commander who would be remembered for having
surrendered the largest force the United States had
ever lost. Alexander, Personal Recollections of

Bataan, p. 124.
37
38
In his message No. 398 of 4 May 1942 to
MacArthur, cited above, Wainwright explained,
SURRENDER
463
SURRENDER ON BATAAN
At 6 o'clock this morning General
King . . . without my knowledge or approval sent a flag of truce to the Japanese
commander. The minute I heard of it I disapproved of his action and directed that there
would be no surrender. I was informed it
was too late to make any change, that the
action had already been taken. . . . Physical
exhaustion and sickness due to a long period
of insufficient food is the real cause of this
terrible disaster. When I get word what terms
have been arranged I will advise you.39
"We had direct communication with General King
by telephone and radio up to the time of initiation
of move to surrender." There is some disagreement
over this point, and many of the officers claim that
communications with Bataan were not interrupted
until later in the day and that they talked with
other officers on Bataan after 0600.
39
Apr 42, AG 384.1, GHO SWPA.
For General King, Wainwright had no

criticism. "It has never been and is not my
intention to reflect upon General King,"
he later told MacArthur, "as the decision
which he was forced to make required unusual courage and strength of character." 40
Soon he would be forced to make the same
decision.
It was about 0900 when King, in his last
clean uniform, went forward to meet General Nagano. He felt, he said later, like
General Lee who on the same day seventyseven years earlier, just before his meeting
with Grant at Appomatox, had remarked:
"Then there is nothing left to do but to go
40
May 42, AG 384.1, GHQ SWPA; Wainwright,
General Wainwright's Story, p. 83.
464
and see General Grant, and I would rather

die a thousand deaths." 41 With King when
he left his command post were his two aides,
Majors Wade Cothran and Tisdelle; his
operations officer, Colonel Collier; and
Major Hurt, who was to guide them to the
meeting place. General Funk remained behind to supervise the completion of the
demolitions and the arrangements for the
surrender of the Luzon Force.
The group left in two jeeps. In the first
were Collier and Hurt; 150 yards to the
rear in the second jeep were the general and
his aides. Despite the white flags prominently displayed on both vehicles and wildly
waved by Collier and Tisdelle, they were
immediately bombed and strafed by lowflying Japanese aircraft. Fortunately the
road was a winding one and offered ample
protection on each side. The planes came
in at very low altitude, sprayed the road
with their machine guns or dropped a string
of small bombs, made a wide circle, then
banked and came in again for another try.
"One smart boy," wrote Colonel Collier,
"dropped out of formation and . . . cut
loose with his machine guns just in front of
a curve."42 Only the whine of the ricocheting bullets warned the driver of the first jeep
in time to avert disaster by jamming on his
brakes and piling into the embankment.
"The attack passed like a Texas whirlwind"
and the men stopped with relief and "took
41
This remark is attributed to King by the
authors of a manuscript history of the Philippine
Campaign entitled Triumph in the Philippines and
prepared by the Combat History Division, G-1,
U.S. Army Forces, Western Pacific, page 203.
General King did not repeat it in his conversations
with the present author. The quotation can be
found in Douglas S. Freeman, R. E. Lee, a Biography (New York and London, 1934-1935), IV,
120.
42

a full breath of good fresh air." 43 The attacks were almost continuous and at least
once in every 200 yards the entire group was
forced to jump hastily from the vehicles
and seek cover in a ditch or behind a tree.
After more than an hour of this game of
hare and hounds, when the general's uniform was as disheveled as those he had left
behind, a Japanese reconnaissance plane appeared over the road and the pilot dipped
his wings and waved in recognition. Apparently this was the signal to the attacking
planes to keep away and the rest of the journey was uneventful. At the bridge over the
Lamao River the group passed Japanese
soldiers with fixed bayonets but were allowed
to proceed without interference. Waiting for
them was the Japanese soldier who had
guided Major Hurt to the front lines earlier.
He greeted them courteously and escorted
them to a house near by in front of which
General Nagano was seated with Colonel
Williams. It was now 1100; the general and
his party had spent two hours traveling a
distance of about three miles.44
General Nagano, who spoke no English,
opened the meeting by explaining through
an interpreter that he was not authorized to
make any arrangements himself but that he
had notified General Homma an American
officer was seeking a meeting to discuss terms
for the cessation of hostilities. A representative from 14th Army headquarters, he told
King, would arrive very soon. A few minutes
later a shiny Cadillac drew up at the building before which the envoys were waiting
43
44
Ibid.
Collier, Notebooks, TV, 8-12; Hurt, Diary, in

Chunn, Of Rice and Men, p. 8. This volume also
contains an account by Major Tisdelle, pages
10-13, presumably written after the war. The
present author has preferred to use Major Tisdelle's
Diary, entry of 9 April 1942.
SURRENDER
465
DISCUSSING SURRENDER TERMS with Colonel Nakayama. Facing forward,

left to right, Col. Everett C. Williams, Maj. Gen. Edward P. King, Jr., Maj. Wade
Cothran, and Maj. Achille C. Tisdelle.
and Colonel Nakayama, the 14th Army

senior operations officer, emerged, accompanied by an interpreter.45 General King
rose to greet him, but Nakayama ignored
him and took a seat at the head of the table.
King resumed his seat at the opposite end,
erect with his hands forward in front of
him. "I never saw him look more like a soldier," wrote his aide, "than in this hour of
defeat."46
Nakayama had come to the meeting without any specific instructions about accepting a surrender or the terms under which a
surrender would be acceptable. Apparently
45
Interv, Bateman with Tisdelle, 22 Jan 46; Col

Nakayama, Negotiations with Gen King, 26 Aug 49,
ATIS Doc 50246.
46
Tisdelle, Diary, entry of 9 Apr 42.
there was no thought in Homma's mind of

a negotiated settlement. He believed that
the American envoy was a representative
from General Wainwright and had sent
Nakayama to represent him since he was
unwilling to meet with any person of lesser
rank. 47
The discussion got off to a bad start when
Colonel Nakayama, fixing his glance on
General King, asked: "You are General
Wainwright?" When King said he was not
and identified himself, Nakayama asked
where Wainwright was and why he had not
47
The account of the negotiations is based upon:
Nakayama, Negotiations with King, 26 Aug 49,
ATIS Doc 50246; USA vs. Homma, pp. 2305, 3143,

testimony of Homma; Prosecution Exhibit 425,
deposition of King; interv, author with Gen King,
12 Feb 47; Tisdelle, Diary, entry of 9 Apr 42.
466
come. The general replied that he did not

speak for the commander of all forces in the
Philippines but for his own command alone.
He was then told that he would have to get
Wainwright and that the Japanese could
not accept any surrender without him.
Again King declared that he represented
only the forces on Bataan and that he could
not get Wainwright. The Japanese were
apparently insisting on a clarification of
King's relation to Wainwright in order to
avoid having to accept the piecemeal surrender of Wainwright's forces.
General King finally persuaded Nakayama to consider his terms. He explained
that his forces were no longer fighting units
and that he was seeking an arrangement to
prevent further bloodshed. He asked for an
armistice and requested that air bombardment be stopped at once. Nakayama rejected
both the request for an immediate armistice
and the cessation of air bombardment, explaining that the pilots had missions until
noon and that the bombardment could not
be halted until then. King then asked that
his troops be permitted to march out of
Bataan under their own officers and that
the sick, wounded, and exhausted men be
allowed to ride in the vehicles he had saved
for this purpose. He promised to deliver his
men at any time to any place designated by
General Homma. Repeatedly he asked for
assurance that the American and Filipino
troops would be treated as prisoners of war
under the provisions of the Geneva
Convention.
To all these proposals Nakayama turned
a deaf ear. The only basis on which he
would consider negotiations for the cessation of hostilities, he asserted, was one
which included the surrender of all forces in
the Philippines. "It is absolutely impossible
for me," he told King flatly, "to consider

negotiations ... in any limited area." 48 If
the forces on Bataan wished to surrender
they would have to do so by unit, "voluntarily and unconditionally." Apparently
General King understood this to mean that
Nakayama would accept his unconditional
surrender. Realizing that his position was
hopeless and that every minute delayed
meant the death of more of his men, General
King finally agreed at about 1230 to surrender unconditionally. Nakayama then
asked for the general's saber, but King explained he had left it behind in Manila at
the outbreak of war. After a brief flurry of
excitement, Nakayama agreed to accept a
pistol instead and the general laid it on the
table. His fellow officers did the same, and
the group passed into captivity.
No effort was made by either side to make
the surrender a matter of record with a
signed statement. General King believed
then and later that though he had not secured agreement to any of the terms he
had requested he had formally surrendered
his entire force to Homma's representative.
The Japanese view did not grant even that
much. As Nakayama later explained: "The
surrender . . . was accomplished by the voluntary and unconditional surrender of each
individual or each unit. The negotiations
for the cessation of hostilities failed."49
King's surrender, therefore, was interpreted
as the surrender of a single individual to the
Japanese commander in the area, General
Nagano, and not the surrender of an organized military force to the supreme enemy
commander. He, Colonel Williams, and the
two aides were kept in custody by the Japanese as a guarantee that there would be no
further resistance. Though they were not
48
Nakayama, Negotiations with King, 26 Aug
49, ATIS Doc 50246.
49
Ibid.
SURRENDER
so informed, they were, in fact, hostages and
not prisoners of war.
Colonel Collier and Major Hurt, accompanied by a Japanese officer, were sent back
to headquarters to pass on the news of the
surrender to General Funk. On the way,
they were to inform all troops along the
road and along the adjoining trails to march
to the East Road, stack arms, and await
further instructions. Orders for the final
disposition of the troops would come from
Homma. Meanwhile, by agreement with
Nagano, the Japanese forces along the east
coast would advance only as far as the
Cabcaben airfield.50
The battle for Bataan was ended; the
fighting was over. The men who had survived the long ordeal could feel justly proud
of their accomplishment. For three months
they had held off the Japanese, only to be
overwhelmed finally by disease and starvation. In a very real sense theirs had been
"a true medical defeat," the inevitable outcome of a campaign of attrition, of "consumption without replenishment." 51 Each
man had done his best and none need feel
shame.
50
Interv, author with Collier, 20 Nov 46, OCMH;
Collier, Notebooks, IV, 12-13; Funk, Comments on
Draft MS, p. 11, OCMH; USA vs. Homma, Prosecution Exhibit 425, testimony of King.
51
Rpt, Surg LF to CG LF, 30 Jun 42, sub:
Med Aspects of the Surrender, prepared in prison
camp and lent to the author. A copy is on file in
OCMH.
467
The events that followed General King's

surrender present a confused and chaotic
story of the disintegration and dissolution of
a starved, diseased, and beaten army. This
story reached its tragic climax with the
horrors and atrocities of the 65-mile "death
march" from Mariveles to San Fernando.52
Denied food and water, robbed of their personal possessions and equipment, forced to
march under the hot sun and halt in areas
where even the most primitive sanitary
facilities were lacking, clubbed, beaten, and
bayoneted by their Japanese conquerors,
General King's men made their way into
captivity. Gallant foes and brave soldiers,
the battling bastards had earned the right
to be treated with consideration and decency, but their enemies had reserved for
them even greater privations and deeper
humiliation than any they had yet suffered
on Bataan. How hard their lot was to be
none knew but already many faced the future with heavy heart and "feelings of
doubt, foreboding, and dark uncertainty." 53
52
The individual surrender of units and the death
march are not treated in this volume since they did
not affect the course of military operations on
Bataan. The documents dealing with the march
can be found among the prosecution exhibits and
in the testimony of the trial of General Homma.
The death march has been covered in an M. A.
thesis prepared by the author's research assistant,
Stanley L. Falk, at Georgetown University, entitled
"The Bataan Death March."
53
PART FIVE
CORREGIDOR AND THE SOUTHERN ISLANDS
CHAPTER XXVII
The Siege of Corregidor

Though the fall of Bataan ended all organized opposition on Luzon, it did not give
the Japanese the most valuable prize of all,
Manila Bay. So long as Corregidor and its
sister forts across the entrance to the bay
remained in American hands, the use of the
finest natural harbor in the Orient was denied them. And before General Homma
could report to his already impatient superiors in Tokyo that he had accomplished
his mission, he would also have to occupy
Mindanao to the south as well as the more
important islands in the Visayan group in
the central Philippines.
The campaign for the Philippine Islands
was not yet over. Though he had won the
most decisive battle of that campaign,
Homma still had to take Corregidor and
the islands south of Luzon before the Japanese could integrate the archipelago into
the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
The Harbor Defenses of Manila Bay

Since the days of the Spaniards, Corregidor had been used as an outpost for the
defense of Manila. (Map 23) By a system
of semaphore signals from the island the
Spaniards were able to receive warning of
the approach of any hostile force in time
to alert the forts in and around the capital.
Later, they constructed minor fortifications
on the island as an outer line of defense
and as a screen for the larger guns emplaced
along the Cavite shore south of Manila Bay,
and at Fort Santiago in Manila. By 1898,

when Admiral Dewey sailed into Manila
Bay, the Spaniards had on Corregidor three
large cannons, each with a range of about
one mile. Two of these faced Cavite; the
other pointed north toward Bataan. In addition the Spaniards had twelve other
coastal guns to defend the approaches to
the capital city: on El Fraile and Caballo
Islands, which, like Corregidor, lay across
the entrance to the bay; along the southern
tip of Bataan; and along the Cavite shore.
After the cession of the Philippines to
the United States, a vast construction program designed to defend Manila by sealing
off the entrance to Manila Bay was begun.
During the years before the first World
War, forts were built on Corregidor and
the adjoining islands in the bay. By 1914
the task was completed. The Americans

could now boast of an elaborate defense
system in Manila Bay, so strong as to justify
the name Gibraltar of the East. Reflecting
the doctrine of the era in which they were
built, the forts were designed to withstand
attack from the sea by the heaviest surface
vessels then known.1
The development of military aviation in
1
The description of the fortifications in Manila
Bay is based on the following sources: Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, pp. 1-16, Exhibits C, K, and
M; American Fixed Coast Defenses in the Philippine Islands, Mil Rpts, No. 23, Nov 44, MID WD, p.
30; Lt Col Gwinn V. Porter, AA Defense of Corregidor, (paper prepared for Command and General
Staff School, 1946-1947), pp. 1-10; ltr, Admiral
Rockwell to Gen Ward, 18 Jan 52, OCMH.
472
CORREGIDOR. Tip of Bataan, upper left.
the decade of the 1920's struck a sharp blow

at the effectiveness of this carefully wrought
and vastly expensive system of defenses.
Nothing could be done to remedy the weakness of the forts, however, for by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 the construction of additional fortifications as well as the
modernization of those already built was
prohibited. Major construction after 1922,
therefore, was limited to antiaircraft positions and to the tunnels dug into the solid
rock of Malinta Hill on Corregidor, presumably as a storage area for supplies. When
the Japanese attacked in December 1941,
the defenses of Corregidor and the adjoining islands were little different from what
they had been twenty-five years earlier.
Of the four fortified islands in Manila
Bay, Corregidor, the site of Fort Mills, was
the largest, measuring three and a half miles
in length and one and a half miles at its

widest point. With its bulbous head pointed
toward the west and its tail stretching eastward, this tadpole-shaped island separated
the bay entrance into a north and south
channel. Corregidor had narrowly missed
being two islands, for at the junction of the
head and tail it narrowed to 600 yards and
dropped to a height only slightly above sea
level. This low area was known as Bottomside and contained two docks, the barrio of
San Jose, shops, warehouses, a power plant,
and cold-storage units. Directly to the east
of Bottomside was Malinta Hill with its
labyrinth of tunnels. Beyond, stretched the
tail of the island, where a small airfield and
a navy radio intercept station were located.
West of the narrow neck which connected
the tail with the head of the tadpole was a
small plateau known as Middleside. Here
THE SIEGE OF CORREGIDOR
473
MALINTA HILL, looking south. Low area, center, is Bottomside.

were located the hospital, quarters for commissioned and noncommissioned officers, a
service club, and two schools for the children of the island. Beyond, lay the heavy
head of the tadpole, rising 500 feet above
the sea. Called Topside, this area contained
the headquarters, barracks, and officers
quarters, grouped around the traditional parade grounds. The ground was high almost
to the beach line where it dropped precipitously to the water's edge. Cutting into the
cliffs were two ravines, James and Cheney,
which gave access from the beaches to the
crowded area above. These ravines, together
with Ramsey Ravine which led to Middleside, were the critical points in the defense
of Corregidor against hostile landings.
Critical also to the defense of Corregidor

and the ability of its garrison to hold out
against a sustained attack was the safety of
its power plant. Fresh water for the island

had to be brought by barge from Mariveles
or pumped from the twenty-one deep wells
on the island. Perishable food could be kept
in that tropical climate only by power-
driven cold-storage plants. The large seacoast gun batteries, though equipped with
emergency power sets, relied on the power
plant, and ventilation for the vast underground tunnels depended on electrically
operated blowers. Although there were sixty-five miles of roads and trails on the island,
much of the heavy equipment was moved
over an electric railroad with thirteen and
a half miles of track which led to all important military installations. The garrison,
therefore, was dependent in a very real

sense on the island's power plant, and it was
natural that those concerned with planning
the defense should make every provision to
474
guard against its destruction by bombardment.

The most extensive construction on Corregidor was the tunnel system under Malinta Hill. Consisting of a main east-west
passage 1,400 feet long and 30 feet wide,
the tunnel had 25 laterals, each about 400
feet long, branching out at regular intervals from each side of the main passage.
The underground hospital was housed in a
separate system of tunnels north of the main
tunnel and had 12 laterals of its own. It
could be reached either through the main
tunnel or by a separate outside entrance on
the north side of Malinta Hill. Opposite the
hospital, under the south side of Malinta,
was the Navy tunnel system, connected to
the main tunnel by a partially completed
low passageway through the quartermaster
storage lateral. Reinforced with concrete
walls, floors, and overhead arches, blowers
to furnish fresh air, and a double-track electric car line along the east-west passage, the
Malinta Tunnel furnished bombproof shelter for the hospital, headquarters, and shops,
as well as a vast labyrinthine underground
storehouse.
The armament of Corregidor was formidable. Its seacoast defense alone consisted
of 23 batteries, many with their own names
and traditions. Altogether, Corregidor had
a total of 56 coastal guns and mortars, all
of World War I vintage, ranging in caliber
from 3 to 12 inches. (Table 9) The longest
range cannon were the two 12-inch guns of
Batteries Smith and Hearn, with a horizontal range of 29,000 yards and all-around
traverse. In addition, there were six 12-inch
guns with a range of 17,000 yards, and ten
mortars of the same caliber. Nineteen of
Corregidor's guns were the 155-mm. GPF's,
capable of a range of 17,000 yards. The ten
3-inchers had the shortest range. The sup-
TABLE 9ARMAMENT ON CORREGIDOR
Searchlight.
Source: Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, Annex C.
ply of seacoast ammunition was ample but

there was little of the type suitable for attacking land targets and no star shells to
provide illumination for night fire. North
and south of the island were extensive mine
fields planted by the Army and Navy.
Antiaircraft equipment consisted of 3inch guns with a vertical range of 27,000
and 32,000 feet (depending on the type of
ammunition used), .50-caliber machine
guns, and 60-inch Sperry searchlights. Defending Corregidor from air attack were 24
of these 3-inch guns, 48 machine guns and
5 searchlights. Another battery of 3-inchers
was emplaced on the southern tip of Bataan
to tie in with these on Corregidor. Ammunition for the antiaircraft weapons was less
plentiful than that for the seacoast guns, and
there was a critical shortage of mechanically
fuzed 3-inch high explosive shells.
MALINTA TUNNEL
476
Before the war, the Corregidor garrison

consisted principally of headquarters, artillery, and service troops. The combined
strength of the four fortified islands in
Manila Bay at that time did not exceed
6,000 men, most of whom were stationed
on Corregidor. After 8 December the population of these garrisons swelled rapidly.
First came the survivors of the Cavite naval
base, then the headquarters and service
troops from Manila. MacArthur's headquarters was established on Corregidor on

25 December and with it came the 809th
Military Police Company, two ordnance
companies, an engineer company, and service detachments. When Olongapo was
evacuated on 26 December, the 4th Marines
were also transferred to Corregidor, swelling its population by over 1,000 men. Before the first blow hit that island, it was
already crowded with the men of all services and a dizzying pyramid of headquarters.
The defenses of the three other islands in
the entrance to Manila Bay were hardly less
formidable, proportionately, than those of
Corregidor. Caballo (Fort Hughes), just
south of Corregidor, was the next largest
in size. Only about one quarter of a square
mile in area, this island rose abruptly from
the bay to a height of 380 feet on its western
side. The east coast, which was lower than
the rest of the island, was vulnerable to amphibious attack and a marine detachment of
about 100 men was sent there to augment

April the garrison of Fort Hughes numbered
about 800 men of whom 93 were marines
and 443 belonged to the Navy. The antiaircraft defenses of the island were tied in
with those of Corregidor and consisted of
four 3-inch guns. Seacoast artillery numbered thirteen pieces: two 14-inch guns,
four 12-inch mortars, two 6-inch guns, three
155-mm. GPF's, and two 3-inchers. (Table
10)
TABLE 10ARMAMENT ON FORTS HUGHES,
DRUM, AND FRANK
the garrison. Later, 200 sailors from Corregidor were added to the marine detachment
and Comdr. Francis J. Bridget, who had
commanded the naval battalion in the Battle of the Points, assumed command of the
beach defenses. His force was almost doubled
when the crews of four gunboats, about 225
men, were sent to the island. By the end of
Source: Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, Annex C; Brig Gen

Samuel L. Howard, Rpt on 4th Marines, p. 18, USMC Hist Sec.
FORT DRUM. El Fraile Island before the concrete battleship was constructed, above;
and after, below.
478
About four miles south of Fort Hughes

lay Fort Drum, the most unusual of the
harbor defenses. Cutting away the entire
top of El Fraile Island down to the water
line and using the island as a foundation,
the engineers had built a reinforced concrete battleship, 350 feet long and 144 feet
wide, with exterior walls of concrete and
steel 25 to 36 feet thick. The top deck of
this concrete battleship was 40 feet above
the low-water mark and had 20-foot-thick
walls. Equipped with four 14-inch guns in
armored turrets facing seaward, a secondary
battery of four casemated 6-inch guns, and
antiaircraft defense, the fort with its 200man garrison was considered, even in 1941,
impregnable to attack.
The southernmost of the fortified islands
was Carabao, only 500 yards from the
shores of Cavite Province. Except at one
point along its eastern shore, the island rises
precipitously from the sea in cliffs more than
100 feet high. On this uninviting island the
Americans had placed Fort Frank, which
late in 1941 had a military garrison of about
400 men, mostly Philippine Scouts. Its armament consisted of two 14-inch guns,
eight 12-inch mortars, four 155-mm. GPF's,
as well as antiaircraft and beach defense
weapons.
All four forts in Manila Bay, as well as
Fort Wint in Subic Bay, had been formed
before the war into an organization called
the Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic
Bays which, in August 1941, became a part
of the Philippine Coast Artillery Command.
Both were commanded by Maj. Gen.
George F. Moore who also commanded the
Corregidor garrison. The 5,700 men assigned to the Harbor Defenses were organized into three seacoast and one antiaircraft
artillery regiments, headquarters, and service troops. The three seacoast units included
the American 59th and the Philippine Scout

91st and 92d. The 60th, the antiaircraft
regiment, was composed of Americans.
About 600 Philippine Army soldiers in
training were organized into the 1st and 2d
Coast Artillery Regiments (PA), but operated under the control of the two Scout
regiments.2
General Moore commanded not only the
seacoast and antiaircraft artillery but the
beach defenses and inshore patrol as well.
To exercise tactical control over all elements
of his force, he had four major commands.
Seaward defense he placed under Col. Paul
D. Bunker who, in turn, commanded four
groups, two of which covered North Channel and two South Channel. All antiaircraft units were under Col. Theodore M.
Chase, commander of the 60th Coast Artillery. In addition to the normal mission
of providing defense against air attack,
Chase also maintained an air warning serv-
ice for the fortified islands and for vessels

in the bay. Though each fort commander
was responsible for local defense, General
Moore had an executive for beach defense
who co-ordinated the plans for each of the
islands. The inshore patrol remained a
naval function, but under the principle of
unity of command, Capt. Kenneth M.
Hoeffel, USN, was under Moore's tactical
control.
By the end of 1941 all that could be done
in the limited time since funds had been
made available in midyear to improve the
defenses of Corregidor and the adjoining
2
Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, Exhibit K. The
strength of the major units was as follows:
479

islands had been accomplished.3 But the
basic weakness of the harbor defenses
their vulnerability to attack from the air
and from their landward flankswas never
corrected. They accomplished their mission,
the denial of Manila Bay to the enemy,
without firing a single round at a hostile
warship; Japanese cruisers and destroyers
blockading the bay stayed well out of range
of Moore's heavy guns. But when Bataan
fell the flank protection of Corregidor disappeared and the fortress was left exposed
to destruction by air and artillery attacks
and to landings by hostile forces.
The First Aerial and Artillery Attacks
First word of the Japanese attack against

Pearl Harbor reached General Moore from
the Navy radio intercept station on Corregidor at 0340, 8 December, about the
same time that General Sutherland relayed
the news to the commander in chief. The
garrisons of the four fortified islands had
been on the alert for eight days and all
battle stations were manned. There was
little Moore could do except notify his commanders and instruct the sea, antiaircraft,
and beach defense commanders to double
their precautions against a surprise dawn
attack. At 0620 official notification that a
state of war existed between the United
States and Japan came from MacArthur's
headquarters, and the Navy temporarily
closed Manila Bay to outbound traffic.
About four hours later the first air-raid
alarm sounded over Corregidor.4
3
For a detailed account of the measures taken
during the last six months of 1941, see Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, pp. 10-16, and Exhibit E.
4
The account which follows is based upon the
following sources: Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns
pp. 16-79, and Exhibits E through M; The Siege
of Corregidor, Mil Rpts on the United Nations,
This first alarm and those that followed

during the next three weeks proved groundless. The Japanese did not attack Corregidor
on 8 December and had no plan to do so
at the start of war. But they had no intention either of bypassing the island fortress.
They fully appreciated its strategic significance and its importance in the scheme of
defense, but their first task was to seize
Manila and defeat MacArthur's army. The
conquest of Corregidor would follow "as
soon as possible." 5
The Aerial Attacks
Hardly had news of the evacuation of
Manila and the transfer of MacArthur's
headquarters to Corregidor reached Homma on 28 December when he ordered the
5th Air Group to begin operations against
the island. Manila would soon be his and
though MacArthur's army had not yet been
defeated, Homma may have believed that
he could soon move against Corregidor.
Homma's plans, by agreement with the
Navy, provided for a joint attack in which
Lt. Gen. Hideyoshi Obata's 5th Air Group
(Army) would be supplemented by the
planes of the 11th Air Fleet (Navy). The
No. 12, 15 Nov 43, MID WD, pp. 37-52; Porter,
AA Defense of Corregidor, pp. 10-17; Rockwell,
Narrative of Naval Activities in Luzon Area, pp.
8-22, Off of Naval Rcds; Gen Marquat, USAFFE
AA Officer, Rpt of Performance of U.S. CA in
Manila-Bataan Campaign, copy in OCMH; Gulick,
Memoirs of Btry C, 91st CA (PS) ; diaries of Col
Bunker, Maj Tisdelle, and Capt Roland G. Ames
(including letters to his wife), all in OCMH.
The basic Japanese sources are: 14th Army Opns,
I, pp. 13-14, 25, 96, 115, 124-36; 5th Air Gp Opns,
passim; Japanese Naval Opns in Phil Invasion,
Japanese Studies in WW II, No. 13, pp. 17-18,
OCMH.
5
14th Army Opns, I, 25. Presumably this would

be some time in January or early February since
the defeat of MacArthur's army was to be accomplished forty-five days after the landing.
480
Army air force would strike first, at noon of

29 December, "with its whole strength." An
hour later the Navy bombers were to take
over. The bombardment would continue for
two and a half hours, until 1430, and would,
General Obata hoped, "destroy the center
of the American Far East Command." 6
Almost exactly on schedule, at 1154 of
the 29th, the first flight of 18 twin-engine
bombers of the 14th Heavy Bombardment
Regiment, covered by 19 fighters, approached Corregidor at a height of 15,000
feet and in regular V formation. The flight
broke into smaller flights, of 9 and 3 planes,
which passed lengthwise over the island,
then back, dropping 225- and 550-pound
bombs on the headquarters buildings and
barracks. For the half hour they were over
the target, the planes of the 14th Heavy
Bombardment dropped almost fifty bombs,
At 1230, 22 bombers of the 8th Light
Bombardment Regiment, accompanied by
18 dive bombers of the 16th Light Bombardment Regiment, had their turn. The
light bombers followed the same pattern as
the first flight, dropping their sixty-six 225pound bombs on installations and buildings
on Bottomside and Topside. The dive bombers, loaded with 35-pounders, attacked from
an altitude of 3,000 feet, though to the men
on the ground the planes appeared to be
at treetop level.
When the dive bombers left at 1300, the
Navy bombers came in. Numbering about
60 planes, the naval formation continued
the attack against the island and shipping
in the bay for another hour. Altogether, the
Americans estimated, the Japanese used
about 81 mediums and 10 dive bombers
and dropped about 60 tons of bombs during
these two hours. None of the few remaining
6
5th Air Gp Opns Order A, No. 171, 5th Air Gp
Opns, p. 40.

American aircraft rose from the recently
established fighter base on Bataan to dispute
their supremacy of the air on this occasion
or during any of the attacks that followed.
In this first attack the antiaircraft defenses at Fort Mills, Fort Hughes, and southern Bataan gave a good account of themselves, firing a total of 1,200 rounds of 3inch ammunition. Score for the 3-inchers
was thirteen medium bombers. It was with
considerable satisfaction that Capt. Roland
G. Ames, commander of Battery C (Chicago), 60th Coast Artillery (AA), wrote
after the attack that his men "had performed
wonderfully" in their first encounter with
the enemy and had brought down at least
three Japanese planes.7
The dive bombers, too, were met by
strong and effective opposition. The .50caliber machine guns of the antiaircraft
command downed four of the planes in their
first low-level strafing attack. Thereafter,
according to American sources, the Japanese did not again attempt to dive-bomb
targets on Corregidor until the end of April.
The men had paid little heed to the alarm
when it first sounded, since none of the
previous air warnings had been followed by
attack. Some of those who had recently arrived on the island with the transfer of headquarters from Manila to Corregidor casually
took up a better position to watch the large
enemy formation. One officer in the concrete building on Topside which housed
USAFFE headquarters mounted to the second floor for a clearer view of the proceedings. Hardly had he arrived there when he
heard "an ominous, whirring whistle, which
rapidly increased in crescendo." He made
a wild jump for the stairway. later claiming
7
Ltr, Ames to his wife, 30 Dec 41, in Ames,

Diary. Captain Ames copied in his diary the letters
he wrote to his wife and which he sent out whenever he had the opportunity.
481
Field on the tail of the tadpole were destroyed. Power, communication, and water
lines were temporarily disrupted but little
permanent damage was wrought. Casualties for the day were twenty killed and eighty
wounded.
After the first bombings there was a
marked change in the reaction of the men.
Before the 29th, despite warning, they had
crowded the doorways and windows to
watch the planes and speculate about probable targets, safe in the knowledge that Corregidor would not be hit. "All of us," wrote
Captain Ames, "were too careless of bombs
and bullets at first." 11 But that attitude
quickly changed. "Now," noted Colonel
Bunker, commander of the Seaward Defenses, "they all stampede for the nearest
cover and get as far under it as possible." 12
As a matter of fact, it soon became difficult
to get some of the men out of their shelters,
even when there were no planes overhead.
There was a marked change, too, in the
and bent sheet iron." 9 Fire sprang up at attitude toward the weather after the first
many points so that to an observer on Ba- attack from the air. Bright moonlight, "by
taan the island appeared to be enveloped which we had wooed our sweethearts and
"in clouds of dust and black smoke." 10 Al- wives," carried the threat of night attack.
together about 60 percent of all wooden It gave away the position of vessels and
buildings on Corregidor were destroyed dur- made the large searchlights of the harbor
ing the first bombings. Headquarters, defenses nearly useless. The beautiful sunUSAFFE, promptly moved into Malinta rise and sunset of the tropics lost their atTunnel the next day.
tractiveness when enemy planes chose that
Fortunately, damage to military installa- time for attack. In the muted light of dawn
tions, the major target of the Japanese air- and dusk it was difficult to pick out the atcraft, was comparatively slight. Two of the tacking aircraft. Clouds, unless they were
gun batteries suffered minor damage which high and solid, were considered "a curse"
was repaired within twenty-four hours. Sev- by the antiaircraft gunners, and cloud foreral of the small vessels docked at Bottom- mations through which enemy aircraft could
side and at anchor near the island were hit, drop for a bombing run were a "pet hate."
and two Philippine Army planes at Kindley The feared typhoons, on the other hand,
were eagerly awaited. "We prayed for them
8
that "the whistle of my descent must have
rivalled that of the falling bomb." 8 Others
were equally surprised and displayed a tendency to head for the corners of the rooms
where they fancied they were safer than
elsewhere. Fortunately windows and entrances had been sandbagged and broken
glass caused few casualties.
The first bombs hit the vacated station
hospital and many of the wooden structures
on Topside and Middleside. One bomb
struck the post exchange, went through the
roof and three concrete floors, buried itself
in eight feet of earth, and left a crater about
twenty feet in diameter. Fully half the barracks and headquarters buildings were demolished and only a part of the foundation
of the officers' club remained after the
bombing. Many of the structures were of
corrugated iron, and the danger from flying
bits of metal was often as great as that from
the bombs. Bottomside, after the bombing,
appeared to be "one huge mass of jagged

Tisdelle, Diary, entry of 29 Dec 41.
10
Gulick, Memoirs of Btry C, 91st CA (PS), p. 40.
11
12
Ames, Diary, entry of 29 Dec 41.

Bunker, Diary, entry of 4 Jan 42.
482
a lone photo reconnaissance plane, whose

pilot the Americans referred to familiarly
as Photo Joe or The Lone Ranger, would
circle Corregidor and the other fortified
islands for a time and then return to base.
About 1230 the bombers would come in,
flying at an altitude well above 20,000 feet
and at a speed of about 160 miles an hour,
bomb the island for about two hours, then
fly off. Until the last day, they approached
the target from the same direction in a
large V formation, then broke up into
smaller formations for the run over the
island. Only at the end did the Japanese
abandon this regular formation and approach the target from different directions
in scattered formations and at varying
altitudes.
Total damages for the six days' bombing
were extensive. On the 2d and 3d the buildings on Topside and Middleside were hit
again and two of the island's precious water
tanks destroyed. On the 4th the principal
target was the wharves, shops, and warehouses on Bottomside. The next day a barge
was bombed and set afire. It drifted into
shore and set fire to a diesel oil dump near
the power plant. On the 6th there was a
tragic accident when thirty-four men took
cover in an incomplete bomb shelter. A
large bomb fell near the structure, which
collapsed and killed thirty-one of the men.
By the 7th practically all unprotected surface installations had disappeared or were
in ruins. Bomb craters were uniformly
scattered over the island and one could
hardly walk more than twenty-five yards
in any direction without stumbling into
one.
13
Ames, Diary, undated "Sidelights," following
The worst destruction was caused by fire.
letter of 6 January 1942 to his wife.
14
Bunker, Diary, entry of 3 Jan 42. Japanese rec- Barely adequate during peacetime, the Fort
ords make no mention of the attacks after 29 DeMills fire department proved unable to cope
cember. Information about these attacks is derived
with the conditions created by the hail of
entirely from the American sources cited.
. . .," wrote Captain Ames, "to break up

and destroy Jap planes and ships."13
For the next eight days, until 6 January,
the Japanese continued to bomb Corregidor
intermittently, with less and less effect and
at greater cost to themselves. There were no
enemy aircraft over the island on the 30th,
when President Quezon was inaugurated
for the second time, or on the 31st. There
is some indication of air action on the first
day of the New Year, but it was on the 2d,
the date Manila was occupied, that the
Japanese came back in force.
The day was overcast, with a low ceiling
of shifting clouds. Shortly after the noon
hour the first enemy bombers burst through
a hole in the low-hanging clouds, released
their bombs, then flew up into the safety
of the clouds. Altogether fifty-four enemy
aircraft participated in the attack that day.
They left behind, in Colonel Bunkers
words, "a scene of destruction." On a tour of
inspection, he saw huge sections of corrugated iron "scattered in painfully distorted
shapes" all over the parade ground, and
"gaping, square, empty openings" in the
barracks.14
The bombardment of the 2d was the beginning of a five-day assault during which
hardly a yard of the island did not feel the
effects of the enemy bombs. Except for the
attacks on the 2d and the 5th, the sole
enemy target was Corregidor. On the 2d,
Fort Drum, and on the 5th, Fort Frank
came in for their share of the bombs but
were never the primary targets.
The pattern of the daily Japanese attacks
was usually the same. During the morning
GUN EMPLACEMENTS ON CORREGIDOR, Coastal defense gun at Cheney

Battery, above; below, 3-inch antiaircraft gun M3.
484
bombs. Much material, such as lumber,

hardware, mattresses, and medical and
chemical warfare supplies, which had been
stored on the surface in wooden buildings,
was burned. Concrete structures suffered
less from the bombings and from fire, and
the supplies stored in them were salvaged.

results. But even if they had and if Homma
had wished to continue to bomb the island
after 6 January, he would have been unable
to do so. By that time the 5th Air Group was
preparing to move to Thailand, and Homma was left with only a small air force which
he could ill spare for attacks against Corregidor. Except for sporadic raids by three or
four planes and occasional dive bombing
and strafing, the first aerial bombardment
was over.
After the first attack no effort was made

to keep the electric railroad line on the island
in operation. It had been hit in so many
places and was so exposed that it was fruitless to attempt its repair. Almost daily the
main telephone cables were cut by bombs.
Crews worked at night to repair them, but
the next day the lines would be cut again.
The maintenance of communications was a
never-ending task, and there was never time
to bury the cables deep enough to place
them out of reach of the bombs.
The armament of the island suffered comparatively slight damage. The coastal bat-
Events thus far had not worked out as the

Japanese had planned. The occupation of
Manila had not given them the use of its
fine harbor or the large military stores they
had expected to find there. MacArthur had
refused battle on the plains of Manila, and
drawn his forces back into the Bataan penin-
teries with their magazines and power
sula intact. The occupation of Corregidor,
plants had been bombproofed before the

war and escaped almost unscathed. The
more exposed antiaircraft units suffered
more from the bombings than the seacoast
batteries, but such damage as was caused
was repaired quickly, usually within twelve
hours. There were some casualties among
the gun crews, but they were not serious
enough to interfere with operations. The
largest number of casualties came to those
who failed to take shelter or were careless.
which was next on the Japanese timetable,

now had to be deferred for the lengthy and
expensive campaign on Bataan. If the first
air attacks against the island fortress had
been intended as the prelude for a landing,
they had been wasted.
To have attempted the investment of the
Gibraltar of the East while the Bataan peninsula was in American hands would have
been disastrous and foolhardy. The heights
of the Mariveles Mountains dominated the
The Artillery Bombardment
There is no record of the total casualties for
small island only two miles offshore and
the period from 29 December to 7 January,

but at least 36 men were killed and another
140 wounded during the first, second, and
last days of the attack alone.
The air attacks against Corregidor ended
on 6 January, the day the Bataan campaign
opened. They had proved costly to the Japanese and had produced no decisive military
were vital to its control. Even before the war

the Japanese had recognized the intimate
relationship between Bataan and Corregidor and in their prewar estimates had noted
the flank protection Bataan offered to the
island. "Mt. Mariveles in southern Bataan
forms the left wall of the bay entrance," one
Japanese estimate concluded, "and because

it is covered with dense forests, use of siege
guns and heavy equipment to attack this
fortress is impossible." 15
The southern shore of Manila Bay offered
only partial protection to the islands lying
at the bay entrance. Here the ground was
less mountainous and overgrown than on
Bataan, and in the vicinity of Ternate, opposite the tip of Bataan, there were few
obstacles to military movement. Into this
area could be brought heavy equipment and
siege guns. Once emplaced, these guns could
bring the southernmost of the islands, Forts
Frank and Drum, under assault. It was from
here that the next attack against the harbor
defenses came.
Toward the end of January reports began
to reach Corregidor of the movement of
Japanese artillery into Cavite Province. By
the 25th, according to observers on the
mainland, the Japanese had emplaced their
guns in defiladed positions near Ternate,
only about six air miles from Fort Drum on
El Fraile Island and eight miles from the
neighboring Fort Frank on Carabao Island.
The reports were correct. A Japanese artillery unit called the Kondo Detachment
was indeed moving into position along the
southern shore of Manila Bay. Formed by
14th Army on 24 January, this unit was
under the command of Maj. Toshinori
Kondo and consisted initially of four 105mm. guns and two 150-mm. cannons.
Kondo's orders were "to secretly deploy"
near Ternate and "prepare for fire missions"
against Corregidor, El Fraile, and Carabao
Islands and against shipping in Manila

Bay.16 By the first week of February, despite
interdiction fire from Fort Frank, Kondo
had completed his preparations and was
awaiting further orders.
15
16
Ibid., 96.
485
He did not have long to wait. On 5 February, his orders arrived and next morning
at 0800 the Kondo Detachment opened fire
against the fortified islands. Fort Drum was
the principal target that day and the Japanese guns hit it almost one hundred times
during the three-hour attack. By accident or
design, the choice of the early morning hours
for the attack placed the sun behind the
Japanese and made observation by the
Americans difficult. They replied as best
they could with their 14- and 6-inch guns,

and Fort Frank assisted with its 12-inch
mortars, but scored no hits. Thus began an

artillery duel that was to continue intermittently for almost two months.
Until the middle of February the daily
attacks followed much the same pattern.
Major Kondo's 105's and 150's usually
opened fire in the morning, to be answered
by counterbattery fire from the large guns
of the harbor defenses. Later the Japanese
fired at odd intervals during the day. Forts
Frank and Drum, closest to Ternate, received the heaviest weight of shells and the
greatest damage but their guns were never
put out of commission and their effective-
ness never seriously impaired. Damage to

Corregidor was limited to occasional hits
on buildings and vehicles.
During the course of the bombardment
the Japanese hit upon a scheme to strike a
vital blow at Fort Frank without firing a
single shot. Learning from the natives that
the fort received its supply of fresh water
from a dam near Calumpan on the Cavite
shore, they dispatched a demolition squad
to locate and destroy the pipeline. On 16
February, the Japanese found the line and
pulled up the section just below the dam.
Fort Frank, fortunately, had its own distillation plant and Colonel Boudreau, who
had assumed command of the fort after the
486
evacuation of Fort Wint in December, directed that it be placed in operation at once.

But its use required valuable fuel and Boudreau was understandably reluctant to expend the gasoline he needed for his guns to
distill sea water. On the 19th, therefore, he
made an effort to repair the pipeline and
sent a group of fifteen volunteers to the
mainland for that purpose. Before the men
fenses, "the Japs are resorting to nuisance

firing daily and usually from a single
gun." 19
The slackening of enemy fire at the end
of February did not mean that the attack
was over. On the basis of intelligence reports, General Moore concluded that the
Japanese were merely "marking time waiting for reinforcements." 20 This view was
could restore the line they were attacked by
confirmed when native informants reported
a Japanese patrol of about thirty men. In

the fight that followed, the Americans and
Filipinos, with the support of 75-mm. guns
from Fort Frank, destroyed the entire patrol,
that the Japanese were selecting new gun

positions in the Pico de Loro hills southwest
of Ternate and improving the trails leading
into the interior. In an effort to hinder this
move, General Moore ordered his seacoast
batteries to place interdiction fire on roads
and bridges in the vicinity of Ternate, but
without observable effect. The Japanese
continued to make their preparation for a
fresh attack without serious interference
from the coastal batteries in the bay.
The Japanese force which assembled in
the Pico de Loro hills during the first two
weeks of March was considerably stronger
than the Kondo Detachment. To that unit
had been added the 1st Heavy Artillery
suffering only one casualty.17 The fifteen

men then returned to Fort Frank safely but
without having accomplished their mission.
That night the Japanese retaliated by burning the barrio of Calumpan. It was not until
9 March that Colonel Boudreau was able to
repair the broken water pipe.
The intensity of the Japanese attacks increased after the middle of February, when
Major Kondo received two additional 150mm. howitzers. With these reinforcements
came instructions from Homma "to demoralize the enemy." 18 The daily bombardments thereafter became more severe and
reached their height on 20 February. Starting at 0930 that morning the guns of the
reinforced Kondo Detachment fired steadily
at one-minute intervals until late afternoon.
The only serious damage was to the power
plant on Corregidor and to several observation posts at Fort Hughes. After that date
the Japanese fire diminished until, by the
beginning of March, it presented no real
threat to the harbor defenses. "In general,"
wrote the commander of the Seaward De17
Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, p. 37. The claims

made by the volunteers were accepted by General
Moore and have been used by the author in the absence of any evidence to the contrary.
18
Regiment, the 2d Independent Heavy Artillery Battery, both equipped with 240mm. howitzers, and the 3d Tractor Unit
with prime movers for the heavy guns. The
Kondo Detachment had been dissolved and
a new organization, the Hayakawa Detachment, formed. Col. Masayoshi Hayakawa,
commander of the 1st Heavy Artillery, led
the reorganized force, and, according to the
usual Japanese practice, gave it his name.
By 15 March all preparations for the
stepped-up artillery bombardment of the
harbor defenses had been completed.
The attack opened at 0730 of the 15th
with a volley from the 240-mm. howitzers
19
Bunker, Diary, entry of 19 Feb 42.
20
487
wall and exploded below the powder room.

The floor of the battery was shattered and
sixty cans of mortar powder overturned,
but, miraculously, none exploded. It was on
the morning of the 21st that Fort Frank
suffered its "greatest loss" of the war when
a 240-mm. shell penetrated the 18-inch concrete roof of one of its tunnels and struck
in the midst of a line of men waiting for
yellow fever shots. Twenty-eight of the men
were killed and another forty-six wounded.22
The damage wrought by the artillery attacks between 15 and 21 March was considerably greater than any inflicted by the
105's and 150's of the Kondo Detachment.
Fort Frank, the larger target and the one
closest to the enemy, was the most vulnerable of the forts and "got a fearful workingover." 23 All of its surface gunsfour 3-inch
antiaircraft and four 155-mm. GPF guns
were visible to the enemy and were badly
damaged. The depressed 12-inch mortar
battery and two 14-inch disappearing guns
were also hit, but were quickly repaired
and put back in action. Fort Drum, the consity for five days thereafter. As on the 15th,
crete battleship, came under as severe a
all four forts came under fire, but the weight bombardment as Frank, but was better able
of the attack was again directed against the to withstand the battering. Every square
two southernmost islands. The heaviest foot of the interior surface of the casemates
bombardments came on the 16th and 21st. was deeply dented and torn by fragmentaOn both days the concrete battleship fairly tion, and between eight and fifteen feet of
shook under the impact of the large shells. its reinforced concrete deck was whittled
Every time one of them hit the casemate of away. But though its two antiaircraft guns
the 6-inch guns a flash of fire was observed, were ruined beyond repair, the principal
and during the height of the attack there target of the Japanese, the 14-inch turret
were fire alarms as often as every five min- guns, were never put out of action.
utes. Fortunately there was no general conSo heavy were the attacks against Frank
flagration and no serious damage.
and Drum that the commanders of both
Fort Frank was not so fortunate. On the
forts, fearing a hostile landing, had doubled
16th a 240-mm. shell penetrated eighteen
their beach defenses immediately. This preinches of concrete around one of its 12-inch
22
batteries, passed under a six-foot concrete
Maj Joe C. East, March 21st Fort Frank Shell-
and continued throughout the day. Although all four islands came under fire,
Forts Frank and Drum bore the brunt of
the bombardment. Approximately 500
shells fell on Fort Frank alone; another 100
on Fort Drum. Two of Frank's batteries,
one of 155-mm. guns and the other of 3-inch
antiaircraft guns, were almost entirely destroyed, and two other batteries were put
out of commission temporarily. Fort Drum
escaped more lightly. Its only damage came
when a shell penetrated the armor of the 6inch battery on the south side and burst inside the casemate, filling the concrete battleship with flames, smoke, and fumes. Fortunately, there were no casualties. Despite
every effort during the day to neutralize the
enemy fire, the bombardment continued
until afternoon. "It hurt me like blazes,"
wrote Colonel Bunker on Corregidor, "to
see my friends under fire and be so powerless to help them." 21
The attack continued with unabated
vigor the next day and with varying inten-
21
Bunker, Diary, entry of 15 Mar 42.
ing, a 2-page typescript in OCMH.

23
488
bombardment, when Ivey's reports appeared inconsistent, the fire control center
asked him how he knew there was a Japanese gun in the position. "He replied,"
wrote Colonel Bunker, "that he couldn't
see it, but judged by the sound that it was
there." 24 When fire was shifted to another
target, the observer's instructions, which
failed to distinguish between deflection and
about forty-five bancas, were later destroyed range, were just as confusing and the fire
was discontinued.
by 75-mm. gunfire from Fort Frank.
Throughout the long-range artillery duel
Rarely was General Moore able to secure
the effectiveness of American counterbat- the services of the few remaining aircraft to
tery fire was limited by the difficulty of fly reconnaissance. When he did the results
locating the Japanese guns. There was no were most gratifying. One such occasion
flash during daylight, and both Kondo and came on 9 February, when Capt. Jesus A.
Hayakawa were careful to take every pre- Villamor, in an obsolete Philippine Army
caution to avoid giving away their position. training plane equipped with a camera, set
They camouflaged their guns skillfully, out to take photographs of the Ternate area.
moved them when necessary, and even sent Protecting his slow and unarmed biplane
up false smoke rings when their batteries were six P-40's. Villamor completed his
were in action. The American and Filipino mission, but on the way back the formation
artillerymen tried to fix the enemy's posi- was attacked by six enemy fighters. While
tion by the use of sound waves, but this Villamor came in with his precious photomethod proved too delicate and compli- graphs, the P-40's engaged the enemy in a
cated. Another method, admittedly less ac- spectacular fight over Bataan. In the space
curate but easier to use, was to compute the of a few minutes the American pilots
enemy's position by the line of falling duds. brought down four of the enemy fighters
The results could rarely be checked, but the and fatally damaged the remaining two.
batteries of all four forts fired daily, hope- Only one P-40 was lost.25 Meanwhile the
ful that they might knock out some of the photographs taken by Villamor were printed
Japanese guns with a lucky hit.
and rushed to Corregidor where they were
For a time firing data was received from collated with reports from observers on the
a small group of volunteers on the mainland ground. The counterbattery fire that folled by Capt. Richard G. Ivey of the 60th lowed proved remarkably accurate and sevCoast Artillery (AA). Ivey had established eral direct hits were scored.
an observation post on high ground along
The difficulties of counterbattery fire
the south coast of the bay and, until he was were further increased when the Japanese
driven out on 15 February, served as a moved their guns to the Pico de Loro hills
spotter, sending his information by walkie24
Ibid., entry of 15 Feb 42. The italics are Colotalkie radio. Even this observed fire proved
nel Bunker's.
25
of doubtful effectiveness. During one
Ind, Bataan: The Judgment Seat, pp. 288-92.
caution was a wise one, for the Japanese
did actually plan to capture both Forts
Frank and Drum, and had even designated
the unit which was to make the assault.
General Homma canceled this plan, however, in order to strengthen the force he
was assembling late in March for the final
attack against Bataan. The landing craft
which had been collected for the attack,

where they could be reached only by high
trajectory fire. Few of the coastal guns in
the harbor defenses, which had been designed for use against warships, had sufficient elevation to clear the high ground before the enemy positions. Their difficulty is
illustrated by the experience of the men of
Battery Hearn on 21 March, who, "in a
desperate effort to silence the Japs," opened
fire with their 12-inch guns. "We wound
up," Colonel Bunker wrote, "with our guns

elevated against the elevation stopsand
that wasn't any too much." 26
The only weapon in the armament of the
harbor defenses with the high trajectory required to deliver effective counterbattery
fire under these circumstances was the 12inch mortar. There were twenty-two of
these pieces on the four islands, but their
usefulness against land targets was limited
by the lack of sound ranging equipment and
the shortage of ammunition with instantaneous fuzes. There was an ample supply
of armor-piercing, fixed, delay fuze ammunition with a small bursting charge. This
type was designed for use by coast artillery
against warships but was of little use in the
situation the Seaward Defenses then faced.
These shells buried themselves deep in the
earth before exploding and caused little
damage to men and installations near by.
The. ideal ammunition against the targets
presented by the Japanese guns on the Cavite shore was the personnel type with instantaneous point detonating fuze. There
were about 1,000 such shells, of 12-inch
caliber and weighing 670 pounds, but even

this small amount could not be used freely,
for it would be desperately needed when
Bataan fell and the enemy placed his heavy
guns on the slopes of the Mariveles Mountains.
26
489
A small quantity of additional instantaneous fuze ammunition was obtained as a
result of experiments made by Colonel Bunker, He modified the fuze of the 1,070pound shells used in the 12-inch guns by removing the .05-second delay pellet, thus
detonating the shell more quickly. When he
test-fired two such shells he got "beautiful
results, up to my wildest hopes." The effect,
he noted, was equal to that of a personnel
shell, "both in dirt thrown up and in noise
made." 27 But though the modified projectile exploded on impact, it had only a small
bursting charge and a limited effect. Thus,
despite every effort to secure effective counterbattery fire, the Americans were never
able to prevent the Japanese from firing almost at will.
The artillery duel which had begun early
in February came to an end on 22 March.
Though the Americans reported artillery
fire from the Cavite shore until early in
April, it could not have come from the
Hayakawa Detachment. That force had

been disbanded on the 22d and its elements
ordered to rejoin their parent units for the
final attack against Bataan, then about to
open. Whatever guns remained behind
were of smaller caliber and were intended
only to annoy the defenders.
Life Under Siege

Since the first air attacks at the end of
December the garrisons of the four fortified
islands had worked steadily to repair the
damages and improve their positions. On
Corregidor a tunnel, begun in 1921 but discontinued because of treaty agreements,
was rapidly pushed to completion to serve
as a command post for the Seaward Defenses. The island's defenses were further
27
Ibid., entry of 5 Mar 42.
490
strengthened by the addition of an 8-inch
gun with a range of 24,000 yards and a 360degree traverse. This gun was brought over
from Bataan and mounted on a prepared
concrete base near Malinta. Though it was
tested and ready for use by 4 March, no
crew was available and the gun never fired
a shot at the enemy. At Fort Hughes, one

trajectory." 28 Where possible, other openings were constructed, but in most cases protection was provided by baffle walls.
With the technical advice of the engineers
practically all the batteries began to build
their own tunnels. Some dug tunnels where
there was no apparent reason for one. "We
have to be at our gun practically all the
155-mm. gun facing the sea was dis- time," observed one battery commander,
mounted, moved through the tunnel, and
emplaced on the opposite side of the island,
pointing toward Bataan.
Vital installations were strengthened in
various ways. Around the large well at the
west end of Malinta Tunnel the engineers
placed a circular parapet of sandbags, and
over the gasoline storage area on Morrison
Hill they placed two feet of heavily reinforced concrete, which they then camouflaged. Similar protection was given the
Harbor Defenses telephone exchange at

Topside. Near the entrance to Malinta
Tunnel and in the port area at Bottomside,
the engineers constructed tank obstacles
consisting of square concrete posts reinforced with steel rails. About the same time,
they placed roofs over the 75-mm. guns
supporting the beach defense troops to give
them protection against dive bombers.
Shortcomings in the design and location
of various installations had become apparent by this time and these were corrected
when the intensity of the enemy fire declined. Early plans had not taken into consideration the possibility of artillery fire from
the Cavite shore and some of the tunnel
entrances now faced the oncoming shells.
After one attack Colonel Bunker checked
his firing data and concluded that the main
entrance to the Seaward Defenses command
post "now points exactly along the Jap
whose men were hard at work on a tunnel,
"so we may not be able to spend too much

time, if any at all, in a tunnel." 29 Even the
troops on beach defense caught the fever
and, with whatever materials they could beg
or borrow, dug tunnels and constructed
overhead protection. "It is safe to venture a
guess," wrote the engineer cautiously, "that
if all the tunnels constructed on Corregidor
after hostilities commenced were connected
end to end the resultant summation would
not be less than two miles." 30
Life on the four fortified islands in Manila
Bay settled into a dreary routine. When the
men were not building fortifications or going
about their daily chores, they had little to do.
Complaints were frequent and often dealt
with the subject of food. The ration had
been cut in half on 5 January, at the same
time it had been cut on Bataan. The more
enterprising of the men found ways of their
own to increase the amount and vary the
monotony of the ration, but the opportunities were fewer than on Bataan. Sunken or
damaged barges washed close to shore offered a profitable field for exploitation during the early days of the campaign. One unit
filled its trucks with a cargo of dried fruits
salvaged from one such barge and stored it
28
Ibid., entry of 25 Mar 42.
29
Ames, Diary, note to ltr of 24 Jan 42.

Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, Exhibit E, p. 4.
30
491
away for future use. "Now," wrote Colonel

Bunker, "if they'll only drink a lot of water,
they'll be fixed fine." 31
Some even managed to procure liquor in
this way. One of the barges sent out from
Manila just before the Japanese occupation
had been loaded with whiskey from the
Army and Navy Club. It was sunk in shallow
water and many of the men spent their offduty hours diving in the oil-coated waters in
headquarters in the Philippines, the lawful

government of the Commonwealth, the
1,000-bed hospital, vast quantities of supplies, power plants, machinery, and other
vital installations. One lateral alone was
taken over by USAFFE. Here General MacArthur had a desk, before which were lined
up his staff officers' desks. To the rear were
the double-decker beds where the staff slept.
Malinta also housed those dignitaries who
the hope of bringing up a bottle. Before the
had been evacuated from Manila. The civil-
military police took over to relieve the lucky

divers of their catch as they reached the
shore, a large number of soldiers had laid in
a stock of the precious commodity.32 President Quezon's yacht is also said to have supplied at least one unit with a store of fine
wine. When it was being unloaded one dark
night, it is reported that an officer directed
the dock hands to load two trucks simultaneously. When the job was finished, one of
the trucks silently disappeared into the night
ians followed the routine of the military garrison, but an exception was made for the
women, who were assigned special facilities
in an area known as the "ladies' lateral." 35
For the men outside, a trip through the
tunnel was an interesting experience and
never failed to rouse wonder. Milling about
were Philippine and American government
officials, officers of all services and all ranks,
nurses in white starched uniforms, war correspondents, laborers, repair and construc-
with its valuable cargo, never to be seen
tion crews, barbers, convalescents, and
again.33
Life everywhere on the islands went underground and the symbol of the new molelike existence was Malinta Tunnel. "Everyone who doesn't need to be elsewhere,"
observed Captain Ames, "was in a tunnel
chiefly Malinta." 34 During the bombings
frightened soldiers in search of safety. "It is

a revelation to walk through these tunnels,"
wrote Captain Ames to his wife. "At one
time you are rubbing elbows with the
daughter of some P.I. [Philippine] official,
dodging a lady war correspondent, talking
to a naval officer, being jostled by a
plumber, . . . and having your shoes
mopped by some Filipino janitor."36
Outside the tunnel the men encountered
unusual and sometimes strange sights. President Quezon, ill with tuberculosis and confined to a wheel chair, spent as much time
it was always jammed with Americans and

Filipinos who huddled back against the
boxes of food and ammunition stacked
along the sides to a height of six feet.
Crowded into the tunnel were the highest
31
Bunker, Diary, entry of 9 Jan 42. Captain Ames
also mentioned the shipment of dried fruit in his
diary on 6 January.
32
Ames, Diary, 6 Jan 42.
33
This story was picked up from several participants and cannot be supported by direct references to sources or interviews.
34
Ltr, Ames to his wife, 12 Jan 42, in Ames,
Diary,
as he could outside the dust-laden tunnel, as
did the U.S. High Commissioner Francis B.

Sayre. On 30 December a small group wit35
Amea Willoughby, I Was on Corregidor, pp.
103-04, 134-40.
36
Ltr, Ames to his wife, 12 Jan 42, in Ames,
Diary.
492
USAFFE HEADQUARTERS IN MALINTA TUNNEL. General MacArthur with

General Sutherland, March 1942.
nessed Quezon's second inauguration in an

impressive ceremony at the mouth of the
tunnel and listened to speeches by the President, the High Commissioner, and General
MacArthur. Some saw, too, larger sums of
money and more gold than they had ever
imagined in their youthful dreams of pirate
treasure chests. But values change in war
and they watched without visible emotion
the unloading of the gold, silver, and securi-
associated with those who live underground.

For these men, those outside the tunnel had
only contempt, tinged perhaps with envy.
"We say of them," wrote one of those on the
outside, "that they will lose tunnel-credit if
they are seen outside the tunnel. And we
josh them about the DTS medal (Distinguished Tunnel Service) ... if they
gather plenty of tunnel credits. As opposed
to shell-shocked, we say of confirmed 'tun-
ties of the Philippine treasury on the Correg-
neleers' that they are shelter-shocked."37
idor docks and their removal to a strong

room deep in the tunnel.
Life on the islands had its seamier side.
Not all men were brave and each garrison
had its share of "tunnel rats," the taunt reserved for those who never left the safety of
Malinta Tunnel. Such men were said to
have "tunnelitis," a disease characterized by
a furtive manner and the sallow complexion
Such unfair judgments were perhaps inevitable where some men were exposed to
danger and others, by reason of their assignment, enjoyed the safetyand discomfort
of Malinta Tunnel. Nerves wore thin during

the enforced intimacy of the prolonged
37
Ibid., 6 Feb 42. See also Hanson Baldwin,
"The Fourth Marines at Corregidor," Part 2,
Marine Corps Gazette (December 1946), pp. 27-28.
493

siege, and there were few opportunities for
recreation. During their idle moments men
discussed the most fantastic rumors, deplored the lack of support from the United
States, and commented smugly about the invariably misinformed "brass hats in Malinta Tunnel." And always the men exercised the immemorial right of the soldier to
"gripe." The days passed thus with monotonous and dreary regularity, filled with work,
idle conversation, and speculation about the
future.
The Second Aerial Bombardment
Early in January, it will be recalled, Imperial General Headquarters had transferred the bulk of the 5th Air Group out of
the Philippines, leaving General Homma
with only a small air force whose major
mission was to support ground operations
on Bataan. A month later, after 14th Army
had been badly beaten in its efforts to gain
a quick victory on the Orion-Bagac line,
Homma had received large reinforcements,
including Army and Navy air units. From
Malaya had come two heavy bombardment
regiments, the 60th and 62d, with a total of
sixty twin-engine bombers. This single accretion alone tripled Homma's air strength.
In addition, the Navy had sent two squadrons of Bettys (land-based, twin-engine
bombers), one squadron of Zekes (fighters),
and one squadron of carrier-based bombers
to the Philippines, thus making available
for the offensive of late March and early
April a considerably augmented air force.38
Homma's plan for the final assault against
the defenders of Bataan had provided for a
38
This account of Japanese air plans and opera
tions is based upon 5th Gp Opns, pp. 59-76; 14th
Army Opns, I, 129-36; Comments of Former Japanese Officers Regarding The Fall of the Philippines,
p. 74, OCMH.
heavy artillery and aerial preparation, starting on 24 March and continuing until victory was achieved. To the air forces he had
assigned a threefold mission: to support the
advance of ground units, bomb forward and
rear installations, and cut the line of supply
between Bataan and Corregidor. All aircraft were given targets on Bataan; but the
60th and 62d Heavy Bombardment Regiments and the Navy were directed to bomb
Corregidor as well. Careful plans were made
for the period from 24 to 28 March and an
agreement was concluded between the Army
and Navy which made possible a unified
plan of air action and the joint bombardment of targets by the aircraft of both services. After the 28th the bulk of the heavy
bombers were to concentrate on Bataan,
but, "in order to demoralize the enemy and
to boost the fighting spirit of our army," a
small number of planes would continue to
bomb Corregidor every few hours around
the clock.39
The aerial attack opened on schedule
simultaneously with the artillery preparation on Bataan, at dawn of the 24th, when
the first of the Army's six bomber squadrons
rose from Clark Field and headed toward
Corregidor. At the same time two navy
squadrons (twenty-four Bettys) stood by to
take off from their base at Clark near Manila to join in the attack. At 0924 the airraid alarm, the seventy-seventh of the campaign, sounded on Corregidor. One minute
later, the first enemy flight of nine Army
bombers came over the island to drop their
550- and 1,100-bombs. They were followed
by the remaining Army squadrons which, in
turn, gave way to the Navy's planes. The
attack continued during the day and
that night, when three more planes made
a nuisance raid against the island. Alto39
494
gether, forty-five of the sixty twin-engine
bombers of the 60th and 62d Heavy
Bombardment Regiments and the two
squadrons of naval land-based bombers
participated in the first day's attack to drop
a total of seventy-one tons of bombs.
The next day the Japanese sent only three
Army squadrons, twenty-seven planes,
against Corregidor; the Navy, a similar
number. This pattern continued until the
29th, the Navy planes alternating with the
Army bombers. In addition small groups of
planes came in over Corregidor every two
or three hours "to carry out the psychological warfare and destroy the strong points,
without failure." 40 The routine bombings
continued steadily until 1 April, with at least
one Army squadron attacking during the
day and another at night. The Navy planes,
which had no missions on Bataan, continued
their bombardment of the island fortress in
undiminished strength.
For the men on Corregidor it seemed as
though they were living "in the center of a
bull's-eye." 41 During the last week of March
there were about sixty air-raid alarms lasting for a total of seventy-four hours. Bombings begun in the morning were usually resumed in the afternoon and again at night.
Since the Japanese planes were now based
on Clark Field or near Manila, they were
able to remain over the target for longer
periods than they had during the first bombardment in December. A graphic picture
of the intensity of the bombardment can be
gained from General Moore's summary of
the first day's action.
guns], and Koehler [Ft. Frank, 12-inch mortars] opened fire on Cavite targets.
0924Air Raid Alarm No. 77 sounded.
0925Nine heavy bombers, a new type
in the area, bombed Middleside and Morrison
Hill.
0945Twenty-seven heavy bombers
came in over tail of Corregidor and bombed
Middleside, closely followed by 17 heavies
bombing Topside.
0950Twenty-five planes followed by 9
more made another attack. Meanwhile, artillery shells from enemy batteries in Cavite were
bursting on Corregidor.
Several fires were started, communication
cable and water mains cut, and an ammunition dump of 75-mm. shells on Morrison
Hill was set off. These shells were exploding
for hours. Battery Wheeler [12-inch guns] had
a direct bomb hit on the racer of No. 1 gun
putting it out of action temporarily.
1110All clear sounded.
1435Air Raid Alarm No. 78. Nine
heavy bombers approached Corregidor from
the southeast. Bombs dropped on Kindley
Field.
1438Seven more planes from southeast
with more bombs. Shelling from mainland
also.
1529All Clear.
1552Air Raid Alarm No. 79. Nine
heavy bombers hit Kindley Field again.
1620All Clear.
1640Air Raid Alarm No. 80. Mariveles
and Cabcaben areas [Bataan] hit by 9 heavies.
1703All Clear.
2053Air Raid Alarm No. 81.
2115First night air raid. Two medium
bombers dropped incendiary bombs in Cheney

Ravine, Corregidor. Later returned and
bombed Bottomside. No damage reported.
2234All Clear.42
The effect of so heavy a bombardment

over the period of seven days might well
have been disastrous had not the men
24 March:
profited from the earlier air attacks and
0707Batteries Woodruff [Ft. Hughes,
built
underground shelters. They had also
14-inch guns], Marshall [Ft. Drum, 14-inch
learned how effectively sand could cushion
40
41
Ibid., p. 65.
Tisdelle, Diary, entry of 3 Jan 42.
42
Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, pp. 46-47.

the blow from a bomb and had made liberal
use of sandbags. "It used to be hard to get
the men to fill sandbags," wrote one officer.

"Now it is hard to keep them from laying
hands on all the sandbags available and

filling them when those to whom they are
allotted aren't looking." 43 The small number of casualties is ample evidence of the
thoroughness with which the Corregidor
garrison had dug in since the first attack on

29 December.
495
ing runs out of the sun, changing course and
altitude immediately after the moment of
release. Earlier the antiaircraft gun batteries had been able to get in about ten
salvos before the Japanese flew out of range,

usually bringing down the lead plane of the
formation. When the enemy changed his
tactics, the antiaircraft guns could get in
fewer salvos and could no longer count on
the lead plane maintaining the same course.
Under ideal conditions antiaircraft guns
Installations of all kinds and critical sup- form a ring around the defended area, or a
plies had also been placed under bomb- line in front of it, from where they can
proof protection, and these suffered little
strike enemy aircraft before they reach the
damage during the bombardment. The few

remaining surface installations, however,
and supplies in open storage did not fare
so well. On Bottomside, the theater, post
exchange, and bakery were leveled to the
objective. On Corregidor it was not possible, for obvious reasons, "to follow the
book." The antiaircraft guns could not
engage the enemy until he was almost over
ground
and the Navy's radio station
damaged. Wainwright's house, inherited

from MacArthur, was destroyed on the first
day of the attack. "I picked up the light
walking stick which MacArthur had left for
me," wrote Wainwright, "and walked down
to Malinta Tunnel to live there the rest of

my time on Corregidor."44 Several ammunition dumps were hit, exploding the
shells in storage, and a quantity of TNT
blown up. But losses, on the whole, were
small and were quickly repaired by crews
which cleared the roads and cleaned out

the debris left by exploding bombs.
The Japanese, too, seemed to have

profited by their earlier experience and had
"learned," Captain Ames observed, "to

dodge AA fire." 45 They came in at higher
altitudes than before, between 22,000 and
28,000 feet, in formations of nine planes or
less. During daylight they made their bomb43

Ames, Diary, entry of 26 Mar 42, and ltr to his
wife, 8 Jan 42.
44
45
Ames, Diary, entry of 24 Mar 42.
the island. Moreover, by being located on

the target, they became "part of what is
being bombed," with the result that their
efficiency and freedom of fire was limited
most at the moment of greatest need.

"Naturally our job is to fire on the bomb-
ers," wrote Captain Ames, ". . . and if

possible prevent the bombing. Fire we do,
but prevent the bombing we cannot." In a

letter which never reached his wife he
graphically explained the difficulty which
beset all the antiaircraft men.
The bombers come over; we see them drop
their bombsall the while we are tracking
them with our instrumentsour guns point
upward more and more steeply; the bombs
continue downward on their way towards us.
Then our indicators show that the bombers
are "in range". We open fire. In about 15 seconds our guns are pointing as nearly straight
up as they can, and hit the mechanical stop.
We cease firing. The bombs whistle; we duck
for a few seconds while the bombs burst, and
pop up again to engage the next flight. When
fighters come in one after another we stay up
while the bombs hit all around us. . . .
Some of the bombers come in higher than
we can shoot. In such cases we vainly wait for
496
our indicators to show "in range", and take
cover (duck behind our splinterproofs) just
as the bombs begin to whistle.46
The most serious limitations on the effectiveness of the 3-inch guns arose from the
shortage of mechanically fuzed ammunition,
which could reach to a height of 30,000
feet. There was an adequate supply of ammunition with the powder train fuze, effective to a height of about 24,000 feet, but
only enough of the longer range type for
one of the ten antiaircraft batteries. On 3
February a submarine had brought in 2,750
more rounds of mechanically fuzed ammunition, and it became possible to supply an
additional battery. Thus, when the enemy
planes came in at an altitude of more than
24,000 feet, only two batteries could reach
them. The remaining batteries of the antiaircraft command, equipped with powder
train fuzes, could only watch idly while the
Japanese leisurely dropped their bombs.
Nonetheless, the contribution of these batteries, though negative, was a valuable one.
By forcing the enemy to remain at extremely
high altitude, they decreased his accuracy
and diminished the effectiveness of the bombardment.
From the outset it had been necessary to
conserve even the powder train fuzed shells,
30 percent of which were duds. This had
been accomplished by limiting each gun to
six rounds for any single target on any given
course. The opening weeks of the war
proved the most expensive in terms of
rounds fired to planes destroyed, 500 rounds
being required for each plane. This inaccurate fire was due to inexperience, the irregular functioning of powder train fuzes, and
variation in the muzzle velocity. Between 8
December and 11 March the 3-inch gun
batteries in the harbor defenses expended
46
Ltr, Ames to his wife, 20 Jan 42, Ames, Diary.
over 6,000 rounds for a total of 52 aircraft

knocked down, or about 120 rounds per
plane. With increased experience of both
fire control crews and gunners and improved
fire discipline, this average was steadily bettered until, by the beginning of April, the
expenditure rate went under 100 rounds per
plane, an excellent score even under the
most favorable conditions.
In February an effort was made to use
the 12-inch mortars for antiaircraft fire in
the hope that a salvo from these pieces,
bursting in the midst of the enemy formation, would discourage mass bombing. The
670-pound shells were first fitted with the
powder train fuze but the shell would not
explode. Next, the 155-mm. shrapnel and
the mechanical antiaircraft fuze were tried,
but they failed also to detonate the charge.
"If it can be made to work," thought Colonel Bunker, "it will sure jolt the Japs." 47
But the problem was never solved, and at the
end of the campaign Ordnance still did not
know whether the 12-inch shell would not
explode because of the low rotational velocity or the size of booster charge in the fuze.
With the second aerial bombardment of
Corregidor the Japanese for the first time
resorted to night bombing. During this period they made twenty-three such attacks,
delivered by small groups of bombers from
an altitude of 24,000 to 27,000 feet. In
almost every case the searchlight batteries
illuminated the planes before they reached
the bomb release line. Many of the pilots
seemed to be confused by the lights and
turned away to approach from another
direction; others jettisoned their bombs or
47
Bunker, Diary, entry of 20 Mar 42. This scheme

and the efforts to put it into effect were neither supported nor indorsed by Colonel Chase, the antiaircraft commander, who regarded the entire project
as, "to say the least, fantastic." Chase, Comments
on Draft MS, pp. 23-24, OCMH.

abandoned the attack altogether. Those that
got through were apparently too nervous
and too anxious to get back to bomb with
any accuracy. On the whole, the night attacks proved ineffective and after 6 April
were discontinued.
By the beginning of April, the aerial
bombardment was virtually over. Little additional damage had been received and
comparatively few casualties had been suf-
497
fered by the men who had had two months
to prepare. All eyes were now turned to
Bataan, upon which the Japanese had concentrated their entire air and artillery
strength in preparation for the final assault.
For the next ten days, while the fight for
Bataan ran its grim course to a bloody and
tragic end, the men on Corregidor and its
sister fortresses were granted a brief respite.
Their turn, they knew, would come soon.
CHAPTER XXVIII
The Southern Islands

As long as the decisive struggle for control of the Philippines was being fought on
Luzon, the islands to the south were safe
from invasion. At no time during the first
four months of the war did General Homma
have sufficient troops to conduct operations
simultaneously in both areas. Having established a foothold on Mindanao, at Davao,
late in December, he had been forced to
limit operations in the south to air and naval
reconnaissance. It was not until April, as
the Bataan campaign was drawing to a
close, that Homma had a large enough force
to embark on the conquest of the southern
islands. The opening gun of this campaign
sounded on 10 April, one day after the
Bataan campaign ended.
The Islands and Their Defense

Mindanao, the southernmost island in the
Philippine Archipelago, has an area of more
than 36,000 square miles and is second in
size to Luzon. Its coast line is irregular and
its bays afford shelter at many places for a
hostile fleet. Much of the beach line is flat
and two large river valleys offer easy routes
of advance into the interior. The Zamboanga Peninsula jutting westward from the
center of the island into the Sulu Sea is virtually indefensible and easily cut off at its
narrow neck from the rest of Mindanao.
Along the northeast coast is the Diuata
Mountain range; in the wild and largely un-
explored interior extinct volcanoes rise to

formidable heights.1
Transportation and communications on
Mindanao were greatly inferior to those on
Luzon. There were no railroads on the
island and only two highways. The longest
of these, Route 1, followed a circuitous
route from Digos on the east coast across
the narrow waist of Mindanao to Cotabato
then northward to the northeast tip of the
island. The stretch of road between that
point and Davao was still under construction in 1941. Route 3, named the
Sayre Highway in honor of the Philippine
High Commissioner, extended southward
through central Mindanao for a distance of
about 100 miles, linking the northern and
southern arms of Route 1. The northern
stretch of the road was well surfaced and
usable in all weather, but the southern portion had a clay surface which, after a rain,
"reminded one of the glutinous stuff found
near the Black Hills in South Dakota." 2
Additional means of transportation on
Mindanao were provided by small vessels,
1
The physical description of the islands south of
Luzon is based upon Civil Affairs Handbook: Philippine Islands, Vols. I-XII, ASF Manual M 365-1
to 212.
Col William H. Braddock, Rpt of Force Surgeon, Visayan-Mindanao Force, in V-MF Rpt of
Opns, p. 550, Annex XI, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of
Opns. The Visayan-Mindanao Force Report contains, in addition to General Sharp's report, the reports of unit and sector commanders, listed as appendixes but numbered seriatim.
THE SOUTHERN ISLANDS

which moved freely along the coast and up
the island's two large navigable rivers, the
Agusan and Rio Grande de Mindanao. The
first flows north through a wide and marshy
valley on the inland side of the Diuata
Mountains on the east coast to empty into
the Mindanao Sea. The second, called
simply the Mindanao River, flows south
and west through central Mindanao, parallel to the Sayre Highway and Route 1, to
empty into Moro Gulf at Cotabato.
Between Mindanao and Luzon lie the
islands of the Visayan group, the most im-
499
Army troops. Of the five divisions mobilized, in the south, only three, the 61st, 81st,
and 101st, remained in the area. The other
two divisions, the 71st and 91st, moved to
Luzon, leaving behind their last mobilized
regiments, the 73d and 93d. In addition,
a large number of provisional units and
some Constabulary units were formed on
the outbreak of the war.
General Sharp's problems were similar to
those faced by the commanders on Luzon.
His untrained men lacked personal and organizational equipment of all types. There
portant of which are Cebu, Panay, Negros, were not enough uniforms, blankets, or
Leyte, and Samar. Most of these islands mosquito bars to go around, and though
consist of a central mountain area sur- each man had a riflethe Enfield '17
rounded by coastal plains. Panay, split not all understood its use. Moreover, many
north and south by a comparatively large of the rifles were defective and quickly
central plain between two mountain ranges, broke down. Machine guns of .30- and .50has the largest level area of the group. Cebu, caliber were issued, but many of these were
the most mountainous, has the least.
defective also and had to be discarded.
The road net throughout the Visayas is Spare parts for all weapons were lacking
generally the same: a primary coastal road and guns that ordinarily would have been
all or part way around each island, with easily repaired had to be abandoned. There
auxiliary roads linking important points in were no antitank guns, grenades, gas masks,
the interior to the ports along the coast. or steel helmets for issue, and the supply of
None of these roads, in 1941, had more ammunition was extremely limited.3
than two lanes, and most were poorly surGeneral Sharp's most serious shortage
faced and winding. On the most highly de- was in artillery weapons. At the start of the
veloped of the islandsCebu, Negros, and war he had not a single piece in his entire
Panaythere were short stretches of rail- command and as a result organized the arroad. Coastal shipping supplemented the tillery components of his divisions as infanroad and rail system in the islands and try. On 12 December he received from
linked the islands of the Visayan group with Manila eight old 2.95-inch mountain guns,
each other and with Mindanao.
three of which were lost two weeks later at
The defense of Mindanao and the Vis3
The account of shortages in the Visayan-Minayascomprising a land area half again as
danao Force is based on V-MF Rpt of Opns, pp.
large as Luzonrested with the Visayan- 16-26, 41-42, 47-48, 68-71; Gen Chynoweth,
Mindanao Force, commanded by Brig. 61st Div (PA) and Visayan Force Rpt, pp. 1-7,
Gen. William F. Sharp, who had his head- OCMH; Col Hiram W. Tarkington, There Were
Others, Chs. I-II. The last is a manuscript volume
quarters initially on Cebu. This force was which Colonel Tarkington has made available to
composed almost entirely of Philippine the author.
500
MAJ. GEN. WILLIAM F. SHARP AND HIS STAFF, 1942. Back row, standing
left to right: Maj. Paul D. Phillips (ADC)
and Capt. W. F. O'Brien (ADC).
Front row, sitting left to right: Lt. Col. W. S. Robinson (G-3), Lt. Col. Robert D.
Johnston (G-4), Col. John W. Thompson ( C o f S ) , General Sharp (CG), Col.
Archibald M. Mixson ( D C o f S ) , Lt. Col. Howard R. Perry, Jr. (G-1), Lt. Col.
Charles I. Humber (G-2), and Maj. Max Weil (Hq Comdt and PM).
Davao. The remaining five pieces constituted Sharp's entire artillery support
throughout the campaign.
To alleviate the shortages in clothing,
spare parts for weapons, and other equipment, factories, staffed and operated by
Filipinos, were established. They were able
to turn out such diverse items as shoes, hand
grenades, underwear, and extractors for the
Enfield. Unfortunately there was no way to
manufacture small-arms ammunition or artillery pieces, and these remained critical
items until the end.
General Sharp's mission, initially, was to
defend the entire area south of Luzon.
When organized resistance was no longer
practicable, he was to split his force into

small groups and conduct guerilla warfare
from hidden bases in the interior of each
island. Food, ammunition, fuel, and equipment, were to be moved inland, out of reach
of the enemy, in preparation for such a contingency. Those supplies that could not be
moved were to be destroyed.4
At the end of December, after he had
made his decision to withdraw to Bataan,
General MacArthur informed the VisayanMindanao Force commander that he could
expect no further aid from Luzon and instructed him to transfer the bulk of his
4
V-MF Rpt of Opns, pp. 26-28.

troops to Mindanao for the defense of that
island and its important airfield at Del
Monte.5 The move to Mindanao began immediately and was completed early in January. With Sharp's headquarters and most
of the troops on Mindanao, the Visayas assumed a secondary importance in the defense of the south. In the event of attack it
would be virtually impossible to reinforce
any of the islands in that group from Mindanao. Each of the six defended islands
Cebu, Panay, Negros, Leyte, Samar, and
Boholwas now dependent upon its own
garrison and resources to meet a Japanese
invasion.6
The organization of the Visayan-Mindanao Force established early in January
lasted only about one month. On 4 February, in an effort to facilitate the delivery of
supplies expected shortly from Australia,
USAFFE assumed direct control of the garrisons on Panay and Mindoro, both a part
of General Sharp's command. A month
later, a week before MacArthur's departure
for Australia, the remaining Visayan garrisons were separated from General Sharp's
command which was then redesignated the
Mindanao Force. The five garrisons in the
Visayas were then organized into the Visayan Force and placed under Brig. Gen.
Bradford G. Chynoweth, who had commanded on Panay. As coequal commanders,
Sharp and Chynoweth reported directly to
higher headquarters on Corregidor.7 This
separation of the Visayan-Mindanao Force
clearly reflected MacArthur's desire to insure the most effective defense of Mindanao,
5
For MacArthur's views on the importance of

Mindanao, see above, Chapter XIV.
6
7
V-MF Rpt of Opns, pp. 62-63.

Ibid., pp. 6-7, 29-33, 44-45; ltr, Sutherland to
Chynoweth, 3 Feb 42, sub: Instructions, AG 430
(25 Dec 41) Phil Rcds.
501
which he hoped to use as a base for his

promised return to the Philippines.
Japanese planning for operations in the
south did not begin until late in the campaign. The initial 14th Army plan for the
conquest of the Philippines contained only
brief references to Mindanao and the Visayas, which were expected to fall quickly
once Manila was taken. During the months
that followed the first landing, Homma
showed little interest in the islands south of
Luzon. But even had he desired to move
into that area, he would have been unable
to do so. In February the campaign on
Bataan had reached a stalemate. Imperial
General Headquarters, informed of Homma's situation and worried over his slow
progress, pressed for an early end to the
Philippine campaign and finally, early in
March, sent the needed reinforcements.
With them came orders to begin operations
in the south concurrently with those against
Bataan and Corregidor.8
It was several weeks before the troops
scheduled for use in the south reached the
Philippines. The first contingent came from
Borneo and arrived at Lingayen Gulf on 1
April. It consisted of Headquarters, 35th
Brigade, and the 124th Infantry, both from
the 18th Division. Led by Maj. Gen. Kiyotake Kawaguchi, the brigade commander,
this force, with the addition of 14th Army
supporting and service troops, was organized into a separate detachment known
as the Kawaguchi Detachment. Four days
later elements of the 5th Division from Malaya, consisting of the headquarters of Maj.
Gen. Saburo Kawamura's 9th Infantry
Brigade and the 41st Infantry, reached Lin8
Statement of Col Takushiro Hattori, in Statements of Japanese Officials on World War II, I,
316; Southern Army Hist, pp. 14, 17; Hist, Army
Sec, Imperial GHQ, pp. 42-43.
502
gayen. With these troops, augmented by

service and supporting troops, Homma
formed the Kawamura Detachment. These
two detachments, plus the Miura Detachment already at Davao, constituted the entire force assigned the conquest of the southern Philippines.9
about 1,000 men under Lt. Col. Arthur J.

Grimes.10
General Homma's preoccupation with
Bataan gave General Chynoweth, the Visayan Force commander, an additional month
in which to make his preparations. Much
had already been accomplished when he
assumed command, and under his direction
the defenses were rapidly brought to comThe Visayas
pletion. On Cebu and Panay, where the deThe creation of the Visayan Force on 4 fenses were most elaborate, the men had
March had brought a change in command- constructed tank obstacles, trenches, and
ers and a renewed vigor to the preparations gun emplacements, strung wire, and prefor a prolonged defense of the islands in the pared demolitions. Airfield construction was
Visayan group. In the force were about pushed rapidly on all the islands. Panay
20,000 men organized into five separate alone had eight. Negros had an air and sea
garrisons, each with its own commander. warning system and was able to alert the
The largest of these was Col. Albert F. other garrisons of the approach of enemy
Christie's Panay Force which consisted of planes and ships. Most of the work on these
the 61st Division (PA), less the 61st and and other defenses was done by civilians,
62d Infantry, and the 61st Field Artillery thus leaving the troops free to continue their
which Sharp had taken to Mindanao. To training.11
replace these units, the island commander
Perhaps the most interesting feature of
had organized the 64th and 65th Provi- the preparations for the defense of the
sional Infantry Regiments. The addition of Visayas was the program known as Operamiscellaneous Constabulary troops brought tion Baus Au, Visayan for "Get it Back."
the total of Christie's garrison to about 7,000 Initiated by General Chynoweth during his
men.
tenure as the commander of the Panay garCol. Irvine C. Scudder, commander of rison and then adopted on Cebu, Operation
the troops on Cebu, where Visayan Force Baus Au was the large-scale movement of
headquarters was located, had about 6,500 goods, supplies, and weapons into the intetroops, including the 82d and 83d Infantry rior for use later in guerrilla warfare. Secret
(PA), the Cebu Military Police Regiment, caches were established in remote and ina Philippine Army Air Corps detachment, accessible places, and at mountain hideouts
and miscellaneous units. On Negros were which could be reached only by steep, narabout 3,000 troops under the command of row trails barely passable for a man on foot.
Col. Roger B. Hilsman, who had led the
10
V-MF Rpt of Opns, pp. 32-33, 79-81.
force opposing the Japanese landing at
11
Col Scudder, Rpt of Mil Activities in Cebu, 2
Davao. Leyte and Samar were held by a
Dec 41-4 Mar 42, Col Cornell, Narrative of Events,
hastily improvised force of 2,500 men led by Hq Samar-Leyte Sector, and Col Hilsman, Hist of
Col. Theodore M. Cornell, and Bohol by the Negros Sector, all in V-MF Rpt of Opns, pp.
96, 397-98, 484, 490-92; Chynoweth, 61st Div
9
(PA) and Visayan Force Rpt pp. 7, 11.
503
The 63d Infantry, which did most of the

cargador work on Panay, adopted as its insignia a carabao sled loaded with a sack of
rice and bearing the inscription Baus Au.12
The effect on the civilian population of
Operation Baus Au and other measures for
a prolonged defense in the interior was unfortunate. The Filipinos felt that they were
being abandoned and their faith in the
American protector was badly shaken.
What they expected was a pitched battle
at the beaches ending in the rout of the
enemy. "They took great pride in their
Army," noted Colonel Tarkington, "and
having been indoctrinated for years with
the idea of American invincibility, were all
for falling on the enemy tooth and nail and
hurling him back into the sea."13
Japanese knowledge of conditions in the
Visayas was accurate and fairly complete.
Though they did not know the exact disposition of the troops in the area, they knew
which islands were defended and the approximate size of the defending force.
Homma was confident that with the reinforcements from Malaya and Borneo he
could seize the key islands in the group. His
plan was to take Cebu with the Kawaguchi
Detachment and Panay with the Kawamura
Detachment. These two forces, in co-operation with the Miura Detachment at Davao,
would then move on to take Mindanao.
That island conquered, the remaining garrisons in the Philippines could be reduced
at leisure if they did not surrender of their
own accord.
No time was wasted in putting this plan
into effect. On 5 April, four days after the
Kawaguchi Detachment reached Lingayen
Gulf, it was aboard ship once more, headed

for Cebu. With 4,852 trained and battletested troops, General Kawaguchi had little
reason to fear the outcome.
12
Chynoweth, 61st Div (PA) and Visayan Force
Rpt, pp. 7, 12-15; Tarkington, There Were Others,
pp. 47-49.
13
Tarkington, There Were Others, p. 48.
as many as seven landings along both coasts. The
The Cebu Landings

First word of the approach of the Japanese reached General Chynoweth on the
afternoon of 9 April, during a meeting with
his staff and unit commanders. Three Japanese cruisers and eleven transports, it was
reported, were steaming for Cebu from the
south. All troops were alerted and a close
watch kept on the enemy flotilla. That night
further news was received that the Japanese
force had split in two, one. sailing along the
west coast, the other along the east. By
daylight the enemy vessels were plainly
visible, with the larger of the convoys
already close to the island's capital, Cebu
City, midway up the east coast. Shortly
after dawn the Japanese in this convoy
landed at Cebu City; at about the same
time the men in the other convoy came
ashore in the vicinity of Toledo, on the opposite side of the island.14
Defending the capital, where Kawaguchi
had landed the bulk of his troops, was the
Cebu Military Police Regiment of about
1,100 men under the command of Lt. Col.
14
The account of operations on Cebu is based

upon: Chynoweth, 61st Div (PA) and Visayan
Force Rpt, pp. 13, 16-24, 33; Tarkington, There
Were Others, pp. 265-81; Scudder, Rpt of Mil
Activities in Cebu, and Lt Col Howard J. Edmands,
Rpt of Invasion of Cebu, last two in V-MF Rpt of
Opns, pp. 401, 436-51.
The Japanese apparently made more than two
landings but their exact number and location cannot be fixed with certainty. American sources list
only available Japanese source simply states that the
Kawaguchi Detachment landed "on the east coast
of Cebu." 14th Army Opns, I, 214.

Howard J. Edmands. Edmands' mission,
like that of other unit commanders on the
island, was to hold only long enough to
allow the demolition teams to complete
their work, then fall back into the hills. "I
had no idea of being able to stop the Japs,"
explained General Chynoweth, "but I
thought we could spend two or three days
in withdrawal." 15
The fight for Cebu City lasted only one
day. Faced by a foe superior in numbers
and weapons, the defenders fell back slowly, fighting for the time needed to block
the roads and destroy the bridges leading
into the interior. By the afternoon the fight
had reached the outskirts of the city and
at 1700 the Japanese broke off the action.
Under cover of darkness Edmands pulled
his men back to previously selected positions
about ten miles inland, along a ridge which
commanded the approaches from Cebu
City to the central mountain area. Though
the Japanese were in undisputed control of
the capital at the end of the day, Edmands
had achieved his purpose. He had gained
the time needed by the demolition teams,
and his regiment was still intact and withdrawing in good order.
The Japanese enjoyed equal success that
day on the west side of the island, in the
neighborhood of Toledo. Western terminus
of the cross-island highway, that town was
an important military objective. But, on
the assumption that the narrow channel
along the west would discourage an enemy
from landing there, only a small force, the
3d Battalion, 82d Infantry (PA), had been
placed in that area. The Philippine Army
battalion opposed the enemy landing vigorously but without success and finally fell
back along the cross-island highway toward
505
the town of Cantabaco, leaving the Japanese in possession of Toledo.

At Cantabaco, midway across the island,
the highway split in two. One branch
turned northeast to pass close to Camp X,
where General Chynoweth had his headquarters, then southeast to Talisay. The
southern branch led into Naga. At both
places there was a defending force of
Filipinos whose route of withdrawal depended upon the security of Cantabaco.
Should the Japanese pursuing the 3d Battalion, 82d Infantry, gain control of that
town, the defenders would be cut off.
General Chynoweth appreciated fully the
importance of Cantabaco to the defense of
Cebu. Even before the Japanese landings, in
anticipation of difficulty there, he had
brought Colonel Grimes and his 3d Battalion, 83d Infantry, from Bohol to support the
defenses of western Cebu. Now, on the afternoon of the 10th, he ordered Grimes to
cover Cantabaco, and as an added precaution sent a messenger with orders to his reserve battalion in the north to move down
to the threatened area. Grimes, "eager to
get into the fray . . . started out with a
gleam in his eye," and Chynoweth, confident that he had things reasonably well in
hand, settled down for a good night's sleep.16
He got little rest that night. Time and
again he was awakened by anxious staff
officers who reported that the enemy was
approaching from the direction of Cantabaco. Despite these reports Chynoweth remained confident. He had received no message from Grimes, and he felt sure that if
the enemy had broken through at Cantabaco, Grimes would have sent word. Moreover, there had been no explosions to indicate that the demolition teams along the
road were doing their work. He had in-
15
Chynoweth, 61st Div (PA) and Visayan Force

Rpt, p. 17.
16
Ibid.
506
spected these demolitions himself and felt

sure that if the enemy had passed Cantabaco, the charges would have been set off.
But at 0330, when the sounds of battle became louder, Chynoweth's confidence began
to wane. The enemy was undoubtedly nearing Camp X. A half hour later all doubts
vanished when large groups of Filipinos, the
outposts of Camp X, appeared in camp.
They seemed hypnotized, fired in the air,
and refused to obey commands in their haste
to flee. After a brief conference with his
staff, Chynoweth decided to pull back to an
alternate command post on a ridge a half
mile to the north and await developments
there.
The collapse of the Cantabaco position
had been the result of an unfortunate and
unforeseen combination of events. The demolition teams in which Chynoweth had
placed so much faith had waited too long
and when the enemy appeared, led by tanks
or armored cars, they had fled. Like his commander, Colonel Grimes believed that the
enemy would be halted by blown bridges
and obstacles along the road. Not hearing
the sound of explosions, he, too, concluded
that the Japanese were still at a safe distance.
In his confidence he drove forward to familiarize himself with the terrain and was captured by an enemy patrol. Deprived of their
commander, his men "stayed quite well
hidden." 17 So well were they hidden that
even the Japanese were unaware of their
presence.
The reserve battalion had never even
started south. The messengers sent to that
battalion failed to return, and if the battalion commander did receive Chynoweth's
order to move to Cantabaco, he never complied with it. Instead, the battalion moved
17
Ibid., p. 23.
farther north, well out of reach of the

enemy.
Opposed only by the retreating 3d Battalion, 82d Infantry, which was quickly dispersed, the Japanese had advanced swiftly
from Toledo through Cantabaco and then
along the Talisay and Naga roads. It was
the Japanese force along the Talisay road
that had scattered the Camp X outposts and
forced upon Chynoweth the realization that
his plans for the defenses of Cantabaco had
miscarried.
With the enemy in possession of the crossisland highway, the fight for Cebu was over.
Nothing more could be accomplished in
central Cebu and on the night of the 12th,
Chynoweth, with about 200 men, started
north to his retreat in the mountains. From
there he hoped to organize the few units still
remaining on the island into an efficient
guerrilla force. The Japanese did not claim
the complete subjugation of the island until
19 April, but Wainwright had already conceded the loss of Cebu three days earlier
when he ordered General Sharp to re-establish the Visayan-Mindanao Force and take
command of the remaining garrisons in the
Visayas.18
The Seizure of Panay

When General Chynoweth, the first commander of the Panay garrison, assumed
command of the Visayan Force and moved
to Cebu in mid-March, he had named as
successor Colonel Christie, his chief of staff.
Under Christie's leadership work on the
island's defenses continued and by mid18
Rads, Wainwright to Sharp, Sharp to Wainwright, No. A-43, and Wainwright to Christie, all
dated 16 Apr 42, USFIP G-3 Journal, 19 Mar19 Apr 42, AG 461 (1 Apr 42) Phil Rcds.

April preparations for the expected Japanese attack had been virtually completed.19
As on Cebu the plan of defense provided
only for delaying action to allow the demolition teams to complete their work. The
61st Division (PA) and other troops on the
islands, altogether 7,000 men, were to fall
back to previously selected positions until
they reached the mountains to the north.
From there, well provided with the food and
supplies gathered as a result of Operation
Baus Au, Christie would wage guerrilla warfare against the enemy until such time as
reinforcements arrived.
The enemy landing came at dawn, 16
April, and was made by the Kawamura Detachment of 4,160 men. The bulk of General Kawamura's troops came ashore at
Iloilo, at the southeast corner of Panay, and
a smaller force landed at Capiz to the
north. Two days later a third landing was
made at San Jose, along the southwest
coast.20 None of the landings was opposed.
By 20 April General Kawamura had occupied the strategic points of the island, and
so far as he was concerned the campaign
was over.
For Colonel Christie, safe in his wellstocked mountain retreat, the campaign had
just begun. Wild game was plentiful; he had
ample fresh water, 500 head of cattle,
15,000 bags of rice, hundreds of cases of
canned goods, and an adequate supply of
fuel. Machine shops had been constructed
19
The account of operations on Panay is based
507
in the mountains, and when his supply of
rice gave out there was a mill to thresh more.
Almost immediately he began to send his
men out on hit-and-run raids. These so
aroused the Japanese that they organized a

punitive expedition at San Jose to capture
Christie and destroy his headquarters. A
Filipino agent sent warning of the Japanese
plans and an ambush was prepared by a
company of men armed only with bows and
arrows, spears and bolos. Hidden along the
sides of the pass leading to Christie's hideout, the Filipinos with their primitive weapons took the Japanese completely by surprise, killed many, and sent the rest posthaste back to San Jose. But the successes of
guerrilla warfare could not disguise the fact
that, with the principal towns and road net
in their hands, the Japanese controlled the
island.
By the seizure of Cebu and Panay, the
Japanese had secured a firm grip on the

most important islands in the Visayas. The
forces still holding out on Negros, Samar,
Leyte, and Bohol were considerably smaller
than those already defeated and driven
back into the hills, and the Japanese were
confident that these islands could be
occupied at will. By 20 April the campaign
for the Visayas was, for all practical purposes, at an end, and General Homma was
free to send the Kawaguchi and Kawamura Detachments against Mindanao.
Mindanao
on Tarkington, There Were Others, pp. 297-306.

The Visayan-Mindanao Force Report of Operations
contains no report of activities on Panay after
Chynoweth's departure, and none was prepared by
Colonel Christie. Interv, author with Christie, 6
The Japanese force that landed at Davao

on 20 December had been a small one. It
had consisted of two groups, one of which,
May 47. The only Japanese account is in 14th
the Sakaguchi Detachment, left soon after
Army Opns, I, 215.
20
for Jolo Island and the Netherlands Indies.
Rads, Wainwright to AGWAR, 16 Apr 42, and
Del Monte, no sig, to Ft Mills, 20 Apr 42, both in The other group, led by Lt. Col. Toshio
USFIP G-3 Journal, 19 Mar-19 Apr 42, AG 461
Miura and consisting of the 1st Battalion,
(1 Apr 42) Phil Rcds.
508
33d Infantry, plus miscellaneous troops,
had remained on Mindanao.21 Time and
again Colonel Miura had attempted to extend his control into the interior but without success. Indeed, had he not had air and
artillery support and had his men not been
equipped with automatic weapons, it is
doubtful if he could have remained on the
island.
Since General Sharp's arrival on Mindanao early in January much had been
done to prepare the island's defenses. With
the additional troops transferred from the
Visayas, Sharp had organized the island
into five defensive sectors: the Zamboanga
Sector; the Lanao Sector, in the northwest;
the Cagayan Sector, in the north-central
portion of the island; the Agusan Sector, in
the east; and the Cotabato-Davao Sector
in the central and south portion of the
island. The last was the largest of the
sectors and was divided into three subsectors: Digos, Cotabato, and Carmen
Ferry. To each sector was assigned a force
of appropriate size whose commander reported directly to Mindanao Force headquarters at Del Monte, ten miles inland
from the northern terminus of the Sayre
Highway and adjacent to the Del Monte
Airfield. (Map 24)
Despite occasional flurries along the
Digos and Agusan fronts and, in March,
some action in Zamboanga, which the Japanese occupied early that month, the troops
on Mindanao continued their training.22
21
The landing at Davao is described above, in
Chapter VI.
22
The landing at Zamboanga was made by about
220 Japanese of the 32d Naval Base Force on 2

March 1942 after a brief fight with Lt. Col. Albert
T. Wilson's troops of the Zamboanga Sector. On
6 March Sharp ordered Wilson to withdraw to the
mountains and conduct guerrilla operations. The
Japanese, having secured the town of Zamboanga
and established a seaplane base there, made no

Individual and unit training continued at
a steady pace and was supplemented by
special instruction at a school in infantry
tactics in central Mindanao. The school was
staffed by Philippine Scouts of the 43d
Infantry. 23
The greatest drawback to the training
program was the shortage of ammunition.
The supply was so limited that its expenditure on the firing range was prohibited.
Instead, the men spent long hours in simulated fire, with doubtful results. "A few
rounds fired by the soldier," observed
Colonel Tarkington, "would have demonstrated to him the capability of his weapon,
acquainted him with its recoil, and paid
dividends in steadier marksmanship." 24
Most of the men who fought on Mindanao
never fired a live round before they went
into battle.
While General Sharp sought to strengthen the defenses of Mindanao, the Japanese
completed their plans for the seizure of the
island. The plan finally adopted provided
for a co-ordinated attack from three directions by separate forces toward a common
center, followed by a quick mop-up of the
troops in the outlying portions of the island.
One of these forces, the Miura Detachment,
was already on the island, on garrison duty
at Davao and Digos, a short distance to the
south. It was to be relieved by a battalion of
the 10th Independent Garrison and then
strike out from Digos toward the Sayre
Highway. Its route of advance would be
northwest along Route 1, which intersected
effort to expand their control. Wilson, The Defense
of Zamboanga, in V-MF Rpt of Opns, pp. 484-86;
Japanese Landing at Zamboanga, ATIS Doc 62680,
20 Jul 51, Mil Hist Div, GHQ FEC, pp. 1-5.

23
Inactive for many years, the 43d Infantry (PS)

was reactivated with two companies, C and E, at
the start of the war with Scouts from the 45th
Infantry (PS) on duty at Zamboanga.
24
510
the Sayre Highway about midway across the

island.
The other two forces committed to the
Mindanao operation, the Kawaguchi and
Kawamura Detachments, would have to
make amphibious assaults. Each would be
relieved of responsibility for the security of
the island it had occupied, embark in the
waiting transports, and sail under naval
escort by divergent routes to its designated
target. General Kawaguchi was to take his
men ashore at Cotabato midway along the
west coast, at the mouth of the Mindanao
River. From Cotabato, which was joined
to Route 1 by a five-mile stretch of highway,
he would send part of his force east toward
the Sayre Highway to meet Colonel Miura's
troops marching west. The rest of the detachment was to land at Parang, about
twelve miles north of Cotabato, and push
north along Route 1, past Lake Lanao, then
east along the island's north shore to join
with the Kawamura Detachment.
Kawamura was to come ashore in northern Mindanao at the head of Macajalar
Bay, the starting point of the Sayre Highway. While a small portion of his force
struck out to the west to meet Kawaguchi's
men, the bulk of the detachment would
march south through central Mindanao,
along the Sayre Highway. Ultimately, elements of the three detachmentsone
marching east, another west, and the third
southwould join along the Digos-Cotabato stretch of Route 1 across the narrow
waist of the island.25
Late in April three battalions of the 10th
Independent Garrison took over garrison
duty on Mindanao, Cebu, and Panay. Colonel Miura immediately moved south from
Davao to Digos to prepare for his advance
along Route 1, while Kawamura and Ka25
waguchi began to embark their troops for

the coming invasion. First to sail was the
Kawaguchi Detachment which left Cebu
on 26 April in six transports escorted by two
destroyers. Kawamura's departure from Panay came five days later and brought him
to Macajalar Bay as Kawaguchi's troops
were fighting their way northward to greet
him. Wainwright's order to Sharp on 30
April, to hold all or as much of Mindanao
as possible with the forces he had, found that
commander already engaged with the enemy on two fronts.26
The Cotabato-Davao Sector

Early on the morning of 29 April, the
emperor's birthday, the Kawaguchi Detachment began to land at Cotabato and
Parang, midway up the west coast of Mindanao.27 The seizure of both towns was vital
to Kawaguchi's plan. From Cotabato he
could advance inland to the Sayre Highway
by way of Route 1 or in small boats by way
of the Mindanao River. From Parang he
could send his men north toward Lake Lanao and the north coast of the island, or
southeast to join the rest of the detachment
heading toward the Sayre Highway.
Defending Cotabato and the surrounding
area were troops of the 101st Division
(PA)101st Infantry (less 1st and 3d
Battalions), the 2d Battalion, 104th Infantry, and a battalion of the 101st Field Artillery, organized and equipped as infantry
strengthened by Constabulary troops and
26
Rads, Sharp to Wainwright, No. F-317, 27
Apr 42, No. F-144, 28 Apr 42, and Wainwright to
Sharp, 30 Apr 42, and USFIP Combined G-2 and
G-3 Rpts, 36-38, 26-28 Apr 42, all in USFIP
G-3 Journal, 20 Apr-3 May 42, AG 461 (1 Apr
42) Phil Rcds; 14th Army Opns, I, 215.
27
Rad, Del Monte, no sig, to CG USFIP (20X),
30 Apr 42, USFIP G-3 Journal, AG 461 (1 Apr
42) Phil Rcds; 14th Army Opns, I, 215.

service units. This entire force was under Lt.
Col. Russell J. Nelson, the Cotabato Subsector commander. Half of his men he had
placed in and around the town; the rest
were posted farther inland covering Route 1
and the Mindanao River.
The men of the Kawaguchi Detachment
encountered little resistance getting ashore
at Cotabato, where the demolition teams
had already completed their work. Their
advance through the town, however,
proved more difficult. There they were opposed by the 2d Battalion, 104th Infantry,
which put up a stubborn resistance until
enemy aircraft, presumably from Zamboanga, entered the fight. The battalion
then pulled back to a previously prepared
position on the outskirts of Cotabato where
it prepared for an extended stand.28 Events
beyond its control made this impossible.
Earlier in the day a portion of the Japanese force which had landed near Parang
began to push southeast toward the junction of Route 1 and the Cotabato road. At
about 1530 these Japanese made contact
with the 3d Battalion, 102d Infantry, which
was defending the north flank of the Cotabato force. In the engagement that followed, the Filipinos held firm for more than
three hours, but finally, at 1900, broke contact and withdrew along Route 1, leaving
the road to Cotabato open. The position of
511
the 2d Battalion, 104th Infantry, which

had resisted the Japanese advance through
the town earlier in the day, was now untenable. In danger of being cut off and
taken from the rear, the battalion reluctantly abandoned its position on the outskirts of Cotabato and pulled back through
the road junction to Route 1.
The next day, 30 April, General Kawaguchi began his advance eastward
toward the Sayre Highway and a meeting
with Colonel Miura's troops. Most of his
troops moved overland by way of Route 1,
but Kawaguchi did not neglect the water
route offered by the Mindanao River.
Three hundred of his men in armored
barges took this route, which paralleled
Route 1 and from which the water-borne
troops could easily reach that road by trail.
Both advances were supported by aircraft.
There was little action during the day.
Colonel Nelson, the sector commander, received reports on the progress of the two
Japanese columns but was most concerned
about the troops sailing up the river. There
was nothing to prevent this force from disembarking along the river bank and moving
up one or more of the numerous trails to
Route 1 to establish a roadblock behind
Nelson's retreating men. Before the day was
over, Nelson was receiving reports of just
such movements, as well as the presence of
Japanese troops in Pikit, where the Min28
The account of operations in the Cotabatodanao River crossed Route 1 at a point only
Davao area is based upon the following reports in
about eight miles from the Sayre Highway.
the Visayan-Mindanao Force Report of Operations:
Brig Gen Joseph P. Vachon, Cotabato-Davao Force
The report that Japanese troops were in
Summary of Events, 29 Apr-10 May 42, pp.
Pikit
was even more disquieting to Colonel
301-15; Col Nelson, Rpt of Events and Opns, pp.
Nelson
than the reports of hostile landings
318-28; Lt Col Reed Graves, Opns Rpt Digos Sector, 28 Apr-10 May 42, pp. 343-45; Col Ben-Hur
along the banks of the Mindanao River.
Chastaine, Rpt of Opns in Samar-Leyte and
If true, his force was already cut off. He
Agusan Sectors, pp. 163-67; Lt Col John H. McGee, Diary of 101st Inf ( P A ) , 30 Apr-11 May 42,
decided therefore to move his men away
pp. 331-34. The author also used the basic report
from the road and onto the trails leading
itself, pp. 51-54, and Tarkington, There Were
north. By doing so he left himself free to
Others, pp. 314-419.
512
accomplish his principal mission, which was
to protect the routes north of Route 1. The
decision made, he ordered the destruction
of roads and bridges and placed small covering forces along the main trails to cover
his withdrawal. There was nothing to prevent Kawaguchi now from consolidating
his control of the entire stretch of Route 1
from Cotabato to Pikit.
Kawaguchi's rapid advance eastward toward the Sayre Highway, which intersected
Route 1 at Kabacan, eight miles east of
Pikit, placed him in an excellent position
to cut off the escape route of the troops in
the Digos Subsector. These troops, who were
retreating westward along Route 1 before
the Miura Detachment, would have to pass
through Kabacan before they could make
their way north along the Sayre Highway.
If Kawaguchi could reach Kabacan ahead
of the Filipinos, he might not only cut them
off but take them from the rear. Indeed,
the Japanese appear to have anticipated
this possibility and Colonel Miura's orders
were to keep the Digos force engaged long
enough to allow Kawaguchi to reach
Kabacan.29
The Digos force had been under pressure
since the middle of April. Led by Lt. Col.
Reed Graves, this force consisted of the 101st
Field Artillery (PA), less one battalion, and
the 2d Battalion, 102d Infantry (PA). By
the 28th of the month, after a particularly
heavy attack, it was clear to Colonel Graves
that the Japanese on his front were about
to make a major effort. The next morning,
simultaneously with the landing of the
Kawaguchi Detachment at Cotabato, Colonel Miura began his advance westward to29
This reconstruction of the Japanese plan is

based upon a statement made by Colonel Miura to
General Vachon after the surrender. Vachon,
Cotabato-Davao Force, Summary of Events, in
V-MF Rpt of Opns, p. 315.

ward the Sayre Highway, supported by lowflying aircraft from Davao. Graves's troops
opposed the Japanese advance stubbornly,
and effectively broke up the initial assault
with mortar fire.
Action during the next two days was
indecisive, and consisted largely of air attacks and patrol actions. On 2 May, Colonel
Miura again launched a full-scale attack.
This time he opened with a four-hour artillery and mortar preparation supplemented
by the strafing attacks of seven dive bombers. When the infantry moved out at 1300
it had the support of three tanks. Again the
Japanese were halted and the fight ended
at 1700 with a victory for the Filipinos.
Graves's brave stand proved a fruitless
gesture, for two hours later, at 1900 of the
2d, he was ordered to withdraw immediately toward the Sayre Highway. The order
came from the commander of the Cotabato-Davao Sector, Brig. Gen. Joseph P.
Vachon, who had sent a small force to
Kabacan to delay the Japanese approaching
from the west. The Digos force would have
to make good its escape while there was
still time. Further resistance, no matter how
successful, would only increase the peril to
Colonel Graves and his men. That night
they began to evacuate the position they had
held so stubbornly since 28 April. Next day,
with the 2d Battalion, 102d Infantry, acting as rear guard, the Digos force began
to march toward Kabacan and the Sayre
Highway.
Kabacan now became the focal point of
the fight in the Cotabato-Davao Sector.
General Vachon was determined to hold the
southern terminus of the Sayre Highway as
long as possible and placed all the troops
he could muster there. In addition to the
force he had already sent to delay Kawaguchi's march eastward from Pikit, he di-

rected Colonel Graves and the troops of the
Carmen Ferry Subsector to hold the Sayre
Highway. The Kawaguchi Detachment successfully fought its way to Kabacan, but arrived too late to close the trap on the Digos
force. All Kawaguchi's efforts to clear the
Sayre Highway and make his way northward failed. Vachon's troops held firm until
the end of the campaign a week later.
Those of General Kawaguchi's men who
came ashore at Parang on the morning of
29 April met an entirely different reception
from that which greeted the men landing at
Cotabato. Here they were met at the
beaches by the regulars of the 2d Infantry,
1st Division (PA). 30 Under the leadership
of Col. Calixto Duque, the Filipinos had established strong defensive positions on the
beach and when the first hostile landing
parties made their appearance at 0400 of
the 29th they ran into heavy and effective
fire from machine guns.
For more than six hours, until 1100, the
2d Infantry held its ground. Finally, in danger of being outflanked by a Japanese force
that had landed a short distance to the
south, the regiment fell back to a previously
prepared position about two miles inland.31

After sending a small detachment southward to establish contact with the force
landing at Cotabato, Kawaguchi's men
moved into the town. By late afternoon they
had established contact with the southern
30
The 1st Division (PA) was a part of the regular
establishment of the Philippine Army. Division
headquarters and the other two regiments, the 1st
and 3d, fought on Luzon. The 2d Infantry was
stationed in the south before the war. Its strength
was 880 men, but approximately 300 of these were
sick with malaria when the Japanese attacked.
31
This account of operations in the Lanao Sector
is based upon: Tarkington, There Were Others, pp.
333-40; Col Eugene H. Mitchell, Hist of 61st Inf

(PA), and Brig Gen Guy O. Fort, Hist of 81st Division ( P A ) , last two in V-MF Rpt of Opns, pp. 185-
93, 272-85.
513
force and were in firm possession of Parang.

Their next objective was the coastal town
of Malabang, twenty-two miles to the
northwest.
Guarding Malabang was the 61st Infantry (PA), led by Col. Eugene H. Mitchell.
Alerted by the landings to the south,
Mitchell had ordered his demolition teams
to stand by and sent his men into their previously prepared positions along the west
bank of the Mataling River, just above the
town. In Malabang, guarding the trail
which led northwest out of the town past
the right flank of the Mataling line, was the
3d Battalion's Company K. To the rear
were two 2.95-inch mountain guns, manned
by men of the 81st Field Artillery (PA).
Rather than march his men along the
twenty-two mile stretch of Route 1 which
separated Parang and Malabang, General
Kawaguchi apparently decided to utilize the
transports which had brought them to Mindanao. Leaving a small detachment to guard
the town, he sent his troops back to the
ships late on the night of the 29th and set
sail for Malabang. At about 0300 of the
30th, at a point a few miles south of the
objective, the Japanese began to land.32
A half hour later Company K, 61st Infantry, reported that enemy light tanks had
passed its position.
Action along the Mataling line opened
at dawn. Within a few hours, after suffering
heavy casualties, the Filipinos were forced
to give way on the left. In danger of having
his flank turned, Colonel Mitchell reinforced
the left but was unable to regain the ground
lost. Finally, at 1400, he ordered the right
battalion to attack in the hope that he could
32
Japanese sources state that a landing was made
at 0300 at a point south of Malabang. 14th Army

Opns, I, 215. The author has made the most reasonable reconstruction possible with the few facts
available.
514
thus relieve the pressure on the left. The attack, though it gained some ground, failed
in its objective, for the Japanese had brought
more troops as well as artillery into position
before the Mataling line.
The diversionary attack having failed,
Colonel Mitchell decided to place his entire
force in the threatened area. To do this he
had to abandon the right portion of the line
and call in his reserve. It was a gamble but
his only alternative was to give up the Mataling line entirely. Orders for the attack
went out late on the afternoon of the 30th,
just before the Japanese attacked again. Advance elements of the reserve battalion arrived in time to participate in the fight that
followed, but the right battalion never received its orders, and at 2000 Colonel
Mitchell was forced to abandon the Mataling line.
The route of withdrawal was along Route
1. With one company as rear guard, the
right and reserve battalions withdrew in an
orderly fashion to a new position four miles
to the north. The left battalion, unable to
use Route 1, withdrew by a circuitous route
along a back trail and did not join the rest
of the regiment until the next afternoon.
Save for patrol and rear guard action there
was no fighting that night.
The Japanese attacked Colonel Mitchell's
new position at 0730 the next day, 1 May.
Again they struck at the flank of the Filipino line and at 1030 Mitchell was forced
to order a second withdrawal. This time he
fell back five miles. In the confusion one
company was cut off, but Colonel Mitchell
was compensated for this loss by the addition of two companies of the 1st Battalion
of the 84th Provisional Infantry Regiment,
which joined him when he reached his new
position. Later in the day the 120 survivors
of the battalion which had withdrawn from

the Mataling line along a back trail straggled into camp, and with this force Colonel
Mitchell began to prepare for the next attack. His orders from the sector commander,
Brig. Gen. Guy O. Fort, were to hold his
position at all cost.
The Japanese, who had lost contact with
the retreating Filipinos during the morning,
reached the new line at about 1300. While
their infantry prepared for the attack, they
kept the Filipinos pinned down with artillery, mortar, and machine gun fire. At
dusk, the volume of Japanese fire increased
and, shortly after, the infantry moved out
in a full-scale attack. Within a short time
they had overrun Colonel Mitchell's defenses and were threatening his command
post. By 2300, when the Japanese called off
the attack, the defending force had practically disappeared.
Rounding up all the men he could find,
altogether about thirty, Mitchell made his
way to the rear. At about 0230 he encountered a detachment of sixty men from the
81st Division (PA) on the road and began
to establish a holding position. The men had
just set to work when they were struck by a
Japanese motorized column which scattered
the tired and dispirited men. Colonel
Mitchell's luck had run out. Twice he had
escaped the Japanese, but this time he was
captured. With the rout of the 61st Infantry
and the capture of its commander, the Japanese gained control of all of Route 1 as far
north as Lake Lanao.
Only one regiment of the Lanao force,
Lt. Col. Robert H. Vesey's 73d Infantry
(PA), was still intact. With two battalions
in the vicinity of Lake Lanao and the third
on beach defense to the north, this regiment
stood directly in the path of Kawaguchi's
advance. At the first news that the enemy
was approaching, Colonel Vesey set out for

Ganassi at the southwest corner of the lake
to meet him. Here a secondary road
branched off to circle the east shore while
Route 1 continued northward along the
west side of the lake. By holding this town,
Vesey believed, he could prevent the Japanese from gaining access to either road. A
preliminary skirmish at Ganassi on the
morning of 2 May convinced him that the
town was not defensible and that afternoon he withdrew to Bacolod on the west
shore of Lake Lanao to make his stand. The
Japanese promptly sent a small force along
the east road, but it presented no immediate
threat to the defenders at Bacolod.
The line finally established at Bacolod
by Colonel Vesey extended from Lake
Lanao across Route 1 and was held by the
two battalions of the 73d Infantry reinforced with stragglers from the 61st Infantry. Along the front was a narrow stream
which flowed under a bridge across Route
1 to empty into the lake. As an added precaution, the bridge was destroyed as soon
as the troops were in position. Additional
protection was afforded the troops on the
far side of the stream, opposite the demolished bridge, by a 2.95-inch mountain
gun.
The Japanese who had reached Ganassi
early on the morning of 2 May had halted
to await the arrival of the rest of the force
which moved up during the day. Early the
next morning the entire force, with light
tanks in the lead, advanced north along
Route 1. By 0800 the tanks had reached
the destroyed bridge in front of the 73d Infantry line and halted. One tank sought to
cross the shallow stream but was hit by a
shell from the 2.95-inch mountain gun and
knocked out. The others made no further
effort to cross. With Route 1 blocked, the
515
rest of the Japanese column came to an
abrupt halt and the troops poured out of the
trucks. Before they could deploy and take
cover, they were hit by withering fire from
the far side of the stream, "which made up
in its concentration at point-blank range
what it lacked in accuracy." 33 The toll on
the Japanese side was heavy.
Despite this first setback the men of the
Kawaguchi Detachment continued to press
forward. Soon they had the support of artillery and a single plane, which alternately
attacked and observed the 73d Infantry position. Unable to make any headway by
frontal assault, the Japanese sought to turn
the enemy's flanks. Their efforts proved successful before the morning was out and
shortly after noon Colonel Vesey gave the
order to withdraw.
The record of the 73d Infantry for the
rest of that day, 3 May, is one of successive
withdrawals. Each time Colonel Vesey put
his two battalions into position, the Japanese
broke through. So closely did the enemy
motorized column pursue the Filipinos that
they scarcely had time to organize their defenses. By midnight Vesey had taken his
men back in the hills north of Lake Lanao,
where he paused to reorganize his scattered
forces. The Japanese made no effort to follow. The victory was theirs and the road
along the north shore lay open.
Between 29 April and 3 May, General
Kawaguchi with a force of 4,852 men and
some assistance from the Miura Detachment had gained control of southern and
western Mindanao. Only in the north, in
the Cagayan Sector, were the Filipinos still
strong enough to offer organized resistance.
But already on the morning of 3 May, the
third of the forces General Homma had as33
516
signed to the Mindanao operation, the
In the critical Cagayan Sector, which included the northern terminus of the Sayre
Highway and the vital Del Monte Airfield,
First warning of the approach of the

enemy reached General Sharp's headquarters on the afternoon of 2 May when a
reconnaissance plane sighted the convoy
carrying the Kawamura Detachment north
of Macajalar Bay. The troops on beach defense were immediately alerted, and that
night, after the convoy had entered the bay,
the demolition plan was put into effect.
General Sharp had the Mindanao Force
Shortly after, about 0100 of the 3d, the
Kawamura Detachment, had begun to land
along the shore of Macajalar Bay.

The Cagayan Sector
reserve, none of which had yet been com- Japanese troops began coming ashore at
mitted, and the 102d Division (PA). This both extremities of the line, at Cagayan and
division, formed from existing and pro- at the mouth of the Tagoloan River. Supvisional units after the outbreak of war, con- ported by fire from two destroyers offshore,
sisted of the 61st and 81st Field Artillery, the Japanese by dawn had secured a firm
organized and equipped as infantry, and the hold of the beach line between the Tagoloan
103d Infantry. Col. William P. Morse, the and the Sayre Highway.
division and sector commander, believing
Those of Kawamura's men who came
that an attack in his sector would most likely ashore in the vicinity of Cagayan met a
come from the sea and have for its objec- warm reception. Unable to prevent the
tive the seizure of the Sayre Highway, had enemy from landing, Major Webb attacked
posted his troops along Macajalar Bay, between the Tagoloan and Cagayan Rivers.
Holding the four miles of coast line from
the Tagoloan west to the Sayre Highway
was Lt. Col. John P. Woodbridge's 81st
Field Artillery and a 65-man detachment
from the 30th Bomb Squadron (US). The
stretch of coast line from the highway to the
Cugman River, equal in length to that held
by Colonel Woodbridge, was defended by
the 61st Field Artillery under Col. Hiram
W. Tarkington. On the left (west), extending the line to the Cagayan River, was Maj.
Joseph R. Webb's 103d Infantry.34

34
The account of operations in the Cagayan Sector is based upon: V-MF Rpt of Opns, pp. 54-61;
Col Morse, Rcd of Action and Events, in V-MF Rpt
of Opns, pp. 349-54; Tarkington, There Were
the beachhead with two companies. So successful was the attack that only the withdrawal of the 61st Field Artillery on his
right prevented him, Webb believed, from
driving the enemy back into the sea. With
his right flank exposed, Webb was forced
to break off the engagement and pull his
men back.
Meanwhile General Sharp had sent additional troops to hold the Sayre Highway.
Up until now he had refused to commit his
reserve. But with half of Mindanao in enemy

hands and with the Japanese landing more
troops within a dozen miles of his headquarters, he decided that the time had come to
throw all available troops into the fight.
Closest to the scene of action was a detach-
Others, Ch. XV. Detailed accounts of the action of
42; Lt Col Allen Thayer, 62d Inf (PA), pp. 248-
specific units in V-MF Rpt of Opns are as follows:
51; Maj John C. Goldtrap, Narrative of Events
Maj Paul D. Phillips, Hist of 2.95 Gun Det, pp.

176-84; Woodbridge, Narrative Activities of 81st
FA, 3-10 May 42, pp. 229-34; Tarkington, Narrative of Action of 61st FA, 3-10 May 42, pp. 235-
93d Inf, pp. 252-66; Webb, Mindanao Campaign

of 103d Inf, pp. 287-94; Maj Allen L. Peck, initialed memo dealing with opns of Cos C and E,
43d Inf (PS), 29 Apr-9 May 42, pp. 381-87.

ment under Maj. Paul D. Phillips, armed
with three 2.95-inch guns, all that remained
of the artillery in the Mindanao Force. Farther to the rear were the 62d and 93d Infantry (PA). Sharp ordered all three units
to move up to the line. Pending the arrival
of the two regiments, Phillips' detachment
was to take up a position behind a deep
crater on the Sayre Highway and block any
Japanese attempt to advance south. When
it was joined later in the day by the 62d
and 93d Infantry Sharp would have a
strong line, supported by artillery, in the
path of the Japanese.
Major Phillips' detachment had hardly
set up its guns when, at 0730, it came under
fire from the Japanese advancing along the
Sayre Highway. In the initial attack the detachment was forced back about 700 yards.
Fortunately, the Japanese failed to press
their advantage and Phillips was able to organize another holding position at his new
location. He was joined here early in the
afternoon by advance elements of the 93d
Infantry; the rest of that regiment when it
reached the area prepared a second position
a short distance to the south. The 62d Infantry, whose assembly area was farther
south on the Sayre Highway, failed to join
the other two units that day.
To General Sharp "events seemed to be
moving satisfactorily." 35 Although the enemy controlled the beaches and the northern terminus of the Sayre Highway, his own
troops had disengaged without loss and were
in position along a secondary line of defense. Already part of his reserves were
blocking the highway and other troops were
moving up to their support. So optimistic
was the general that he set his staff to work
on a plan to counterattack north along the
highway next morning.
35
V-MF Rpt of Opns, p. 56.
517
The optimism at force headquarters was
quickly dissipated when reports of Japanese
progress during the day began to come in.
The enemy, it was learned, had pushed
back the 61st and 81st Field Artillery. The
103d Infantry had resisted more stoutly but
was also falling back and in danger of being
outflanked. General Sharp's hopes for a
counterattack were dealt the final blow
when, at 1600, Colonel Morse ordered a
general withdrawal to defensive positions
astride the Sayre Highway, about six miles
south of the beach. The move was to be
made that night under cover of darkness.
Before this plan could be put into effect
it was changed by General Sharp, who,
after a conference with Morse, Woodbridge,
and Webb, decided to establish his next line
even farther south than the line already
selected. The position selected paralleled
the Mangima Canyon, a formidable natural
barrier east of the town of Tankulan, and
the Mangima River. At Tankulan the Sayre
Highway splits, one branch continuing
south then east, the other east then south.
Before the two join, eight air miles east of
Tankulan, they form a rough circle bisected
from north to south by the Mangima
Canyon and River. East of the junction of
the canyon and the upper road lies the town
of Dalirig; to the south the river cuts across
the lower road before Puntian. Possession
of these two towns would enable the defenders to block all movement down the
Sayre Highway to central Mindanao.
At 2300, 3 May, General Sharp issued
orders for the withdrawal to the Mangima
line. The right (north) half of the line, the
Dalirig Sector, was to be held by the 102d
Division which had been reorganized and
now consisted of the 62d Infantry, the 81st
Field Artillery, the 2.95-inch gun detachment, and the two Philippine Scout com-
518
panies of the 43d Infantry from force

reserve. The Puntian Sector would be held
by the 61st Field Artillery and the 93d
Infantry. Colonel Morse would command
the troops in Dalirig; Col. William F.
Dalton, those before Puntian. The 103d
Infantry, cut off by the Japanese advance
was made a separate force and assigned the
mission of defending the Cagayan River
valley.
The withdrawal was completed on the
morning of 4 May when all units reached
their designated positions. The remainder
of that day as well as the next, during which
time the Japanese limited themselves to
aerial reconnaissance and bombardment,
was spent in organizing the line. In the
Dalirig Sector, Lt. Col. Alien Thayer's 62d
Infantry, closely supported by the 2.95-inch
gun detachment, occupied the main line of
resistance along the east wall of Mangima
Canyon. Companies C and E, 43d Infantry
(PS), Colonel Morse's reserve, were stationed in Dalirig, and in a draw 500 yards
behind the town were the 200 men of the
81st Field Artillery, which had had a
strength of 1,000 when the Japanese landed.
Colonel Dalton, with two regiments, used
the lull in battle similarly to dig in before
Puntian.
On the morning of 6 May the Japanese
resumed the attack. Their approach toward
Tankulan was reported by patrols of the 62d
Infantry which for the past two days had
moved freely in and around the town. During the morning advance elements of the
Kawamura Detachment passed through
Tankulan and began to advance along the
upper road toward Dalirig. Late that afternoon the Japanese moved into Tankulan in
force and began to register their artillery
on Dalirig.
There was little action the next day. Jap-

anese artillery, well out of range of Major
Phillips' 2.95-inch guns, dropped their
shells accurately into the 62d Infantry line
while their aircraft bombed and strafed gun
positions and troops. The left battalion suffered most from the bombardment and Colonel Thayer finally had to send in his reserve battalion to bolster the line.
The artillery and air attacks continued
until the evening of the 8th when, at 1900,
General Kawamura sent his infantry into
action. In the darkness many of the Japanese were able to infiltrate the Filipino line
where they created considerable confusion.
During the height of the confusion two platoons mysteriously received orders to withdraw and promptly pulled out of the line.
Their march to the rear came as a complete
surprise to company, battalion, and regimental headquarters, none of which had
issued the order. The two platoons were
quickly halted, but before they could return
to the front they were attacked by a small
force of Japanese infiltrators. Other 62d Infantry troops joined the fight but in the
darkness it was impossible to distinguish between friend and foe. It was only after the
personal intervention of Colonel Thayer
that the Filipinos, whose fire was doing more
to panic the men on the line than the efforts
of the enemy, were persuaded to cease fire.
The action continued through the night
of 8-9 May. The 62d Infantry held on as
long as possible but by morning the tired
and disorganized Filipinos had been pushed
off the main line of resistance and were falling back on Dalirig. Already the 2.95-inch
gun detachment had pulled out, leaving
only the two Scout companies of the 43d
Infantry to face the enemy.
In the Puntian Sector the Japanese were
content to keep Colonel Dalton's troops in
place by artillery fire. Until the night of 8-9
519
virtually ceased to exist. Except for 150 survivors of the 2.95-inch gun detachment in
(north) but during the confusion which position five miles east of Dalirig, the upper
marked the fighting that night he lost con- branch of the Sayre Highway lay open to
tact. In an effort to relieve the pressure on the invaders.
Thayer's regiment he launched his own atAlong the southern branch of the hightack the next morning. Though the attack way Colonel Dalton and his two regiments
was successful it failed to achieve its pur- still held firm at Puntian. But already Kawapose, for the disorganized 62d Infantry was mura was sending additional troops to this
sector and increasing the pressure against
already in full retreat.
Undeterred by Colonel Dalton's gains in the Puntian force. Whether Dalton would
front of Puntian, General Kawamura con- be able to hold was doubtful, but even if he
tinued to press his advantage in the north. did his position was untenable. The enemy
At about 1130 of the 9th, as the 62d In- could sweep around his north flank from the
fantry began to withdraw through Dalirig, direction of Dalirig or take him from the
May, Dalton had been able to maintain con-
tact with the 62d Infantry on his right
his men entered the town from three sides

and struck the retreating Filipinos. Already
disorganized, the troops of the 62d Infantry
scattered in all directions. The two Scout
companies in the town, under the leadership
rear by continuing along the upper road to

its junction with the lower road, then turning back toward Puntian. There was no
way out.
Whatever consolation General Sharp de-
of Maj. Alien L. Peck, made a brave stand

but finally withdrew just before their positions were encircled.
The escape route of the fleeing troops lay
over flat, open country, devoid of cover.
Pursued by small-arms and artillery fire and
strafed by low-flying aircraft, the retreating
units lost all semblance of organization.
Each man sought whatever protection he
could find, discarding his equipment when it
impeded his progress. What had begun as a
withdrawal ended in a complete rout, and
by the end of the day the Dalirig force had
rived from the fact that the Puntian force

was still intact was tempered by the bitter
realization that the Mangima line had been
breached and the bulk of his force destroyed.
"North front in full retreat," he radioed
General MacArthur. "Enemy comes
through right flank. Nothing further can be
done. May sign off any time now." 36 Except for the resistance of scattered units, the
Japanese campaign in Mindanao was over.
36
Rad, Sharp to MacArthur, 9 May 42, GHQ
SWPA G-3 Journal, P.I. Opns Rpts.
CHAPTER XXIX
Japanese Plans and American

Defenses
While the Japanese were extending their
along the shore near Cabcaben, only two
control over Mindanao and the islands of

the Visayas they were making final preparations to take Corregidor and bring to an end
the long campaign in the Philippines. With
the southern tip of Bataan in their possession
they could now emplace artillery on the
heights of the Mariveles Mountains and
miles across the channel from Corregidor.

Once the antiaircraft batteries had been
knocked out by the artillery, their aircraft
would be able to fly low over the island and
drop their bombs with greater accuracy than
had been possible before. Such an aerialartillery bombardment, the Japanese be-
HEAVY CLOUDS OVER CORREGIDOR. "With the southern tip of Bataan in

their possession they could now emplace artillery on the heights of the Mariveles
Mountains and along the shore near Cabcaben, only two miles across the channel
from Corregidor." Arrows indicate planned Japanese landings.
JAPANESE PLANS AND AMERICAN DEFENSES

lieved, would result in the destruction of the
formidable defenses of the Gibraltar of the
East and prepare the way for a landing.
The most optimistic American estimates,
once Bataan had fallen, did not give Corregidor much chance of holding out long
against a determined Japanese effort to take
the island. There was only enough food to
last the Americans and Filipinos from six to
eight weeks at most. At the end of that time,
even if the Japanese did not attack, the
garrison would have to surrender. Despite
General Wainwright's brave pledge "to hold
my present position with God's help until a
major diversion releases the pressure on us
here," it was clear that Corregidor was
doomed.1 "The life of this fortress," predicted MacArthur after the fall of Bataan,
"is definitely limited and its destruction certain unless sea communication can be restored." If this could not be accomplished,
he told the Chief of Staff, "you must be prepared for the fall of the harbor defenses." 2
521
taan peninsula collapsed by April 9th," the

Japanese reported regretfully, "the enemy
in the Corregidor Fortress did not abandon
its will to fight. Therefore the Army decided
to attack. . . ." 3
Preliminary Plans and Preparations
Plans for the assault against Corregidor

began to take shape on 9 April, but it was
not until the end of the month that these
plans assumed final form. Troops, landing
boats, and equipment had to be assembled.
Provision had to be made for the administration of the area already occupied and for
the mop-up of isolated centers of resistance.
The men who had fought on Bataan had to
be rested, re-equipped, and trained for amphibious operations. But General Homma
did not intend to waste any time. While
these necessary measures were being taken,
the air and artillery attacks against Corregidor would be intensified, and its defenses
knocked out to prepare the way for the
landing to come.4
The Japanese Plan
The first major question to be decided
General MacArthur's view was fully was the selection of the unit to make the
shared by General Homma. With the sur- assault. Before 9 April it had been generally
render of Bataan he was free to begin the understood by the 14th Army staff and by
final phase of his four-month-long campaign some of the senior commanders on Bataan
to defeat the combined American and Phil- that, if operations against Corregidor proved
ippine army. That such an offensive would necessary, the Nagano Detachment would
have to be made was evident almost imme- make the attack. "Lt. Gen. Homma, though
diately. The Americans and Filipinos on informally, often declared this," wrote Col.
Corregidor showed no disposition to surren- Motohiko Yoshida, 4th Division chief of
der with the Bataan garrison; indeed, they staff, "even before the commencement of
continued to resist with grim tenacity.
3
"Though almost all enemy resistance on Ba4
1
Rad,Wainwright to MacArthur, No. 218, 13

2
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 228, 13 Apr
42, AG 384.3, GHQ SWPA.
This description of Japanese plans and preparations is based upon: 14th Army Opns, I, 173-210;
II, Annexes 7-12; 5th Air Gp Opns, pp. 78-84;
USA vs. Homma, pp. 3089-94, 3178-79, testimony
of Homma, p. 2635-63, testimony of Gen Kitajima,
Arty Officer, 14th Army.
522
the attack on Bataan." 5 It was with considerable surprise, therefore, that the 4th
Division staff learned unofficially from Col.
Motoo Nakayama, Homma's senior operations officer, on 9 April, that their division
had been chosen instead. That day 14th
Army orders directed the 4th Division to
advance toward Mariveles and, after routing the enemy to its front, "make preparations to land on Corregidor Island." 6 This
was the first time, asserted Yoshida, that
the division staff "began to deliberate on
the matter." 7
While the 4th Division staff was deliberating "on the matter," 14th Army, in a
series of orders issued between 9 and 13
April, outlined the basic plan and defined
for its major elements their role in the forthcoming campaign. The 4th Division was
officially designated as the assault unit and
was reinforced with the 7th Tank Regiment
and additional artillery taken from the 16th
Division. It was ordered to assemble its main
force in the area north of Cabcaben and
there make preparations for the coming attack while taking all precautions to insure
secrecy and provide defense against artillery
fire from Corregidor. The division was to
send patrols to Cabcaben and along the
coast to the south to reconnoiter "the enemy
situation and topography," and to train for
landing operations, removal of beach obstacles, and climbing cliffs such as would be
found at the target.8
5
Statement of Col Yoshida, 28 Jul 49, ATIS Doc
Statement of Yoshida, 28 Jul 49, ATIS Doc

8
Statement of Lt Col Hiromi Oishi, 4th Div
Staff, 2 Oct 50, ATIS Doc 62639, ibid., III, 115.

To the 16th Division Homma assigned
the mission of executing a feint attack
against El Fraile and Carabao Islands from
the Cavite shore. Before leaving for southern Luzon, General Morioka was to turn
over to the 4th Division one attached battalion of mountain artillery; to Army artillery one attached battery of 150-mm. howitzers and the 22d Field Artillery Regiment,
less elements; and to Army one regiment to
guard the west coast of Bataan. The 65th
Brigade and the Nagano Detachment were
ordered to north and central Luzon for garrison duty; they would have no part in the
operations against Corregidor.
The air force and the Army artillery were
given a major role in the preliminary stages
of the projected campaign. The 22d Air
Brigade was to suspend large-scale bombing
operations for a two-week period in order to
repair its planes and make ready for the intensive bombardment which would precede
the landings. Army air operations during
these weeks would consist of daily reconnaissance missions over Corregidor and the adjoining islands and harassing raids to "demoralize enemy troop on Corregidor Island
and shell warships and ships in the area." 9
Navy land-based, twin-engine bombers
would continue to bomb Corregidor during
this period.
General Kitajima's 14th Army artillery
had perhaps the most important task, after
the infantry, in the reduction of Corregidor.
It was to neutralize the enemy's guns, destroy the installations on the island, sink
vessels in the bay, and "simultaneously cooperate in the landing operations." 10 The
first objectives were to be the antiaircraft
9
10
Ibid., 170.
523
guns, short-range batteries, and the "flank
defenses" at each end of the island. Kitajima was to bring all his guns to southern
Bataan, to the vicinity of Cabcaben and the
high ground just north of Mariveles, with
the greatest secrecy. There the guns were to
be dispersed and placed under the ample
concealment provided by the jungle for protection against counterbattery fire. Provision
would also be made, 14th Army directed,
for diversionary fire to deceive the enemy as
to the time and place of landing. To support the 16th Division in its feint attack
against El Fraile and Carabao, one battery
of heavy guns located near Ternate was ordered to cooperate with the division and
shell these islands to heighten the impression
of an attack from the Cavite shore.
Kitajima received strong reinforcements
for the operation. Between 9 and 13 April
14th Army assigned to him additional batteries of 150- and 105-mm. howitzers, most
of the 22d Field Artillery Regiment, and,
somewhat later, the 4th Division's artillery
regiment. When the full-scale bombardment
of Corregidor began, Kitajima had under
his command eighteen batteries, a balloon
company, an artillery intelligence regiment,
and a company of prime movers.11 The
eighteen batteries consisted of 116 field
pieces, ranging in size from 75-mm. guns to
240-mm. howitzers. In detail, this armament included:12
11
Ibid., 178. A balloon company consisted of about

150 men, 25 vehicles, and 1 observation balloon.
The artillery intelligence regiment was a sound and
flash unit, consisting of a headquarters group, a survey unit, a plotting unit with nine plotting stations
and a sound detector unit with six listening posts.
The regiment was commanded by a lieutenant

colonel and had about 675 men. Handbook of
Japanese Military Forces, TM-E-30-480, 15 Sep
44, p. 47.
12
Kitajima.
In drawing up final plans for the assault,

General Homma encountered two serious
problems, neither of which had apparently
been anticipated. The first of these was to
bring into Manila Bay the landing craft
required to transport the 4th Division to
Corregidor and to protect the invasion force
during the shore-to-shore movement. The
bulk of 14th Army's craft was located in
Lingayen Gulf or at Olongapo on the Subic
Bay (west) side of Bataan. "I had to bring
down the landing boats from Lingayen,"
Homma later explained, "but it could not
be done by land, so they must come by
sea." 13 To get them into Manila Bay would
require a hazardous journey through the
North Channel under the guns of Corregidor and within striking distance of the
PT boats. During daylight boats in the
channel could be plainly seen from Corregidor; at night, if there were many boats,
the noise of their engines would be sure to
be heard.
While 14th Army was studying the problem of assembling its landing craft in Manila
Bay, the Navy undertook to send two of its
small boats through the North Channel between Corregidor and Mariveles in broad
daylight. They got as far as Mariveles when
the guns on Corregidor opened fire. Badly
damaged, they fled to safer waters. The
Navy's effort, which Homma called "very
indiscreet," alerted the Americans to the
Japanese plan and forced the Japanese to
13
Ibid., p. 3089, testimony of Homma.
524
be very cautious about bringing the Army's
landing boats through the channel.14
On 14 April the Army conducted its own
test to determine whether small boats could
enter Manila Bay through North Channel.
The trial run was made at night with about
a half-dozen vessels and was accompanied
by air and artillery attacks to drown out the
noise of the engines and divert the attention
of the Corregidor garrison. The test proved
successful and Homma decided to bring the
bulk of the small craft at Lingayen, Na-
sugbu, and Olongapo into Manila Bay and

thence to Cavite to be outfitted and trained.
The next day he ordered the 21st Independent Engineer Regiment, based at Manila
and Olongapo, to supervise the transfer of
the landing boats into the bay. The 4th
Division, Army artillery, and the 22d Air

Brigade were to cover the movement.
Starting on the night of the 15th, the
small boats began to enter Manila Bay.
During the next week about forty landing
barges came in by sea and twenty more of
a smaller type were transported overland
from Olongapo to Orani on the Manila
Bay side of Bataan. Armored boats, gunboats, and fishing boats also slipped through
the channel and made their way to Cavite.
But the operation was a slow one since only
a small number of boats could get through
each night, and it was not until early May
that all the craft needed had been assembled.
The second major problem that faced the
plannersand for a time placed the entire
operation in jeopardywas the outbreak of
malaria in the 4th Division. The shortage of
medical supplies and food had plagued General Homma throughout the campaign, and
even before the 3 April attack he had had
15,500 men in the hospitals. After the fall
14
Ibid., p. 3090, testimony of Homma.

of Bataan, when the troops entered the low,
malaria-infested river valleys in the southern part of the peninsula, the sick rate rose
sharply. Of the 30,600 patients in Japanese
hospitals during the month of April, 28,000
were malaria victims.15 The 4th Division
was hardest hit, and when, about the middle
of April, one of its regiments reported for
training in amphibious operations it numbered only 250 men. At one time the strength
of the division dropped to one third of normal. General Homma importuned his superiors for quinine and additional hospital
facilities and finally received 300,000 quinine tablets by air at the end of the month.
With this supply the malaria epidemic was
brought under control just in time to meet
the scheduled date for the assault.
The Plan
By 17 April the preliminary phase of the
planning had been completed, ten days later
the plan itself was ready, and on 28 April
14th Army published the field order for the

attack. It was not until 2 May that the date
for the assault was finally released to the
troops.
The delay in releasing the date of the
attack was due in part to security. But even
if Homma had wished, he could not have
fixed the time much earlier. First, there had
been difficulty in assembling the landing
craft, and then had come the outbreak of
malaria in the 4th Division. Despite pressure from Imperial General Headquarters in
Tokyo and despite his own desire for an
early end to the campaign, Homma had

been forced to defer the attack several times.
On 9 April he had been optimistic and
boasted to Colonel Collier, the only Ameri15
Ibid., pp. 2845-47, testimony of Col Shusuke
Horiguchi, Med Officer, 14th Army.

can officer to whom he spoke after the surrender, that he would have Corregidor
"within a week." 16 He soon revised this estimate and set his sights first on 25 and then
27 April. But it was not until the malaria
epidemic had been checked and the required
number of landing craft assembled in Manila Bay that Homma could fix with confidence the date for the start of operations.
That time did not come until the beginning
of May and it was then that 14th Army
designated 5 May as the X Day of the plans
published earlier.17
In planning for the assault against Corregidor, the Japanese had the advantage of
a precise and detailed knowledge of the target, gained possibly from prisoners of war.
They knew the designation and strength of
the four artillery regiments in the harbor defense, the position and armament of all but
two of the major seacoast batteries, as well
as the location of most of the smaller guns
and of all important installations. They had
considerable information on the island's
water supply, communications system, road
and rail nets, power plants, storage areas,
and barracks. Their maps were almost as
detailed as those used by the Americans.
Information on the infantry defenses of
the island was not as detailed and accurate
as that on the artillery. In their estimates
16
Collier, Notebooks, IV, 20. Collier, who had
gone forward with a Japanese officer on 9 April to
carry the news of the surrender to General Funk,
had been taken to 14th Army headquarters later
and there met General Homma.
17
USA vs. Homma, pp. 2465-67, 3081-82, testimony of Homma; interv, Col Walter E. Buchly
with Homma, Manila, Mar 46; Drake, Comments
on Draft MS, Comment 17, OCMH; Statement of
Maj Kiyoshi Onuma, 4th Div Staff, 8 Aug 49,
ATIS Doc 62640, Statements of Japanese Officials
on World War II, GHQ FEC, Mil Intel Sec, III,
157. "I remember," said Onuma, "that it took
until about 1 or 2 May to bring landing craft to
Manila Bay."
525
the Japanese assumed the existence of an

infantry defense in depth. In front of the
beach obstacles they believed they would
encounter the first line, protected on the
flanks by light artillery. The main line they
placed behind the obstacles, with a third
line, heavily protected with artillery and
machine guns "to the rear." This last line,
the Japanese noted, would be defended "at
all cost." 18
Though their intelligence about Corregidor was amazingly full and correct, the
Japanese had little information about
Malinta Tunnel. They knew of its existence,
and during the campaign acquired much
vague information about it. The more they
heard about it, the more obsessed they became with the entire subject of tunnels.
Before the Bataan campaign was over, many
Japanese seem to have become convinced
that the Americans had constructed a tunnel
from Corregidor to Bataan. They questioned officers captured on Bataan in an
effort to find the secret entrance on the
Bataan side and refused to believe their
captives, who insistently denied the existence of such a tunnel. It was with reluctance
that they abandoned the notion of a secret
tunnel.19
The plan finally evolved for the landings
called for a closely co-ordinated artillery-air
preparation, followed by "a sudden blow"
consisting of two separate amphibious infantry-tank assaults made on successive
nights at opposite ends of the island by the
4th Division. Both forces would drive inland
until they joined at a point just west of the
18
14th Army Opns, II, 72.

Prov Tank Gp Rpt of Opns, p. 26; interv, Col
Buchly with Homma, Manila, Mar 46. General
Drake states that even after they took Corregidor,
the Japanese were seeking the entrance on the
Corregidor side of the tunnel. Drake, Comments
on Draft MS, Comment 18, OCMH.
19
526
narrow neck of the tadpole. If all went well,
Corregidor would be in Japanese hands on
the second day of the attack, after which
the 4th Division would occupy Caballo. El
Fraile and Carabao Islands would be seized
next, if necessary by elements of the 16th
Division from Cavite.
The tactical scheme had not been settled
without debate. The 14th Army planners
had first contemplated only one landing on
Corregidor, on the head of the tadpole, and
had relayed this decision to the 4th Division
staff. Reconnaissance by the division soon
disclosed that the area selected faced the
precipitous cliffs which dropped from Topside to the water's edge. A landing here
would be difficult and dangerous, and the
division staff argued that the initial landing
should be made by a small force along the
tail of the island where the ground was low
and flat. Once a foothold was secured, then
the main force could land on the head.
Though two landings would create difficulties, the division staff felt that these would
be offset by the early seizure of a beachhead
and the support the main force would have
from the initial landing party. The army
planners finally agreed to this solution, and
it became a part of the final plan.20
For the operation 14th Army attached to
Kitano's 4th Division two sea operation
units, each consisting of an independent engineer regiment with attached elements.
The 1st Sea Operation Unit (23d Independent Engineer Regiment) was to transport the assault force and to assist in the
landing. It numbered about 110 small boats
of various types, equipped with heavy machine guns. The 2d Sea Operation Unit,
20
Statement of Oishi, 2 Oct 50, ATIS Doc
War II, GHQ FEC, Mil Intel Sec, III, 115.

whose mission was to protect the amphibious force during the shore-to-shore movement and during the landing, was composed
of most of the 21st Independent Engineer
Regiment, elements of the 3d Sea Operation Unit, almost two battalions of light artillery, an antitank company and an antiaircraft artillery section. It was organized
into eleven gunboat units, each consisting
of two to four gunboats or fishing boats
equipped with machine guns, automatic
guns, and light artillery.
While the 4th Division and its attached
elements were preparing for the assault, the
artillery would continue the bombardment
begun on 10 April. Except for counterbattery fire and "inevitable operations," artillery action during the month of April was
to be kept at a minimum in order to conserve ammunition. Thereafter, until the
landings, all the guns in 14th Army artillery
would be brought to bear against Corregidor. The seacoast batteries still in operation
on Corregidor would be "annihilated," antiaircraft guns and searchlights knocked out,
and defensive installations, short-range
cannons, and beach obstacles in the landing
areas demolished.
Throughout the entire period of preparation the fire of the artillery was to be coordinated with air operations. During April
only one squadron of Army bombers and
some Navy land-based bombers would attack Corregidor, concentrating on key objectives such as antiaircraft and artillery
positions. Other aircraft would fly reconnaissance missions over Manila Bay and the
fortified islands during this period to secure
information about the enemy and to gather
target data for the artillery. After 29 April
the rest of the 22d Air Brigade would join in
the attack against the island and enemy

shipping, giving special attention to targets
on the north shore, from Cavalry to Morrison Points.
In the belief that the Corregidor garrison
might surrender during the course of the
operation, 14th Army issued detailed instructions "for the reception of truce-flag
bearers." No unit was to receive the bearer
of a flag of truce unless he represented the
commander of the American and Filipino
forces. If that officer "has already escaped,"
then the bearer must represent the senior
commander on Corregidor. The appearance
of an emissary carrying a white flag was to
be reported immediately to 14th Army,
which would conduct the negotiation for
surrender. All units were cautioned that the
arrival of an emissary from the American
commander with a flag of truce would not
in itself mean the termination of hostilities.
"Until a definite order is issued," 14th
Army declared, "the attack will be continued." 21
14th Army also took every precaution to
conceal its intentions from the Americans
on Corregidor. All units were enjoined time
and again to observe the greatest secrecy,
and the 4th Division and Army artillery
were ordered to "strictly avoid the main
road" on Bataan during the hours of daylight. To prevent leaks through the Filipino
population, 14th Army forbade communication between civilians and military personnel and in those areas where the assault
troops were most active moved the inhabitants out altogether.
For a time 14th Army attempted to
create the impression that the attack on
Corregidor had been abandoned. The 16th
Division was ordered to suspend its open
preparations for the feint landing, but "to
continue secretly to prepare for the attack."

Artillery operations were limited to occasional shelling, and propaganda issued by
the Army headquarters avoided mention of
an attack and stressed the point that the
problem of Corregidor would be solved in
time by "nothing more than blockade."
Meanwhile, the Japanese "pretended to devote" themselves to military administration
and mopping-up operations. To strengthen
this impression, Homma made a grand
entry into Manila to celebrate the emperor's
birthday on 29 April "as gayly and grandly
as possible." After the ceremonies he left the
capital announcing that he was going to
Mindanao to assume command of operations there. In reality he and his staff returned to 14th Army headquarters at Balanga where final preparations for the invasion of Corregidor were being made.22
The American Defenses
When Bataan fell the men on Corregidor

knew that their days were numbered. With
the Japanese artillery literally aiming down
their throats, they could have no illusions
about the future. But there was no noticeable decline of morale once it was made
clear that the island would not be surrendered without a fight. One battery commander called his men together and talked
with them realistically about their situation
and their prospects. "The men all swore,"
wrote a staff sergeant, "that the enemy
would have to come and take Morrison
Hill [the battery location] if they wanted
it." 23 This feeling seems to have been general throughout the command and was
expressed by Wainwright when he wrote to
22
23
21
527
Ibid., 195.
Hopkins, Personal and Official Notes of Btry C,

60th CA (AA), entry of 9 Apr 42, copy in OCMH.
528
President Roosevelt, "Our flag still flies on
this beleaguered island fortress." "I meant
to see," he added later, "that it kept flying." 24 All that he or anyone else could do
was to prepare for the inevitable attack
with the determination to make it as costly
as possible to the enemy.
Beach Defense
Until the evacuation of Manila at the
end of December, local defense of the island
had been provided by a small number of
artillerymen, who performed this task in
addition to their other duties. Such an arrangement had not permitted an effective
defense or left time for the construction of
strongly fortified positions. This deficiency
had been recognized but it was not until
Admiral Hart made the 4th Marine Regiment available on 24 December that steps
were taken to correct the weaknesses of
Corregidor's defenses.25
By chance, Col. Samuel L. Howard, commander of the 4th Marines, was in Manila
when Hart turned the regiment over to the
Army "for tactical employment." He reported immediately to General MacArthur
and then to General Sutherland who gave
him his orders. They were brief and to the
point: "Proceed to Corregidor and take
over the beach defenses of that island." 26
24

This account of the beach defenses of Corregidor is based upon: Howard, 4th Marines Rpt of
Opns, pp. 10-19, USMC Hist Sec; Baldwin, "The
Fourth Marines at Corregidor," Part 1, Marine
Corps Gazette (November 1946), pp. 13-18, Part 2
(December 1946), p. 30; Maj Harold E. Dalness,
25
Opns of the Prov Bn, 4th Marines (paper prepared
for the Advanced Officers Course, 1949-50, The

Infantry School), pp. 4-7; Beach Defense Arty
Tabulation, Exhibit G of Harbor Defenses Rpt of
Opns.
26
Howard, 4th Marines Rpt of Opns, p. 10,
USMC Hist Sec.

Howard thereupon returned to his regiment
at Olongapo to prepare for the move.
Within a week the entire regiment had
reached Corregidor and on 29 December
Colonel Howard was designated commanding officer of the beach defenses.
The 4th Marine Regiment, which had
arrived from Shanghai only a month earlier,
had been considerably reinforced since the
start of the war. The 766 marines who had
escaped from China had been organized
into a two-battalion regiment in which each
battalion consisted of only one machine gun
company and two rifle companies. The companies, moreover, had only two of their
platoons. When war came, the regiment had
absorbed the Marine detachment of the
Olongapo naval station and had organized
a third platoon in the rifle companies as well
as two additional companies from other Marine detachments in the Islands. On reaching Corregidor the regiment gained enough
men to form a 3d Battalion by absorbing
the marines who had formerly been stationed at Cavite. The strength of the regiment (less detachments) now totaled 66
officers and 1,365 enlisted men, substantially
the same strength it had at the end of the
campaign. It carried with it when it moved
to Corregidor a 6-month supply of rations
for 2,000 men, more than ten units of fire
for all weapons, a two-year supply of clothing, and sufficient medicine and equipment
for a 100-bed hospital.
The arrival of the marines filled a serious
gap in Corregidor's defenses. There had
never been enough men on the island to
man the large seacoast guns, the antiaircraft defenses, and the beaches as well. Before the war barbed wire had stretched
along those beaches which offered possible
landing sites, and pillboxes had been erected
deep in the ravines leading to Topside and
TABLE
This tabulation
11STRENGTH,
is probably not HARBOR
entirely correct,
ANDbutBEACH
it represents
DEFENSES,
a summary ABOUT
of the best15
dataAPRIL
available.
1942
a
529
a
Mostly Filipinos, but including Chinese and perhaps others.

Source: Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, Exhibit K, p. 13.
Middleside.27 But, as Colonel Howard observed in his initial reconnaissance, much

remained to be done to guard against an
enemy landing.
When Howard assumed command of
Corregidor's beach defense the island was
already organized into three sectors, and he
deployed his regiment accordingly. In the
East Sector, which stretched from the tip
of the tail to the narrow neck and included
Malinta Tunnel, he placed his 1st Battalion.
The 3d Battalion took over responsibility
for the area to the west, the Middle Sector,
which included most of the barracks and installations on Topside and Middleside. The
western end of the island was designated the
West Sector and its defense assigned to the
2d Battalion. In reserve Howard kept the
headquarters and service company.
As soon as the marines reached their assigned positions at the end of December
they began to improve existing defenses and
to prepare new ones. Some work had already
been done in the West and Middle Sectors,
27
Lt. Comdr. T. C. Parker, "The Epic of Corregidor-Bataan," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings,
LXIX, No. 1 (January 1943), 12.
but, except for a final defense line on the

east side of Malinta Hill, there were no defenses east of Malinta Tunnel. The marines
turned to with vigor and in the next three
months laid miles of barbed wiretwentyone miles of wire were laid in the East Sector
aloneplanted land mines, dug tank traps,
trenches, and tunnels, cleared fields of fire,
built gun emplacements, set up interior and
switch positions, and established final defense lines in each sector.
As more men reached the island they
were assigned to Colonel Howard's beach
defenses and by the middle of April, after
the influx from Bataan, he had under his
command about 4,000 men of whom only
1,352 were marines. (Table 11) The rest
came from the Navy which contributed 895
men, the Philippine Army (929) men, and
the U.S. Army. This group constituted a
heterogeneous force of doubtful strength.
It included Filipino messboys, ground crews
of the Philippine Army Air Force, survivors
of the submarine tender Canopus, and Scout
artillerymen. Few of these men had had any
infantry training. Those who had come
from Bataan had to be completely outfitted
530
MARINE SERGEANT TEACHING FILIPINOS the operation of a machine gun.
and equipped and were in such "deplor-
have to be met by the troops in that sector.
able" physical condition as to be "unfit for
The reserve, which had formerly consisted of the Headquarters and Service
combat duty." 28
With the ragged and weakened refugees
from Bataan Colonel Howard fleshed out

the Marine force in each sector. The East
Sector, which had consisted of less than 400
men from the 1st Battalion, 4th Marines,
was brought up to a strength of 1,115.
Strength of the Middle Sector where the
500 men of the 3d Battalion were stationed,
was brought up to the same total by the
addition of Army and Navy personnel. The
2d Battalion in the West Sector was reinforced with almost 600 men, for a total of
915. No provision was made to shift any
of the troops to a threatened area, so that
if a landing came at one point it would
28
Howard, 4th Marines Rpt of Opns, p. 16,
USMC Hist. Sec.
Company (300 men), was considerably

strengthened by the addition of a provisional
4th Battalion in the Marine regiment. This
battalion, organized on 10 April with lettered companies Q, R, S, and T, was composed largely of Navy enlisted men with a
sprinkling of soldiers from Bataan. The
commander was a Marine major and the
officers were drawn from both services.
Most of the 500 sailors in the battalion had
special skills, years of service and high ratings, but none knew even the fundamentals
of infantry fighting. They were mature and
serious, however, and learned quickly.
Training facilities were limited and equipment meager but the incentive was great.
The men spent their days training; their

nights attending lectures. "The chips were
down," wrote one of their officers, "and
there was no horseplay." 29
In addition to the 4,000 men assigned
to beach defense, Colonel Howard could
count on the use of practically all troops on
the island in the event of an emergency. A
plan was prepared and approved which provided for the formation of two reduced battalions manned by personnel from the seacoast defenses, and for the utilization of
quartermaster, engineer, military police,
and "all other available personnel" when
the "beach defense situation" became serious.30 Even civilians were assigned to defense
sectors.
Artillery support for the men on beach defense was provided by one 155-mm., twenty-three 75-mm., and two naval guns of 3inch caliber. For use against night landings
Howard had eleven searchlights, six of
which were placed in the East Sector,
guarding Malinta Tunnel and the approaches from Bataan. To that sector he
also assigned ten of the 75-mm. guns, some
of them old British models. The men in the
Middle Sector, which included the docks
and the installations on Topside and Middleside, had the support of the single 155mm. gun, seven of the 75's, one 3-incher,
and three searchlights. The West Sector was
less heavily defended than the others and
had only four 75's and one naval gun.
Seacoast and antiaircraft defenses on
Corregidor were still intact. Though the enemy air attacks during the past three months
had destroyed most of the wooden buildings
and left deep scars everywhere on the island,
they had not wrought serious damage to the
coastal batteries or to the 3-inch antiaircraft
29
30
Howard,
Dalness, Opns
4th Marines
of Prov Bn,
Rpt
4th of
Marines,
Opns, p.p.7. 16,
USMC Hist Sec.
531
guns. Ordnance magazines with four feet of

reinforced concrete had withstood even direct hits; lighter concrete structures had
been damaged but rarely demolished. "After
the fall of Bataan," wrote one officer, "we
had more artillery in operation than we had
had at the start of the war." 31 Forts Drum
and Frank, which had been subjected to
frequent artillery bombardment by the Japanese along the Cavite shore, had not fared
as well. Corregidor, too, would soon feel the
destructive effects of massed artillery fire
which in one day could inflict more damage
than three months of air attacks.
The Condition of the Troops

The condition of the troops was not yet
desperate. Morale was still high and most
men thought they could give a good account
of themselves if the Japanese should attempt
to take the island by assault. Some even believed they had an excellent chance to beat
off an attack. "The marines can't see how
the Japs can take Corregidor," wrote an
artilleryman. "I hardly can either!" 32 The
men talked about the possibility of reinforcement, about food, liquor, and women
"the things that soldiers have always talked
aboutbut never," wrote a marine, "about
the hopelessness of our position. Never once
did I hear anybody despair." 33
The health of the command was generally
good. The casualties from the bombings had
not been severe and the effects of a limited
diet were not yet apparent. Mild respiratory
31
The Siege of Corregidor, Mil Rpts on UN, No.
12, 15 Nov 43, p. 50, MID WD.
32
60th CA (AA), entry of 19 Mar 42, p. 185. The
diary notation was probably made by the battery
commander, Captain Ames.

33
Quoted in Baldwin, "The Fourth Marines at
Corregidor," Part 2, Marine Corps Gazette (December 1946), p. 33.
532
LIFE IN MALINTA TUNNEL
diseases caused by confinement in the damp,

dust-laden tunnel were the most frequent
reasons for hospitalization. Diarrhea and
food poisoning were fairly common, but
dysentery and malaria, the twin scourges of
Bataan, were rare on Corregidor. Hospital
facilities in the tunnel, though not ideal,
were far superior to those on Bataan and
there was an ample supply of drugs for the
small number of patients.34
Malinta Tunnel was still the focus of all
activity on Corregidor and became after
9 April even more crowded and hectic than
before. A newcomer from Bataan, Capt.
John McM. Gulick, described it as "a gigantic beehive" over which neon lights
"cast their bluish glow." Along its sides the
crates were piled higher than ever and the
34
Cooper, Med Dept Activities, p. 83.
double and triple deck bunks were more

numerous; overhead was a maze of wires,
pipes, and ducts. The number of men in the
tunnel had increased and a steady stream,
which Captain Gulick described as "dense
crowds," moved up and down the main axis
and into the many laterals on various
errands. The dust was thicker than ever, the
odors more pronounced and disagreeable,
the vermin more numerous, and the hum
of the auxiliary diesel power plants and
ventilators more penetrating. Everywhere
were "cryptic initial signs" describing the
activity of each cluster of desks. The ambulance siren sounded more often now but
a hush still fell over the tunnel when a jeep
carrying a wounded man drove through.35
35
Gulick, Memoirs of Btry C, 91st CA (PS), p.
122, copy in OCMH.
533
LIFE IN MALINTA TUNNEL
The power plant on the island had been

hit occasionally during the aerial bombardment but the Japanese had not made any
systematic effort to destroy the plant itself
or the power lines that led to the cold-storage plant and the water pumps that kept
the reservoir filled. There had been some
damage, and the danger of a complete
breakdown in the power system was a source
of constant concern. But there was still
enough fuel for the portable diesel engines
in the tunnel to last at least until the end of
June.36
Corregidor's water supply, because it was
dependent upon the power plant, was perhaps the most vulnerable point of Corregidor's defense. Even before the surrender of
36
12, 15 Nov 43, pp. 43, 50, MID WD.
Bataan there had been frequent periods

when water was not available because of
power failures or damage to the pumps.
When the water lines were damaged, water
was distributed at various points on the
island and each unit sent its own trucks for
the day's supply. The water was carried in
12-inch powder cans, two by five and a half
feet, ideal for storage but heavy when full
and difficult to handle. The water crews
normally made the trip at night over the
crater-filled roads to the distribution points.
There they might have to wait for hours to
draw their supply. "It was a ticklish job."37
By the beginning of April the supply of
water had become a real problem. On the
37
Lt Col Earl L. Barr, Hist of Btry M, 60th CA
( A A ) , p. 8, copy in OCMH. See also Gulick Memoirs of Btry C, 91st CA (PS), p. 155.
534
2d of the month Colonel Bunker noted in
his diary that "our water situation is getting
critical," 38 and on the 3d, in anticipation of
the fall of Bataan, all units were directed
to lay in a reserve supply. At that time there
was in the reservoirs a total of 3,000,000 gallons, but that would not last long if the
pumps or power plant failed.39
The men on Corregidor ate two meals a
day. The morning meal, prepared the night
before and served before daylight, usually
consisted of toast and coffee, when there was
coffee, and occasionally a piece of bacon or
sausage. Supper was served after dark, about
2000, and consisted of salmon, canned vegetables, and rice pudding. Sometimes there
was fresh beef or stew. Most units were able
to serve half a sandwich and a cup of hot
beverage or soup during the noon hour, but
many men kept pieces of bread in their
pocket to gnaw on during the long interval
between meals.40
The ration, though adequate to maintain
health, did not provide sufficient bulk to
satisfy the appetite. Men no longer had the
"comfortably full" feeling provided by the
peacetime ration, and missed certain foods
such as sugar, canned milk, coffee, and
canned or dried fruits, which were by now
extremely scarce.41 Rice had become an increasingly important part of the ration and,
though it was not favored by the Americans,
it did provide bulk in the diet. Fortunately
there were always enough other foods on
hand to add flavor and variety to the rice
dishes. But the American soldiers never became fond of rice and complained fre39
12, 15 Nov 43, pp. 42, 45, MID WD.
40
38
Baldwin,
Diary,
"The
entry
Fourth
of Marines
2 Apr
42.
at Corregidor,"
PartBunker,
2, Marine
Corps
Gazette
(December
1946), p.
32; Barr, Hist of Btry M, 60th CA (AA), p. 4.
41
Barr, Btry M, 60th CA (AA), p. 4.

quently. "This rice diet fills you up temporarily," wrote Colonel Bunker, "but it
doesn't stick to your ribs."42
The air attacks during the preceding three
months had disrupted the normal distribution of rations from time to time and occasionally a bomb had hit a kitchen, with
tragic loss for the men who had to miss a
meal or lose a particularly prized item on
the menu. One battery lost its fruit jello in
this way. "The fruit in the dessert," mourned
the battery commander, "represented the
saving of canned fruit for a couple of weeks
and it was the pride of the mess sergeant." 43
The cold-storage plant was damaged during
the air attack of 28 March and the next day
all units received unexpectedly large issues
of fresh meat and then none at all until the
refrigerators were repaired. Finally, about 3
April, in expectation of heavier air and artillery attacks, all units received additional allowances of food, to be stored in their kitchens.44 But even during the heaviest bombardments there was no loss of food, which
was safely stored under guard in Malinta
Tunnel and in the cold-storage plant.
As on Bataan, there was a strong feeling
among the troops on beach defense and at
gun positions that those close to the source
of supply in the tunnel enjoyed better meals
than they. This belief was probably unfounded but it was true that until the end
of March naval personnel received foods
which were not available to Army troops.
The Navy, though it had cut the ration and
limited its men to two meals a day, maintained its own separate food stores and issued a larger and more varied ration than
that provided by the Army. Long after cof42
Bunker, Diary, entry of 28 Apr 42.

12, 15 Nov 43, p. 43, MID WD.
43
44

fee, sugar, jam, and canned fruit had disappeared from the Army menu they were still
available in the Navy messes. When General
Wainwright arrived on Corregidor to assume command on 21 March he ordered
the Navy to place its stores in the common
pool, and thereafter the sailors received the
same ration as the soldiers.45
Despite the shortages there was never any
real danger of starvation on Corregidor.
The quantity of food on hand when Bataan
fell was sufficient to last about ten weeks
more. This food had been forehandedly laid
aside early in the campaign in the expectation that if and when Bataan was lost the
Philippine Division would make its final
stand on Corregidor. To provide for this
contingency MacArthur, on 24 January,
had ordered General Moore, the Harbor Defenses commander, to maintain a reserve
large enough to feed 20,000 mentwice the
45
Knoll, Intel Rpt, 16th Naval Dist, 12 Mar-3
May 42, p. 10; Drake, Comments on Draft MS,
Comment 22, OCMH; ltr, Rockwell to Ward, 18
Jan 52, OCMH. Admiral Rockwell states that to
the best of his recollection Army and Navy food had
been pooled long before the end of the campaign,
but he does not give the date.
46
Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, p. 42; Col Ches-
535
number then on the islandon half rations

until 30 June. Before he left for Australia,
he cautioned Moore not to permit "any encroachments" against this reserve.46
When Wainwright came to Corregidor
on 21 March to assume command of USFIP
he found that food was more plentiful and
the men better fed than on Bataan. With
the plight of the emaciated troops there still
fresh in his mind, he requested permission
from MacArthur to reduce the carefully
hoarded reserves by an amount equal to a
month's half rations for the planned garrison of 20,000 men. Approval was granted
at the beginning of April and Wainwright
was able to send additional food to Bataan
during the last days of the battle. It was
"little more than a crumb," he wrote later,
but it reduced Corregidor reserves "to a
point where I figured . . . that our 11,000
defenders would consume it all by June 20,
1942, on less than half rations." 47 It was
to be more than enough.
ter H. Elmes, QM Opns, Fort Mills, pp. 2-3, App.
F of QM Rpt of Opns.
47
72; Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, p. 50.
CHAPTER XXX
The Last Twenty-Seven Days

Hardly had the Bataan garrison surrendered than those Japanese batteries that
had reached Cabcaben opened fire on Corregidor to begin the final twenty-seven-day
siege of the island. The intermittent air attacks of the preceding three months paled
into insignificance beside the massed artillery from Bataan. "One day's shelling," remarked one officer, "did more damage than
all the bombing put together." 1 Areas that
had been heavily wooded were entirely denuded. In some places not "a stick, not a
leaf" was left. Trees, "once so dense . . .
that they shut out the sun," were shot away
or burned, leaving only charred stumps.2

Deep craters, empty shell cases, and huge
fragments of concrete pockmarked the landscape. The beach defenses were demolished,
the huge Seacoast guns silenced, and the
antiaircraft batteries reduced to impotence
during these twenty-seven days. At the end
of the bombardment the island was literally
a shambles, a "moving picture version of
No Man's Land in World War I."3
The Preliminary Bombardment
plain sight of the Americans on Corregidor,

the battery opened fire, marking what Colo-
nel Bunker, commander of the Seaward

Defenses, called "a crucial point in our operationsa milestone." 4 This first attack was
promptly answered by the 155-mm. guns of
Battery Kysor located on the north shore of
Corregidor. Thereafter, on orders from General Wainwright who feared American

shells would fall on the hospitals, civilian
camps, and friendly troops in southern
Bataan, the Corregidor batteries were prohibited from firing on the peninsula. This
order remained in effect until 12 April when
counterbattery fire against located enemy
targets was authorized.5
Japanese aircraft, lacking targets on
Bataan, also turned their attention to Corregidor on the 9th. At about the same time
that the 75-mm. guns opened up from
Cabcaben, high-flying bombers made their
first attack on the island since the end of
March. Between 1630 and 2030, the 22d
Air Brigade sent 44 light and 35 heavy
bombers plus 20 Navy twin-engine bombers
against Corregidor, with results which the
Japanese described as "very successful and
On 9 April the first Japanese artillery, a
effective."6 Actually this bombardment
75-mm. gun battery, reached Cabcaben. In
was no more effective than earlier bombings, but one lucky hit landed among the
1
4
12, 15 Nov 43, p. 50, MID WD.
Bunker, Diary, entry of 9 Apr 42; 14th Army
2
Quoted in Baldwin, "The Fourth Marines at Opns, I, 169.
5
Corregidor," Part 2, Marine Corps Gazette (DeHarbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, pp. 52-53, 55;
cember 1946), p. 35.
Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story, pp. 923
93.
6
12, 15 Nov 43, p. 50, MID WD.
THE LAST TWENTY-SEVEN DAYS

cables controlling the mine field in the bay.
Until the cables were repaired "practically
the whole mine field [was] out." 7 Fortunately the Japanese were not aware of the
damage they had wrought.
During the days that followed the Japanese brought up their heavier guns in
preparation for the more intense bombardment to follow. General Kitajima, 14th
Army artillery officer, took every precaution
to insure the most effective use of the
eighteen batteries under his command. He
divided the target area into three zones,
corresponding roughly to the beach defense
sectors, and assigned a specific zone to each
battery. Careful tests were made to insure
the accuracy of each piece and all targets
were inclosed by bracket fire. The balloon
company moved from Abucay to the heights
of Mariveles where it could observe fire on
Corregidor. At the first sight of the balloon
the Americans christened it Peeping Tom.
The intelligence regiment was also brought
south and by the 13th had set up its flash
and sound equipment. For the Japanese
artillery the conditions were almost ideal.8
By 12 April many of the Japanese batteries were in position and at 0600 that day
the bombardment of Corregidor began in
earnest. Most of the fire came from 75-mm.
and 105-mm. guns; the 150-mm. guns did
not get into action on a large scale until a
few days later. On the 12th, also, the batteries on Cavite opened fire on Corregidor,
while Japanese aircraft made nine separate
attacks against the island. Counterbattery
fire, the prohibition against which had been
partially lifted that day, only brought down
an answering barrage from the enemy. It
9
7 Bunker,
8
Diary, entry of 12 Apr 42. In addition

14th Army Opns, II, App. VIII, pp. 37-45.
537
was, wrote Colonel Bunker, "a rough day
all day." 9
During the next week, when the 150-mm.
howitzers joined the attack, the tempo of the
Japanese bombardment increased steadily.
For the first time the armament of the
island received heavy damage. The first
guns to be put out of action were the seacoast guns on the north shore facing Bataan
and visible to the Japanese. By the 14th
three 155-mm. gun batteries, each with two
guns, and one 3-inch battery of four guns
had been destroyed. The vulnerable directors and height finders on Topside were
badly damaged, too, but the operators were
able to keep at least one in operation at all
times.
The Japanese did not neglect the searchlights. Whenever one showed its light, they
quickly "shot hell out of it." 10 Apparently
they had their guns registered on the fixed
Seacoast searchlights. To test this theory
Colonel Bunker ordered one light to be
turned on for fifteen seconds, scarcely
enough time for the enemy to register, load,
and fire. After that time a man turned off
the light and ran. He was scarcely twenty
yards away when Japanese shells fell on the
searchlight. "Which proved," noted Colonel Bunker, "that the Japs had their guns
to the sources cited below, this section is based
upon: Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, pp. 53-72;
The Siege of Corregidor, Mil Rpts on UN, No. 12,
15 Nov 43, pp. 43-50, MID WD; Baldwin, "The
Fourth Marines at Corregidor," Part 2, Marine
Corps Gazette (December 1946), pp. 32-35; Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story, pp. 86-114:
Col Chase, AA Defense Comd Rpt of Opns, pp. 1617, Exhibit F, Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns;
intervs, author with Col Stephen M. Mellnik, Gen
Drake, Col Chase and Lt Col John McM. Gulick,
at various times.
10
538
loaded, laid, and men at the lanyards with
orders to shoot instantly when the light
showed."11
Casualties during the first days of the
bombardment were low. At the first sign of
an air attack or artillery bombardment those
men whose batteries were not in action
would take shelter in one of the numerous
tunnels that had been and were still being
built. But only the thick reinforced concrete
shelters could provide protection against a
direct hit. On the 15th seventy Filipinos
died a terrible death when they took shelter
in excavations behind their battery on Morrison Hill. So intense was the enemy fire that
the overhanging cliffs collapsed and sealed
the entrances to the shelters, burying the
Filipinos alive.
There were moments of heroism as well
as tragedy. On the 16th, four men of Battery
B, 60th Coast Artillery (AA)Capt. Arthur E. Huff and three volunteersearned
Silver Stars when they left shelter during an
intense bombardment to raise the American
flag. A shell fragment had struck the 100foot flagpole on the Topside parade ground
and severed the halyard. "Slowly, terribly,
the flag began to descend," but before it
reached the ground the four men gathered
it into their arms. Quickly repairing the
broken halyard, they raised the flag and ran
back to shelter.12
The intensity of the air and artillery attacks increased during the latter part of
April. After the 18th the 240-mm. howitzers
which had been moved from Cavite added
their weight to the bombardment. With
11
12
Ibid.

90-91. Wainwright's account is incorrect as to the
date and men involved. He does give credit later to
these men for a somewhat similar occurrence on 3
May. Ibid., pp. 109-10. An account of the 16 April
incident is included in Chase, Comments on Draft
MS, pp. 33-34, OCMH.

high-angle fire and heavy charges they were
able to hit targets which the flat trajectory
weapons had been unable to reach, and to
blast the heavily reinforced concrete protecting the large-caliber coastal guns. On
the 24th they put Battery Crockett, with
two 12-inch guns, out of commission, demolished the protective barricades, ruined
the shot hoists, and started fires which
fortunately were brought under control before they reached the powder room. The
next evening, a 240-mm. shell exploded
outside the west entrance of Malinta Tunnel
where a large group of men had gathered
for a breath of fresh air and a smoke before
turning in. "There was a panic-stricken
rush for the gate, but the concussion had
closed it and it could not be opened from
the outside." Then another shell landed.
"We worked all that night," wrote a nurse,
"and I wish I could forget those endless,
harrowing hours." 13 At least thirteen were
killed outright; more died later, and the
number of wounded was estimated as high
as fifty.
The shelling never really stopped. With
over one hundred pieces ranging in size from
75-mm. guns to the giant 240-mm. howitzers, the Japanese were able to fire almost
steadily. They destroyed gun emplacements,
shelters, beach defenses, buildingsalmost
everything on the surfaceat a rate that
made repair or replacement impossible.
First they concentrated on the north shore
batteries and, when most of these were destroyed or neutralized, adjusted fire on the
batteries on the opposite shore. They fired at
regular periods, starting just before dawn
and continuing until about noon. There was
a lull during the early afternoonColonel
Bunker called it a Japanese siestaafter
which the fire would begin again about
13
Redmond, I Served on Bataan, pp. 144-45.
539
BATTERY CROCKETT
1500 to continue with varying intensity
almost until midnight. Usually by 1000
most telephone communications had been
knocked out. Crews repaired the lines during the night but the next morning they
would be cut again.
Air attacks usually accompanied the
shelling from Bataan and followed the same
schedule. Between 9 April and the end of
the month there were 108 air alarms, totaling almost eighty hours. Practically all of
the attacks were directed against Corregidor. At first the planes came in at high altitude, over 20,000 feet and beyond the range
of all but two of the antiaircraft batteries.
But as the days passed and damage to equipment and installations mounted, the Japanese pilots became bolder. They came in at
lower altitudes and bombed more accurately. It became more and more difficult for
the defenders to keep their guns and height

finders serviceable. During some periods
there was but one height finder in operation and the altitude of attacking planes had
to be sent by telephone to all antiaircraft
batteries.
The air and artillery attacks of April
reached their height on the 29th of the
month, Emperor Hirohito's birthday. The
day began with an air alarm, the 260th of
the campaign, at 0730, when two flights of
bombers came over Fort Hughes and three
dive bombers hit the South Dock on Corregidor and the Malinta Tunnel entrances.
At the same time Peeping Tom, the observation balloon, rose over Cabcaben and the
Japanese batteries on Bataan opened up on
Bottomside targets. About a half hour later
six more planes dropped their loads on Malinta Hill and the artillery loosed concen-
540
trated fire against both portals of the tunnel and on the North Dock. While an
observation plane hovered overhead, the
Japanese artillery shifted fire to Topside at
0820. After a brief lull Japanese aircraft
came over the island again, and the artillery
registered hits on targets on Middleside. At
1000 Japanese shells reached two ammunition dumps which blew up with a tremendous explosion.
The attacks continued without letup
through the afternoon, and by evening large
sections of Corregidor lay shrouded under a
dense cloud of smoke or dust. Grass fires

searchlights which moved from one position
to another.14
Forts Frank and Drum also fired counterbattery. Both had 14-inch guns which could
be used against Bataan but the two at Fort
Frank were of the open, disappearing-carriage type, easily blanketed by fire from
Cavite, and could fire only sporadically. The
14-inch guns at Fort Drum were of the turret type and fired steadily. They were still
firing at 5-minute intervals at the time of the
surrender, when every other gun on the
fortified islands had been silenced.
The most effective counterbattery fire was
were burning everywhere and ammunition delivered by Corregidor's Batteries Geary
from the two dumps was still exploding. In- and Way, both with 12-inch mortars.15 The
stallations on Malinta Hill were a shambles. former consisted of two pits, each with four
Observation stations had been destroyed; pieces. Battery Way, with only one pit of
the power plant for the large Seacoast three mortars, had been out of service for
searchlight was burned out; and three of several years, and it was not until Battery
the 75-mm. beach defense guns, as well as E of the 60th Coast Artillery (AA) from
a 1.1-inch quadruple mount, were demol- Bataan became available that these mortars
ished. That night two Navy PBY's brought were reconditioned for use. On 28 April the
in some medicine and 740 mechanical fuzes weapons were test-fired and reported ready
from Australia, an empty gesture for a gar- for action.
rison which was reeling under the effects of
Both 12-inch mortar batteries had an
the heaviest bombardment of the war.
ample supply of the standard armor-piercing
Brave efforts were made to deliver coun- shells with the .05-second delay fuze. But
terbattery and antiaircraft fire. About 18 these shells could do little damage to the
April the 155-mm. gun batteries were taken Japanese artillery. For that, the instantaneout of their exposed positions, organized ous fuze 670-pound personnel shell was reinto one-gun mobile units, and placed in quired, and there were only 400 rounds on
defiladed positions. Called "roving guns," Corregidor. Ordnance could modify the deeach was equipped with a prime mover. lay fuze of the armor-piercing shell so that
After firing from one location until the en- it would explode on impact, but the process
emy discovered their presence and had time was a slow one. All the men that could be
to mass his own fire, the roving guns would spared were put on the job, but the output
move out. They were, in General Moore's for a single day never exceeded twenty-five
opinion, "our main dependence for counter- shells.
battery fire . . .," and were supplemented
14
15
after 20 April by "roving lights"two
Bunker, Diary, passim.
541
BATTERY WAY, 12-inch mortar pit. (Photograph taken in 1945.)
With their excellent observation posts and

air reconnaissance, the Japanese soon had all
the fixed installations pinpointed and could
loose accurate and adjusted concentrations
of fire on them at the first sign of activity.
Most of their attention, however, was given
to Batteries Geary and Way which, with
their high-angle fire and 670-pound personnel shells, represented the greatest threat.
Battery Way was soon reduced to two guns,
and on 2 May Japanese 240-mm. shells
penetrated Geary's magazine, which blew
A reinforced concrete slab weighing about

six tons flew a thousand yards, cut through
a tree trunk about four feet in diameter, and
came to rest in a ravine. Estimates of the
casualties varied from eight to twenty-seven
men killed, with many more injured. Four
men were buried under the debris. There
was no difference of opinion on the damage.
The eight guns were ruined, the shells destroyed, and the entire battery reduced to
rubble.16
up with an explosion that rocked the island

and hurled the 10-ton barrels of the 12-inch
Health and Food

No one on Corregidor was free from the
mortars about like match sticks. One was

found 150 yards from its mount, on the
constant bombardment except those in the
island's cratered golf course. Another was

16
Gulick,
Memoirs
of feet
Btry of
C, reinforced
91st CA ( P S
) , p.
blown
through
three
concrete into an adjoining powder magazine.
181 ; Statement of Lt Murray Glussman, USNR, in

Hayes, Rpt on Med Tactics, Off of Naval Rcds.
542
tunnels under Malinta Hill, and the garrison could not, as General Wainwright observed, fight back from there.17 By now life
in Malinta Tunnel had become almost intolerable. Dust, dirt, great black flies, and
vermin were everywhere, and over everything hung the odor of the hospital and
men's bodies. During an air attack, when
the large blowers were shut off, the air,
offensive at best, became foul and the heat

almost unbearable. Sometimes the lights
failed and the gloom of the tunnel flickered
into darkness. Under such conditions, "sun
snatching" became a necessity. Between
raids men would crowd the entrances to
breathe deeply the gasoline fumes and dust
which passed for fresh air.
Crowded into enforced intimacy, on short
rations, and under constant strain, men
grew tense and irritable. Many lost their
temper over minor incidents; conflicts long
hidden rose to the surface. Values changed
and men's virtues and defects were magnified. The mood of life in the tunnel impressed itself indelibly on Mrs. Maude R.
Williams, a hospital assistant who had come
over from Bataan. With eloquence and deep
feeling she recorded these impressions in her
diary.
Under the deepening shadow of death life
on Corregidor took on a faster, more intense
tempo. The smallest and most simple pleasures became sought after and treasured as
they became increasingly rare and dangerousan uninterrupted cigarette, a cold
shower, a stolen biscuit, a good night's sleep
in the open air.
There was a heightened feeling that life
was to be lived from day to day, without
illusions of an ultimate victory. Many sought
forgetfulness in gambling. There was no other
17 to spend the accumulated pay that bulged
way

in their pockets and they rattled the dice or
played endless bridge, rummy and poker.
Jam sessions attracted great crowds which
gathered in the dark and hummed softly or
tapped feet to the nostalgic swing of the organ, a haunting guitar, or a low moaning
trombone. Sometimes a nurse and her boy
friend of the evening would melt into a
dance. . . . The eyes of the onlookers would
grow soft and thoughtful, while other couples
would steal out into the perilous night. . . .
Still others sought the consolations of religion and the symbols of another world, a
better world of sweet and eternal peace. The
Catholics gathered at dawn in the officers
mess of Malinta Tunnel where one of the
tables was converted into a simple altar, and
kneeling on the bare cement under the high
white washed vault they listened devoutly and
a little desperately to the same hushed phrases
that had been whispered in the Catacombs.18
Life outside the tunnel was less uncomfortable but more precarious. Those on
beach defense or in gun positions could, if
they wished, sleep in the fresh air and escape
the dust occasionally. They were less crowded and had more freedom of movement.
But the strain on them was great, too. When
the shells came over or the bombs dropped
they took cover and hoped for the best. All
movement on the island became hazardous
and uncertain. The roads, which at one time
had been effectively camouflaged by trees,
"were now bare and clearly visible shelves
along the steep side of the island." 19 At any
moment artillery fire might fall on men and
vehicles. Captain Gulick, commander of

Battery C, 91st Coast Artillery, was caught
in such a barrage with his Filipino driver.
18
Leon M. Guerrero, "The Last Days of
Corregidor," The Philippine Review (May 1943).
19
Hopkins, Personal and Official Notes of Btry
C, 60th CA (AA), entry of 2 May 42, Gen Info,
copy in OCMH.
543
To my terror [he wrote] it began to move
At the start of the bombardment, on 14
toward us. There was a high rocky hill to my

right and another to my left. Neither afforded
any shelter whatsoever. We began to run
hoping to get around the side of the hill. The
barrage walked after us at about a pace equal
to our own. We rounded the hill and saw in
front of us the ruins of the Ordnance warehouses blown up by bombs in December. The
ground was heap after heap of concrete
chunks and exploded 75 shells and casings.
Suddenly the barrage behind us lifted and
came down about 400 yds in front of us
April, Colonel Constant Irwin, General

Wainwright's operations officer, had urged
an increase in the ration. The shelling and
bombing, he had pointed out, would probably become more severe during the next
few weeks, and men on half rations could
not be expected to stand the strain without
a marked decrease in their combat efficiency. By the time the Japanese were ready
to take the island by assault, Irwin believed,
slightly to our left. We ran to the right. The
the defenders would be too weak to fend off
curtain of fire lifted again and came down

on our right moving towards us. Terror and
desperation seized us. We were panting,
sweating, and scared. It seemed as if the Jap
artillery was playing cat and mouse with
us. ...
We ran down the old trolley tracks with
barrages or concentrations behind and on
both sides of us. Suddenly again up ahead
shells began to land. . . . We reached a
drainage ditch and threw ourselves in it.
Dead leaves had cloaked its depth so that we
sank down about 3 feet. It was hot, dirty, and
almost smothering. But we were so exhausted
by terror and by running that we could only
an attack. He recommended, therefore, that

the food reserves set aside at the start of the
campaign be used to supplement the half
ration and keep the men strong, "physically
and mentally." 22
Before making a decision on Irwin's recommendation, General Wainwright ordered
his chief of staff to make a study of the total
amount of food on hand, including the stock
of the Navy and the Marine unit. The result showed that there was only enough food
to carry the garrison through the month of
lie there panting and perspiring.20

As the days passed, life on Corregidor
became more uncomfortable. Kitchens were
hit and meals had to be cooked and distributed in the dark. The concentration of a
group of men was sure to bring down artillery fire from Bataan. Meals became haphazard; men ate when and where they
could. By the beginning of May the enemy
attacks had become so frequent that the
proper preparation of meals was impossible;
feeding the troops, "a catch-as-catch can
proposition." "It became martyrdom,"
wrote a naval officer, "to expose one's self
for messing." 21
doubled, the supply would be exhausted

within a month. Wainwright could not
gamble on a landing before that time. Even
if he did and if he successfully fought off an
enemy attempt to take the island, he would
have to surrender ultimately for lack of food.
For these reasons he vetoed Colonel Irwin's
proposal and ordered the half ration continued "until more food is in sight." 23
The garrison, therefore, continued to subsist on half rations or less while the meals,
because of the bombardment and the destruction of kitchens, became less appetizing
and nourishing than ever. "For supper," one
20
Gulick, Memoirs of Btry C, 91st CA (PS), pp.
137-39.
21
Statement of Lt Comdr Ernest Marion, in
Hayes, Rpt on Med Tactics. Off of Naval Rcds.
22
Carrier note, G-3 to CofS USFIP, 14 Apr 42,
no sub, AG 430.2 Phil Rcds.
23
Ibid., with attached pencil notes initialed
W [Wainwright] and LB [Lewis Beebe].
June on half rations. If the issue was
544
Marine wrote, "we had a sort of stew which

consisted mainly of rice and a couple of
pieces of bread, and maybe a little jam."24
Col. Carlos Romulo, newscaster for Corregidor's "Voice of Freedom," noted that
"sometimes we had a soggy slice [of bread]
with our breakfast and sometimes we did
not." He could tell in this way whether the
bakery had been hit during the last raid.
prunes." 27 The result, his men could have

told him, was a satisfying and intoxicating
beverage variously called raisinjack and
jungle juice.
By the end of April the first signs of malnutrition had made their appearance. Beriberi and scurvy were observed at about this
time and the symptoms of avitaminosis were
noted by unit commanders whose men
A piece of cheese he had acquired as a gift
showed a decrease in combat efficiency. In

one antiaircraft battery Vitamin A deficiency had already affected the vision of the
gun crews. "The BC [battery commander]
before Quezon's departure "moved between

my fingers," when he decided to eat it
almost two months later. "So unfastidious
can hunger make one," he observed, "I ate
the cheese after removing its small inhabitants."25
By now the private caches of food and
whiskey were gone. Only those few who had
hoarded their supplies still had any left.
What they had, they saved for special occasions. When Captain Gulick reached Corregidor after the fall of Bataan, he visited an
old friend and was received "with open
arms" and a bottle of "President Quezon's
champagne." "We swilled the warm champagne in the sunlight," he reminisced, "ate
peanut butter sandwiches, and swapped
stories. . . . Truly war has its moments
greater than those of peace." 26 Some of
those who had no whiskey used the methods
of manufacture adopted later in the war by
troops stationed on dry Pacific Islands.
Cleaning up a battery position, Captain
Gulick was surprised to find that one of the
swabbing tubs "was being illegally employed to hold a mash of dried raisins and
got cod liver oil and boric acid solution from

the hospital," wrote one of the men, "to try
to combat this." 28
With the increased intensity of the Japanese bombardment at the end of April
came a sharp increase in the number of
casualties. "Every day it seemed that the
line of stretchers grew longer. The narrow
hospital corridors were crammed with the
wounded, the sick, and the dying; the convalescents were hurried out to make room
for fresh casualties." The hospital staff, overworked and under an intolerable strain, became short-tempered. Nurses snapped at
one another, at the male attendants, and at
the patients. "And every day when the red
light in front of the Harbor Defense headquarters went out and the air raid was over,
the grimy unwashed bodies would come in
on their stained stretchers, carried on a wave
of silence and spreading fear."
With the influx of patients the hospital
expanded into three more laterals until by
25 April it had a capacity of 1,000 beds.
Double and triple deck bunks were used for
Corregidor," Part 2, Marine Corps Gazette (Depatients and hospital attendants alike. Linen
cember 1946), p. 32.
25
Romulo, I Saw the Fall of the Philippines, pp.
27
24 246.
245,
Ibid.,
Quoted
p. in
142.
Baldwin, "The Fourth Marines at
28
26
Gulick, Memoirs of Btry C, 91st CA (PS),
60th CA (AA), entry of 27 Apr 42, Gen Info.
p. 131.

was scarce and its use avoided, since "to go
outside to hang out the laundry is a needless
risk of life." Space, as everywhere in the
tunnel, was at a premium; water was scarce
and the power system uncertain. During a
bombardment the concussion could be felt
even in the hospital laterals deep in the tunnel. Bottles, dishes, and loose objects rattled
on the shelves and tables; the lights flickered
and sometimes failed. "My hands tremble,"
wrote an aide on duty in the operating room,
"when I'm giving anesthetics." 29
Some units had their own medical facilities, and some, like the 4th Marines, had a
comparatively well-equipped hospital with
a complete medical staff. One unit recently
arrived from Bataan soon acquired a dispensary, a medical officer, and a hospital of
sorts. Such facilities were acquired by various means and, when requisitions failed to
bring the needed supplies, sometimes "an
old friend and drinking companion" could
be found in the tunnel hospital.
None of these units was able to treat serious injuries or ailments; only the Malinta
Hospital could provide treatment for such
cases. And it was, in the view of some, reluctant to do so unless the patient was
brought innot an easy task during the
bombardment. "Our malaria cases had increased," wrote Captain Gulick, whose battery had come from Bataan, ". . . yet the
hospital refused to send an ambulance."
When informed that the men had a temperature of 104 degrees, Gulick wrote wrathfully, the hospital authorities suggested that
"the men walk to the tunnel." 30
29
Quotes in this and the preceding paragraphs
are from Guerrero, "The Last Days of Corregidor," The Philippine Review (May 1943). See also
Redmond, I Served on Bataan, p. 149.
30
Gulick, Memoirs of Btry C, 91st CA (PS), pp.
145, 153-54.
545
The task of bringing the sick and
wounded to the Malinta Hospital had
always been a difficult one. Now it became
hazardous as well. There had been only two
ambulances at the start of the campaign,
and one of these had been quickly destroyed.
The other, "in some mysterious way," had
escaped destruction and was still in operation.31 Its services had to be supplemented
by the vehicles of those units whose men
required hospitalization, a fact which the
men did not always appreciate.
The effects of the continuous bombardment could be seen not only in the mounting
toll of wounded but in the haggard faces of
the men. Shelling robbed men of sleep; short
rations, of needed vitamins and energy.
"The strain," wrote an officer, "is beginning to tell. The men looked and acted
weary." 32 For the first time cases of battle
fatigue were reported to the hospital. Some
men, such as the one whose friend's "shelltorn head flew past his face," went out of
their minds.33 But the number of mental
cases reported was surprisingly small. The
Corregidor surgeon noted only "six to eight"
throughout the campaign. He could not account for the low rate of psychotic and neurotic disorders but offered the theory that it
was due to the fact that there was no rear
area to send the men for rest, no letup in
the bombardment. "Here the war was
always with us," he explained, "and once
the adjustment was made, there were no
new adjustments to be made." 34
31
Cooper, Med Dept Activities, p. 11, Annex
XIV, USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns.
32
Barr, Btry M, 60th CA (AA), p. 17, copy in
OCMH.
33
Redmond, I Served on Bataan, p. 142.
34
Cooper, Med Dept Activities, pp. 18, 84. In this
connection see the report by Sitter, Psychiatric Reactions Observed on Corregidor and Bataan and in
Japanese Captivity, copy in OCMH.
546
Perhaps the most alarming consequence
of the Japanese bombardment was the damage to the power plant which operated the
water pumps and searchlights, raised and
lowered the big guns, and supplied Malinta
Tunnel with fresh air and light. The main
power plant at Bottomside had been damaged repeatedly but never so seriously that
it could not be repaired. The large Seacoast
batteries had their own emergency generators but their use required fuel "and the
Staff," as Colonel Bunker observed, "won't
give us enough gas for that." 35 There was a
reserve dynamo in the tunnel and another
smaller engine for emergency use in the hospital, but even these sometimes would fail
and more than once surgery was performed
by flashlight. By the end of April the main
power plant was operating at only a fraction
of its capacity and General Moore estimated
that Corregidor would be without power in
another month.
The supply of water, already critical, became the most important single problem for
the men on Corregidor. It was the dry season and there had been no rain for months.
The level of the reservoirs on the islands
dropped rapidly and there was no way to
replenish the supply. Enemy shells were constantly striking the pumps, puncturing the
water pipes, or damaging the power plant.
So frequently did this occur that it was possible to pump water into the reservoirs only
one day during the month of April. The rest
of the time either the pumps or the power
plant were out of commission.
So serious had the shortage of water become by the end of the month that the daily
allowance for personal use had been reduced
to one canteen. For men who had to do
36
heavy
physical
work
in the
openCA
on (PS),
a sunGulick,
Memoirs
of Btry
C, 91st
p.
35

baked tropical island where the temperature
soared up to 100 degrees during midday and
where the dust from explosions lay heavy,
the lack of water was not only a major inconvenience but a serious threat to health.
Men used their slim ration of water with
the greatest care, took "handkerchief baths"
and devised ingenious methods to make a
canteen last through the day. "Many a
night," wrote Captain Gulick, "I washed
myself with a cup of water and by standing
in a basin saved the water to use over again
on, first, my underwear, and then my socks.
Order of laundering was very important.
The dirtiest item always came last. . . ." 36
Showers became a rare luxury and men
spoke of them with as much longing as they
did of steaks smothered in mushrooms,
French fried potatoes, crisp salads, and ice
cream.
The Preassault Bombardment
At the beginning of May, Japanese artillery and aircraft opened the final phase of
the bombardment, the phase in which,
Homma's orders read, they would "overwhelmingly crush" the island's defenses and
"exterminate" its defenders, "especially the
ones concealed in wooded areas." 37 By that
time all forces were ready and began to
move into position for the assault. As soon
as the remaining guns, searchlights, and
pillboxes had been destroyed and the beach
obstacles blasted out of the way, the troops
of the 4th Division would embark for
Corregidor.
The Americans received their first hint
of the Japanese landing plan on 1 May
when artillery fire from Bataan was con156.
37
14th Army Opns, II, 53.

centrated on the narrow tail of the island
and on the area around James Ravine,
which provided a pathway from the beach
to Topside. The intensity of the attack was
hardly justified by the installations remaining in either area. Observers could only
conclude that the enemy was concentrating
his fire in preparation for the landing.38
The attack on 1 May was discouraging to
those who believed that the bombardment
of 29 April represented the enemy's maximum effort. The first shells began dropping
before dawn and continued until midnight.
At 1515 the 274th air alarm of the war was
sounded and eight bombers dropped their
loads before the entrances to Malinta Tunnel. "Much mess equipment, motor transportation and communications destroyed,"
General Moore noted in his report.39 A half
hour later, then twice more before dark, air
alarms sounded and bombs dropped on the
island. That night, when Lt. Col. Earl L.
Barr, executive officer of the 60th Coast
Artillery (AA), returned to Malinta Tunnel
from a visit to the antiaircraft battery at
Kindley Field, he encountered a "morguelike gloom." 40
The next day was even worse. The artillery from Bataan opened up at 0730, then
the planes came in. It was not until three
hours later that the all clear sounded. The
respite lasted only thirty minutes, after
which the Japanese guns opened fire again.
Until 1945, except for two lulls of one and
two hours' duration, the attacks were continuous. During a five-hour period of the
day, 3,600 shells of 240-mm. caliber, in
addition to shells of other sizes, fell in the
vicinity of Batteries Geary and Crockett on
38
3915 Nov 43, p. 46, MID WD.
12,43
Harbor
Ibid. Defenses Rpt of Opns, p. 64.
40
547
Topside. The rate of fire of the 240-mm.
howitzers alone was twelve shells per minute. "Moore and I," wrote General Wainwright, "delving further into the mathematics of the fury, estimated . . . that the
Japs had hit the rock with 1,800,000 pounds
of shells," in addition to the bombs dropped
by Japanese aircraft during thirteen air
raids.41 It was the heaviest concentration of
fire yet experienced on Corregidor.
As on the day before, the attacks of the
2d were directed at the north shore in those
areas where the landing would be made.
It was on this day that the Battery Geary
magazine was hit and the entire battery
destroyed with a "shock like that of an
earthquake." 42 The entire shore line facing
Bataan was heavily worked over and Bottomside, "except for the Power Plant and
Cold Storage Plant which had an almost
charmed life," was thoroughly saturated
with shells of all calibers. "It was a nasty
place to cross . . .," wrote one man. "One
felt positively in the spotlight for artillery
batteries on Bataan as he walked from the
Power Plant to the tunnel."43
Malinta Hill and the area to the east
received a heavy shellacking also on the 2d.
At the end of the day the whole tail of the
island was covered by a cloud of dust and
small fires were burning everywhere, "in
the shell-scarred tree trunks and stumps,"
and in the woods. Fanned by a brisk west
wind, the fires spread rapidly and were
brought under control only after all the men
in the area had turned fire fighters.44
41
110-12. Wainwright states that this weight of shells
fell on 4 May, not the 2d, but he attributes his
figures to General Moore who places the attacks on
the 2d. Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, p. 65.
42
60th CA (AA), entry of 2 May 42, Gen Info.
44
548
JAPANESE BOMBERS OVER CORREGIDOR

Sunday, 3 May, was a repetition of the
day before. There were five air-raid alarms
during the day, with the planes again concentrating on James Ravine and Kindley
Field. The enemy aircraft over the field met
no fire from the antiaircraft batteries, whose
guns and height finders had already been
damaged or destroyed. Artillery fire during
the day was so heavy that the dust blinded
the spotters observing counterbattery fire.
"Situation here is fast becoming desperate,"
Wainwright reported to General MacArthur at the end of the day's action.
"With artillery that outranges anything we
have except two guns, he [the enemy] keeps
up a terrific bombardment as well as aerial
bombing." 45
That night an American submarine on
patrol in the South China Sea stopped out45
46
Harbor
Rad, Wainwright
Defenses Rpt
to MacArthur,
of Opns, pp. No.
67-68.
392,All3
May 42, AG 384.1, GHQ SWPA.
side the mine channel for an hour before

returning to Australia for torpedoes. It took
out 25 passengers, all that could be crowded
into its tight interior. Among the passengers
were Colonel Constant Irwin, who carried
a complete roster of all Army, Navy, and
Marine personnel still alive; Col. Royal G.
Jenks, a finance officer, with financial accounts; Col. Milton A. Hill, the inspector
general, 3 other Army and 6 Navy officers,
and about 13 nurses. Included in the cargo
sent from Corregidor were several bags of
mail, the last to go out of the Philippines,
and "many USAFFE and USFIP records
and orders." 46
or part of these records ultimately reached The
Adjutant General and are on file in the Historical
Records Section, Departmental Records Branch,
AGO. They were used in the preparation of this
volume and are cited by their appropriate AG
number, followed by the symbol Phil Rcds. Other

The intensity of the air and artillery bombardment reached a new peak on 4 May,
despite Wainwright's belief that "the tempo
of the Jap shelling" could not "possibly be
increased." 47 Japanese fire from Bataan
that day was the heaviest of the campaign
and totaled 16,000 shells of all calibers in a
period of 24 hours. So intense was the bombardment, so continuous the "drum-fire of
bursting shells," that it resembled machine
gun fire in its staccato regularity.48 As before, the chief targets were the beach de-
549
tinuous shelling of the past three weeks was
doubtful. There had been six hundred casualties since 9 April and those who had escaped injury were in poor physical condition. Most of the coastal guns and search-
lights had been destroyed and the beach defenses had suffered extensive damage. The
sandbagged machine gun positions had been
so battered that they presented "a topsyturvy appearance." 49 "Considering the present level of morale," Wainwright informed
General Marshall on the 4th in response to
fenses along the north shore at James Ra-
a request for his frank opinion, "I estimate
vine and between North and Cavalry Points.

Observation planes overhead adjusted artil-
that we have something less than an even

chance to beat off an assault."50
lery fire while bombers, in six separate attacks, concentrated on the east end of the
island and on the few remaining vessels of
the inshore patrol.
During the day observers on Topside had
sighted fifteen landing barges off the southeast coast of Bataan, moving north. The observers thought the enemy vessels were trying to get out of range of American counterbattery fire; more probably they were
headed toward Lamao to pick up the assault troops. There was little doubt by now
that a Japanese landing would soon come.
The ability of the Corregidor garrison to
withstand a Japanese assault after the con-
But the Japanese were not yet ready for

the assault. They needed one more day to
complete the destruction of Corregidor's defenses and on the morning of the 5th opened
up with everything they had. While the batteries on Cavite laid down a barrage on the
southern shore of the island, the Bataan batteries gave the north shore the most terrific
pounding of the war. "There was a steady
roar from Bataan," wrote Captain Gulick,
"and a mightier volume on Corregidor. A
continuous pall of dust and debris hung over
everything. There was a feeling of doom
mingled with wonder. . . ."51
records had been sent to Australia by air, directed

to General Sutherland. So far as is known this latter
group of records has never reached the files of The
Adjutant General. Rad, Wainwright to MacArthur,
12, 15 Nov 43, p. 50, MID WD.
No. 261, 13 Apr 42, AG 370.05 GHQ SWPA. A

partial list of the contents of this shipment, which
included the general staff journals and supporting
documents, is contained in ltr, Irwin to TAG, 12
Apr 42, sub: Transmittal of Docs, USFIP G-3

Journal.
47
110.
48
51
number
of shells
is estimated
The
of CorGulick,
Harbor
Memoirs
Defenses
ofRptBtry
of in
C,Opns,
91st Siege
p.
CA 69.
(PS),
The
p.
regidor, Mil Rpts on UN, No. 12, 15 Nov 43, p.
46, MID WD.
49
In a message to
General MacArthur on the 3d, Wainwright summarized his losses to date. He had left at that time four
12-inch guns; one 12-inch mortar; sixteen 155-mm.
guns, only nine of which bore on Bataan; and seven
3-inch guns, of which four bore on Bataan. "Serious

losses in AA fire control equipment and searchlights," he went on, "renders AA ineffective, except
one battery. Great toll has been taken of machine
guns both ground and AA, as well as automatic

weapons of all types." Rad, Wainwright to MacArthur, No. 392, 3 May 42, AG 384.1, GHQ
SWPA.
50
The message is reproduced in full in Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story, pp. 112-13.
184.
550
From Corregidor there was little answering fire. Only three 155-mm. guns remained
in operation; practically all the other seacoast artillery, the famous batteries of Corregidorthe 12-inch mortars and rifles, the
6-, 8-, and 10-inch disappearing guns
were silent. The 14-inch guns of Forts Drum
and Frank were still able to fire, but targets
on Bataan were at extreme range and, except for the guns on Fort Drum, their fire
heavy over the island that the men on Topside could hardly make out the features of
Bottomside below them. Beyond that they
could not see. Even the topography of the
island had changed. Where there had been
thick woods and dense vegetation only
charred stumps remained. The rocky
ground had been pulverized into a fine dust
and the road along the shore had been
literally blown into the bay. Portions of the
cliff had fallen in and debris covered the
was sporadic.
The bombardment of the 5th destroyed entire island. The Corregidor of peacetime,
the little that was left to stop a Japanese as- with its broad lawns and luxuriant vegetasault. Those beach defense guns along the tion, impressive parade ground, spacious
north shore which had given away their barracks, pleasant shaded clubs and bungapositions were knocked out, searchlights lows, its large warehouses and concrete
were put out of action, land mines deto- repair shops, was, gone. The island lay
nated, barbed wire entanglements torn up, "scorched, gaunt, and leafless, covered with
and machine gun emplacements caved in. the chocolate dust of countless explosions
55
By the end of the day, wrote General Moore, and pitted with shellholes."
Men were living on nerve alone, and
the beach defenses on the north side of the
morale was dropping rapidly. All hope of
island "were practically non-existent." 52
All wire communication was gone by late reinforcement had long since disappeared.
afternoon. Telephone lines were torn up by
There was only enough water to last four
the exploding shells and all efforts to repair

them were unavailing. One battery commander repaired the line to his battalion
headquarters, but "three minutes after the
job was done the line was out again." "This
time," he wrote despairingly, "we couldn't
even locate the broken ends."53 "Command," observed General Moore, "could
be exercised and intelligence obtained only
by use of foot messengers," a means of com-
more days at most and no prospect that the

pipes and pumps could be repaired. In any
event the power plant would not last more
than a few weeks. There was a limit to
human endurance and that limit, General
Wainwright told the President, "has long
since been passed."56
So intense a bombardment in so concentrated an area could only mean that the
Japanese had completed their preparations
for the assault. "It took no mental giant,"
munication, he added, which was "uncertain under the heavy and continuous artillery and air action."54
When the bombardment let up momentarily late in the afternoon the dust lay so
wrote Wainwright, "to figure out, by May 5,

1942, that the enemy was ready to come
against Corregidor."57 He already knew
55
52

53
54 Gulick, Memoirs of Btry C, 91st CA (PS), p.
187.
Guerrero, "The Last Days of Corregidor."

The full text of the message, sent on 6 May
1942, is in Wainwright, General Wainwright's
Story, pp. 122-23.
57
Ibid., p. 114.
56

from agents in Manila that the Japanese
4th Division had completed landing maneuvers and that thousands of bamboo
ladders, to be used presumably to scale the
cliffs of Corregidor, had been built. The
moon would be full that night.
At 2100, just after a particularly intense
concentration on the eastern end of the
island the sound locators of the antiaircraft
command picked up the noise of the motors
of a large number of landing barges in the
vicinity of Limay. The information was re-
layed to H Station, General Moore's command post in Malinta Tunnel, which alerted
all units and ordered beach defense troops
to their stations. About an hour later barges
5
58
9
Harbor
Defenses Rpt of Opns,
Gulick,
p. 71.Memoirs o
551
were observed approaching the tail of the
island and at 2230 the order went out to
"prepare for probable landing attack."58
The full moon, "veiled by streaks of heavy
black clouds," was just rising when, shortly
before midnight, the Japanese artillery fire
suddenly ceased and "its bass roar was replaced by the treble chattering of many
small arms." 59 A few minutes later a runner from the beach defense command post
arrived at H Station with the news that the
Japanese had landed at North Point.
p. 188.
f Btry C
, 91st C
A (PS),
CHAPTER XXXI
The Fall of Corregidor

For almost a month the Japanese had
been preparing for this moment. Every precaution had been taken to insure the success
of the assault and so bring to an end the
six-month-long campaign to take the Philippines. Yet General Homma watched the
troops embark for the shores of Corregidor
with trepidation. Of the three critical moments of the campaign, he told the military
commission at his trial, "this was the
third."1
The troops in the assault craft that approached the north shore of Corregidor on
the night of 5 May were from General
Kitano's 4th Division. Homma's plan, it
will be recalled, had provided for two landings, to be made on successive nights at
opposite ends of the island, and Kitano had
accordingly organized his reinforced division into two forces: a left (east) wing and
a right (west) wing. The first, which was
landing on Corregidor on the night of the
5th, consisted of the 61st Infantry, reinforced with tanks from the 7th Tank Regiment, and artillery and service elements. It
was led by Col. Gempachi Sato, commander
of the 61st. The right wing, under the 4th
Division infantry group commander, Maj.
Gen. Kureo Taniguchi, was the stronger of
the two forces and was composed of the
37th Infantry, one battalion of the 8th In1
The other two critical moments came during the
Lingayen landing and after the abortive effort in
late January and early February to break through
the Orion-Bagac line on Bataan.
fantry, an element of the 7th Tank Regiment, several artillery units, and service elements. It was to land the following night on
the beach below Topside, near James
Ravine.2 (Map 23)
14th Army had completed its preparations for the coming assault during the latter part of April. Ammunition, heavy equipment, and landing boats had been brought
to the assembly area, working parties organized to handle the supplies, and combat
troops put through the final stages of training. When the landing boats of the 1st Sea
Operation Unit had been assembled and
equipped, the 4th Division began amphibious training along the east coast of Bataan,
north of Limay, and the 16th Division did
the same in the Cavite area. Rehearsals had
been held and equipment tested at the end
of the month to put everything in order for
the final test.
The Japanese fully expected the fight to
be a hard one. The troops making the landing had been carefully trained in landing
operations and close-in fighting. Special attention had been given to methods of removing beach obstacles and reducing strongly
fortified positions, and provision was made
for the use of smoke screens. Enough rations,
2
This account of Japanese plans and preparations
is based upon: 14th Army Opns, I, 173-207, II,
Annexes 7-12; 5th Air Gp Opns, pp. 78-84; USA
vs. Homma, pp. 3089-94, testimony of Homma;
Statement of Col Yoshida, 9 Feb 50, ATIS Doc
War II, GHQ FEC, Mil Intel Sec, IV, 553-57.
THE FALL OF CORREGIDOR
553
fuel, and ammunition to last one week had
Colonel Sato had assembled his left wing
been issued to the troops. In anticipation of

a water shortage, extra canteens had been
distributed and provision made for an additional supply of fresh water at the target.
On 27 Aprilat a conference attended by
representatives of the 4th Division, 14th
Army artillery, the 22d Air Brigade, and the
Navyliaison and co-operation between the
assault units, the artillery, and the air forces
had been arranged. Two days later the air
force had begun the final phase of its opera-
units in the Lamao River valley, near Cabcaben, and the next day marched them to
Lamao where, at dusk, they began to embark for Corregidor. The run to the island
was made in darkness, the troops expecting
to land about 2300, an hour before moonrise. Earlier that day, after Sato moved out,
General Taniguchi's right wing assembled
near Cabcaben in preparation for their assault the next night, 6 May.
Colonel Sato's plan was to land the first
tions and for a week concentrated on targets
waves at high tide near Cavalry Point, on
along the north shore of Corregidor and on the north shore of the narrow tip of the
enemy shipping in the bay. On 5 May Maj. island. Later waves were to come in shortly
Gen. Kizo Mikami, commanding the 22d after and land to the right (west), between
Air Brigade, had had reconnaissance and Cavalry and Infantry Points. As soon as the
bombardment aircraft over Corregidor con- beachhead was secure, the troops in the first
stantly to report on the movement of troops wave, about a battalion in size, would drive
on the island and to soften up the enemy south toward Kindley Field. The rest of
Sato's force would push west toward Madefenses.
The artillery had begun its preparatory linta Hill which was to be occupied by dayfire on 1 May and by the evening of the 5th break, 6 May. (Map 25)
On the night of 6 May, General Tanihad laid waste the entire north shore of
Corregidor. That night, after the first troops
guchi's right wing would embark at Lamao
had embarked at Lamao, the artillery concentrated first on the remaining mobile
guns and searchlights on the island and then
on the stretch of beach between Infantry
and Cavalry Points. Just before the landing,
the artillery had shifted its fire westward, to
Malinta Hill. To assist in artillery fire that
night and next day, General Kitajima had
placed a liaison group of sixty men in the
assault boats. They would go ashore with
the first waves and establish artillery observation posts on Malinta Hill as soon as it
and head for the north shore of Corregidor,

between Battery and Morrison Points. If all
went well the men would land a half hour
before midnight and move inland, presumably through James Ravine. One portion of the force was to strike across the
island to the south shore; the rest eastward
toward Malinta Hill. Meanwhile, Colonel
Sato's men were to resume their advance
westward from Malinta Hill to join the
right wing. When the two groups met, they
would combine, under Taniguchi's command, to mop up any remaining enemy
resistance. By X plus 2, 7 May, if all went
well, the battle for Corregidor would be
over.
The plan miscarried almost immediately.
At the time the men embarked, the tide on
was taken.
By the time the artillery and air forces
had opened the final phase of the bombardment, the 4th Division had won its fight
against malaria and was ready to move into
the assembly area. On 4 May, X minus 1,
554
MAP 25
the Bataan shore was flowing west, out of
was approached and it did not serve as a
Manila Bay. The Japanese took it for
particular landmark." 4
Most of the 4th Division staff attributed
their difficulty in part to the 1st Sea Operation Unit. They felt that the boats were
handled inefficiently and that the commander did not have the unit under control
during the embarkation and the journey to
the target. Because the men of the 1st Sea
granted that the current off Corregidor

would be flowing west also. Contrary to expectation, the current at the target flowed
in the opposite direction and the landing
force "was naturally swept away." 3 Instead
of arriving off Corregidor between Infantry

and Cavalry Points, the selected landing site,
it approached the island at a point about
1,000 yards to the east, near North Point.
Most of the officers who had planned the
landing had not "dreamed that there would
be any slip-ups." They thought the peculiar
shape of the island would forestall any
errors. But, as one Japanese officer later
wrote, "the island lost its odd shape as it
Operation Unit had had experience in

shore-to-shore operations in the Singapore
campaign, and were "high-spirited," 4th
Division officers felt they had "made light"
of the Corregidor assault and failed to train
adequately. "The unit later discovered,"
wrote Colonel Yoshida, "that it had paid
dearly for this lack." 5
4
3
Statement
of Yoshida,
9 FebOfficials
50, ATIS
Doc
62644,
Statements
of Japanese
on World
Ibid.
Ibid. See also Statement of Col Oishi, 2 Oct 50,
ATIS Doc 62639, ibid., III, 116.
5

Not only did the Japanese come in east
of the designated beaches, but they became
separated during the approach and landed
at different times and at some distance
from each other. The landing plan had provided that the two battalions of the 61st
Infantry land abreast, with the 1st Battalion
on the right (west). Off Cabcaben, in the
assembly area, Colonel Sato, who was with
the 1st Battalion, discovered that the 2d
555
current and tide, brought the Japanese to
the wrong beaches and in the wrong order.
The 2d Battalion, which had "strayed" to
the right, never recovered from its initial
error and came in late. The 1st Battalion arrived somewhat east of the place designated
for the 2d Battalion, which found itself
coming in toward a strange shore near the
tail of the island and far from the area upon
which the artillery had laid down its pre-
Battalion, which should have been on his
paratory fire. Mutual support of the two
left, had "strayed" and was now on his right

flank. Charitably attributing this error "to
the mental strain" and the "distractions"
of the commander of the landing craft, Sato
ordered the 1st Battalion to go ahead. The
2d Battalion was to follow and to change
course so that it would reach the beach in
its proper place on the left of the formation.
battalions, which had been provided for in

this plan, was impossible. "Thus," explained
Colonel Yoshida, "the Division was forced
to start fighting under disadvantageous conditions. ... A long, desperate struggle and
It was never able to do so or to catch up

with the 1st Battalion.
Colonel Sato might have corrected the
formation by sending the 1st Battalion westward so that it would once again become
the right element. Actually such a course
would have compensated partially for the

eastward drift of the entire flotilla, but he
had no way of knowing this. What he feared

most was his own artillery fire. The landing
plan provided for the bombardment on the
right (west) of the landing beaches "to
cover its right flank," and if the landing craft
veered too far to the right, they would come
under friendly fire. It was for this reason,
explained one officer, that "the unit kept
on drifting to the left without even knowing the exact location of the landing point." 6
This confusion during the approach, plus
the failure to make proper allowance for
heavy sacrifices were required to break the

situation." 7
The Americans and Filipinos on shore,
unaware of the confusion in the Japanese
ranks and still reeling under the effects of
the bombardment, met the enemy with
every weapon they could muster. One 2-gun
75-mm. battery near the tail of the island,
just east of North Point, had never disclosed
its position and it opened fire, together with
some 37-mm. guns, at a range of about 300

yards, on the incoming landing craft. The
few remaining searchlights were turned on
but were quickly shot out by artillery fire
from Bataan. But there was enough light for
the guns on shore from the tracers which
"like a 4th of July display danced and
sparkled pinkly from Kindley Field to Monkey Point." 8 At point-blank range they
struck the surprised and confused Japanese,
sank a number of the boats, and caused
many casualties. "Beach defense officers at

7
Statement of Yoshida, IV, 553.
6
8
Gulick,
Statement
Memoirs
of Yoshida,
of Btry
ibid.,
C, IV,
91st554,
CA 555.
(PS),See
p.
also USA vs. Homma, pp. 3091-92, testimony of
Homma.
188, copy in OCMH. See also Harbor Defenses Rpt

of Opns, p. 73.
556

seemed as though "a hundred guns rained
red-hot steel on them." Eyewitnesses at
Cabcaben described the scene as "a spectacle that confounded the imagination, surpassing in grim horror anything we had ever
seen before." 10
The Japanese, who had believed they
could come ashore "without shedding
blood," lost heavily during the landing.
Although the 1st Battalion reached the

beach on schedule under supporting fire
from 14th Army artillery, it was hard hit.
Estimates of its casualties varied from 50 to
75 percent.11 Casualties in the battalion
which came in late exceeded those of the
first landing, one Japanese officer placing
the number of drowned alone in his own
SEARCHLIGHT ON CORREGIDOR
the scene," wrote an observer, "reported that
the slaughter of the Japanese in their barges
was sickening."9
By this time the moon had risen and the
clouds had drifted away. Thus, when the
2d Battalion of Colonel Sato's 61st Infantry
approached the shore shortly before midnight, it was clearly visible to the men on the
beach. There was now enough light for artillery fire, and the Americans opened up with
everything they had. The remaining 12-inch
mortar of Battery Way went into action with
a boom, followed by the shriek of the rotating bands. From nearby Fort Hughes came
fire from the mortars of Battery Craighill
while the remaining smaller guns at both

forts, the 3-inchers and the 75's, dropped
their shells on the landing barges nearing the
shore. To the Japanese in the small boats it
9
12, 15 Nov 43, p. 48, MID WD.
unit at 50 percent. Total casualties for both

landings were estimated at several hundred,
and one Japanese officer claimed that only
800 men of the 2,000 who made the attempt
reached the shore.12
Though the Japanese attempted no further landing that night the Americans believed that they had and that it had been
frustrated. At about 0440, as dawn was
breaking, small boats believed to be landing
barges were seen approaching the Bottomside area of Corregidor. All remaining guns
were directed to fire on these craft and on
Cabcaben where other boats could be seen.
Battery Stockade, with two 155-mm. fixed

10
Kazumaro Uno, Corregidor: Isle of Delusion
(Press Bureau, Imperial Japanese Army, GHQ,
China, September 1942), p. 19. This is a wartime
propaganda book written in English by a press correspondent who was an eyewitness to the landing and
interviewed participants.
11
Ibid., p. 17. Uno states that "less than 30 percent of the men reached the shore." Colonel Yoshida
states that losses in this wave were slight, but does
not indicate their extent. Statement of Yoshida, p.
556.
12
Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns, p. 73; The Siege
of Corregidor, Mil Rpts on UN, No. 12, 15 Nov 43,
p. 49, MID WD.

guns and two more roving batteries, hit the
approaching formation with damaging
effect. Fort Drum opened fire at a range of
20,000 yards and dropped over 100 rounds
on the vessels. Ordered to shift fire to the
North Channel, the commander at Drum
replied that he could not see any targets because of the dense cloud of smoke and dust
over Corregidor. "Just fire in the smoke,
anywhere between you and Cabcaben," he
was told, "and you can't miss them." 13
Though the Americans were mistaken in
their belief that they had driven off a third
assault, they had succeeded in sinking and
damaging many more of the enemy's fleet
of small boats. Between half and two thirds
of the landing craft leaving Bataan that
night had been put out of action. When
Homma received the report of "the disastrous state" of his troops and the loss in
landing craft he was thrown into an "agony
of mind." 14
The situation was not as bad as Homma
believed. Troops of the 1st Battalion, 61st
Infantry, had come ashore near North Point
at about 2310, and, after a brief fight with
the men of Company A, 4th Marines, stationed along the north shore from Malinta
Hill to the east tip of the island, had established a beachhead on the island. One portion of the battalion advanced south across
the tail to the south shore and by 0100 had
reached Monkey Point and cut off those
troops on the eastern tip. The rest of the battalion had turned west and advanced along
the axis of the island toward Malinta Hill,
the main objective of the landing. By 0130
this force had taken the position formerly
occupied by Battery Denver on a ridge in
13
Fort Drum Annex, p. 10, Exhibit M, Harbor
14
Defenses
Opns. pp. 3093-94, testimony of
USA Rpt
vs. of
Homma,
Homma.
557
the narrow neck between Infantry and Cavalry Points. There the Japanese established
a north-south line across the island.15 Already the tanks and artillery were coming
ashore.
Thus far, the fighting had been confused
and un-co-ordinated. The 1st Battalion, 4th
Marines, holding the East Sector and a
shore line about 10,000 yards long, had only
one company on the north shore, with one
platoon posted in the area where the Japanese landed. Opposition at the beaches,
therefore, had been slight and the Japanese
had been able to advance swiftly. It was
only when he heard voices "not American"
that a marine on Denver Hill realized the
enemy had reached that point. "The place,"
he wrote, "seemed to have Japs all over
it." 16 Not until 0200, when the situation
had clarified, was it discovered that only
two platoons stood between the enemy and
Malinta Tunnel. At that time the first elements of the reserve, two companies, were
committed.
Meanwhile General Moore had stripped

his Seacoast batteries to provide additional
troops for the beach defenses. At the first
news of the landing, men from the 59th
Coast Artillery (Batteries Cheney, Wheeler,
and Crockett) were made available to Colonel Howard. Later other coast and antiaircraft artillerymen were released from
their assignments and formed as infantry
troops.
15
The action on the island is reconstructed from:

Baldwin, "The Fourth Marines at Corregidor,"
Part 3, Marine Corps Gazette (January 1947), pp.
23-29; Howard, 4th Marines Rpt of Opns, pp. 1921, USMC Hist Sec; Harbor Defenses Rpt of Opns,
pp. 72-75; Dalness, Opns of the Prov Bn, 4th
Marines, pp. 10-18; Statement of Yoshida, pp.
555-56.
16
Quoted in Baldwin, "The Fourth Marines at
Corregidor," Part 3, Marine Corps Gazette (January 1947), p. 24.
558
trymen ; it was not organized as a battalion

of infantry and did not have the equipment
and weapons normal in an infantry battalion. It was, one of the officers remarked,
simply "a group of 500 sailors with 500
riflesnothing more." 17
The 4th Provisional Battalion had moved
into Malinta, Tunnel earlier that morning
and had been waiting at the east entrance
for several hours when it received orders to
counterattack. During that time the men
had suffered acute discomfort from the heat
and dust and from the concussion of shells
falling just outside the entrance. They had
witnessed also a steady stream of wounded
Between 0200 and 0400 the Japanese marines brought into the tunnel past their
made no advances but threw back three position, a sight that "did little to boost the
counterattacks against their Denver Battery morale of the men about to move into the
line. While their artillery continued to battle area." 18
At 0430 Major Williams moved his batpound away at Malinta Hill and the area
to the west, pinning the Americans and talion out in a column of companies. BeFilipinos to the ground, the men of the 2d fore the last company cleared the tunnel,
Battalion, 61st Infantry, joined their com- the company at the head of the column
rades in the 1st Battalion. With these rein- had already suffered casualties from artilforcements, Colonel Sato was able to in- lery fire. All along the avenue of approach
crease the pressure on the Marine line in the battalion ran into interdiction fire and
it had gone only 500 yards before it was
front of him.
At 0430 Colonel Howard decided to send dispersed by a heavy concentration. With
in the last of his reserves. The danger of a much difficulty the column was formed
break-through was too serious to delay any again and managed to move forward to
longer. With the 2d and 3d Battalions, 4th within 200 yards of the front. There Major
Marines, held in place in the Middle and Williams formed a skirmish line, and the
West Sectors by the threat of additional battalion completed its journey in this forlandings, he had only the untrained men of mation.
The sector assigned the provisional batthe 4th Provisional Battalion and the artillerymen. These he sent into the line with talion comprised the left (north) portion
orders to counterattack and regain control of the thinly held line facing the Japanese
dug in on both sides of Denver Hill. The
of the east end of the island.
It was an impossible assignment. The 4th right side of the line was taken over by the
Provisional Battalion, led by Maj. Francis Headquarters and Service Company, 4th
Placing these men in position east of Malinta Hill proved a most difficult task. They
had to move from their battery positions,
across Bottomside which was under intermittent but intense enemy artillery fire, into
Malinta Tunnel via the west entrance,
through the tunnel, then out by way of the
east entrance. By this time the Japanese
were concentrating artillery fire on this entrance, the only avenue of approach to the
thin line in front of the Japanese. One enemy barrage caught Battery C of the 59th
Coast Artillery on its way across Bottomside,
killing one officer and wounding a number
of men.
Williams, USMC, was not a battalion at all.

18
Ibid.,
Many
ofp.its13.officers and most of its men
were neither qualified nor trained as infan-
17
Dalness, Opns of the Prov Bn, 4th Marines,
p. 20.
559
Marines, plus miscellaneous Army and Navy control of this hill, the landing of the 4th
troops. In reserve were sixty men of the 59th Division's right wing, scheduled for 2330 of
Coast Artillery led by Capt. Herman H. the 6th, would be a risky undertaking. The
problem was discussed at 4th Division headHauck.
Preparations for the counterattack were quarters early that morning and some memcompleted by 0600 and fifteen minutes later bers of the staff argued strongly for a
the men moved out. The Japanese, sur- one-day postponement of the attack schedprised by this "obstinate and bold counter- uled for that night. The proposal was seriattack," 19 fell back, and the Americans ously considered but final decision deferred,
made gains along both flanks. In the center, pending the outcome of the day's action.
where the Japanese had emplaced a heavy Nothing more was done than to urge "the
machine gun in one of Denver Battery's gun left flank unit to keep on attacking." 21
The Japanese were worried, too, about
pits, the counterattack stalled. Other means
failing, Lt. Bethel B. Otter, USN, com- their supply of ammunition, which was danmander of Company T, 4th Provisional gerously low. The amount originally allotted
Battalion, and five volunteers set out "with for the assault was adequate but the small
the strong determination to get the gun that boats which were to have brought ammudealt so much misery to Company T and the nition ashore after the landings were in such
rest of the Battalion." 20 Armed with hand haste to get out of range of American fire
grenades the six men crawled to within that they "threw the ammunition into the
thirty yards of the gun pit, then hurled the nearby waters and returned to Bataan." By
grenades. Their aim was accurate and the 1100, it was estimated, the Japanese on
machine gun was put out of action, but shore would have been out of ammunition.
other Japanese troops moved in and opened "When I recall all this," wrote Colonel
fire on the Americans, killing Otter and four Yoshida, "I cannot but break into a cold
of the men.
sweat."22
Back at 14th Army headquarters on
On the north end of the line, the advancing men of Company Q discovered two Bataan, General Homma spent a sleepless
assault boats, loaded with Japanese troops, night waiting for the news that Malinta Hill
hung up on the rocks. A small group of had been taken. Repeatedly he sent his aide
men was sent down to the beach to pick off to 4th Division headquarters to ask about
the helpless enemy. It took thirty minutes the progress of operations on Corregidor
and the expenditure of several thousand and "every time I was disappointed." Even
rounds of ammunition for the untrained division headquarters had no clear picture
sailors to complete the job.
of the situation "because the lines of the
To the Japanese the situation on Cor- hostile troops got mixed up." With the
regidor seemed desperate. They were still 2,000 men he believed had been put ashore
some distance from Malinta Hill, which was facing a force estimated at 14,000 men,
to have been occupied by dawn. Without there was a real danger, Homma felt, that
his troops might be driven back into the sea.
19
Statement of Oishi, 2 Oct 50, ATIS Doc 62639,
"I had plenty of troops on this side of the
Statements of Japanese Officials on World War II,
20
22
Dalness,
Statement
Opns
of Yoshida,
of Sec,
the IV,
Prov
556.
Bn, 4th Marines,
GHQ
FEC, Mil
Intel
III,
116.
p. 16.
21
Statement of Oishi, III, 116.
560
sea," he explained later. "[But] I could not
send reinforcements with the 21 boats
which were left." The news that the Americans were counterattacking, therefore,
threw him into a panic. "My God," he exclaimed, "I have failed miserably on the
assault."23
Homma need not have been so concerned. Actually, the assault had not failed
and the counterattackers had already run
into serious trouble. Small detachments of
Japanese had infiltrated the left of the
American line and were firing at the rear
of the advancing troops. The Japanese had
also set up their light artillery and were now
using it with devastating effect against the
American troops on the line. Finally, at
0800 Colonel Howard had decided to commit the last of his reserves, Captain Hauck
and the sixty men of the 59th Coast Artillery. By this time the counterattack, though
netting the Americans about 300 yards in
some sectors, had bogged down for lack of
supporting weapons and reinforcements.
The final blow came shortly before 1000
when the Japanese sent the three tanks they
had brought ashore into action. The tanks
advanced to the ridge line and, according
to Colonel Yoshida, "annihilated the powerful enemy in the vicinity." "This action,"
he went on to explain, "not only made it
possible for the two battalions to establish
liaison with each other but also caused the
enemy commander to ... report this fact
to the United States." 24 Though this sweeping claim for the tanks is not borne out by
the facts, it is true that the first appearance
of armor on the front panicked the troops
and caused some to bolt to the rear. It took
the combined efforts of commissioned and
25
23Dalness,
of 4th
Bn, 4th
Marines,
USA vs.Opns
Homma,
pp. Prov
3093-94,
testimony
of
Homma.
24

noncommissioned officers to calm the troops
and prevent a rout.25 "The effect of the
tanks," concluded the Japanese, "was more
than had been anticipated."26
By 1000 the situation of the Americans
was critical. The troops on the front line
were pinned down securely. Attempts to
move forward were discouraged by the enemy's heavy machine guns and light artillery; movement to the rear only brought
the men under fire from the heavier guns on
Bataan and strafing aircraft. The tanks were
in action and there were no weapons with
which to stop them. Casualties had been
heavy and the wounded men were still in
the line. There were no litter bearers, and
if there had been, the injured could not
have been evacuated. The walking wounded
were allowed to go to the rear, but most of
those who availed themselves of this opportunity became "litter or Graves Registration
cases." 27 Already between 600 and 800 men
had been killed and about 1,000 more
wounded. To continue the fight when there
was no hope of being able to hold out longer
than a few more hours would be a needless
sacrifice of lives.
Perhaps the deciding factor in the decision
to lay down arms was the fear of what might
happen that night. It was apparent from the
artillery fire on James and Cheney Ravines,
where only two companies were posted, that
a landing would soon be made there. All reserves had been committed and practically
all guns had been destroyed. Even if the
Japanese did not make another landing it
was virtually certain that the enemy on the
east end of the island would reach the tunnel, with its 1,000 wounded men, in a few
p. 17.
26
27
Dalness, Opns of the Prov Bn, 4th Marines,
p.17.

hours. The result would be wholesale
slaughter.28
On the basis of this estimate of the situation, General Wainwright at 1000 decided
to surrender, to sacrifice one day of freedom
in exchange for several thousand lives. Like
General King, who had surrendered Bataan
four weeks earlier, Wainwright had made
his estimate and concluded there was nothing to be gained by further resistance.
Having made his decision, Wainwright
ordered Beebe to broadcast a surrender message to General Homma. General Moore
was to put into effect the previously prepared plan for the destruction of all arms
larger than .45-caliber, to be accomplished
by noon. At that time the American flag on
28
185-86.
561
Corregidor would be lowered and burned
and the white flag hoisted. These arrangements made, Wainwright announced his decision to President Roosevelt and General
MacArthur.
With broken heart and head bowed in sadness but not in shame [he told the President],
I report . . . that today I must arrange terms
for the surrender of the fortified islands of
Manila Bay. . . . Please say to the nation that
my troops and I have accomplished all that is
humanly possible and that we have upheld
the best traditions of the United States and
its Army. . . . With profound regret and with
continued pride in my gallant troops, I go to
meet the Japanese commander.29
29
Rad, Wainwright to Roosevelt, 6 May 42. A
copy of this message as well as the one to General
MacArthur is reproduced in Wainwright, General
Wainwright's Story, pp. 122-23.
CHAPTER XXXII
The End of Resistance

General Wainwright's decision on the
morning of 6 May to surrender to the enemy
was the beginning of a strange series of
events. Considerable difficulty was encountered in arranging a meeting with General
Homma and the conference that followed
took an entirely unexpected turn. It was not
until midnight of the 6th, fourteen hours
after the men on Corregidor had destroyed
their weapons, that the Japanese agreed to
a cessation of hostilities.
The surrender of scattered detachments
hiding out in the mountains of north Luzon
and of General Sharp's Visayan-Mindanao
Force presented even greater difficulties.
There the last of the troops did not lay
down their arms until almost a month later:
Only then did the Japanese admit that organized resistance in the Philippines had
ended and accord to their captives the status
of prisoners of war.
General Wainwright's Orders

Unlike General King, who had been
forced to violate his instructions and keep
from his superior any knowledge of his decision to surrender the Luzon Force, Wainwright was able to make his decision
unhindered by restrictions from higher
headquarters. He had not always had this
freedom of action. Until 9 April he had
been bound, as had General MacArthur
before him, by President Roosevelt's order
"to fight as long as there remains any possibility of resistance." 1 On that day, the day
of General King's surrender, the President
modified this order and gave General Wainwright full authority to act on his own
judgment.
The decision to change Wainwright's instructions had been initiated in Washington
just before the surrender of Bataan. Alerted
by reports from MacArthur and Wainwright, Maj. Gen. Joseph T. McNarney,
acting in Marshall's absence, had informed
the President on 8 April (Washington time)
that the situation on Bataan was extremely
serious and the collapse of its defense imminent. Reminding President Roosevelt of his
instructions to MacArthur, "issued at a time
when it appeared necessary to make very
clear . . . the nature of the defense expected," McNarney suggested that the
President might wish now to modify these
instructions. "It is possible," he wrote, "that
in the literal execution of these orders General Wainwright may be tempted to carry
them through to an illogical extreme. I think
there should be no doubt that his resolution
and sense of duty will preclude any untoward or precipitous action, but on the
other hand, it is possible that greater lati1
Rads, Roosevelt to MacArthur, No. 1029, 9 Feb

42, CofS Phil Situation File; Marshall to Wainwright, No. 1234, 24 Mar 42, Msgs to Gen Wainwright, OPD Exec O. See Chapter XX, above, for
the relevant portions of the text of the President's
message to MacArthur.
THE END OF RESISTANCE

tude in the final decision should be allowed
him." 2
President Roosevelt accepted McNarney's
suggestion readily, and that same day, 8
Aprilthe 9th, Philippine timeapproved
the text of a message for Wainwright modifying his earlier instructions. Explaining that
he was changing his orders "because of the
state to which your forces have been reduced
by circumstances over which you have had
no control," the President told Wainwright
that he was free to make "any decision affecting the future of the Bataan garrison."
"I . . . have every confidence," the President wrote, "that whatever decision you
may sooner or later be forced to make will
be dictated only by the best interests of your
country and your magnificent troops." 3
Roosevelt's message to Wainwright was
not sent directly to Corregidor but went instead to General MacArthur in Australia
with instructions that it be forwarded to
Corregidor if he, MacArthur, concurred
"both as to substance and timing." 4 The
message reached MacArthur at about the
same time as Wainwright's dispatch carrying the news that Bataan had surrendered.
Since, in his view, "the action taken on
Bataan anticipated the authority conveyed
in the message," he saw no need to change
2
Memo, Actg CofS for the President, 8 Apr 42,
sub: Bataan Situation, CofS Bataan-Corregidor
File. Washington time is thirteen hours earlier than
Manila time.
42, AG 384.1, GHQ SWPA. Reproduced in Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story, pp. 83-84.
Wainwright's Story, pages 83-84, does not contain
the instructions to MacArthur. Apparently Wain-
wright received a copy of the message at the same

3 as MacArthur, but whether it was an informa4
time
The
Rad, published
Marshall version
to MacArthur,
of the message
No. 1158,
in General
8 Apr
tion copy addressed to him or was picked up unofficially by the radio operator is not known.
563
Wainwright's instructions.5 In effect, this
was a "non-concurrence" of the President's
message to Wainwright, which remained on
his desk.
But the progress of events had already
invalidated MacArthur's decision. The
President, on hearing news of the surrender
of Bataan and before receiving MacArthur's
reply, apparently decided that Wainwright
needed assurance of support immediately
and he sent him the text of his message, including the instructions given MacArthur,
from whom, he explained, no reply had yet
been received. "Whatever decision you have
made," Roosevelt told Wainwright, "has
been dictated by the best interests of your
troops and of the country." He then went on
to express the hope that Wainwright would
be able to hold Corregidor, but assured him
"of complete freedom of action" and "full
confidence" in any decision he might be
forced to make.6
General Wainwright received the message

on 10 April and sent an immediate acknowledgment expressing his understanding of
the change in instructions as well as "heartfelt gratitude" for the President's confidence
in his judgment. At the same time, he informed MacArthur of the President's message to him and of his reply.7
Wainwright waited in vain for a response
from MacArthur. Although his new orders
5

Msgs from Gen MacArthur, OPD Exec O.
6
Rad, Roosevelt to Wainwright, No. 1329, 9 Apr
42, CofS Supersecret File, Bataan-Corregidor.
MacArthur was informed of the President's action
at the same time. Rad, McNarney to MacArthur,
No. 1173, 8 Apr 42, AG 384.1, GHQ SWPA.
7
Rads, Wainwright to Roosevelt, No. 749, 10 Apr
42, OPD 381 P.I., Sec 1, Case 41; Wainwright to
MacArthur, No. 204, 10 Apr 42, AG 384.1 GHQ
SWPA.
564
had come directly from the President, he

was aware that initially they had been sent
to his immediate superior for approval.
That approval had never been given, and
Wainwright was understandably anxious to
have it. On 13 April, therefore, he raised
the subject again in a message to MacArthur. The President, he reminded MacArthur, had stated in his original dispatch that
it was to be forwarded if he, MacArthur,
concurred. Since he had not yet heard from
MacArthur on the subject, Wainwright
wrote, he could not avoid the conclusion
that MacArthur did not approve of the new
orders. The President, Wainwright asserted,
"appears to leave to my discretion the decision which I must ultimately make. ... If
I am not correct in this assumption I hope
you will so advise me." 8
General MacArthur's reply left no doubt
that he considered Wainwright free now to
make his own decisions. He explained why
he had not transmitted the original dispatch,
and then went on to say that the President's
later message "came direct to you . . . and
now gives you complete authority to use
your own judgment." 9 MacArthur's reply
put an end to the correspondence on Wainwright's instructions. The final decision was
his, and three weeks later, when he decided
to surrender, he did so entirely on his own
responsibility.
The Surrender of Corregidor
eral Homma "or the present commander in

chief of the Imperial Japanese Forces on
Luzon." The message was from General
Wainwright and it contained his offer to
surrender.10
At about the same time that Beebe was
reading Wainwright's message to Homma,
the radio operator was flashing a message
in code to General Sharp on Mindanao.
This message represented Wainwright's last

desperate effort to salvage what he could
from defeat. In it he released to General
Sharp's command all forces in the Philippines, except those on the four fortified
islands in Manila Bay, and instructed Sharp
to report to General MacArthur immediately for orders. "I believe," he told Sharp,
"you will understand the motive behind this
order."11
Wainwright's motive was clear; it was
simply an effort to surrender as few men as
possible. By relinquishing command of all
troops except those in the Harbor Defenses,

Wainwright hoped to persuade General
Homma to accept the view that since the
troops in the south were not under his control he could not properly be held responsible for their surrender. Had he known of
General King's failure to persuade the Japanese to accept the surrender of the Luzon
Force, Wainwright might well have hesitated before risking the success of the surrender negotiations by so transparent a ruse.
The message Beebe read that morning,
therefore, offered the surrender only of the

At 1030 on the morning of 6 May Gen- four islands in Manila Bay, "together with
eral Beebe stepped up to the microphone of all military and naval personnel and all
the "Voice of Freedom" and in tired but
10
The message is printed in its entirety in Wainclear tones read a message addressed to Gen- wright,
8

11
Apr
42, AG
384.1, GHQto SWPA.
Rad,
Wainwright
Sharp, 6 May 42, Sharp
9
Rad, MacArthur to Wainwright, 14 Apr 42, AG
241, GHQ SWPA.
Papers. The Sharp Papers consist of two envelopes

of messages and miscellaneous records belonging to
the general and turned over to the author by Mrs.
Sharp on Sharp's death. They are on file in OCMH.

existing stores and equipment," by noon of
the 6th. At that time the white flag would
be run up over Corregidor and its garrison
as well as those of the other islands would
cease fire, unless the Japanese attempted a
landing in force. The message also covered
in detail arrangements for a meeting between Wainwright and the Japanese commander. At noon, "if all of your firing and
aerial bombardment has ceased," Beebe
told the Japanese, Wainwright would send
two staff officers by boat to Cabcaben to
meet Homma's representative. This Japanese officer should be empowered to name
the time and place of meeting of the two
commanders. When these details had been
settled and the American officer had returned to Corregidor, Wainwright would
proceed to the designated point and there
make the formal surrender to General
Homma.12
When General Beebe completed the reading of the surrender message, it was broadcast in Japanese. No reply was received and
the Japanese gave no indication that they
had heard either broadcast. Shells from
Bataan continued to fall on Corregidor and
the Japanese troops on the island, who had
been instructed to disregard a flag of truce
and to attack until directed otherwise by
14th Army headquarters, continued their
advance toward the east entrance of Malin12
121. The account of the surrender is based upon the
following sources: Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story, pp. 119-40; USA vs. Homma, Prosecution Exhibits 418 and 419 for Depositions of
Gens Wainwright and Moore, pp. 2364-2409 for
testimony of Lt Col John R. Pugh, pp. 3082-88,
3094-95, 3173-86, 3214-20 for testimony of
Homma, pp. 2468-73 for testimony of Gen Wachi,
p. 2590 for testimony of Nakajima; Questionnaire
Dealing with Phil Opns, 5 Aug 49, ATIS Doc
49692; Statement of Col Motoo Nakayama, 26 Aug
49, ATIS Doc 50246; Leon M. Guerrero, "The Fall
of Corregidor," Philippine Review (July 1943).
565
ta Tunnel. At 1100 and again at 1145 the
message was rebroadcast, in English and
Japanese, but still there was no reply.
Promptly at noon, the white flag was hoisted
over the highest point of the island and the
troops on the four islands ceased fire.13
During the morning all arms larger than
.45-caliber had been destroyed. The marines, misreading the order, had begun to
smash their small arms as well, and others
had followed suit until an officer had halted
the destruction. All classified papers and
maps had been torn or burned and lay in
shreds and ashes on the floor of the tunnel.
The codes and radio equipment had been
smashed beyond recognition and the treasury of the Commonwealth Government re-
duced to trash. It took Col. John R. Vance,

the finance officer, and his assistants several
hours to cut up with scissors more than two
million pesos. By noon, when the destruction
was completed, Malinta Tunnel presented
a scene of "unbelievable disorder, congestion, and confusion." 14
The men in the tunnel had reached the

end of their physical and mental resources.
They were dirty, hungry, and completely
exhausted. Some reacted violently to the
order to destroy their arms and swore with
bitter vehemence, but most were too tired
to have any feelings at all. The quartermaster lateral had been thrown open and
each man took what he wanted and went
off to a quiet corner to eat his last meal
before the Japanese moved in. Some lay
13
Other flags were raised at the entrances to
Malinta Tunnel. USA vs. Homma, Prosecution Exhibit 418, Deposition of Gen Moore. In international
law, the white flag indicates only a desire to communicate with the enemy; it does not require the
enemy to cease fire. FM 27-10, Rules of Land Warfare, p. 62.
14
Col William C. Braly, The Hard Way Home
(Washington, 1947), p. 5. See also Wainwright,
566
down and went to sleep; others stared vacantly into space. "Such a sad, sad
day . . .," wrote Mrs. Williams. "I can't
tell you just how terrible this is." 15
When the Japanese failed to reply to the
noon broadcast or to honor the flag of truce,
Wainwright was faced with the terrible
threat of the total destruction of his now defenseless force. He made one last effort at
Within an hour after his departure Clark

was back in Malinta Tunnel with the Japanese message. Immediately, General Wainwright, accompanied by General Moore and
his aides, with Clark acting as guide, went
forward toward the enemy lines. It was now
1400.17 The party rode in a sedan as far as
Denver Hill, then ascended the ridge on
foot. Near the summit they were met by an
1230 to reach the Japanese commander by English-speaking Japanese lieutenant and a
radio, but the result was the same as before. colonel, who, Wainwright correctly guessed,
There was only one method left by which was a staff officer.
he could establish contact with General
What the Americans did not know was
Hommato send an officer forward under that the Japanese colonel was Nakayama,
a white flag to the enemy lines to make ar- General Homma's senior operations officer
rangements with the local enemy com- and the man who had accepted General
mander. For this difficult and dangerous King's surrender. Homma had sent him to
assignment Wainwright selected a Marine Corregidor the night before with orders to
officer, Capt. Golland L. Clark, Jr. With a bring General Wainwright to him only if
flag bearer, a musician, and an interpreter, the American was ready to surrender all his
18
Captain Clark set out shortly before 1300, troops. It is not surprising therefore that
during a lull in the battle. As the group when Wainwright explained that he wished
passed through the American lines, the to surrender only the four islands in Manila
music sounded out and the flag bearer Bay, Nakayama replied with "an angry
waved his white standard, a sheet tied to a torrent of Japanese," the gist of which was
pole. The Japanese allowed them to march that any surrender would have to include
through no man's land without interference, all forces in the Philippines. "In that case,"
and in due time Captain Clark was taken to replied Wainwright, "I will deal only with
a colonel he believed to be the troop com- General Homma and with no one of less
19
mander on Corregidor. To him he explained rank." Nakayama thereupon agreed to
that General Wainwright was seeking a take him to Bataan.
Nakayama's ready agreement to Waintruce and wished to discuss the terms of surwright's
request for a conference with Genrender with General Homma. The Japanese
officer, after consulting his superiors on
17
Bataan, told Captain Clark that if Wainwright would come to his headquarters he
would make arrangements to send him to
Bataan.16
p. 2.
16
15
Part
4, Marine'The
Corps
Gazette
1942),
p.
Williams,
Baldwin,
The
Last
Fourth
Days
Marines
of(February
Corregidor,
at Corregidor,"
Supp.,
43; Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story, p.
124.
There is little agreement on time in the sources.

The discrepancies cannot be settled by personal
interviews, since the participants, under the stress
of the moment, had no clear conception of when
things happened. The author has reconciled as far
as possible the time given by the Americans with
that of the Japanese to account for the known
sequence of events.
18
Homma, and p. 2529, testimony of Wachi.
19
125.
567
eral Homma was based on fresh instructions

from 14th Army headquarters. The news
that a white flag had been raised over Corregidor had reached Homma about 1230.
Apparently he had not heard the Beebe
broadcasts, and this was the first intimation
he had of Wainwright's desire to surrender.20
Not long after, Nakayama, who was probably the officer Captain Clark talked with,
had reported that Wainwright wished to
see General Homma to arrange for the surrender of his force. At that time he was
instructed to bring the American commander to Bataan.21 When he met Wainwright
shortly after 1400, therefore, the question
of whether Homma would talk to the
American had already been settled. Nakayama's only task was to make arrangements
for the journey.
At the outset, Nakayama agreed to follow
the arrangements made by the Americans.
The boat set aside to take Wainwright to
Bataan was docked on the south side of the
island, and Lt. Col. John R. Pugh, the general's senior aide, went back to bring the
armored barge finally arrived and, after

some difficulty in embarking, the group
reached Cabcaben at about 1600.
On the dock when Wainwright stepped
out was Maj. William Lawrence, his administrative assistant. He had made the journey
to Bataan with General Beebe, Colonel
Pugh, and Sgt. Hubert Carroll, Wainwright's orderly, in the boat originally selected for the trip. The others had gone forward to find Wainwright, but Lawrence
had remained behind with the boat and now
accompanied the general and Dooley to the
meeting place, a house about three quarters
of a mile to the north. There they were
joined by Beebe, Pugh, and Carroll.22
For almost a half hour the six Americans
waited tensely on the open porch of the
house, facing Manila Bay, a short distance
away. It was a windy day and from the
beach rose a dense cloud of sand and dust.
The only Japanese who approached was an
orderly who brought cold water, which they
accepted gratefully. Finally a group of pho-
boat around to the north dock. Wainwright
ordered to line up on the lawn to have their
tographers arrived and the Americans were
also sent General Moore back to the tunnel

"to look after things in his absence," and
with him went his aide and Captain Clark.
With his remaining aide, Maj. Thomas
Dooley, Wainwright set out with Nakayama
and the interpreter along the road to the
north dock to meet Colonel Pugh. They had
not gone far when they came under fire from
Japanese artillery. Nakayama refused to go
any further and insisted that they turn back.
Wainwright had no choice but to agree and
Nakayama led the group to Cavalry Point
where Japanese troops were still debarking
and sent out a call to Bataan for a boat. An
pictures taken. They were still there at 1700

when General Homma drove up in a Cadillac, saluted with a vague flourish of the
hand, and strode up to the porch. Behind
him were his principal staff officers, correspondents, and more photographers. The
Americans followed silently.
The contrast between the two rival commanders on the porch was striking. Unlike
most Japanese, General Homma was a large
man, about five feet ten inches in height,
barrel-chested and heavy-set, weighing close
to two hundred pounds. His manner was assured and his bearing erect. His regulation
20
USA vs. Homma, pp. 3173, 3176-77, testimony olive drab uniform, with white shirt open
of Homma, and p. 2468, testimony of Wachi.

21
Statement of Nakayama, 26 Aug 49, ATIS Doc
50246.
22
USA vs. Homma, Prosecution Exhibits 418 and
419, Depositions of Moore and Wainwright.
568
THE MEETING OF WAINWRIGHT AND HOMMA
at the collar, was fresh and crisp. Pinned to

his chest were several rows of brightly colored decorations and ribbons, and at his side
hung a sword. General Wainwright, who
had earned the nickname "Skinny" long before he had undergone the privations of
Bataan and Corregidor, was over six feet
tall, but weighed only about 160 pounds.
He was "thin as a crane," observed one of
the Japanese correspondents, and "made a
pathetic figure against the massive form of
General Homma." 23 His uniform, the best
he had, consisted of khaki shirt and trousers;
he wore no decorations and carried only a
bamboo cane to support a trick knee. In his
eyes and in the deep lines etched in his face
could be read the story of the withdrawal
from Lingayen Gulf, the long, drawn-out
23
The source of this quotation is unknown. It appears in a Japanese propaganda book and was copied
by a colleague who neglected to note the title and
has since forgotten the location.
siege of Bataan, and the terrific bombardment of Corregidor.

On the porch was a long table around
which chairs had been placed. Homma took
a seat in the center, facing the open side,
and motioned his officers to sit down. General Wachi, 14th Army chief of staff, took
the seat on Homma's right, Nakayama the
one on his left; the others filling in the
spaces beyond. To the rear, between Homma and Nakayama, stood the interpreter.
On the American side of the table were
five officers, with Wainwright in the center,
opposite Homma. To his left were General
Beebe and Major Dooley; to his right Colonel Pugh and Major Lawrence. Behind
the Japanese were their war correspondents,
photographers, and newsreel camera men.
The meeting opened as soon as everyone
was seated, without any exchange of courtesies. Wainwright made the first move by

reaching into his pocket for his formal
signed surrender note which he tendered to
the Japanese commander.24 Although General Homma could read and speak English,
he did not look at the paper but turned it
over to his interpreter to be read aloud in
Japanese for the benefit of the other Japanese officers present. After it was read,
Homma stated through the interpreter that
the surrender would not be accepted unless
it included all American and Philippine
troops in the Islands. To this Wainwright
replied that he commanded only the harbor
defense troops. "Tell him," he said to the
interpreter, "that the troops in the Visayan
Islands and on Mindanao are no longer under my command. They are commanded by
General Sharp, who in turn is under General
MacArthur's high command." 25
Homma refused to believe Wainwright's
explanation. Repeatedly, he pointed out, the
American radio had named Wainwright as
commander of all troops in the Philippines.
He had even seen, he said, the general order
announcing Wainwright's assumption of
command. Wainwright stubbornly insisted
that the Visayan-Mindanao Force was no
longer under his control. Shrewdly, Homma
asked when he had released Sharp from
his command. "Several days ago," Wainwright answered, adding that even if he did
command the troops in the south he had no
way of communicating with them. Homma
brushed this argument aside easily. "Send a
24
General Homma denied at his trial, and he was
supported by his chief of staff, that the document
was handed to him or read. USA vs. Homma, p.
3181. Wainwright's version is in General Wainwright's Story, pages 130-32, and in USA vs.
Homma, Prosecution Exhibit 419, Deposition of
General Wainwright.
25
131.
569
staff officer to Sharp," he replied. "I will
furnish a plane." 26
The argument over command continued
several minutes more but Wainwright would
not budge from his position, asserting repeatedly that he did not have the authority
to surrender the Visayan-Mindanao Force.
Finally Homma rose, looked down at Wainwright, and said, "At the time of General
King's surrender in Bataan I did not see
him. Neither have I any reason to see you
if you are only the commander of a
unit ... I wish only to negotiate with my
equal. . . ." 27 He seemed ready to leave.
Wainwright was in no position to bargain. Uppermost in his mind was the
thought that the troops on Corregidor were
disarmed and helpless. If Homma refused
now to accept his surrender, these men faced
certain death. After a hurried conference
with Beebe and Pugh, he agreed to surrender the entire Philippine garrison.28
General Homma now refused to accept the
surrender. "You have denied your authority . . .," he told Wainwright, "I advise
you to return to Corregidor and think the
matter over. If you see fit to surrender, then
surrender to the commanding officer of the
division on Corregidor. He in turn will bring
you to me in Manila." 29 With these words
Homma left the meeting.
26
27
Ibid.
Uno, Corregidor: Isle of Delusion, p. 25. Uno

was present at the meeting. His account does not
agree with Wainwright's at this point, but it is supported by Lt. Col. Yoshio Nakajima, an operations
officer on the 14th Army staff. USA vs. Homma, p.
2590, testimony of Nakayima.
28
Uno, Corregidor: Isle of Delusion, p. 25.
Neither Wainwright nor Homma agree on this point.
The author has accepted Uno's version because he
was a bilingual observer and was not under the same
strain as the participants. His account is not unsympathetic to the American cause.
29
Ibid., pp. 25-26.
570
After General Homma's departure,
Wainwright offered his unconditional surrender to Colonel Nakayama, who had remained behind to take the Americans back
to Corregidor. He agreed also to send one
of his officers to Mindanao in a Japanese
plane to persuade Sharp to surrender. "But
in the back of my mind," he explained later,
"was the strong hope that some way would
still be found to avert the surrender of all
forces." 30
Colonel Nakayama refused to accept
Wainwright's proposal and told him he
would have to wait until he reached Corregidor. Homma's instructions, he explained, authorized only the commander of
the Japanese forces on Corregidor to accept
the surrender.31 He then took the Americans
back to Cabcaben by car and thence by boat
to Corregidor, where they arrived late in the
evening of 6 May.
The trip across the channel had been a
long and stormy one, but not long enough
for Wainwright to find a way out of his
dilemma. MacArthur, he knew, expected
Sharp's force to continue the fight as guerrillas and to keep alive resistance on Mindanao. He had done his best to achieve this
aim, and Sharp was now free to conduct
guerrilla operations. "But each time I
thought of continued organized resistance
on Mindanao," Wainwright recalled, "I
thought, too, of the perilous position of close
to 11,000 men and the wounded and nurses
and civilians on Corregidor." 32 The lives of
these men and women might well be the
price of Sharp's freedom.
The dilemma in which Wainwright
30
133.
31
Uno, Corregidor: Isle of Delusion, p. 26. Uno
acted as interpreter on this occasion.
32
133.

found himself might perhaps have been
avoided had the organization which MacArthur established for the Philippines before his departure from Corregidor been retained. At that time, it will be remembered,
he had established four forces: the Visayan
Force, the Mindanao Force, the Luzon
Force, and the Harbor Defenses. It was his
intention then to exercise command over
these forces from his headquarters in Australia through his deputy, General Beebe,
on Corregidor. The War Department had
changed this arrangement, and placed
Wainwright in command of all forces in the
Philippines.
At the time this decision was made, the
reasons for overruling MacArthur and establishing the directing headquarters for
operations in the Philippines on Corregidor
had seemed compelling in Washington.33
But if there had been no such headquarters,
the Japanese would have had no alternative
but to accept the surrender of each force
when it was defeated on the field of battle.
It is difficult to imagine on what basis they
could have insisted that General MacArthur in Australia surrender all four forces
in the Philippines. Nor was there any means,
short of a direct threat of reprisals, by which
they could force MacArthur to consider
such a proposal. Even if they had followed
the same procedure as on Bataan, where
General King was told that he had not
surrendered but had been captured, the
effect would have been the same as the
separate surrender of all four forces.
Wainwright could not consistently maintain his right to surrender only a portion of
his force on the pretext that the remainder
was no longer under his command. His
presence on Corregidor and his well-recog33
See above, Chapter XX, for a discussion of this
decision.

nized position as commander of all forces
in the Philippines made him especially
vulnerable to pressure from the Japanese.
Perhaps it was to avoid just such a situation
that MacArthur established the organization he did, and in this desire may lie the
true meaning of his cryptic explanations at
the time to General Marshall that he had
made these arrangements because of "the
special problems involved," and the "intangibles of the situation in the Philip-
pines."34
571
ment to avoid the useless slaughter of the
already defeated Americans and Filipinos
was a demand that the tunnel be cleared
in ten minutes, an obvious impossibility.
After some bickering, during which the
principals' words had to be translated first
into Russian and then English or Japanese,
it was agreed that the men could remain
in the tunnel but that a lane would be
cleared down the center.
When the two Japanese officers left,
In the time between General Wainwright's departure from Corregidor and his
return late that night, much had happened
on the island. The Japanese had filtered
around Malinta Hill, cutting it off from the
rest of the island, and entered the tunnel
by way of the east entrance. By about 1600
they had cleared out all Americans and
Filipinos, except the hospital patients and
staff officers, and were in complete possession of the tunnel. 35 Later that night, in
accordance with their original plan, the
Japanese had landed additional troops on
the island.
The task of clearing the tunnel had not
been an easy one. In the absence of Moore
and Wainwright, General Drake, the
USFIP quartermaster, had sent his assistant, Lt. Col. Theodore Kalakuka, who
spoke Russian, to contact the commander
of the approaching enemy force at about
1400. Ten minutes later Kalakuka had returned with a Japanese major and a Rus-
Drake ordered the men against the walls

and into the laterals, leaving as wide an
open space as possible along the main tunnel. A short time later, the Japanese returned with about twenty men, equipped
with flame throwers, demolition charges,
and rifles. After a quick inspection, the two
officers went through to the west entrance
to stop the firing there. Other Japanese
troops then entered and at bayonet point
marched the docile Americans and Filipinos out of the tunnel.36
There was little Wainwright could do on
his return to Corregidor late on the night of
the 6th but surrender under the terms dictated by the Japanese. He could see the
enemy's campfires all over the island and
as he approached the tunnel he saw that it
was already in enemy hands. There was no
point in further delay and without waiting to
complete the journey he asked Nakayama
to take him to the local Japanese commander. His guides led him around Malinta
Hill to the barrio of San Jose, and there,
sian-speaking lieutenant. The major's response to Drake's request for an arrange-
in the ruined market place, he met his oppo-
34

35
42,
Brig.
WDCSA
Gen. 320
Charles
(3-21-42)
C. Drake,
Phil."I Surrendered
Corregidor," Collier's, January 8, 1949, p. 12;
36
interv,
author
Drake, 11
Mar 48. Drake's
acDrake,
"I with
Surrendered
Corregidor,"
Collier's,
count is contradicted at some points by other senior
officers. Ltr, Moore to author, 19 May 49, OCMH.
nent, Colonel Sato, commander of the 61st

Infantry.
January 8, 1949, p. 12; interv, author with Drake,
11 Mar 48. A longer manuscript version of General
Drake's article, prepared at the request of the
author, is in OCMH.
572
There was no discussion of terms. The
surrender was unconditional and the document drawn up by the two men contained
all the provisions Homma had insisted upon.
Wainwright agreed to surrender all forces in
the Philippines, including those in the Visayas and on Mindanao, within four days. All
local commanders were to assemble their
troops in designated areas and then report to
the nearest Japanese commander. Nothing
was to be destroyed and heavy arms and
equipment were to be kept intact. "Japanese
Army and Navy," read the closing paragraphs, "will not cease their operations until
they recognize faithfulness in executing the
above-mentioned orders. If and when such
faithfulness is recognized, the commander in
chief of Japanese forces in the Philippines
will order 'cease fire' after taking all circumstances into consideration." 37
It was midnight by the time the job was
finished and the surrender document signed.

Wainwright was then taken, under guard
and through groups of captured Americans
and Filipinos, to Malinta Tunnel, which by
now was full of Japanese troops. After a
brief conversation with General Moore, to
whom he explained the reasons for his decision, he went to the small whitewashed
room he had inherited from General MacArthur. With him was his aide and outside
a Japanese sentry. Exhausted and humiliated, he threw himself down on his narrow
cot. He, had not slept and had hardly eaten
since the terrible Japanese bombardment of
the 5th. But sleep would not come easily.
Though he had done all that he could, the
forced surrender lay heavily on his mind. No
man could be expected to endure more than
he and his men had. This the President had
39
37
This
letter is published
entirety,
The surrender
document inis its
printed
in itsibid.,
entirety in Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story,
p. 135-36.

told him in the message received only a few
hours before he had gone forward to surrender. Now, in the bitterest moment of his
life, he could turn to the consolation of that
message from his Commander in Chief:
In spite of all the handicaps of complete
isolation, lack of food and ammunition you
have given the world a shining example of
patriotic fortitude and self-sacrifice.
The American people ask no finer example

of tenacity, resourcefulness,
and steadfast
courage. The calm determination of your personal leadership in a desperate situation sets a
standard of duty for our soldiers throughout
the world.38
Promptly on the morning of 7 May Homma's intelligence officer, Lt. Col. Hikaru
Haba, called on General Wainwright to discuss measures required to fulfill the terms of
the surrender agreement. The most important step toward carrying out these terms
was for Wainwright to reassume command
of the Visayan-Mindanao Force and order

General Sharp to surrender. Since he could
not be sure that a direct order would accomplish this purpose, Wainwright decided to
send Col. Jesse T. Traywick, his operations
officer, to Mindanao with a letter explaining
what had happened. In it he directed General Sharp to surrender the troops under his
command and to pass on to General MacArthur the text of the letter and any other
instructions given him by Colonel Traywick.
"However, let me re-emphasize," he
warned, "that there must be on your part
no thought of disregarding these instructions. Failure to fully and honestly carry
them out can have only the most disastrous
results."39
The Japanese had still one more humiliation in store for General Wainwright. When
38
Quoted in full, ibid., p. 118.
p. 140.
573
GENERAL WAINWRIGHT BROADCASTING surrender

Station KZRH, 7 May 1942.
the letter was completed, Colonel Haba announced that the general would go to Manila that afternoon to broadcast the surrender instructions. General Wainwright objected strenuously, but finally gave in when
he realized that it would give Sharp an additional twenty-four hours to make his preparations and to inform General MacArthur
of the situation.40 At 1700, when Haba
called for him, he was ready. Accompanied
by five of his staff officers he left for Manila,
40
Ibid., p.after
140. many delays, shortly before
arriving,
instructions over
midnight. He was then taken directly to

Radio Station KZRH where, in a voice
husky with suppressed emotion, he broadcast the terms of the surrender to General
Sharp, Col. John P. Horan, and Col. Guillermo Nakar, the last of whom commanded
small detachments in northern Luzon.41
The next morning, 8 May, Colonel Traywick, accompanied by Haba, left by plane
41
The text of this broadcast can be found in
Visayan-Mindanao Force Report of Operations,

pages 87-91. It was received in San Francisco by
commercial radio and relayed to the War Department.
574
for Mindanao. Col. Nicoll F. Galbraith,

Wainwright's supply officer, carried the
same message for Horan, and Kalakuka
went in search of Nakar.
Colonel Galbraith achieved a limited success in his mission. Horan had heard Wainwright's broadcast and had immediately
which continued in existence as a guerrilla

force.43
Meanwhile the Japanese had been having
difficulty in other areas. On Palawan and
in southern Luzon small detachments still
persisted in offering resistance. The Japanese came to General Wainwright on 12
sent one of his officers to confer with the

Japanese commander in the area. This officer returned with the information that Colonel Galbraith was in Bontoc with surrender
orders. On the 14th Horan surrendered personally and ordered his troops to assemble
in preparation for surrender. But the men
came in slowly, and Galbraith, with another
American and a few Japanese officers, went
into the mountains to try to round them up.
Only a small portion of the troops surrendered. The rest remained in hiding, to become later the nucleus of one of the guerrilla forces in northern Luzon.42
Colonel Kalakuka's mission was even less
successful in securing the surrender of
Nakar's force, whose actual commander was
Lt. Col. Everett L. Warner. General Wainwright had addressed his message to Nakar,
the executive officer, rather than to Warner
whose whereabout he did not know. The
command arrangement in this group was
extremely confused and apparently there
was jealousy between the two men. Thus,
when Kalakuka appeared on the scene he
heard conflicting stories. Nakar refused to
surrender, but Warner, with a small group
of American officers, followed General
Wainwright's orders. The bulk of the force
remained in the mountains, and those who
evaded the Japanese were organized into the
14th Infantry (PA) under Colonel Nakar,
May and asked him why these forces had

not surrendered, and why Colonels Horan
and Nakar had not been heard from. He
and his men, he was told, could not be considered prisoners of war until all opposition
had ceased.44 Nothing further could be done
about the forces in northern Luzon, but to
end the resistance in southern Luzon General Wainwright sent Colonel Pugh and two
Filipino officers to Legaspi. They succeeded
in halting hostilities there, and the Constabulary on Palawan surrendered without
further difficulty.45
45
42
Ibid.;
Ltr, Horan
General
to Wainwright,
Wainwright's 24
Story,
Jun p.42,147.
copy in
OCMH.
Surrender in the South

The story of the surrender of the VisayanMindanao Force is an even stranger one
than that which preceded it. In the south
few of the commanders were so hard pressed
as to be incapable of further resistance and
none had any desire to surrender. The Japanese had landed on only three islands. On
two of these, Cebu and Panay, the local commanders had pulled back to well-stocked
43
Hist of the Guerrilla Resistance Movement in
P.I., Mil Intel Sec, GHQ SWPA, Ch. VI; Affidavit
of Capt Warren A. Minton, copy in Chunn Notebooks. Colonel Nakar was captured on 29 September 1942. Colonel Kalakuka died of malaria on
30 October, while he was still working with the
Japanese to secure the surrender of the guerrillas.
OCMH.
44
575
and comparatively safe retreats in the mountains, from where they hoped to wage guerrilla warfare for an indefinite period. Any
effort to drive them from these strongholds
would involve the Japanese in a long and
expensive campaign. On Mindanao, where
the Japanese had committed larger forces
and scored more important gains than elsewhere in the south, General Sharp's troops
had been defeated, but elements of his force
were still intact and capable of continuing
organized resistance. Plans for their withdrawal to the more remote portions of the
island, out of reach of the enemy, had already been made and the sector commanders were ready to put these plans into execution on orders from General Sharp.
On the morning of 6 May General Sharp
received two messages. The first was the one
in which Wainwright relinquished command of the Visayan-Mindanao Force and
directed Sharp to report to MacArthur for
orders. The second was from General MacArthur who, on learning of the surrender
of Corregidor and without knowledge of
Wainwright's instructions to Sharp, immediately ordered the commander of the
Visayan-Mindanao Force to "communicate
all matters direct to me." 46 With this dispatch MacArthur assumed command of the
Visayan-Mindanao Force.
The first intimation Sharp had of Wainwright's intention to reassume command
came from the latter's radio broadcast on
midnight of the 7th. He immediately repeated the gist of the broadcast, which directed him in unmistakable terms to surrender, to MacArthur and asked for further in-
structions. The reply from Melbourne came

promptly: "Orders emanating from General Wainwright have no validity. If possible separate your force into small elements
and initiate guerrilla operations. You, of
course, have full authority to make any decision that immediate emergency may demand." 47 At the same time, MacArthur informed the Chief of Staff of Wainwright's
broadcast and of his own orders to Sharp.
"I believe Wainwright has temporarily become unbalanced," he concluded, "and his
condition renders him susceptible of enemy
use." 48
When General MacArthur made this
judgment he was probably unaware of the
circumstances which had dictated Wainwright's course of action during and after
the surrender of Corregidor. He could not
have realized that it was the fear of what
would happen to the 11,000 men on Corregidor which had forced Wainwright to accept Homma's terms. Wainwright believed,
as did many of the American officers on his
staff, that the Japanese would kill their prisoners in cold blood if the commanders in the
south did not surrender.49
There is no direct evidence that the Japanese actually made such a threat. In 1946,
during the course of the Homma trial,
Colonel Pugh stated that he had no personal
knowledge that a threat had been made.
But he added that General Wainwright
certainly believed his men would be killed
46
Rads, MacArthur to Sharp, No. 167, 6 May 42,
and Sharp to MacArthur, 0415/Z/7, 7 May 42,
both in AG 384.1, GHQ SWPA.
the Swiss Government, they had agreed to adhere
47
Rad, MacArthur to Sharp, No. 676, 9 May 42,
AG48 384.1, GHQ SWPA.
Rad, MacArthur to Marshall, No. 677, 9 May
AG 384.1, GHQ SWPA.
49
The Japanese were not a signatory to the
Geneva Convention, but in February 1942, through
to the provisions relating to prisoners of war, reserving the right to make changes when necessary.
576
if Sharp did not surrender.50 On the same
occasion Wainwright testified that the Japanese told him they did not regard the
Americans as prisoners of war but as hostages, "held to insure the success of the
negotiations with forces in the south. . . ."
"My principal concern," he said then, "was
for fear that they would do what they said
they would do; that is, slaughter all those
people in the fortified islands unless the
troops all over the Archipelago surrendered." 51
Added to the threat, real or imagined,
of what might happen to these men, practically all of whom were concentrated in a
small area on the beach at Corregidor, was
the threat reported to have been made to
the men on Corregidor. For every day that
the surrender was delayed, they were told,
ten American officers would be executed.
Wainwright admits he did not know of this
threat at the time, and if made it was
certainly never carried out.52
General Sharp's position on 8 May was
not an enviable one. First Wainwright had
released him and now sought to reassert his
control. He had reported to MacArthur
and from him had received complete authority to act on his own judgment. His
legal right to ignore Wainwright's reassump50
USA vs. Homma, p. 2386, testimony of Pugh.
General Drake states that he never heard such a
threat made and never had the impression that the

Japanese would kill their prisoners if Sharp did not
surrender. "There was no cause to give me such an
impression," he states. "Also, I never heard it
voiced by anyone." Drake, Comments on Draft MS,
Comment 28, OCMH.
51
USA vs. Homma, Prosecution Exhibit 419, Deposition of Wainwright. Homma denied this in his
testimony, and Wachi stated that the Americans
were treated as captives rather than as prisoners of
war until an order came from Imperial General
53
54
Headquarters
inof
August
Ibid.,
2529,
3189.
V-MF
Interv, Rpt
author
Opns,
with 1942.
Col
pp. Robert
61,
92;pp.
D.
Tarkington,
Johnston,
52
USAFFE-USFIP Rpt of Opns, p. 92; Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story, pp. 145-48.

tion of command and order to surrender
was undeniable. But from the Manila
broadcast he had received some intimation
of the possible consequences of such a
course. He decided, therefore, to await the
promised arrival of Wainwright's emissary,
Colonel Traywick, before making his decision. In the meantime, in accordance with
MacArthur's instructions, he released from
his control the island commanders in his
force and directed them to prepare for
guerrilla operations.
Colonel Traywick and Colonel Haba
reached Mindanao by plane on the 9th and
arranged a meeting with Sharp for the following day. At daybreak of the 10th hostilities were suspended temporarily, and
during the afternoon Colonel Traywick,
with Haba and several other Japanese officers, met General Sharp at his headquarters
at Malaybalay on the Sayre Highway.53
Traywick delivered Wainwright's letter and
told Sharp the circumstances which had led
to its preparation. He made clear that if the
Visayan-Mindanao Force was not surrendered, the Japanese would probably reject the terms already agreed upon and
would open fire on the prisoners on Corregidor. It was this threat that forced General Sharp to capitulate.54
General Sharp's decision to surrender
placed him in exactly the same position
There Were Others, pp. 390-96.
G-4 V-MF, 15 Apr 47, OCMH. Although Colonel
Johnston was not present at the meeting between
Sharp and Traywick, he was told about it many
times by Sharp, while in prison camp. General
Sharp, now deceased, never expressed officially the
view that the threat was the reason for his decision
to surrender. General Wainwright, in a letter to
the author, stated that Sharp's position was hopeless and that he would have had to surrender very
shortly in any case. Ltr, Wainwright to author,
14 Jan 49, OCMH.
577
Wainwright had been in on 7 May. He now

had to reassume command of the officers
he had released for guerrilla operations the
day before. This he did on 10 May in a clear
text messagehe had destroyed his codes
to give up their freedom. Communication

between the islands was poor and it would
rescinding his earlier instructions and directing his subordinate commanders to cease
all operations at once, stack arms, and raise
the white flag. One of his staff officers, he
told them, would soon arrive with written
orders and with detailed instructions. These
The detailed instructions to each commander were sent by courier on the 11th.
In each case the commander was directed
to assemble his men at a designated point
and at a certain time. General Chynoweth,
for example, was to bring his men to the
orders, he concluded, were "imperative and
northern outskirts of Cebu City; Christie to

Iloilo City, and Colonel Cornell, commander of the Leyte-Samar Force, to Taclo-
must be carried out in order to save further
bloodshed." 55 Later that night, at 1915, he
be some time before the last troops laid

down their arms. Until then the fate of the
Corregidor garrison hung in the balance.
announced his decision to General Mac- ban and Catbalogan. Land mines and other
Arthur. "I have seen Wainwright's staff explosives that might cause injury or damofficer," he explained, "and have with- age to the Japanese were to be removed
drawn my order releasing commanders on within twenty-four hours, and those that
other islands and directed complete sur- could not be removed were to be plainly
render. Dire necessity alone has prompted marked. All commanders were warned
this action." 56
It was with great relief that General
Wainwright heard from Colonel Traywick
when that officer returned to Manila on 11
against the destruction of military or civilian

property and urged to accord the Japanese
"courteous and prompt obedience."58
The surrender on Mindanao was genMay that General Sharp had decided to erally without incident, although here, as
place his forces again under Wainwright's elsewhere, a large number of troops precommand and to accept the order to sur- ferred to leave their units rather than berender. This decision, he believed, averted a come prisoners. Colonel Chastaine, unable
massacre and saved the Corregidor garri- to get his regiment to the appointed place in
son.57
time, requested, and presumably secured,
Wainwright's relief was premature. Gen- permission to arrive at a later date. Others
eral Sharp's surrender orders proved far may have had similar difficulties.59 The most
more difficult to enforce than had been anticipated. His troops were scattered among
many islands; most of them were untrained
Filipinos; and those who were safe in their
mountain hide-outs showed no disposition
55
Rad, Sharp to Chynoweth, Hilsman, Cornell,

Chastaine, Blancas, 10 May 42, Sharp Papers,
OCMH.
56
Rad,
Sharp to MacArthur, No. 1, 10 May 42,
Sharp
Papers.
57
145.
striking commentary on the enforced surrender came from General Fort, commander
of the 81st Division (PA), who wrote to
General Sharp: "Many of my officers encouraged me to disobey orders and continueand strange to relate, Filipino and
58
V-MF Rpt of Opns, pp. 99-103. Copy of the
document of surrender is in Sharp Papers. Rad,
Sharp to Chynoweth, Hilsman, Christie, Cornell,
Blancas, 11 May 42, Sharp Papers.
59
Rad, Chastaine to Sharp, No. 1, 13 May 42,
Sharp Papers.
578
Moro officerswhich I'll admit was a temptation as my own small force was undefeated and was growing stronger with the
reorganization which I had undertaken. . . .
I had difficulty in holding some of them true
to discipline." 60
The surrender of Chynoweth's troops on
Cebu was not accomplished as easily as the
surrender of those on Mindanao. Chynoweth had heard Wainwright's surrender
broadcast on 6 May and received General
Sharp's clear text message to surrender four
days later. Reasoning that this order was
either an enemy ruse or that it had been
given at bayonet point, he decided to ignore
it and instructed his communications officer
not to acknowledge this or any further messages.61 He next received a letter from the
commander of the Japanese forces on Cebu
urging immediate surrender to save lives.
Chynoweth acknowledged receipt of the letter but made no move to surrender his force.
During the next two days the two commanders exchanged polite notes without
reaching agreement. The correspondence
came to an end when General Chynoweth
asserted that he did not consider the order
to surrender, "legally binding" since it had
been given under duress. "We do not feel,"
he wrote, "that we can honorably surrender." 62 Copies of the correspondence were
sent to the various units on Cebu, and the
men were told that they could surrender individually if they wished to do so. Only two
Filipinos and two Americans took advantage of this opportunity. General Chyno60
Ltr, Fort to Sharp, no date, V-MF Rpt of Opns,
pp. 285-86. General Fort was later executed by the
Japanese.
61
The account of the surrender on Cebu is based
65 Chynoweth, 61st Div (PA) and Visayan Force
upon
Ibid., p. 36. Up until February 1949 General
Rpt, pp. 33-37, OCMH.
62
Ibid., p. 34.

weth then made plans to move to Panay to
join forces with Colonel Christie.63
On 13 May, while he was making preparations to leave the island, Chynoweth received a written message from Colonel Hilsman, commander on Negros. The message
stated that a courier from General Sharp
was on his way to Cebu to explain the situation to him and to negotiate the surrender.
"That," wrote Chynoweth, "knocked us
into a tail-spin." 64 Knowing that Sharp was
in communication with General MacArthur, he believed that the order to surrender
had been made with MacArthur's consent.
But in the hope that MacArthur might intervene at the last moment and order him to
continue the fight he instructed one of his
men to "freeze on the radio."
Chynoweth could no longer put off the
difficult decision. He did not wish nor did
his situation require him to surrender. But
both Generals Wainwright and Sharp had
directed him to do so. "If MacArthur," he
hoped desperately, "would only tell us now
to hang on." 65 The only word received was
that MacArthur had announced that he no
longer had communications with the Philippines. That night Chynoweth sent word to
the Japanese that he was awaiting a staff
officer from General Sharp's headquarters
and that no action would be taken until his
arrival. He next notified the units under his
command to assemble at a central point,
prepared to surrender.
On 15 May General Sharp's courier arrived in Cebu. He gave Chynoweth the
written terms of surrender, Sharp's order
63
Ltr, Chynoweth to author, 19 Feb 49, OCMH.

Chynoweth, 61st Div ( P A ) and Visayan Force
Rpt, p. 35, OCMH.
64
Chynoweth believed that Sharp's instructions to

surrender had MacArthur's support.

directing surrender, and a letter from Wainwright stating that "on no account were any
commanders to make any attempts to evade
the terms of surrender." The courier also
told Chynoweth that the Japanese had concentrated the Americans on Corregidor
under their guns and would kill them "if
the surrender were not faithfully executed." 66 Chynoweth thereupon decided to
surrender and immediately notified the
Japanese commander of his decision. The
next day he assembled the organized elements of his force and marched down out
of the hills.
Of all the island commanders none was
better prepared for guerrilla operations than
the Panay commander, Colonel Christie.
His forces were comparatively well trained
and organized, his supplies ample, and his
position secure. The Japanese had control
of the road network on the island but
showed little disposition to embark on operations in the interior. Already Christie had
had some success in hit-and-run raids, and
the one attempt at retaliation had ended in
disaster for the Japanese. He had every reason to believe, therefore, that he could hold
out indefinitely.67
Sharp's clear text message of 10 May
directing him to surrender came as a shock
to Colonel Christie. He acknowledged receipt of the order promptly, but expressed
his opposition to it in very strong terms and
questioned General Sharp's authority to
issue such an order. He did not see "even one
small reason" why he should surrender his
force, because "some other unit has gone
to hell or some Corregidor shell-shocked
terms" had been made. "To satisfy me," he
wrote, "I must have MacArthur's okay;
579
otherwise it may be treason." He closed his
message with an appeal to General Sharp
to give him a free hand in dealing with the
enemy on Panay.68
General Sharp refused to accept Christie's
answer and directed him to hoist the white
flag and cease all operations at once. "Your
failure to comply," he warned, "will produce disastrous results." Neither Wainwright's nor his surrender, he explained, had
yet been accepted, and unless all the island
commanders capitulated the Japanese
would resume offensive operations. MacArthur, he told Christie, had been informed
of his actions, and an officer, Colonel
Thayer, was leaving by plane for Panay with
written instructions and a personal message.
He concluded his message with instructions
for an immediate reply "indicating your
compliance and actions." 69
Colonel Christie persisted in refusing to
accept Sharp's order, arguing, first, that it
was unnecessary, second, that it would have
an adverse effect on the civil population,
and third, that he doubted the authority of
either General Wainwright or General
Sharp to order his surrender. He felt that to
comply with Sharp's directions would "tend
toward treason," and questioned whether
the surrender of one island meant the automatic surrender of others. "I strongly urge
you," he told General Sharp, "to have the
approval of the War Department through
MacArthur," adding that he intended to
consult his immediate commander, General
Chynoweth. He closed his message with a
plea. "In this delicate situation please do
not issue me any peremptory orders that will
embarrass or get us into mutual conflict.
68
66
Ibid., p. 37.
67
Interv, author with Col Christie, 6 May 47,

OCMH.
Rad, Christie to Sharp, No. 1, 10 May 42,

Sharp Papers.
69
Rad, Sharp to Christie, 11 May 42, Sharp
Papers.
580
Rather do I want a free hand in carrying

out my mission uninfluenced by any hysteria
inherent in local action. No army surrenders
portions still free, intact, and having a good
chance of helping the general mission. Make
me independent. Do not put me on the sacrifice block." 70
General Sharp did not answer this message. His courier, Colonel Thayer, had already left for Panay to explain the situation
to Colonel Christie. With him, Thayer carried a copy of Wainwright's letter to Sharp
as well as one from Sharp himself. The last
was moderate in tone and reflected a sympathetic understanding of the predicament in
which Christie found himself. "Be it understood," Sharp wrote, "that I have the highest regard for your courageous and resolute
stand. . . . However, developments of the
war make such action utterly impractical
regardless of the capabilities of your forces.
If any other course were open to me I would
most assuredly have taken it." Again he explained that neither Wainwright nor he
were prisoners of war, but both had pledged
the surrender of their forces. Christie was
expected to do the same. That was the only
course of action to take "in the name of
humanity."71
Before Thayer's arrival with the letter,
Christie sent Sharp another message asking
what General MacArthur had said in response to Sharp's surrender message. As a
matter of fact, MacArthur had not replied
to this message at all. By this time Sharp had
lost all patience with Christie. His reply was
a curt order to surrender as directed. "No
further comments from you are desired,"
70

he told Christie. "Acknowledge this message and state actions taken at once." 72
Colonel Thayer finally reached Panay on
18 May. He explained to Christie that acceptance of Wainwright's surrender of
Corregidor was conditional on the surrender
of all forces in the Philippines, and that
Christie's refusal to comply with orders was
jeopardizing the success of the negotiations
and the lives of the 11,000 men on Corregidor. The question Christie had to answer, therefore, was the same one the other
island commanders had to answer: Was the
holding of Panay, or any other island, important enough to justify the death of the
Corregidor prisoners? He decided that it
was not, and made arrangements to
surrender.73
Before he assembled his men, Christie
made one more effort to satisfy himself on
the legality of his course. To each of his
fellow commanders he sent a message explaining what he was doing and why, and
asked each what action he had taken.
Chynoweth had already surrendered, but
Colonel Hilsman, who was having troubles
of his own on Negros, wrote that "we must
surrender or be classed as deserters by our
own country and as outlaws by international
law." 74 That night Colonel Christie informed General Sharp that he had talked
with Thayer and had decided "to comply
faithfully with your orders for the surrender
of my division."75 Two days later he
72
Rads, Christie to Sharp and Sharp to Christie,
18 May 42, Sharp Papers.
73
Interv, author with Christie, 6 May 47,
OCMH.
74
Rad, Hilsman to Christie, 19 May 42. See also
Rad, Christie to Sharp, 12 May 42, Sharp
rad, Christie to CO, Negros, Samar, Leyte, Bohol,
Papers.
71
Ltr, Sharp to Christie, 12 May 42, V-MF Rpt
of Opns, pp. 108-09. Italics are General Sharp's.
19 May 42, Sharp Papers.

75
Rad, Christie to Sharp, 19 May 42, Sharp
Papers.

marched his troops to the Japanese lines.
By that time approximately 90 percent of
his men had vanished into the hills or gone
back to their homes.76
On Leyte and Samar, where there were
no Japanese, Colonel Cornell also refused to
accept General Sharp's message of 10 May
directing the surrender, on the ground that
it had been sent in clear text. He continued
with his plans to break up his force of about
2,500 men to carry on guerrilla operations.
About 20 May General Sharp's courier arrived with written instructions for the surrender, and Colonel Cornell issued orders
to his troops to comply. The Japanese arrived in Tacloban on 24 May and the surrender was effected two days later. Only 11
American officers, 40 Philippine officers,
and 20 Philippine enlisted men surrendered; the rest disappeared into the hills.77
On Negros, where Colonel Hilsman commanded, trouble of a different sort developed. The Japanese had not landed on that
island, and the troops were scattered. Under
the leadership of Col. Carter R. McLennan,

formerly commander on the island and now
executive officer, Negros had been divided
into five sectors and a battalion assigned to
each. Food and ammunition had been distributed equally among the five sectors, and
the battalion commanders had been released
from regimental control to enable them to
operate independently as guerrillas. When
Hilsman received Sharp's radio instructing
him to surrender, he informed the battalion
commanders and civil authorities, but took
no active steps, deciding to wait until he
had received written instructions. On 18
76
Interv, author with Christie, 6 May 47; rpt of
interv with Maj Cledonia Ancheta, CO 2d Bn, 64th
Inf (PA), OCMH.
77
Cornell, Narrative of Events, Hq, Samar-Leyte
Sector, V-MF Rpt of Opns, pp. 498-500.
581
May, Sharp's courier, Lt. Col. Charles I.
Humber, Jr., arrived on Negros with these
instructions. Immediately, the sector commanders were called into conference by
Hilsman and told that if all troops in the
Philippines did not surrender within a specified time, a certain number of the men captured on Corregidor would be executed
each day that the surrender was delayed.78
Although Sharp's instructions required
the commanding officer to go to Iloilo to
arrange for the surrender, Colonel Hilsman
accepted Colonel McLennan's offer to go in
his stead. Accompanied by Humber, McLennan left on the morning of 20 May and
reached Iloilo that night. He was received
aboard a Japanese freighter, loaded with
troops and ready to sail, by Col. Kumataro
Ota, and the next day returned to Negros
with the Japanese. The Japanese ran into
scattered fire when they landed, but had no
difficulty occupying the western coast.79

Meanwhile, Colonel Hilsman had made
every effort to assemble his troops in a central area, but the sector commanders, with
the support of civil authorities, refused to
comply. The situation became more serious
when civilians, as well as some of the troops,
began to loot Japanese and Chinese commercial establishments. News of these events
soon reached Mindanao, and General
Sharp became alarmed. Pointedly, he reminded Hilsman that as local military commander he "must control all civilians and
insure that no incidents of violence or bloodshed occur." 80
78
Rpt of Col McLennan, prepared at request of
author, 19 Apr 49, in OCMH; interv, author with
McLennan, 9 Feb 49, OCMH; Hilsman, Hist of
Negros Sector, V-MF Rpt of Opns, pp. 487-88.
79
McLennan Rpt, OCMH.
80
Rad, Sharp to Hilsman, 16 May 42, Sharp
Papers; interv, author with McLennan, 9 Feb 49,
OCMH.
582
Despite his best efforts, Hilsman was unable to restore order or compel the Filipino
troops to accept the surrender. Sharp's
courier, Colonel Humber, finally had to ask
that Brig. Gen. Manuel A. Roxas, Quezon's
deputy in the Philippines, be sent to Negros
to prevent an uprising "due to feeling and
sentiment among civilian population . . .
and the fear of Filipino troops and officers
of being placed in concentration camps." 81
In his reply General Sharp did his best to
allay the fear of the Filipinos. He pointed
out that the Japanese on Mindanao had
been "most lenient" in their treatment of
civilians, and had asked civilian officials to
remain at their posts. "Treatment of military forces," he added, "had been strictly
in accordance with the Geneva Convention
as indicated in our rules of land warfare." 82
To this Hilsman replied that he was doing
everything in his power to follow the instructions he was receiving from General Sharp
and from the Japanese.83
General Wainwright, too, was greatly
concerned over the situation in Negros.
There were approximately 200 Japanese internees on the island and the fear that they
might be harmed by the rebellious troops
was Wainwright's chief worry. "It was a
fantastically ticklish situation," he recalled
later, "with the lives of countless Americans
and Filipinos hanging by the thread of the
mutineers' unpredictability."84 Momentarily he expected the Japanese to turn their
guns on the Corregidor prisoners.
81
Rad, Humber to Sharp, No. 2, 19 May 42,

Sharp Papers.
82
Rad, Sharp to Hilsman, 19 May 42, Sharp
Papers.
83
Rad, Hilsman to Sharp, 20 May 42, Sharp
Papers.
84
148.

The date set for the surrender came and
passed with no sign that the Filipinos would
obey orders. Twice Hilsman persuaded
Colonel Ota to grant an extension of time.
When the second extension expired on 3
June, the Japanese agreed to accept Hilsman's surrender with the troops he had by
then persuaded to come down out of the
hills, about 95 percent of one battalion and
30 percent of two others. Two battalions
never surrendered at all.85
During the next week the troops on outlying islands submitted to the Japanese, and
by 9 June all forces in the Philippines, with
the exception of certain small detachments
in isolated areas, had surrendered. On that
day General Wainwright was notified that
all organized resistance had ended. "Your
high command," the Japanese told him
then, "ceases and you are now a prisoner of
war." 86 The six-month-long struggle for
control of the Philippine Archipelago was
over. The victory which Homma had hoped
to win by the middle of February was finally
his on 9 June, four months later. Each day's
delay had meant a loss of face for the Japanese, and General Homma paid the price.
The campaign was hardly over when Imperial General Headquarters relieved him
of command and brought him back to
Tokyo, where he spent the rest of the war
on the sidelines, as a reserve officer.
With the conquest of the Philippines, the
Japanese gained the best harbor in the Orient, excellent bases from which to stage and
supply their garrisons to the south and east,
as well as a large population to contribute
to the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
85
Hilsman, Hist of Negros Sector, V-MF Rpt of
Opns, pp. 487-88; rpt of interv with Lt Col E. R.
Montilla, ACofS, G-3, Negros, OCMH; interv,
author with McLennan, 9 Feb 49, OCMH.
86
583
AMERICAN GENERALS IN CAPTIVITY, July 1942. Seated, left
to right:
Generals Moore, King, and Wainwright; two Japanese officers; Generals Parker and
Jones. Standing, left to right: Japanese messenger; Generals Lough, Funk, Weaver,
Brougher, Beebe, Bluemel, Drake, McBride, and Pierce; Colonel Hoffman (interpreter); and two Japanese soldiers.
Sphere. They had driven the United States

from its stronghold in the Far East, destroyed a combined American and Philippine Army of 140,000 men, and forced the
Far East Air Force and the Asiatic Fleet
back to the line of the Malay Barrier. In
their possession, the Philippine Islands, extending 1,150 miles southward along the
South China Sea from Formosa to Borneo
and the Moluccas, constituted a formidable
barrier to an Allied thrust from the east to
cut the line of communication between Japan and the wealth of the Indies.
Though the Japanese had won an important victory, the American and Filipino
troops had not given their lives and their
freedom in vain. For six months they had
kept alive resistance in the Philippines, ex-
acting heavy casualties from the enemy and

immobilizing his forces. Not until Imperial
General Headquarters, which had relegated
the Philippines to a secondary place in the
Japanese plan of conquest, had committed
more men and planes than it had ever intended to the struggle was the campaign
brought to an end. During the six months
required to accomplish this task, the American and Filipino troops had retained their
tenacious hold on Manila Bay and denied
its use to the enemy. This was their mission, and it had been accomplished. But the
Pacific Fleet, which was to have fought its
way through to them by that time, never
arrived. The fate of the Philippine garrison
had been decided on the opening day of the
war, at Pearl Harbor.
584
In the context of global war, the Philippines did not in 1942 possess great strategic
significance. The Japanese tide had already
swept around the Islands and over southeast Asia and the Indies, through the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomons to
Guadalcanal, and eastward across the Pacific as far as the Gilbert Islands. At the
beginning of June the Japanese stood ready
to move on Port Moresby, Midway, and the
Aleutians, and to sever the line of communication between Australia and the United
States. Everywhere, they had achieved
phenomenal success, sweeping all resistance
before them. Only in the Philippines had
they been halted, and in this successful,
though hopeless, resistance lay the real importance of the campaign. It demonstrated
that the Japanese were not invincible, that

they could be stopped by determined men,
ably led, even when the odds were heavily
in their favor. For an Allied world surfeited
on gloom, defeat, and despair, the epic of
Bataan and Corregidor was a symbol of
hope and a beacon of success for the future.
It was in this vein that President Roosevelt
wrote to General Wainwright on the eve of
his surrender:
"In every camp and on every naval vessel,
soldiers, sailors, and Marines are inspired by
the gallant struggle of their comrades in the
Philippines. The workmen in our shipyards
and munitions plants redouble their efforts
because of your example. You and your devoted followers have become the living symbols of our war aims and the guarantee of
victory." 87
87
Quoted in full in Wainwright, General Wainwright's Story, p. 118.
The Sources
Few military disasters of modern times
are as sparsely documented or inadequately
recorded in the official records as the defeat
of America's forces in the Philippines in the
first six months of World War II. Cut off
from the United States almost immediately
and encircled by a tightening blockade, the
Philippine garrison soon became the only

island of resistance in the rising tide of Japanese victory. Its sole remaining means of
communication with the outside world was
by radio. Occasionally an airplane or submarine reached Manila Bay with vitally
needed supplies, carrying back on the out-
ward voyage to Australia and Hawaii small

and selected cargoes. Space was at a pre-
mium and there was room only for the

nurses, correspondents, officials and their
families, selected officers and enlisted men,
might be sent back to the United States.

The first of these occasions was in February
1942 when General MacArthur sent out by

submarine, in the custody of Francis B.
Sayre, the High Commissioner, a footlocker
filled with personal and official papers. This
footlocker reached the United States safely
and was stored in a bank in Washington for
the duration of the war. It was then re-
turned, by officer courier, to General MacArthur and has remained in his possession
since. Though its contents are not known,
there is reason to believe that the footlocker
contains material of value on the early part
of the campaign.
The second shipment of records came in
April 1942 when General Wainwright took
advantage of the presence of two small aircraft on Corregidor to send to General
and precious commodities such as the gold

of the Philippine Commonwealth. Under
the circumstances, records did not enjoy a
high priority, and only a small number of
official documents survived the campaign.
Unofficial records and Japanese documents
are far more numerous, and, with published
works, constitute the main sources on which
Sharp on Mindanao fifteen packages of

records, of undetermined bulk, to be delivered "in person to General Sutherland for
forwarding to the Adjutant General, Washington, D. C."* Included in this shipment
were General Wainwright's diaries and the
general staff journals, with supporting docu-
this volume is based.
ords were inventoried and these consisted of

ten journal files covering the period from
28 November to 10 April and twenty supporting documents including G-3 periodic
reports, general and field orders, training
memoranda, and the journals or reports of
all the major commands in the Philippines.
Official Records
Among senior commanders in the Philippines there was a strong desire to justify their
conduct of the campaign to their countrymen. This, they realized, could be done only
if the record was preserved, and on at least
three occasions during the course of the bat-
tle precious air and submarine space was set

aside so that the most important records
ments. Only the five packages of G-3 rec-
*Ltr, Wainwright to Sharp, 12 Apr 42, Sub:

Transmittal of USFIP Docs; rad, Wainwright to
CG USAFFE, No. 261, 13 Apr 42, AG 370.05,

GHQ SWPA; ltr, Irwin to TAG, 12 Apr 42, Sub:
Transmittal of Docs.
586
The evidence that these records were received in Melbourne and placed in a vault
in General Sutherland's office is indisputable. Their disposition thereafter is not
known. The seven packages of G-4 records
may have reached Washington, for there
exist in the files of The Adjutant General,
eight feet (one file cabinet) of records sent
from Corregidor. These records, which deal
largely with supply matters, have been used
extensively in the preparation of this volume
and were especially valuable in the study
of shortages in food and medicine. When
used, they were physically located in the
Departmental Records Branch, AGO (Accession No. A51-75), and designated
USAFFE-USFIP Records.* They have
been cited throughout this volume by title
and AG number, followed by the abbreviation Phil Rcds.
Assuming that the USAFFE-USFIP
Records are a part of those sent from Corregidor in April 1942, the disposition of the
remainder of the fifteen packagesthe G-2
and G-3 journals, General Wainwright's
diaries, and supporting papers (altogether
eight packages)remains a mystery. A
careful search of the files of The Adjutant
General in Washington and of GHQ, Far
East Command (FEC) in Tokyo, successor to the 1942 headquarters in Australia,
has failed to produce them, and the principals, Generals Wainwright and Sutherland, assert they have no knowledge of their
whereabouts.
The third shipment of records from Corregidor was by submarine on 3 May, just
*A detailed compilation of these records has been
made by Dennis W. Ladd, entitled Inventory of
Certain Records of United States Army Forces in
the Far East and United States Army Forces in
the Philippines, July 1941-May 1942, Finding Aid
No. 31, DRB AGO.

before the fall of the harbor defenses. There
is no description of these records other than
the statement that they included "records
and orders," but many, if not most of them,
were probably finance and personnel records. Their final disposition is unknown, but
it is entirely possible that the eight feet of
USAFFE-USFIP records described above
came from this shipment rather than the
earlier one which went to General Sutherland in Australia. If that is so, then all fifteen packages of the second shipment have
been lost.
Though there was little prospect that their
records would survive, most of the units in
the Philippines did their best nevertheless
to maintain proper records in accordance
with existing army practice. The quality of
these records apparently varied considerably, depending on the unit's proximity to
the enemy and on the interest and ability of
commanders and clerks. Higher headquarters, which usually had the necessary personnel and equipment, kept the most complete records. Those of combat units, however, were sketchy. These units, composed
largely of Filipinos, hastily mobilized and
inadequately trained, had little opportunity
to keep records. Some, even if they had
wished to do so, could not have complied
with regulations. They lacked clerical personnel and, in some instances, had first sergeants who could neither read nor write. To
these difficulties was soon added another,
the shortage of paper. The men had not
been on Bataan long when paper became so
scarce that orders had to be issued on the
reverse side of prewar mimeographed regulations and administrative memoranda.
On Corregidor and the adjoining islands
of the harbor defenses more careful records
were kept. The units there were composed
THE SOURCES
of regularsAmericans and Philippine
Scoutstrained and disciplined and accustomed to maintain records. Though subjected to air and artillery bombardment,
they were in fixed positions and had ample
opportunity to continue to keep accurate

administrative and operational records.
These, like the records on Bataan, were
destroyed when the order was given to
surrender.
With the capitulation of Corregidor and
of the islands to the south, all communication with the Philippines came to an end.
The entire garrison, an army of 140,000

men, passed into captivity and, except for
the handful who escaped, no word of their
fate reached the United States. Though
most of the Filipinos were ultimately released from prison camp, there was no way
by which they could communicate with the
Allies except through the clandestine intelligence organization kept alive by funds and
equipment from Australia. Nominally free,

the former Filipino troops of MacArthur's
and Wainwright's army were as effectively
587
were ultimately collated into a single report
by General Wainwright and a group of his
former staff officers at Fort Sam Houston in
1946.
Entitled Report of Operations of
USAFFE and USFIP in the Philippine
Islands, 1941-1942, Wainwright's report

covers the period of prewar preparations as
well as the entire period of the campaign.

It includes, therefore, the activities not only
of his own command, USFIP, from 21

March to 6 May, but also those of Mac-
Arthur's earlier command, USAFFE, which

was transferred with the general to Aus-
tralia in March 1942. Since neither General

MacArthur nor any members of his staff
had assisted Wainwright in the preparation
of his report, that report cannot be considered an authoritative statement of decisions made by USAFFE or of the operations conducted by that headquarters. But
in the absence of a report from General
MacArthur, it is the only account by a
senior American commander, and the author has been obliged to rely upon it, despite
its shortcomings on the level of command
prisoners of the Japanese as if they had remained in prison camp.

It was only at the end of the war, with
the return of the thin, emaciated American
prisoners from Japanese camps in the Philippines, Japan, and Manchuria, that the War
Department received an official report of
the campaign. During their years in prison
camp, higher commanders and their staff
lection of separate reports, each organized
officers, on orders from General Wainwright
and prepared differently, and attached to
and under the eyes of the Japanese, had begun the preparation of an operations report
in anticipation of the day when they could
present their own account of the disaster
the basic report as an annex. There are

eighteen such annexes, eight of which deal
with the operations of major tactical commands, four with the activities of certain
that had befallen American arms. These
special staff sections, and six with miscellaneous matters, such as citations, lists of
preliminary reports, written from memory,
and decision. One copy is located in the

Departmental Records Branch, AGO, and
another is on file in the Office of the Chief
of Military History. All references in this

volume are to the latter.
The report is an ambitious and large
work, with little form. Actually, it is a col-
588
units, and the organization of various headquarters.* Unfortunately, it contains the

report of only one of the divisions, the
Philippine Division, which fought on Luzon, and none of any unit smaller than a
division. Missing also are the reports of the
ordnance and artillery officers, and of
many of the service and administrative
headquarters.
Despite its deficiencies and its uneven nature Wainwright's report contains much of
value. Some of the annexes are ambitious
reports in their own right with numerous
appendixes of their own. Annex XI, Maj.
Gen. William F. Sharp's report on the
Visayan-Mindanao Force, for example, contains thirty-seven appendixes and fills more
than seven hundred pages. Comparable reports are those by Maj. Gen. George F.
* ANNEX I: USAFFE Staff
Moore, commander of the Harbor Defenses
ANNEX II: Plan of Induction of Philippine
of Manila and Subic Bays, Brig. Gen.
Army; Arrival of Units from the United States
ANNEX III: Headquarters Philippine DepartCharles C. Drake, the quartermaster; and
ment Staff
Col. Wibb E. Cooper, medical officer on
ANNEX IV: Report of Operations of North LuMacArthur's and later Wainwright's staff.
zon Force and I Philippine Corps in the Defense
of Luzon and Bataan, 8 December 1941-9 April
Unfortunately, not all the annexes are as
1942
adequate, the most deficient being those of
ANNEX V: Report of Operations of South Luthe
tactical commands. The report of the
zon Force, Bataan Defense Force and II Philippine Corps in the Defense of South Luzon and BaLuzon Force, for example, which covers the
taan from 8 December 1941-9 April 1942
critical period of the fighting on Bataan beANNEX VI: Report of Operations of Luzon
tween
12 March and 9 April, is only eight
Force, 12 March 1942 to 9 April 1942
ANNEX VII: USFIP Staff
pages long, and the supporting reports of the
ANNEX VIII: Report of Philippine Coast Argeneral staff fill only ten more pages.
tillery Command and the Harbor Defenses of MaOfficial records on the prewar period, and
nila and Subic Bays, 14 February 1941-6 May 1942
ANNEX IX: Report of Operations of Provisional on the place of the Philippines in the stratCoast Artillery Brigade in the Philippine Cam- egy of the war are far more plentiful than
paign
ANNEX X: Report of Operations of the Pro- those dealing with the campaign itself. Most
of these are in the custody of The Adjutant
visional Tank Group, 1941-1942
ANNEX XI: Historical Report, Visayan-MinGeneral, filed at this writing in the Departdanao Force, Defense of the Philippines, 1 Septemmental
Records Branch. The most useful
ber 1941-10 May 1942
for this volume were those numbered: 320.2
ANNEX XII: Report of Operations of the
Philippine Division
(7-28-41), which deals with the organizaANNEX XIII: Report of Operations Quartertion and reinforcement of USAFFE; 381
master Corps, United States Army in the Philip(11-27-41) Far East, which consists of
pine Campaign, 1941-1942
ANNEX XIV: Medical Department Activities seven separate bulky folders and contains
in the Philippines, 1941-6 May 1942, and Includmost of the messages sent to the Philippines;
ing Medical Activities in Japanese Prisoner of War
and 400 ( 8 - 1 2 - 1 ) , which contains maCamps
ANNEX XV: Report of Operations, Finance
terial on the supplies sent to the Islands.
Officer, USFIP, 8 December 1941-6 May 1942
The organizational records of GHQ,
ANNEX XVI: United States Forces Stationed
Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA), Macin the Philippines, 7 December 1941
ANNEX XVII: Report of Operations, Signal
Arthur's headquarters during the war, also
Corps, United States Army, 8 December 1941-6
contain some material of value, especially
May 1942
those files numbered 370.05, 384.1, and
ANNEX XVIII: Citations
THE SOURCES
589
384.3, Philippine Islands. When used they campaign, the most useful of which are the
were physically located in the Kansas City messages between General Marshall and
Records Center, AGO. Wherever cited in Generals MacArthur and Wainwright. Mathe text, these files have been indicated by terials from these files are identified in the
notes by the abbreviations OPD Exec O
the symbol GHQ SWPA.
Most of the strategy and policy papers re- and OPD Reg Docs.
Many relevant documents are included
lating to the Philippines were filed originally
in
the forty volumes produced as a result of
in the War Plans Division (WPD), or its
the
hearings of the Joint Committee (79th
wartime successor, the Operations Division
(OPD, now G-3) of the General Staff. Congress) which investigated the attack on
These files when used were located in the Pearl Harbor. Eleven of the volumes conOperations Division, but, with certain ex- sist of hearings, eighteen of exhibits preceptions, have now been transferred to the sented during the course of the hearings, and
Departmental Records Branch, AGO. one of the majority and minority reports of
Their integrity has been maintained, how- the committee.
For air operations the author has relied
ever, and they still bear the original WPD
and OPD file numbers, which have been largely on secondary accounts, but where
used throughout this volume. Included in necessary has extended his research into the
this collection is the WPD Message File, the files. In the case of the attack on Clark Field,
WPD Ready Reference File (Philippines), the author has gone beyond the official Air
and the OPD 381 Philippine Islands File, Forces account, and has used all available
all of which were particularly useful. The files as well as interview material. ParticuChief of Staff files were handled in the same larly valuable were the author's interviews
manner and are now also located in the De- with Lt. Gen. Richard K. Sutherland, the
partmental Records Branch, AGO. Those notes on which are filed in the Office of the
files prepared before March 1942 are iden- Chief of Military History.
The Office of Naval Records also contified by the symbol OCS preceding the
number; thereafter, by the symbol WDCSA. tains some material of value for this camMost valuable for this volume are those paign. The reports of Admiral Thomas H.
designated OCS 18136, WDCSA 370.05 Hart and Rear Adm. Francis W. Rockwell,
(3-17-42) Philippines, and WDCSA 381 the former as commander of the Asiatic
Fleet and the latter as 16th Naval District
(3-17-2) Philippines.
Though most of the WPD and OPD rec- commander, were especially useful. Rockords of the 1941-1942 period have been well's report, which covers the period from
turned over to The Adjutant General, G-3 1 December 1941 to 19 March 1942, constill retains possession of certain files dealing tains a number of supplementary reports as
with strategy and policy. Those used in the well as a portion of the War Diary of the
preparation of this volume are the former 16th Naval District.
The operations of the 4th Marines are
executive office files and the highly confidential strategy papers of the Registered covered briefly in the postwar report of its
Documents Collection of the Operations Di- commander, Col. Samuel L. Howard, filed
vision. The former contains about a half- in the Historical Division, USMC. Its regidozen folders relating to the Philippine mental records, like those of Army units,
590
were destroyed when Corregidor surrendered, and the story of the 4th Marines must
be reconstructed from memoirs and interviews. Fortunately, this task had been accomplished in part for the author by Hanson
W. Baldwin in a four-part article entitled
"The Fourth Marines at Corregidor," published in the Marine Corps Gazette (November 1946-February 1947).
superiors the compulsion to leave a record

of their experiences. During their years in
prison these men had discussed and compared their operations endlessly with their
fellow prisoners and jotted down in cheap
Japanese notebooks or on scraps of paper
all they could remember and had learned.
So scarce was writing material that the men
covered every inch of space in the notebooks
and wrote in characters so small as to be
scarcely
legible. These notebooks, hidden
Unofficial Records
most ingeniously from the Japanese guards
The inadequacy of the records dealing and brought back after the war, form the
with operations, and the absence of journals, basis for the most important single collecmessage files, map overlays, and after action tion of records dealing with combat operreports from units lower than corps, would ations of American and Filipino units in the
have made it impossible to write a detailed Philippine campaign.
account of the Philippine campaign had it
To secure this material the author emnot been possible to supplement the offi- barked on an ambitious letter-writing procial files with a wide variety of unofficial gram, made trips to various parts of the
records. During the period in which this country, and induced many officers to supvolume was in preparation, a total of ap- port his requests by letters of their own. It
proximately six feet of records of this type was obviously impossible to reach every
has been accumulated. These are filed in the officer who had served as a unit commander
Office of the Chief of Military History, and or staff officer during the campaign, and no
are so located when first cited in the foot- effort was made to do so. But letters were
notes.
written to every division and regimental
Perhaps the least satisfying aspect of the commander, the senior American instructors
USAFFE-USFIP Report of Operations in Philippine Army units, and the most
was the absence of supporting reports by important staff officers. Only in exceptional
division and regimental commanders. Ex- cases were letters sent to battalion and
cept for the report of the Philippine Divi- company commanders.
The response to this campaign for matesion and the elements of the VisayanMindanao Force, Wainwright's report and rial entirely justified the time and effort
accompanying annexes describe the cam- spent. Only in rare cases did officers refuse
paign from the viewpoint of corps head- categorically to make their notebooks,
quarters or higher. To have relied on it for diaries, and personal papers available. Some
combat operations, therefore, would have who had no records in their possession even
been most unsatisfactory and every effort volunteered to prepare reports for the auwas made to secure material on the opera- thor, offers which were gratefully accepted.
tions of units smaller than corps. Fortu- As this material reached the author it was
nately, many American officers who com- reproduced, usually by photostat and with
manded such units felt as strongly as their the permission of the donor, a copy retained
THE SOURCES
in the files of the Office of the Chief of Military History, and the original returned to
the owner. Where the owner had carbon
copies there was no necessity for reproduction. In rare instances, the originals were
presented to the author as representative of
the Office of the Chief of Military History.
One such gift came from the widow of General Sharp who turned her husband's papers
over to the author on that officer's death
from a heart attack in 1947.*
The nature of this collection almost defies
description. Included in it are letters written
over a three-year period in prison camp but
never sent, diaries, notes, poems, unit histories, reports, memoranda, accounts of
single incidents or battles, memoirs, and preliminary narratives intended as the basis for
a later, larger work which the writer hoped
would be published. They vary widely in
size and quality. Some are only one page
long and others are ambitious works numbering several hundred pages. Some are
written in the dullest prose imaginable;
others have real literary merit. Some are accurate and detailed; others replete with loose
generalizations. Common to all is the note
of bitterness at what they believed to be their
abandonment by their government and the
desire to justify themselves to the future.
Among the records thus secured were accounts, written in prison camp, of the operations of most of the divisions and a large
number of the regiments that fought on
Luzon. Brig. Gen. Kearie L. Berry lent the
author his account of the operations of 3d
Infantry, 1st Regular Division (PA), which
is actually a history of that division. From
Col. Ray M. O'Day, senior instructor of the
*Mrs. Sharp later gave additional papers to The
Adjutant General's Office. These are located in
Departmental Records Branch, Accession No.
A51-229, RG 499.
591
21st Division (PA), came a history of that
division in two thin typescript volumes.
Brig. Gen. Clifford Bluemel's report on the
operations of the 31st Division (PA), with
its supporting documents, proved extremely
useful, as did Col. Malcolm V. Fortier's

notebook and notes on the 41st Division
(PA). Maj. Gen. Albert M. Jones, who
commanded in turn the 51st Division (PA),
the South Luzon Force, and I Corps, has
perhaps left a more complete record of his
experience than any other commander, and
his accounts, supported by those of his chief
of staff, Col. Stuart C. MacDonald, form
one of the basic sources for a history of the
campaign. Completing the roster of division
histories for operations on Luzon is Col.
Clyde A. Selleck's Notes on the 71st Division
(PA) which covers the activities of that
division as long as it remained under his
command. The operations of the divisions
south of Luzon are described in the VisayanMindanao Force Report, which includes
among its appendixes accounts by each of
the division and sector commanders. Brig.
Gen. Bradford G. Chynoweth prepared a
separate account of the 61st Division (PA),
at this author's request, and it has been used
in preference to other reports.
It has not been possible to obtain accounts
from three of the division commanders.
Missing from the records, therefore, are the
histories of the 2d Division (PC), composed of Constabulary troops, and two Philippine Army divisions, the 11th and 91st.
Of these, the absence of a report from Brig.
Gen. Luther Stevens on the 91st Division is
the most serious, for it was that division
which failed to hold at Cabanatuan, thereby
permitting the Japanese to break through
and imperil the withdrawal to Bataan. The
lack of reports from the other two commanders is not as serious, and is compen-
592
sated for, in the case of Brig. Gen. William
E. Brougher's 11th Division, by regimental
reports as well as excellent accounts of the
division's most important engagement on
Bataan, the Pocket Fights.
Supporting these unofficial division histories, as well as the official history of the
Philippine Division, are unofficial accounts
of the operations of many of the regiments
and battalions. Perhaps the best are those of
the 31st (US), 45th (PS), and 57th Infantry (PS), Philippine Division. In the case
of the 45thwhich figured largely in the
Abucay fight, the Battle of the Points, the
Pocket Fights, and the counterattack of 6
Aprilthere is an account for each of the
battalions. The operations of the 11th Infantry, 11th Division, are well covered in
three separate reports, two of which were
written by Col. Glen R. Townsend, the regimental commander. Operations of its sister
regiments, however, are only sketchily covered in brief accounts. Reports from the regiments of other divisions are similar to those
already noted, the weakest usually being just
those where the division report itself is inadequate. There are accounts also of the operations of nondivisional units, such as the
26th Cavalry (PS), including a separate report by the commander of the 2d Squadron;
the 192d and 194th Tank Battalions (US);
and the 86th, 88th, and 301st Field Artillery. Unfortunately, the commander of the
Provisional Air Corps Regiment, which for
more than two months held a sector of the
second line on Bataan, never prepared a report but the operations of other Air Corps
units serving as infantrythe 17th, 21st,
and 34th Pursuit Squadrons, which fought
in the Battle of the Pointsare briefly covered in separate accounts.
The most valuable single collection of
small unit historiesincluding some of those

already mentionedare those which were
gathered in prison camp by Capt. Calvin E.
Chunn, 45th Infantry (PS). Resolved to
write a history of the campaign if he survived the ordeal, Chunn began to collect
material shortly after he reached Cabanatuan. He spoke with officers from almost
every unit and secured from them information for an account of their operations. This
information, together with other material,
such as maps, diaries, statistics, orders, affidavits, he transcribed into his notebooks.
Before he was transferred by the Japanese
from Cabanatuan to a camp in Japan, he
buried his voluminous notes in the prison
compound at Cabanatuan where they were
found after the war. Copies of the material
in the notebooks were made and the originals returned to Captain Chunn, who by
this time had reached the United States.
One set of the copies was obtained by the
author of this volume and is on file in the
Office of the Chief of Military History.
When used in this volume it is identified as
Chunn Notebooks; the individual accounts
are credited to the officer who supplied Captain Chunn with the information contained
in the notebooks. Chunn, since separated
from the service, is, at this writing, still at
work on his history of the Philippine campaign.
The diaries, memoirs, and notebooks prepared in prison camp were often as useful
in the preparation of this volume as the unofficial unit histories. Col. James V. Collier's four notebooks, which were written as
a letter to his sons and cover the entire period of the campaign, were of particular
value, since the writer was successively Assistant G-3 of USAFFE and G-3 of Luzon
Force. The Bataan Diary (two volumes) of
Col. Richard C. Mallone, senior instructor
of the 21st Field Artillery (PA), is a
THE SOURCES
thoughtful and accurate account which
deals with many more matters than one
would expect from an officer who saw the
war from a regimental headquarters.
Though called a diary, it is actually a sus-
tained narrative. Col. Paul D. Bunker's 190page diary, closely written on sheets measuring 12 by 16 inches, is a true diary and consists of daily entries. Colonel Bunker was
commander of the Seaward Defenses of
Corregidor and his diary was especially valuable for those chapters dealing with operations there. Unfortunately, it contains no
entries for the critical period between 29
April and 17 May 1942, when the Japanese
landed and took the island.
The diary of Maj. William J. Priestley is
unlike either Mallone's or Bunker's. It is a
compilation of the activities of various units,
written by Priestley in prison camp on the
basis of information supplied by other officers. Organized in a haphazard manner, it
contains all sorts of miscellaneous information difficult to obtain elsewhere. Other
diaries useful for a study of the campaign
are those of Col. Alexander Quintard, commander of the 301st Field Artillery; Lt. Col.
Arthur L. Shreve, artillery officer of the
South Luzon Force; Maj. Achille C. Tisdelle, General King's aide; Maj. John
McM. Gulick, commander of Battery C,
91st Coast Artillery (PS)a work of genuine literary merit; and Capt. Roland G.
Ames, commander of Battery Chicago, 60th
Coast Artillery ( A A).
After the reconquest of the Philippines
and the release of the prisoners of war, a
section was formed in MacArthur's headquarters for the processing of the survivors.
This section, called the Recovered Personnel
Section, G-1, soon began to receive finance,
personnel, hospital, and prison records, as
well as diaries and notebooks, prepared in
593
the same way as those mentioned above, all
of which had been carefully wrapped and
buried on Bataan, Corregidor, and the
prison grounds to keep them out of Japanese
hands. Before these records were sent to
Washington or, in those cases where the
papers were of no official value, returned to
their owners or heirs, they were carefully
screened for any information of value they
might contain about the enemy. The entire
collection was then microfilmed and deposited in the Records Administration
Center, AGO. The author, however, has
avoided references to the microfilm file and
has used the originals, or photostat and
typed copies, which, together with an 80page index to the entire collection, is available in the Office of the Chief of Military
History.
Despite the large amount of material thus
collected, there was still little information
on the operations of small units, of company
and battalion size. In some cases the action
of these units had been decisive and an
accurate account was essential. This gap
was filled largely with no effort on the

author's part. On their return from prison
camp, many of the survivors had been assigned as students at various schools of the
Armyat The Infantry School, The Armored Force School, and at the Command
and General Staff College. Required to
write a term paper before completion of the
course, most of these officers had naturally
found a subject in the only campaign of
World War II they had knowledge of.
Since most of them had served as company
and battalion commanders, it was natural
also that they should write about the
operations of small units.
To date about twenty such papers have
been prepared. More than half of this number deal with elements of the Philippine Di-
594
vision, which was officered by Americans.
The rest cover operations of elements of the
1st, 11th, 41st, and 91st Divisions, and miscellaneous units. Among this group is the
only report of the Provisional Air Corps
Regiment, prepared by Lt. Sheldon H. Mendelson while he was a student at The Infantry School, as well as an account entitled
The First U.S. Tank Action in World War
II, prepared by Lt. Col. Thomas Dooley,
General Wainwright's aide, during his assignment to The Armored Force School.
All of these papers were borrowed from
those schools where they were prepared and
returned there after they were used. Their
location is indicated in the footnotes.
Though the unofficial unit histories, diaries, notebooks, and term papers made possible for the first time a reasonable reconstruction of the Philippine campaign, there
were still many gaps which needed to be
filled before a complete and authentic account could be written. Only the officers
who had participated in the actions for
which the accounts were incomplete or
nonexistent, or who had been present when
an important decision was made, could provide the missing information. This information the author secured in two ways, by letter and by interview. The letter-writing
method was used when information of an
operational nature was required, or when
the distance was too great to permit personal conversation. Interviews were conducted with those officers who were readily
available, or where the information needed
could not easily be put in writing. The response to both methods was very gratifying
and yielded an important body of records
dealing with the campaign.
The correspondence file is of especial
value, and the author has relied on it more
heavily than on the interview. Those asked

to supply information in writing usually
produced more complete and accurate answers than those who gave their information
orally. Often they drew sketches to illus-
trate their answers, and drew upon personal

papers of whose existence the author had
been unaware. Many officers asked to answer one or two questions wrote lengthy
accounts of actions which had been imperfectly described in existing reports, thus
creating an additional important source.
Moreover, the signed letters constituted an
important addition to the written record of
the campaign.
Altogether the author has collected three
thick folders of such material representing
the replies of over one hundred officers,
which are on file in the Office of the Chief
of Military History. To these must be added
the comments of those officers who read this
volume, in whole or in part, while it was
still in manuscript. These comments and

additional information were carefully con-
sidered and are cited in the notes where

applicable.
Unlike the correspondence carried on by
the author, the interviews did not add
greatly to the written record, although they
were of great value during the preparation
of the volume. To have made them a part

of the record would have required the author to take copious notes during the interview, write up a report of the meeting, and
then submit it to the officer interviewed for
comment and signature. Without this last
step, the notes would represent only the
author's recollection and interpretation of
the conversation. Such a procedure was not
considered practical, although the author in
many cases made his own notes of the interview to remind him of the more important
points. It was felt that the presence of a
secretary or the taking of notes would inhibit
THE SOURCES
595
written during the war by 14th Army officers in the Philippines.

For this volume the most valuable Japanese source was the two-volume history
entitled 14th Army Operations. In a sense,
all other Japanese documents are supplementary to it. It is detailed, reasonably accurate, and as complete as the after action
reports of most units of comparable size.
The first volume consists of the basic report,
in narrative form, of 14th Army's operations
on a day to day basis and includes the text
or paraphrase of many important orders. In
Japanese Records
the second volume are the supporting docuThe enemy records for the Philippine ments: maps, intelligence reports, terrain
campaign fall into three major categories. studies, plans, as well as some brief but
The first and most important of these is com- informative notes written by General
posed of a group of histories or reports, part Homma shortly before the opening of the
of a collection written by Japanese Army final offensive on Bataan.
and Navy officers at the direction of G-2,
Neither the air nor naval accounts of JapFar East Command (FEC). These officers, anese operations in the Philippines are on
working as civilians in the 1st and 2d De- the same scale as the 14th Army history.
mobilization Bureaus, the former Army and The air force report, entitled 5th Air Group
Navy Sections of Imperial General Head- Operations, contains a brief history of that
quarters, prepared a large number of re- headquarters as well as the history of its
ports collectively titled Japanese Studies in successor commands. It is extremely detailed
World War II. The total number already in operational matters, providing in many
completed and translated is well over one instances the number and weight of bombs
hundred and more are in preparation. dropped on a single target, but somewhat
Though the series contains large gaps and vague in matters of decision and command.
the individual studies vary widely in quality, The naval history, Naval Operations in the
it constitutes the most important single Jap- Invasion of the Philippines, is the briefest
anese source on Japanese operations in the and least satisfying of the reports on the
Pacific and in Asia during World War II.
Philippines, and contains hardly more than
Of this large collection, the author used a brief account of naval surface and air
three reports extensively. On the whole, activities in the opening days of the war.
these are more accurate and complete than
Two other histories in the Japanese
those for later operations. The Japanese won Studies in World War II, those of the Army
this campaign and their records therefore Section, Imperial General Headquarters
were more complete. They did not have to and of Southern Army, contain material of
rely, as they did for histories of later opera- value on the Philippine campaign. Transtions, on memory. Indeed, there is reason to lated copies of these, as well as of the other
believe that one of the six studies used was histories, are on file in the Office of the
the conversation and destroy the chief value
of the interviewthe free expression of
opinion. They were conducted therefore on
a most informal basis, in home and office, in
hotel lobby and restaurant, and, when the
officers could be reached, by telephone or by
walking along the lengthy passages of the
Pentagonalmost daily during the preparation of the volume. The information
thus secured was incorporated directly into
the text and credited in the footnotes.
596
Chief of Military History, together with
copies of the Japanese originals which were
checked in every important case.
The second major category of Japanese
source material for the campaign is the collection of the Allied Translator and Interpreter Section (ATIS) of General MacArthur's headquarters. During the war this
section screened all enemy documents taken
on the field of battle, translating and publishing those of immediate value. At the
conclusion of hostilities, ATIS turned its attention to records of a historical nature and
interrogated a large number of Japanese officers about their part in the war. These,
like the wartime translations, were published in the ATIS series and distributed to
interested agencies and commands. A complete set of these publications is on file in
the Office of the Chief of Military History,
as well as in the Military Intelligence Library, Department of the Army.
Those ATIS documents most useful in
the preparation of this volume were the after
action reports of the 65th Brigade and 16th
Division. For the brigade there are two reports, one for the period 9-27 January
1942, when it fought in the Mt. Natib area,
and another for the period 26 January-29
February 1942, covering operations in the
vicinity of Mt. Samat (ATIS Enemy Publications 151 and 289). Together they provide a complete account of the brigade's
operations during the first part of the siege
of Bataan, as well as casualty figures, operations orders, maps, and similar material.
The report of the 16th Division (ATIS
Enemy Publication 355) covers the period
24 December 1941 to 3 January 1942 and
was issued two days after the conclusion of
the operations it describesthe Japanese
landings at Lamon Bay and the advance
through south Luzon to Manila. Unfortu-

nately, it lacks supporting documents and
maps and is therefore of limited value.
Other ATIS documents of value are the
postwar interrogations, statements of Japanese officers, and the answers to questionnaires sent to key officers by the author.
Many of the interrogations were made specifically for historical purposes, either at the
request of the G-2 Historical Section of
MacArthur's headquarters in Tokyo or of
the Office of the Chief of Military History.
These, together with the statements secured
from Japanese officers in response to specific
queries, are available in the Office of the
Chief of Military History and form an important supplement to the Japanese accounts already described.
Except for General Homma, who was
executed in Manila in April 1946, almost
every Japanese officer who had held an
important post during the Philippine campaign has contributed to this volume. The
Army headquarters was represented by Lt.
Gen. Masami Maeda, Homma's first chief
of staff; Col. Motoo Nakayama, senior
operations officer; Lt. Col. Yoshio Nakajima, intelligence, then later, operations
officer; Lt. Col. Monjiro Akiyama, air officer; and other lesser figures.
On the division level, information about
the 48th Division was secured from Col.
Moriji Kawagoe, division chief of staff, and
Maj. Makoto Nakahara, operations officer.
Lt. Gen. Susumu Morioka was questioned
about the activities of his 16th Division,
while Lt. Gen. Kenzo Kitano supplied information about his own division, the 4th.
Both interrogations were supplemented by
statements from staff officers of the two
divisions. Among these the most useful, perhaps, were those of Col. Motohiko Yoshida,
4th Division chief of staff, and Lt. Col.
Hiromi Oishi, operations officer. Interroga-
THE SOURCES
tion of 65th Brigade officers was inadequate,
but this deficiency was no handicap to the
historian who had the two excellent after
action reports of that brigade.
The third major Japanese source consists of the transcript and exhibits of the
trial of General Homma by an American
military tribunal held at Manila in January
and February of 1946. The thirty volumes
of testimony and more than four hundred
exhibits constitute a storehouse of information on the campaignon plans, operations,
the condition of Japanese troops, the "death
march," the occupation of Manila, and the
American surrender. Its chief value, however, lies in the fact that Homma's testimony
constitutes a statement by the enemy commander of his conduct of the campaign,
together with an explanation of the factors
which influenced his most important decisions. In this respect, the enemy sources
are more rewarding than the American.
The records of the trial when used were in
the custody of The Judge Advocate General but have recently been transferred to
the Departmental Records Branch, AGO.
Citations of the testimony at the trial and
to interviews and statements retain the rank
of the officers at the time of the action described in the text. In almost all cases, however, these officers had been demobilized
and had no military status.
In addition to these three categories of
Japanese material, the author has used a
number of other enemy sources in the preparation of this volume. These include the
numerous postwar interrogations and reports of the United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS), which conducted a
detailed study of many facets of the Japanese war effort. The published work of the
survey consists of a summary report, two
volumes of naval interrogations, and a large
597
number of volumes on the Japanese war
effort. There are also many unpublished
interrogations in the USSBS files, copies of
which are available in the Office of the
Chief of Military History.
In The National Archives of the United
States is a large collection of untranslated
Japanese military and naval documents obtained at the end of the war and returned to
this country. These consist mainly of war
diaries, usually of small units, and in some
cases of collections of orders. The systematic
use of these records would have required the
services of a staff of translators for several
years, a project which was neither practical
nor profitable. Little use was made of this
collection, therefore, except to scan it for
the most relevant and useful documents.
Maps
To the difficulties of securing material on
the tactical level must be added the lack of
the type of maps and overlays required by
the military historian. At the start of the war
there were only four militarily significant
maps of the Philippines in existence. Two of
these were U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
maps: one for the entire archipelago at the
scale of 1:600,000; and the other, a topographic map consisting of seventeen sheets
and covering the major islands, scaled at
1:200,000. The other two maps had been
prepared by the Army engineers. The first of
these was a topographic map and was based
on a military survey made between 1911 and
1914. It covered only a portion of Luzon
and was scaled at 1:63,360. The other, also
a topographic map, was based on a more
recent survey made in 1934 and 1935.
Scaled at 1:31,680, it covered an even more
restricted area than the 1:63,360, being
limited to certain sectors of Luzon consid-
598
ered most critical for defense. There were
enough copies of the first three of these maps
for ordinary needs, but the last was available
only in blueprint and in limited quantities.
The disadvantages of so inadequate a
map coverage were perhaps not as serious
as might be supposed. Many of the troops
were fighting on their home islands in country they knew well. The Americans and
Scouts had been over the ground many times
before and had maneuvered on Bataan as
late as January 1941. Those Filipinos who
came from islands other than Luzon found
the terrain little different from their own.
Maps in the quantities needed by American
forces in the Pacific later in the war were
therefore not required in this campaign.
Facilities for map reproduction in the
Philippines were excellent. The plants of the
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and of the
Commonwealth Bureau of Public Works
were both available to the military and operated until the evacuation of Manila, though
the first was bombed on 23 December. Part
of the equipment was then moved, with
much difficulty, to Corregidor where the
printing of maps on a limited basis was continued several months longer.
Facilities for the making of maps were not
nearly as satisfactory. There was no headquarters base map plant, such as existed
later in the war, in the Philippines at that
time, no aerial photography, and only a few
small mapping detachments in the field.
Men trained to make maps were scarce, and
in those days the making of maps was a long
and arduous task. Little had been done during the years of peace to remedy these deficiencies. Like other military activities, map
making had been severely curtailed for
reasons of economy. It was fortunate indeed
that the few areas mapped were those where
most of the action took place and where

most Americans had maneuvered time and
again.
During the first part of the campaign, the
withdrawal to Bataan, the two maps most
in demand were the 1:200,000 U.S. Coast
and Geodetic Survey, and a road map of the
island. The engineers had little difficulty
meeting this demand, but when the troops
moved back into the Bataan peninsula, having lost most of the maps distributed earlier,
there were few up-to-date, large-scale maps
available for distribution. By utilizing every
field expedient the engineers were able to
reproduce enough copies of the 1:63,360
and 1:31,680 maps, both of which, fortunately, included the peninsula, for general
distribution to the troops. But both maps
were hopelessly out of date and had to be
supplemented by schematic sketches and
overlays which were not based on any actual
survey. As new road and trail information
became available the sketches were revised
and corrected prints in limited editions circulated to the units most directly concerned.
Like the records, the maps in the hands of
the troops were destroyed just before the surrender. Those that were not, were appropriated by the Japanese as souvenirs and
have since been lost without a trace. A few
reached Australia, probably among the possessions taken out by Brig. Gen. Hugh J.
Casey, the engineer officer of USAFFE,
when he left with General MacArthur. But
so scarce are these maps that General Wainwright could find only onethe 1:63,360
trail map of Bataan corrected in prison
camp by an engineer officerto include in
his report. The rest of the maps in the report are of a later period.
The author has sought in vain for copies
of the maps used by the troops in the Philippines, and for accompanying overlays, to secure exact information on troop disposi-
THE SOURCES
tions, the location of gun emplacements,
fields of fire, wire entanglements, demolitions, and the like. If the maps have survived, their owners treasure them too highly
to allow their use by others. The author has
found copies of the 1:63,360 and 1:31,680
engineer maps, but these lacked the information needed. Moreover, the latest maps
of Bataan found are dated February 1942
and do not show the trails built between that
time and the end of the campaign. Two of
the engineer sketches showing the location
of gun emplacements, demolitions, and similar installations, have been found, but these
lack exact terrain information and troop
dispositions.
To secure the information required in a
tactical account the author has utilized
every source open to him. Officers interviewed were asked to place their units on a
map and to make whatever corrections or
additions they could. With the numerous
letters requesting material went maps and
an added request to supplement and correct the information shown. Sketches drawn
by others and data from later maps were
also used. All this information was collated,
but the result was not entirely satisfactory.
Terrain descriptions varied; trails were differently numbered or named; the same
name or number was applied to different
trails; rivers were named and located differently on various maps and by different officers ; boundaries between units could not be
exactly fixed; and even the front lines described in the various accounts could not be
reconciled. No final resolution of these and
other discrepancies is possible since the
original map and overlays have been lost.
The Japanese had difficulties of their own
with maps, and for the invasion probably
used a road map of the Philippines and
hydrographic charts of their own. This lack
599
was filled soon after the occupation of Manila when they captured a detailed U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey photostat map
of Bataan. This they lithographed and
printed, then distributed to their own troops.
A copy of this map, with Japanese troop dispositions and place names marked on it,
was introduced as evidence in the trial of
General Homma. It proved invaluable for
fixing enemy positions and following enemy
movements; without it the account of Japanese operations would have been less exact
in many places.
Published Works
The number of books and articles dealing
with the Philippine campaign and its aftermath is especially large, but of limited use.
The dramatic defense by the Philippine garrison captured the imagination of the American public immediately, and articles began
to appear early in 1942 as officers, public
officials, and correspondents made their way
by submarine and aircraft through the Japanese blockade. Throughout the year articles
on the Philippines continued to appear in
service journals and elsewhere, but in
steadily diminishing numbers as American
forces embarked on new ventures in North
Africa, in the Solomons, and in New Guinea.
Thereafter until the end of war, a period
when those who could have written authoritatively about the Philippine campaign
were in prison camp, there were few published works on the Philippines. To this
early period belong such works as Lt. Col.
William E. Dyess, The Dyess Story (New
York, 1944); John Hersey, Men on Bataan
(New York, 1942); Lt. Col. Allison Ind,
Bataan, The Judgment Seat (New York,
1944) ; and Carlos P. Romulo, I Saw the
Fall of the Philippines (New York, 1942).
600
The release of the prisoners, first those in

the Philippines and then, after the surrender
of Japan, those in Formosa, Japan, and
Manchuria, was the prelude to a second
large outpouring of books and articles about
the campaign and about life in a Japanese
prison camp. Like the first group, few of
these are of real value for the student of
military operations. The most significant is
General Wainwright's Story, written with
the aid of Robert Considine and published
in 1946. Though it left much to be desired
as a definitive account, General Wainwright's Story very possibly forestalled the
publication by other commanders and staff
officers of their own version of the campaign. Reluctant to engage in public controversy or disagree with their chief, they
remained silent. Only Col. Ernest B. Miller,
a National Guard officer and formerly commander of a tank battalion, has chosen to
express his opposition to General Wainwright's views publicly in a volume entitled
Bataan Uncensored (Long Prairie, Minn.,
1949).
Other postwar volumes and articles by
survivors deal mostly with prison camp, or
with the isolated actions and operations of
specific units. In the latter category are Lt.
Col. William E. Chandler's three-part history of the 26th Cavalry (PS) in the Armored Cavalry Journal (March-August
1947); Lt. William F. Hogaboom's account
of the action of the marines on Bataan in
the Marine Corps Gazette (April 1946);
Lt. Col. Harold K. Johnson's "Defense
Along the Abucay Line" in the February
1949 issue of Military Review; Col. William C. Braly, "CorregidorA Name, A
Symbol, A Tradition," Coast Artillery
Journal, LXXX, No. 4 (July-August
1947), pp. 2-9, 36-44, which is based on
the official report of the commander of Har-

bor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays;
the story of the naval battalion in the Battle
of the Points, written by William F. Prickett
and published in the Marine Corps Gazette
(July 1950); and Lt. Col. Bruce Palmer,
Jr., "Covering the Withdrawal into Bataan," in the July 1950 issue of the Infantry
School Quarterly.
At about the time these books and articles
were published, the memoirs and histories
of the war began to appear. Many of the
former, written by men who had occupied
high political and military posts during the
war, touched briefly on the Philippines and
cast additional light on obscure points. The
most useful of these are: Manuel L. Quezon,
The Good Fight (New York, 1946); Lt.
Gen. Lewis H. Brereton, The Brereton
Diaries (New York, 1946); Dwight D.
Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe (New York,
1948); and Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On Active Service in Peace
and War (New York, 1948).
Histories of the period first appeared in
print in 1948, and, like the memoirs, were
still coming out at the time this volume was
completed. Most of these were and still are
being prepared under the sponsorship of the
armed forces, each of which maintains its
own historical program. The Army's program, under which this volume was prepared, contains several volumes which deal
with this period. Three of these, Mark
Skinner Watson's Chief of Staff: Prewar
Plans and Preparations, Ray S. Cline's
Washington Command Post: The Operations Division, and Maurice Matloff's and
Edwin M. Snell's Strategic Planning for
Coalition Warfare, 1941-1942, have already been published in this series. Others
which were used in manuscript and which
are scheduled for early publication are
Richard M. Leighton and Robert W. Coak-
THE SOURCES
601
ley, The Logistics of Global Warfare, 1941- (New York, 1950); and Herbert Feis, The
1943, and Rudolph A. Winnacker, The Road to Pearl Harbor (Princeton, 1950).
Secretaries.
In the Air Forces series, nominally part of
UNITED STATES ARMY IN WORLD

WAR II but prepared separately and published by the University of Chicago Press,
the first volume, Plans and Early Operations: January 1939 to August 1942
(Chicago, 1948), edited by Wesley F.
Craven and James L. Cate, was especially
useful. Though not a part of the official
history, Walter D. Edmonds' They Fought
With What They Had (Boston, 1951) belongs, in a sense, to this category since the
author, a well-known novelist, secured much
of his material during the war on a special
mission for the Air Forces. The 14-volume
history of naval operations, written by
Samuel Eliot Morison and published by
Little, Brown & Company, includes eight
volumes on the Pacific. The first of these
(Volume III of the series), The Rising Sun
in the Pacific, covers the first four months of
the war and includes naval operations in
the Philippine campaign.
In addition to these service histories, each
of which presents a segment of the same war
from a different point of view, there are
other histories which provide valuable material and fresh points of view. These include
J. F. C. Fuller, The Second World War,
1939-45 (London, 1948); Robert E. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate
History (New York, 1948); Hanson W.
Baldwin, The Great Mistakes of the War
It is impossible to write about the Philippine campaign without dealing with the
controversial figure of General MacArthur.
Even before his relief from the Far East
command in April 1951 he had already become the subject of numerous books and
articles, few of which were objective in tone.
His relief was the signal for a fresh flurry of
books and articles dealing with his career,
and some of these reviewed his conduct of
the Philippine campaign. Like the earlier
works, almost all of these were by stanch
champions or violent critics. None contained
any significant new material on the campaign. At the time this volume was completed at least two more books about MacArthur were scheduled for early publication
and there was every indication that others
would appear in the near future.
In this connection, one final note must be
added. The manuscript and published
sources here described represent the best
material available at the time of writing.
Undoubtedly additional material will appear. Some of the missing records may turn
up in private collections or be found in some
obscure corner of The Adjutant General's
files. Still to be heard from are General MacArthur and his principal staff officers, most
of whom are now retired; General King;
and the men who commanded corps and
some of the divisions on Bataan. Only then,
when the full story of these men is known,
will it be possible to fill in the gaps and
round out the tactical detail of this volume.
Basic Military Map Symbols*

Symbols within a rectangle indicate a military unit, within a
triangle an observation post, and within a circle a supply point.
Military UnitsIdentification
Antiaircraft Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Armored Command
Army Air Forces
Artillery, except Antiaircraft and Coast Artillery
Cavalry, Horse .
Cavalry, Mechanized .
Chemical Warfare Service
Coast Artillery . . . .
Engineers . . . . . .
Infantry
Medical Corps
. .
Ordnance Department
Quartermaster Corps .
Signal Corps . . . .
Tank Destroyer . . .
Transportation Corps .
Veterinary Corps
. .
Airborne units are designated by combining a gull wing symbol

with the arm or service symbol:
Airborne Artillery . . . . . .
Airborne Infantry
. . . . .
*For complete listing of symbols see FM 21-30, from which these are taken.
604
Size Symbols
The following symbols placed either in boundary lines or above
the rectangle, triangle, or circle inclosing the identifying arm or service
symbol indicate the size of military organization:

Squad
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Platoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Company, troop, battery, A i r Force flight
. . . . . . . .
Battalion, cavalry squadron, o r A i r Force squadron
Regiment or group; combat team (with abbreviation CT following

identifying numeral) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Brigade, Combat Command of Armored Division, or Air Force Wing .
Division o r Command o f a n A i r Force
. . . . . . . . . . .
Corps o r A i r Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Army
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Group o f Armies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EXAMPLES
The letter or number to the left of the symbol indicates the unit
designation; that to the right, the designation of the parent unit to which
it belongs. Letters or numbers above or below boundary lines designate
the units separated by the lines:
Company A, 137th Infantry . .
. .
. .
8 t h Field Artillery Battalion . . . . . . .

Combat Command A, 1st Armored Division .
Observation Post, 2 3 d Infantry . . . . . .

Command Post, 5th Infantry Division . . .
Boundary between 137th and 138th Infantry
Weapons
Machine g u n . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G u n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G u n battery . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Howitzer o r Mortar
Tank
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Self-propelled g u n . . . . . . . . . . .
UNITED STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR II

The following volumes have been published or are in press:
The War Department
Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Preparations
Washington Command Post: The Operations Division
Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare: 1941-1942
Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare: 1943-1944
Global Logistics and Strategy: 1940-1943
Global Logistics and Strategy: 1943-1945
The Army and Economic Mobilization
The Army and Industrial Manpower
The Army Ground Forces
The Organization of Ground Combat Troops
The Procurement and Training of Ground Combat Troops
The Army Service Forces
The Organization and Role of the Army Service Forces
The Western Hemisphere
The Framework of Hemisphere Defense
Guarding the United States and Its Outposts
The War in the Pacific
The Fall of the Philippines
Guadalcanal: The First Offensive
Victory in Papua
CARTWHEEL: The Reduction of Rabaul
Seizure of the Gilberts and Marshalls
Campaign in the Marianas
The Approach to the Philippines
Leyte: The Return to the Philippines
Triumph in the Philippines
Okinawa: The Last Battle
Strategy and Command: The First Two Years
The Mediterranean Theater of Operations
Northwest Africa: Seizing the Initiative in the West
Sicily and the Surrender of Italy
Salerno to Cassino
Cassino to the Alps
The European Theater of Operations
Cross-Channel Attack
Breakout and Pursuit
The Lorraine Campaign
The Siegfried Line Campaign
The Ardennes: Battle of the Bulge
The Last Offensive
The Supreme Command
Logistical Support of the Armies, Volume I

Logistical Support of the Armies, Volume II
The Middle East Theater
The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia
The China-Burma-India Theater
Stilwell's Mission to China
Stilwell's Command Problems
Time Runs Out in CBI
The Technical Services
The Chemical Warfare Service: Organizing for War
The Chemical Warfare Service: From Laboratory to Field
The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat
The Corps of Engineers: Troops and Equipment
The Corps of Engineers: The War AgainstJapan
The Corps of Engineers: The War Against Germany
The Corps of Engineers: Military Construction in the United States
The Medical Department: Hospitalization and Evacuation; Zone of Interior
The Medical Department: Medical Service in the Mediterranean and Minor
Theaters
The Medical Department: Medical Service in the European Theater of Operations
The Ordnance Department: Planning Munitions for War
The Ordnance Department: Procurement and Supply
The Ordnance Department: On Beachhead and Battlefront
The Quartermaster Corps: Organization, Supply, and Services, Volume I
The Quartermaster Corps: Organization, Supply, and Services, Volume II
The Quartermaster Corps: Operations in the War Against Japan
The Quartermaster Corps: Operations in the War Against Germany
The Signal Corps: The Emergency
The Signal Corps: The Test
The Signal Corps: The Outcome
The Transportation Corps: Responsibilities, Organization, and Operations
The Transportation Corps: Movements, Training, and Supply
The Transportation Corps: Operations Overseas
Special Studies
Chronology: 1941-1945
Military Relations Between the United States and Canada: 1939-1945
Rearming the French
Three Battles: Arnaville, Altuzzo, and Schmidt
The Women's Army Corps
Civil Affairs: Soldiers Become Governors
Buying Aircraft: Materiel Procurement for the Army Air Forces
The Employment of Negro Troops
Manhattan: The U.S. Army and the Atomic Bomb
Pictorial Record
The War Against Germany and Italy: Mediterranean and Adjacent Areas
The War Against Germany: Europe and Adjacent Areas
The War Against Japan
INDEX
ABDA Theater of Operations: 242, 356, 392, 399
Abe, Maj. Gen. Koichi: 183, 236
Abo-Abo River: 277, 287, 289, 289n
Abucay: 252, 263, 293, 316, 352, 418. See also
Abucay-Mauban line.
Abucay Hacienda: 266, 266n, 274, 277, 286, 287, 288,
289, 290, 293
Abucay Line. See Abucay-Mauban line.
Abucay-Mauban line: 247-48, 266-78, 278-85, 285290, 291, 294, 296, 304, 305, 312, 325, 326, 328,
329, 337, 345, 348, 351-52, 379.
Agno River: 107, 128, 133, 137-38, 144, 163, 169,
170-77, 178, 182, 186, 187, 195
Agno River line. See Agno River.
Agoo: 127, 128, 129, 132, 134, 136
Aguilar: 166, 169, 170
Agusan River: 596
Agusan Sector: 606, 607

Air force strength
American: 23-24, 38n, 42-43, 49n, 95-96

Japanese: 59
Philippine Army: 26
Air Forces: 37-45. See also Far East Air Force; Philippine Army Air Force.
Air Forces units
Commands
V Bomber: 42
V Interceptor: 42-43, 81, 85, 87, 94, 153, 156,
308
Groups
4th Composite: 23, 23n, 24, 50, 62

5th Air Base: 50
7th Bombardment: 38, 48, 97, 146n
19th Bombardment (H): 38, 42, 50, 156, 239
20th Air Base: 23, 24, 50

24th Bombardment: 156
27th Bombardment (L): 38-39, 42, 48, 50, 72,

115, 145, 156
Squadrons
2d Observation: 50
3d Pursuit: 42, 84, 85, 87, 299, 302
14th Bombardment: 38, 42
17th Pursuit: 42, 84-87, 299

19th Air Base: 23
20th Pursuit: 42, 84-87, 117, 299

21st Pursuit: 87, 107, 299, 305, 308, 310, 311
27th Matriel: 23
28th Bombardment: 42
28th Matriel: 23
30th Bombardment: 38, 42

34th Pursuit: 43, 84, 87, 107, 299, 303, 308
48th Matriel: 50
93d Bombardment: 38, 42
Air Forces unitsContinued

Detachments
Tow Target: 24, 50

Weather: 24, 50
Air operations
American: 62, 80-84, 89, 92, 105, 106-07, 113, 129,

142n, 151n, 403-04, 488
Japanese: 57, 59-60, 78-90, 92-97, 103, 108, 13637, 272, 288, 294, 312, 334, 418, 421-22, 424-25,
427, 427n, 433, 444, 446, 449-50, 464, 479-84,
493-97, 518, 526-27, 536, 539, 547-49
Air photo and reconnaissance
American: 82-83, 83n, 92, 96, 106, 488

Japanese: 59, 228, 262-63, 451n, 526
Air transport operations: 400
Aircraft carriers
Allied: 46, 78
Japanese: 60, 60n, 78, 112-13
Aircraft losses
American: 88, 88n, 95-96, 488
Japanese: 88n, 480, 488
Aircraft reinforcements
American: 37-45, 146n
Japanese: 414, 493

Aircraft tender: 91
Aircraft types
fighters: 38, 39, 42, 43, 48, 85-88, 88n, 92, 95-96,
106, 142n, 146n, 318, 322, 488
heavy bombers: 31, 38, 38n, 39, 42-43, 48, 64, 8081, 81n, 82-86, 88-90, 92, 92n, 97, 97n, 105, 106,
111, 113, 155-56, 358, 360, 400, 403-04
light bombers: 42, 115, 145-46, 146n, 147, 400
naval: 46, 48, 91, 92, 94, 129, 156, 540
Airfields
Batchelor Field: 97, 113, 129, 156,
400
Clark Field: 23, 38, 43, 44, 48, 58, 59, 79-90, 92,
92n, 96, 97, 100, 105, 107, 117, 118, 208, 213,
255, 263, 414, 493, 494
Del Carmen Field: 94
Del Monte: 43, 70, 88, 92n, 96, 97, 111, 238, 239, 360,
400, 401, 403, 501, 508, 516
Hickam Field: 38, 78
Iba Field: 96
Kindley Field: 481, 494, 547, 548, 553, 555
Naguilian: 128, 132
Nichols: 23, 43, 58, 84, 92, 94, 96, 107, 117, 234
Wheeler Field: 78
Akin, Brig. Gen. Spencer B.: 359n
Akiyama, Lt. Col. Monjiro: 58n, 208
Alangan River: 408, 438, 447, 448, 449-50, 449n, 451,

454, 457
Alangan River line. See Alangan River
Alexander, Lt. Col. Irvin: 179, 257, 303-04
608
Amami Oshima: 61, 123, 138, 140
Ames, Capt. Roland G.: 373n, 480, 481-82, 491,
491n, 495
Ammunition
American: 48, 146n, 162, 279, 318, 320-21, 393,

395, 396-97, 399-400, 495, 499-500, 508, 526,
528, 559
Japanese: 422, 427n, 444, 480, 487, 541, 547, 549,
553, 559
Angeles: 181, 210, 213, 215, 216, 219, 262
Anhui: 393, 396
Antiaircraft artillery defense: 43-45, 45n, 48, 85, 8990, 92-94, 228, 474-75, 476, 478, 481, 494-96,
539-40, 548
ammunition: 86, 146n, 480, 496
guns: 35, 45, 48, 94, 146n, 474, 475, 480, 487-88
strength of: 474, 475, 476, 495, 531, 548
warning service: 43-44, 48, 84-85, 89-90
557th Air Warning Battalion: 44
Antiaircraft artillery units
Brigade, Provisional Coast Artillery (AA) (PA):
451, 452
Regiments
60th Coast Artillery (AA) (US): 37
200th Coast Artillery (AA) (US): 32, 33, 45,
45n, 50, 70, 86, 92, 120, 208, 451n
515th Coast Artillery (AA) (US): 45n, 92, 451n
Antitank guns,
American: 33, 35, 36, 138, 176, 321, 341, 407, 424,
438, 450
Japanese: 185, 194, 281, 283
Anyasan Bay: 314, 315
Anyasan Point: 312-24, 345, 347-48. See also Battle
of the Points.
Anyasan River: 299, 313, 314, 316, 317

Apalit: 205, 214
Aparri: 3, 57, 60, 98, 100, 102, 103, 104-06, 108, 117,
122, 126
Arayat: 188, 203, 210, 213
Aringay: 127-28, 129, 132
Aringay River: 128, 134
Armor. See Tanks.
Army Air Forces. See Air Forces.
Army Transport Service: 200n, 255, 395, 395n
Arnold, Maj. Gen. Henry H.
on air reinforcement to Philippine Islands: 37-38,
39, 43
and Japanese air attacks on Philippine airfields: 72,
81, 87, 90
Artillery, American. See also Antiaircraft artillery defense; Antitank guns; Coast artillery guns; Field
artillery, American; Mortars.

ammunition: 279, 284, 314n, 320
counterbattery fire: 488-89, 523, 537, 540, 541, 548
emplacement: 207, 250, 285, 299, 306-07, 320,
327-28, 339, 424
equipment: 29, 320
interdiction fire: 267
jungle warfare: 339
Artillery, AmericanContinued
lack of: 141, 284
losses: 28, 285, 487, 537, 538, 540, 541, 549-50,
549n
observation: 306, 320, 549
strength: 119-20, 226, 250, 252, 327-28, 407, 474,
475, 476, 478n, 499, 531
support: 190, 199, 250, 252-54, 267, 272, 284, 286,
288, 306-07, 320, 327-28, 334-35, 4
tree burst: 314n, 320, 339
withdrawal operations: 136, 168-69, 187-88, 199,
220-21, 227-28, 269
Artillery, Japanese: 185-86, 219, 221, 227-29, 263-64,
265-66, 271, 272, 279, 288, 294, 334-35, 416,
418, 4 2 1 - 2 2 , 424-25, 428, 429, 433, 444, 445,
446, 484-85, 518, 522-23, 526, 536-41, 546-51,
553, 558. See also Antitank guns; Field artillery,
Japanese; Mortars.
camouflage: 488
emplacements: 265-66, 485, 520, 523
reinforcements: 414
strength: 126, 228, 263, 421, 485, 486, 523, 538
Ashigara: 103, 105, 129
Asiatic Fleet (US): 45-46, 48-49, 78-79, 90-92, 95,
96, 97, 149, 155, 157, 583. See also Pacific Fleet;
U. S. Navy.
Inshore Patrol: 478
Off Shore Patrol: 11
Patrol Wing 10: 46, 91, 92, 96, 299
Submarine Squadron 20: 46
4th Provisional Battalion: 558
16th Naval District: 46, 91, 130
Atimonan: 109, 112, 139, 140, 142, 143, 164, 191,
195-199
Atimonan-Padre Burgos line: 109
Australia: 116, 149, 150, 239, 377, 378, 455, 501, 535,
563, 570, 584
bombers from Philippines removed: 97
efforts to supply Philippines from: 152-57, 390-404,

501, 540
Japanese threat to: 145
MacArthur's evacuation to: 353-54, 356-60, 38889
MacArthur retains USAFFE command from: 361,
362, 364, 365
strategic role in Far East: 149, 240-41
Babcock, Lt. Col. David S.: 195, 201, 205, 207, 208
Bagac: 245, 248, 263, 266, 276, 279, 280, 281, 284,
300, 303, 325, 329, 338, 343, 456. See OrionBagac line.
Baguio: 10, 21n, 27, 28, 84, 96, 128, 132, 134
Balanga: 251, 252, 263, 264, 291, 348, 448, 527
Balantay: 272
Balantay River: 251, 266, 266n, 272-73, 276, 286, 287
Balantay River line. See Balantay River.
Balete Pass: 102, 105
Balikpapan: 91, 91n
Baliuag: 183, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 265
INDEX
Bamban: 166, 188, 203, 210, 212, 213, 219
Bamban River: 212
Barbed wire: 212, 226, 249, 252, 259, 270, 299, 324,
528, 529
Barnes, Maj. Gen. Julian F.: 146-47, 153, 154, 393
Barr, Lt. Col. Earl L.: 547
BAR's. See Browning automatic rifles.
Bataan. See Terrain and geography.
Bataan Defense Force: 63, 225, 247
Bataan Service Area: 63
Bataan Service Command Area: 247, 248, 296-99,
305, 405. See also McBride, Brig. Gen. Allan C.
East Sector: 296
South Sector: 305, 316, 317, 320
West Sector: 296, 298, 299, 304, 305
Batan Island: 57, 98, 100, 104
Batangas: 96, 235
Batangas Bay: 139, 141
Battle of the Points: 325, 337, 339, 340, 347, 351, 476.
See also Bataan Service Command Area; Anyasan
Point; Longoskawayan Point; Quinauan Point;
Silaiim Point.
Battleships: 46, 60, 78, 126
Bauang: 125, 127, 128, 129, 131, 132, 132n, 136, 144
Baus Au. See Operation Baus Au.
Bayandati: 250, 279
Beach defense: 104-14, 131-32, 252, 298-324, 410,
411, 476, 478, 513, 528-31, 550, 555-56, 557
Beebe, Brig. Gen. Lewis C.: 164, 350, 361, 362, 363,
363n, 364n, 372, 375, 376, 453, 462n, 561, 564,
565, 567, 568, 569, 570
Bentz, Lt. Louis I.: 183
609
Borneo: 47, 90, 91, 91n, 112, 114, 154, 156, 238, 240,
356, 414n, 501, 503, 583
Bottomside: 472, 480, 490, 494, 539, 547. See also
Corregidor.
Boudreau, Col. Napoleon: 279, 279n, 485, 486
Brady, Lt. Col. Jasper E.: 229, 434, 435, 439, 445
Brereton, Maj. Gen. Lewis H.: 39, 45, 72, 73, 79, 80,
92n, 97, 147, 156, 392, 393. See also Far East Air
Force.
and Clark Field attack: 87-88, 89
Far East Air Force commander: 39, 42
and Formosa attack plan: 81-84, 89
Brett, Lt. Gen. George H.: 153, 154, 156-57, 358, 360,
392, 397
Bridget, Comdr. F. J.: 298, 301-02, 302n, 306, 307,
308
Brisbane: 146, 147, 148, 149, 152, 153, 154, 395
British Borneo: 145
British Malaya: 52, 56, 77
Brougher, Brig Gen. William E.: 102, 132, 169, 176,
186, 213, 222, 224, 225, 342, 344, 345. See also
Divisions (PA), 11th.
commander of Right Sector: 328, 337, 340, 342
Browning automatic rifles: 29, 299, 339
Bulkeley, Lt. John D.: 300, 301, 304, 359, 359n
Bunker, Col. Paul D.: 306, 306n, 478, 481, 482, 487,
488, 489, 490, 491, 534, 536, 537, 538, 541, 546
Burma: 4, 52, 238, 240, 242
Caba: 127, 128, 129

Caballo Island. See Forts. Hughes.
Cabanatuan: 96, 136, 137, 166, 169-89, 200, 201,
203, 205, 206, 216, 230, 235, 256
Berry, Brig. Gen. Kearie L.: 280, 283, 284, 284n.Cabcaben: 251, 258, 318, 381, 448, 451, 452, 467,
285n, 294, 295, 342, 343
494, 520, 522, 523, 536, 539, 553, 556, 565, 567
Besson, Maj. Robert: 176
Cagayan Sector: 508, 515, 516-19
Bianchi, Lt. Willibald C.: 341
Cagayan valley: 84, 102, 104-05, 106, 135, 213, 518
Bicol Peninsula: 109, 111, 142
Caibobo Point: 298, 300, 301, 304, 318
Biedenstein, Capt. Arthur C.: 315
Calaguiman River: 265, 266n, 269, 271
Big Pocket. See Pocket Fights.
Calugas, Sgt. Jose: 228
Binalonan: 137, 138, 169, 170, 174, 182, 235
Calumpan: 485, 486
Binuangan River: 330, 336, 406, 447, 448, 453
Calumpit: 180, 181, 183, 203, 205, 206n, 208, 209,
Bismarck Archipelago: 52, 54, 584
210, 214, 230
Bittern: 459
Calumpit bridges: 200, 201, 203-10, 214, 215
Blockade-running: 348, 390-401, 402-03. See also Calyer, Lt. Col. Peter D.: 435
Pensacola convoy.
Camiguin Island: 100, 123
Bloemfontein: 146n, 154
Camilew River: 329, 337
Bluemel, Brig. Gen. Clifford: 28, 29, 166, 285n, 289, Camp John Hay: 21n, 135
329, 405. See also Divisions (PA), 31st.
Camp X: 505, 506
and collapse of II Corps: 445-47, 448-50, 451-52, Campbell, Col. Alexander H.: 85, 89
454, 459
Candaba Swamp: 166, 203
commander of Sector C: 327, 329, 330-35, 351,Candelaria: 195, 197, 198, 200
406, 433, 438, 439
Canopus: 299, 460, 529
commander of 31st Division (PA): 28
Cantabaco: 505, 506
and surrender of Bataan: 457, 459
Capinpin, Brig. Gen. Mateo: 107, 469, 219, 224, 422,
Boatwright, Col. John R.: 195, 196, 197, 198, 275, 276
423, 430. See also Divisions (PA), 21st.
Bohol: 11, 238, 501, 502, 507
Capot: 332, 433, 437, 438
Boise: 91
Carabao Island. See Forts, Frank.
Bennett, Lt. Col. Donald Van N.: 130, 134, 135
Carmen: 169, 171, 174, 176, 178, 182
610
Carmen Ferry Subsector: 508, 513
Caroline Islands: 4, 79
Carpenter, Lt. Col. Frank F., Jr.: 117, 371, 376, 457
Carroll, Sgt. Hubert: 567

Claggett, Brig. Gen. Henry B.: 42, 153, 154
Clark Field. See Airfields.
Clark, Capt. Golland L., Jr.: 566, 567

Clarke, Col. George S.: 269, 270, 272, 273
Casey, Brig. Gen. Hugh J.: 10, 225, 249, 359n, 373, Clement, Lt. Col. William T.: 79
378, 383, 411
Coast artillery guns
Casualties. See also Medical problems.
3-inch: 33, 45, 407, 474, 475, 476, 496, 531, 537,
American: 78, 79n, 94, 186, 221, 230, 270, 272, 288,
549n
290, 308, 310, 312, 315, 324, 334, 335, 354, 481,
6-inch: 299, 474, 476, 478, 485, 487, 550
484, 487, 538, 541, 549, 558, 560
8-inch: 474, 490, 550
Japanese: 186, 202n, 212-13, 314, 230, 230n, 270,
10-inch: 474
12-inch: 474, 475, 487, 489, 538, 549n
295, 295n, 308, 312, 324, 334, 336, 344-45,
14-inch: 476, 478, 487, 494, 540, 541, 550
349-50, 412, 448, 448n, 556, 559
Catmon River: 408, 416, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, Coast artillery units
Regiment (PA)
429, 436
1st: 119, 478, 478n
Cavalry, 26th Regiment
and Japanese landings: 104, 131, 133-34, 135, 136,
2d: 478, 478n
Regiment (PS)
137, 138
91st: 24, 34, 45n, 50, 70, 478, 478n
siege of Bataan: 247, 250, 279, 282, 283, 305, 318,
92d: 24, 34, 50, 70, 478, 478n
324, 328, 406, 445, 446, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452,
452n, 461
Regiment (US)
strength and organization: 22, 24, 50, 69, 70
59th: 24, 45n, 50, 70, 478, 478n, 558, 560
withdrawal into Bataan: 169, 170, 171, 174, 176,
60th: 24, 50, 70
216, 218, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 230
Coast Farmer: 393, 395, 396, 397
Cavite Naval Base: 7, 46, 58, 59, 91, 94, 96, 107, 117, Collier, Col. James V.: 85, 104, 117, 163, 179, 179n,
21 1, 227, 231, 245, 247, 254, 279n, 284n, 447,
139, 149, 155, 194n, 234, 235, 245, 476, 524, 526,
458n, 464, 467, 524, 525n
528, 540, 541, 549, 552
Cavite Province: 8, 471, 478, 485, 489, 494, 522, 523, Combat teams
51st (PA): 406, 407, 433, 435, 438, 439, 445
531
91st (PA): 136, 137
Cebu: 6, 11, 91, 238, 499, 501, 506, 507, 510, 574. See
92d (PA): 170, 171, 176, 182, 183
also Chynoweth, Brig. Gen. Bradford G.
and attempts to supply Philippines: 395, 396, 399, Combined Chiefs of Staff: 240, 356, 399
401, 403, 404
Combined Fleet, Japanese: 46, 54, 56, 64
Communications: 85, 169-70, 188, 207, 230, 248, 271,
geography and terrain: 5-6, 499
289, 299, 310, 315, 320, 326, 338, 428, 435, 442,
Japanese landings: 503-06, 507
surrender: 578-79
450, 451, 484, 498, 550
Constabulary. See Philippine Army.
units on: 502
Cebu Advance Depot: 395-96
Convoys: 36-37, 103-04, 110, 126, 127, 128, 129,
Cebu City: 396, 503, 505, 577
145-48, 149-50, 503
Cebu Military Police Regiment: 502, 503, 505
Coolidge: 148
Celebes: 238, 356
Cooper, Col. Wibb E.: 377, 378, 379, 380
Chamberlin, Col. Stephen J.: 153, 390n, 391
Cordero, Col. Virgil N.: 111, 142, 195, 196, 197, 198,
Chanco, Capt. A. P.: 225
199
Chandler, Maj. William E.: 446
Cordillera Mountains: 102, 127
Chapin, Capt. Robert N.: 426
Cornell, Col. Therodore M.: 502, 577, 581
Corps, I Philippine: 263, 268, 274n, 276, 296, 347,
Chase, Col. Theodore M.: 478
348, 383, 384, 436, 440, 443. See also Jones, Maj.
Chaumont: 146n
Gen. Albert M.; Wainwright, Lt. Gen. JonaChemical Warfare Service: 24, 50, 453, 459
than M.
Cheney Ravine: 473, 494, 560
and Battle of the Points: 300, 303, 305, 312, 318,
China: 4, 14, 29, 46, 47, 51, 54, 91, 138, 150, 240, 241,
324
403, 413, 528
China Sea: 5, 87
deployment and preparation for attack: 248-51,
Chitose: 113
405-08, 410, 411, 431, 433, 442, 445, 447, 451-52
Christensen, Capt. Arthur G.: 201
Japanese attack Mauban line: 278-85
Christie, Col. Albert F.: 502, 506, 507, 577, 578, 579,
Japanese deployment and attack plans: 261-64,
580-81
281, 413-17, 418-19
Chungking: 153, 156
Jones assumes command: 361-62
Chynoweth, Brig. Gen. Bradford G.: 360, 501, 502,
Left Sector: 328, 329, 337, 340, 407
503, 505-06, 577, 578, 579, 580
MacArthur's attack order: 452-53
INDEX
611
CorregidorContinued
organization: 247
shipment of supplies: 95, 155, 164-65, 199-200,
and Pocket Fights: 325, 328, 329, 336-46
255, 255-56, 259, 378, 390, 391-92, 393, 395-96,
Right Sector: 328, 329, 337, 340
399-400, 402, 403-04
second Japanese attack: 424, 441
surrender: 564-74
South Sector: 305, 316, 317, 320, 328, 407
terrain and geography: 245, 472-73
withdrawal: 290-95, 454
Topside: 473, 480, 481, 482, 490, 494, 528, 529,
531, 538, 540, 547, 549
Corps, II Philippine: 296, 312, 325, 326, 337, 383,
West Sector: 529, 530, 558
384, 452. See also Parker, Maj. Gen. George
Cothran, Maj. Wade: 464
M.,Jr.
Bataan Defense Force redesignated: 247
Cotabato: 498, 499, 510, 511, 512
Cotabato-Davao Sector: 508, 510-16
counterattack failure: 434-37
deployment and preparation for attack: 249, Cotar River: 337, 338, 339
251-54, 282, 328-29, 351, 405-07, 410-11, Croom, Capt. Clifton A.: 310
Crow, Maj. Judson B.: 342
431-32, 434, 442, 451-52
Cruisers
disintegration and collapse: 444-47, 452, 454
Allied: 45, 48, 91, 145-46
failure of Japanese operation: 347-48, 350
Japanese attack Abucay line: 265, 266-77, 279,
Japanese: 60, 103, 107, 110, 112, 126-27, 318, 503
281, 285-90
Culis: 227
Japanese deployment and attack plans: 261-64, Culis Creek: 226
Culo 433
River: 223, 224, 226, 228, 229
265-66, 281, 300, 329-30, 348-49, 413-17,
Japanese penetration: 422-30, 437-41
new defense line: 326, 327
organization: 247
Dagupan: 130
Parker in command: 247
Dalirig: 517, 518
Sector A: 327, 329, 331, 406, 444, 447
Dalirig Sector: 517-18
Sector B: 327, 329, 330, 406, 439, 444, 447
Dalton, Col. William F.: 518, 519
Sector C: 3 2 7 , 329, 330, 332, 347, 406, 423, 433,Damortis: 127, 128, 132, 133-36, 174
435, 437, 438, 439, 444, 445
Darwin: 38, 97, 97n, 113, 154, 157, 360, 392, 400
Sector D: 327, 329, 332, 334, 406, 416, 4 1 7 , 422,Davao: 57, 60, 89, 91, 98, 110, 112, 113, 114, 145,
424, 426, 428, 429, 431, 433, 435, 437, 438, 439, 239, 241n, 498, 500, 502, 503, 508
443, 444
Defense lines, D-1, D-2, D-3, D-4, D-5. See Task
Sector E: 327, 406, 407
forces, North Luzon Force.
Corregidor: 12, 22, 27, 45, 58, 63, 91, 92, 247, 254, Defense plan. See War Plan ORANGE-3.
262, 263, 268, 290, 301, 304, 348, 377, 385, 389, Del Carmen: 84, 85, 87, 96
401, 410, 452, 453, 455, 462, 584. See also Forts, Denver Hill: 558, 566
Mills; MacArthur, Gen. Douglas; Malinta Hill; Destroyers
Malinta Tunnel; Moore, Maj. Gen. George F.;
Allied: 46, 48, 90, 91, 91n, 95, 97, 155
Wainwright, Lt. Gen. Jonathan M.
Japanese: 60, 100, 103, 110, 112, 113, 126, 127, 141,
aid to Bataan: 306-07, 369, 372, 373, 375, 411, 440
318n, 349n, 516
Bottomside: 472, 480, 490, 494, 547
Devereux, Maj. James P.S.: 77
command: 361-66
Dewey: 47, 90, 459
defenses: 45, 119-20, 473-76, 478-79, 527-31
Digos: 498, 508
East Sector: 529, 530, 531, 557
Digos Subsector: 508, 512
evacuation to: 161, 162, 164, 165, 238, 457, 458, Diller, Lt. Col. LeGrande A.: 359n
460-61
Dinalupihan: 216, 220, 222, 223, 224, 228, 279, 348,
Japanese air attacks: 479-84, 493-97, 539-40,
452
546-51
Dinalupihan-Hermosa line: 264
Japanese artillery bombardment: 448, 484-89, Disease. See Medical problems.
536-41, 546-51
Diuata Mountains: 498, 499
Japanese assault plans: 58, 415-16, 493, 521-27, Divisions (PA)
552-53
1st Regular: 27, 119, 141, 166, 191, 247, 280, 281,
Japanese landings: 553-60
282, 283, 284, 284n, 285, 329, 337, 338, 339, 340,
MacArthur's evacuation: 353-54, 355-56, 357-60
341, 342, 343, 405, 406, 407, 513n
Middle Sector: 529, 530, 558
2d Regular: 119, 298, 405, 406, 411
Middleside: 472, 473, 481, 482, 494, 529, 531, 54011th: 69, 70, 102, 104, 108, 131, 132, 169, 170, 171,
problems of surrender threaten garrison: 575-76,
176, 177, 178, 181, 183, 212, 213, 214, 216, 219,
577, 579, 580
220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 227, 247, 252, 29
rations: 257, 369, 375-76, 534-35, 543-44
328, 329, 345, 373-74, 405, 406,
Corps, I PhilippineContinued
612
Emerson, Maj. Kary C.: 293n

Divisions (PA)Continued
21st: 69, 70, 104, 131, 169, 171, 178, 181, 186, 187,Emmons, Lt. Gen. Delos C.: 402
188, 210, 212, 213, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220, 222, Engineer battalions
1st (1st Division, PA): 280, 281
223, 224, 225, 227, 247, 254, 272n, 289, 289n,
293, 327, 329, 332, 383, 405, 406, 417, 420, 422, 14th (Philippine Division, PS): 406, 411, 432, 44546, 448, 449, 450, 451
423, 424, 425, 429, 430, 431, 434, 435, 438
31st: 28, 29, 69, 70, 165, 166, 181, 247, 249, 250, 21st (21st Division, PA): 274n, 289
274, 275, 277, 282, 285n, 287, 289, 327, 329, 330, 31st (31st Division, PA): 331, 335
331, 405, 406, 439, 445
41st: 69, 70, 109, 141, 165, 166, 247, 251, 252, 266,
266n, 269, 270, 275, 277, 286, 293, 327, 329, 405, 71st (71st Division, PA): 136, 169, 226
406, 420, 422, 423-24, 425, 426, 429, 431
51st: 69, 70, 109, 111, 112, 166, 190, 201, 214, 247, 201st (PA): 439, 442, 443
249, 251, 252, 266, 270, 272-73, 274, 274n, 275,
202d (PA): 439, 442, 443
276, 277, 285, 287, 289, 289n, 290, 327, 330, 405, 803d (US): 406, 432, 445, 446, 448, 449
Engineer Regiment, 14th (PS): 22, 27, 166
406
61st: 70, 499, 502, 507
Eubank, Lt. Col. Eugene L.: 42, 79, 89, 90
71st: 69, 70, 134, 136, 137, 138, 170, 181, 205, 206,
207, 214, 226, 227, 229, 247, 248, 250, 250n, 279, Far East Air Force: 39, 42, 62, 70, 71, 80, 95, 98,
121, 238, 318, 583. See also Air Forces units.
282, 298, 308, 405, 499
81st: 70, 499, 514, 577
action at Vigan landing: 106-07
91st: 70, 136, 168, 169, 170, 174, 178, 180, 181, 182,
Japanese attack on airfields: 84-88
183, 184, 205, 206, 214, 247, 250, 279, 282, 283, new air organization: 39, 42
328, 329, 337, 338, 371, 406, 407, 499
post-mortem: 88-90
101st: 70, 499, 510
proposal to attack Formosa: 80-84
removal to Australia: 97, 156-57
102d: 516, 517
Field artillery, American
Divisions (PC)
2.95-inch mountain gun (pack howitzer): 69, 113,
2d: 199, 248
226, 250, 252, 285, 298, 302, 307, 327, 335, 407,
Divisions (US)
499, 513, 515, 517, 518, 519
Philippine: 21-22, 27, 32, 34, 50, 62, 69n, 70, 118,
133, 138, 166, 226, 247, 248, 274, 282, 291, 293,
75-mm.: 29, 30, 35, 36, 48, 141, 146n, 226, 252, 270,
293n, 327, 328, 329, 330, 361, 389, 406, 409, 431,
285, 298, 305, 306, 307, 315, 318, 320, 327, 328,
432, 433, 535
339, 407, 476, 486, 488, 490, 531, 540, 555, 556
41st National Guard: 32
75-mm. pack howitzers: 36
Doane, Col. Irvin E.; 327, 406
75-mm. (SPM): 33, 120, 131, 133, 177, 178, 187,
Dobrinic, 1st Lt. Matt: 112
190, 195, 199, 201, 205, 207, 222, 223, 226, 227,
Don Esteban: 164
247, 248, 250, 285, 293, 294, 407, 451, 461
Don Isidro: 393, 394
105-mm. howitzers: 35, 407
Don Jose: 121
155-mm. GPF: 190, 195n, 197, 252, 327, 407, 474,
Dona Nati: 393, 396
475, 476, 478, 487
Dooley, Lt. Col. Thomas: 567, 568
155-mm. guns: 33, 48, 120, 129, 133, 141, 250, 268,
Doyle, Col. Thomas W.: 286, 436, 437, 443
285, 318, 449, 487, 490, 531, 536, 537, 540, 541,
Drake, Brig. Gen. Charles C: 164, 179, 180, 257, 368,
549n, 556-57
571
155-mm. howitzers: 48, 120, 252, 320, 328, 407
Duisterhof, Maj. Helmert J.: 213, 340, 346
Field artillery, Japanese
Dunckel, Maj. Gen. William C.: 11n
75-mm.: 126, 185, 194, 221, 228, 263, 418, 523, 536,
Duque, Col. Calixto: 513
537, 538
Durst, Lt. Col. Wallace E.: 174
75-mm. mountain gun: 125, 263
Dutch Borneo: 91, 112
105-mm. gun: 126, 219, 220, 263, 348, 485, 487
Dyess, Capt. William.: 310, 311
105-mm. howitzers: 523
150-mm. howitzers: 126, 183, 221, 228, 263, 486,
522, 523, 537
East Sector. See Bataan Service Command Area; Cor240-mm. howitzers: 486, 523, 538, 541, 547
regidor.
Edmands, Lt. Col. Howard J.: 503, 505
Field artillery units, American
Edmonds, Walter D.: 42n
Group, 2d Provisional: 190, 195
Eisenhower, Brig. Gen. Dwight D.: 9, 10, 13, 152,
Regiments (PA)
153, 356n
11th FA: 220, 221, 222
El Fraile. See Forts, Drum.
21st FA: 107, 136, 161, 170, 187, 212, 213,
Elcano: 396
214, 218, 220, 225, 252-53, 257, 327, 449
INDEX
613
FortsContinued
Mills: 22, 24, 27, 50, 119, 357, 362, 368, 472, 480,
529
Wint: 12, 22, 27, 45, 120, 128, 279, 478, 486
Fortier, Col. Malcolm V.: 286, 425, 426, 427
Fowler, Lt. Col. Halstead C.: 134, 136, 207n, 208,
250, 284
Francisco, Maj. Gen. Guillermo B.: 298, 305, 327,
227, 228, 250
406. See also Divisions (PA), 2d Regular.
81st FA: 513, 516, 517, 518
Fremantle: 394, 395, 399
91st FA: 250, 328
French Indochina: 4, 14, 15, 17, 52, 56, 77, 128, 255,
101st FA: 510, 512
399, 413
301st FA: 120, 252, 327, 449
Funk, Col. Arnold J.: 273, 274n, 455, 456, 457, 460,
Regiments (PS)
525n
23d FA: 21, 22, 226, 227, 228, 250
24th FA: 21, 22, 252, 270
Galbraith, Col. Nicoll F.: 350, 351, 460, 574
26th FA: 21
Ganahl, Lt. Col. Joseph: 461
86th FA: 22, 24, 50, 70, 129, 141, 190, 252, 327
Gapan: 183, 213
88th FA: 22, 24, 50, 226, 227, 228, 252, 305,
Geneva Convention: 466, 575n, 582
307, 320, 406
Gentry, Lt. William: 207
Field artillery units, Japanese
Geography. See Terrain and geography.
Regiments
George, Brig. Gen. Harold H.: 42, 85, 85n, 156, 359,
1st Field Heavy Artillery: 126, 183, 227, 263,
359n
266n, 414, 414n, 486
Germany: 14, 67, 119, 145, 152
3d Independent Mountain Artillery: 414n
Gerona: 166, 178
8th Field Heavy Artillery: 126, 188, 2 1 1 , 216,
Gerow, Brig. Gen. Leonard T.: 15n, 16, 17, 32, 37,
219, 263, 266n
146, 147, 148
22d Field Artillery: 109, 126, 139, 140, 187, 191,
Gillespie, Lt. Col. James O.: 377
195, 216, 349, 522, 523
Glassford, Rear Adm. William A.: 91, 358
48th Mountain Artillery: 125, 129, 132, 134, 135,
Glattly, Col. Harold W.: 377, 378, 380
182, 183, 184, 185, 211, 214, 228, 235n
Gogo River: 337, 343, 348
Battalions
Gonzaga: 104-06
9th Independent Field Heavy Artillery: 126, 216, Goodall, Lt. Comdr. H. W.: 311, 312n
263, 264, 266n, 486
GPF (Grande Puissance Filloux) 155-mm. gun: 190n.
20th Independent Mountain Artillery: 414n
See also Field Artillery, American.
21st Field Heavy Artillery: 414n
Granberry, Lt. Col. Hal C.: 307
Fifth column: 117-19
Grande Island. See Forts, Wint
Florence D.: 465
Graves, Lt. Col. Reed: 512, 513
Food. See Rations.
Great Britain: 14, 33, 51, 54, 65
Formosa: 4, 55, 58, 60, 100, 291n, 583
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere: 471, 582-83
as Japanese base of operations: 60, 80, 84, 92, 94, Green, Maj. Gen. Joseph A.: 45
95, 96, 98, 100, 118, 123, 126, 138-39, 140, 261,
Grimes, Lt. Col. Arthur J.: 502, 505, 506
262
Grunert, Maj. Gen. George: 15, 23, 69
plans for American air attack: 69, 80-84, 89, 94
Guagua: 213, 214, 215, 216, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223
Fitch, Maj. A. L.: 284
Guagua-Porac line: 216-23
Fort, Brig. Gen. Guy O.: 514, 577
Guam: 7, 52, 65, 71, 77, 145, 238, 394
Fort Santiago: 121, 471
Guerrilla operations: 502-03, 506, 579, 581
Fort Stotsenburg: 12, 21, 22, 27, 34, 45, 63, 72, 73, 85,
Guimba: 166, 182
179, 180, 255, 256, 257, 366
Guitol: 276, 289, 290, 291
Fort William McKinley: 12, 21, 27, 30, 34, 63, 156, Gulick, Capt. John McM.: 542, 544, 545, 546
180, 194, 199, 200, 201, 234, 255, 256
Gumain River: 220, 222, 223, 224
Forts. See also Corregidor; Harbor Defenses of Manila Gunboats
and Subic Bays; Moore, Maj. Gen. George F.
American: 48, 91, 95, 97, 155
Drum: 22, 47, 476, 478, 482, 485, 487, 488, 494, Japanese: 60
522, 526, 529, 531, 540, 550, 557
Guns. See Field artillery, American, Japanese.
Frank: 22, 45, 476, 478, 482, 485, 486 487, 488,
494, 522, 523, 526, 529, 531, 540, 541, 550
Hughes: 22, 476, 478, 480, 490, 494, 529, 539, 541, Haba, Lt. Col. Hikaru: 58n, 572, 573, 576
Hadley, Lt. Alvin C.: 105, 105n
556
Field artillery units, AmericanContinued
Regiments (PA)Continued
31st FA: 28, 29, 249, 278, 281, 282, 285, 285n,
331, 332-33
41st FA: 327, 428, 430
51st FA: 196, 199, 200
61st FA: 502, 516, 517, 518
71st FA: 134, 136, 205, 206, 207, 207n, 226,
614
Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays: 22, 24,
HospitalsContinued
50, 58, 62, 63, 70, 71, 279, 376, 474, 476, 478,
Chinese General Hospital: 237
478n, 544, 570. See also Corregidor; Forts; Moore,
General Hospital No. 1: 258, 380, 459, 460
Maj. Gen. George F.
General Hospital No. 2: 380, 381, 444, 460
Haruna: 105, 129
Malinta: 545
Harwood, Lt. Col. Otto: 254
Philippine General Hospital: 237
Hart, Admiral Thomas C.: 72, 73, 79, 91, 92, 363,
Houston: 46, 91
528. See also Asiatic Fleet (US).
Howard, Col. Samuel L.: 91, 528, 529, 530, 531, 557,
Asiatic Fleet commander: 46-47
558, 560
on Philippine reinforcements: 96, 147, 151, 154, Howitzers. See Field artillery, American, Japanese.
Huff, Capt. Arthur E.: 538
390-91, 390n, 398-99
on withdrawing fleet from Philippines: 95, 95n, Huff, Lt. Col. Sidney L.: 10, 161n, 359n
Hull, Cordell: 78
96-97, 149, 150, 155-56, 155n
Humber, Lt. Col. Charles L, Jr.: 581
Hauck, Capt. Herman H.: 560
Hunt,
357, 358n
Hawaii: 14, 36, 37, 38, 39, 42, 48, 71, 71n, 77,
78,Frazier:
146,
Hurley, Brig. Gen. Patrick J.: 353, 392, 397
149, 240, 241, 360, 397, 399, 402
Hurt, Maj. Marshall H. Jr.: 458, 459, 461, 462, 464,
Hayakawa, Col. Masayoshi: 486
467
Hayo Maru: 129
Health. See Medical Problems.
Hermosa: 216, 223, 226, 227, 229, 230, 265, 266, 267
Iba: 43, 44, 84, 85, 88, 86n
Hill, Col. Milton A.: 548
Ikuta, Col. Torao: 414n
Hilsman, Col. Roger B.: 113, 578, 580, 581, 582
Iloilo: 91, 404, 507, 581
Hilton, Col. Donald B.: 310
Imai, Col. Hifumi: 132, 223, 225
Hoeffel, Capt. Kenneth M.: 364, 459, 478
Imai, Col. Takeo: 265, 267, 269, 270, 271, 273, 275,
Hoffman, Col. Robert J.: 425-26
276, 287, 288, 294. See also Japanese ground units,
Holbrook: 146n, 154
Regiments, 141st infantry.
Holbrook, Maj. Gen. Lucius R.: 9
Ind, Capt. Allison: 80, 90
Holland: 47
Indochina. See French Indochina.
Holmes, Maj. Stanley: 425, 426-27, 444
Infantry Point: 553, 554, 557
Homma, Lt. Gen. Masaharu: 57, 177n, 413, 414, 415,
Infantry units. See also Divisions.
471, 493, 502, 582. See also Japanese ground
Brigade, 1st Philippine Constabulary: 199, 199n,
units, 14th Army.
201, 206, 206n, 208
Bataan plans and operations: 261-64, 280-81, 330,
Regiments, Philippine Army
332, 334, 337, 405, 411, 413, 417, 418, 420, 421,
426, 429, 431, 433, 448
Provisional Air Corps: 327, 329, 444
and Bataan surrender: 464, 465, 466, 467
1st (1st Division PA): 119, 141, 142, 190, 191,
commands 14th Army: 57
193, 194, 195, 199, 200, 250, 278, 279, 280,
Corregidor plans and operations: 479-80, 484, 486,
281, 284, 329, 337, 338, 345, 513n
488, 493, 521-25, 527, 552, 557, 559-60
2d (1st Division PA): 513, 513n
demands American surrender: 268-69, 418
3d (1st Division, PA): 249, 250, 278, 279, 281,
discontinues Bataan offensive: 347-48, 349-50,
284, 337, 345
412-13
11th (11th Division, PA): 171, 178, 183, 184,
Luzon plans and operations: 57-58, 59, 60-61, 98185-86, 213, 214, 220, 221, 222, 337, 339,
340, 341, 343, 344, 345, 346
100, 103, 109, 125, 130, 139, 144, 162, 177n, 181,
12th (11th Division, PA): 102, 105, 106, 131,
182, 188, 200, 203, 210, 211, 216, 218, 230n
134, 213, 214, 220, 222, 315, 316, 319
and occupation of Manila: 235, 238
13th (11th Division, PA): 170, 171, 187, 213,
and Philippine surrender: 561, 564, 565, 566-67,
214, 220, 221, 337
567-70, 575, 576n
14th (11th Division, PA): 574
relieved of command: 582
21st (21st Division, PA): 170, 171, 176, 186,
role in Battle of the Points: 312, 317, 319
187, 188, 212, 218, 219, 220n, 271-72, 273,
southern Philippines plans and operations: 498,
274, 274n, 276, 276n, 277, 289, 423, 424,
501-02, 503, 507
425, 427, 430
war crime charge: 165n
22d (21st Division, PA): 170, 186, 187, 212,
Hong Kong: 4, 7, 54, 77, 121, 145, 238, 414, 418
218, 219, 220, 273, 334, 423, 426, 428
Honolulu: 4, 36, 398
Horan, Col. John P.: 135, 573, 574
23d (21st Division, PA): 186, 187, 214, 218-19,
Hoshi, Col. Komataro: 263
220, 225, 272, 275, 423, 426, 427, 428
Hospitals: 36, 50, 444, 454, 475, 491, 528, 532, 54431st (31st Division, PA): 28, 29, 225, 226, 227,
45. See also Medical problems.
277, 291, 329, 331, 332, 446, 449, 450
615
INDEX
Infantry unitsContinued
Regiments, Philippine ArmyContinued
Infantry unitsContinued
Regiments, Philippine ScoutsContinued
57th (Philippine Division)Continued
32d (31st Division, PA): 28, 275, 329, 331, 332,

443, 445, 446, 448, 449, 450, 451
333, 439, 444, 445
33d (31st Division, PA): 28, 291, 329, 331.
Regiments, United States
406, 425, 426, 427, 432, 436, 437, 443.
4th Marine: 29, 46, 47, 91, 306, 476, 528, 530,
41st (41st Division, PA): 272, 275, 331, 333,
545, 557, 558
335, 423, 425, 426, 427, 429, 433, 435, 436,
31st (Philippine Division): 21, 22, 34, 226, 227,
437, 440, 443
228, 229, 277, 285, 286, 287, 288, 293, 327,
42d (41st Division, PA): 166, 190, 199, 275,
328, 329, 331, 384, 406, 411, 431, 432, 433,
423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 436, 437
434, 435, 437, 438, 439, 444, 445, 446, 448,
51st (51st Division, PA): 199, 200, 201, 205,
449, 450, 451, 461
207, 208, 209, 251, 272, 275, 276, 289,
Initial 290
Protective Force: 62
52d (51st Division, PA): 109, 111, 112, 141,
Inland seas: 33, 65, 70, 120, 349, 395
142, 143, 191, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 251
Irie, Col. Gen: 266, 266n
53d (51st Division, PA): 143, 191, 195, 196,
Irwin, Col. Constant L.: 161, 162, 162n, 328
197, 198, 251-52, 275, 276
Irwin, Col. John W.: 448, 449, 457, 460, 543, 548
61st (61st Division, PA): 502, 513, 514, 515
Ivey, Capt. Richard G.: 488
62d (61st Division, PA): 502, 517, 518, 519
63d (61st Division, PA): 503
James Ravine: 473, 547, 548, 549, 552, 553, 560
64th Provisional (61st Division, PA): 502
Japanese air units
Brigade, 22d Air: 414, 416, 421, 427, 433, 448, 522,
71st (71st Division, PA): 131, 132, 134, 205,
524, 526, 536, 553
207, 224, 226, 227, 383, 406Fleet, 11th Air: 57, 59, 60, 60n, 84, 479
72d (71st Division, PA): 134, 136, 205, 226,
Groups
227, 406
5th Air: 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 103, 108, 108n, 123,
73d (71st Division, PA): 499, 514, 515
134, 182, 208, 211, 218, 234, 261, 479, 484,
82d (81st Division, PA): 502, 505, 506
493
83d (81st Division, PA): 502
7th Heavy Bombardment: 146n
Regiments
91st (91st Division, PA): 283
8th Air: 143
92d (91st Division, PA): 119, 184, 282, 283,
8th Light Bombardment: 174, 480
324, 342, 343, 344, 345
14th Heavy Bombardment: 480
93d (91st Division, PA): 499, 517, 518
16th Light Bombardment: 106, 174, 446
101st (101st Division, PA): 113, 510
24th Air: 59
102d (101st Division, PA): 511, 512
24th Fighter: 100, 103, 107, 128, 129
103d (101st Division. PA): 516, 517
50th Fighter: 100, 103, 106, 128, 129
104th (101st Division, PA): 510, 511
60th Heavy Bombardment: 493, 494
Regiments, Philippine Constabulary
62d Heavy Bombardment: 493, 494
1st (2d Division, Pa): 119, 199n, 298, 299, 303Japanese amphibious forces
04, 308, 313, 315, 316, 406, 447, 451, 452
Atimonan Force: 139
2d (2d Division, PA): 119, 199, 199n, 200, 283,
Batan Island Attack Force: 100, 103, 126
298, 315, 328, 329, 345, 424Lamon Bay Attack Group: 60
4th (2d Division, PA): 119, 298, 447
Lamon Bay Force: 138, 139, 144
Regiments, Philippine Scouts
Legaspi Attack Force: 110
43d (102d Division, PA): 21n, 24, 50, 271, 272,
Lingayen Force: 125, 126, 127, 128, 132, 138, 139,
273, 275, 276, 286, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427,
141, 144
436, 437, 508, 518
South Philippines Support Force: 60
45th (Philippine Division): 21, 21n, 22, 28, 69,
Surprise Attack Force, First: 60
70, 249, 277, 286, 287, 288, 291, 305, 308,
Surprise Attack Force, Second: 60
310, 315, 316, 317, 319, 321, 322, 323, 324,
Surprise Attack Force, Third: 60
328, 329, 337, 338, 339, 341, 342, 344, 345,
Surprise Attack Force, Fourth: 60
383, 406, 431, 432, 433, 435, 436, 437, 442,
Vigan Attack Force: 106, 107, 126
443, 457, 460
Japanese Army Air Force: 54n, 56n, 125n
57th (Philippine Division): 21, 22, 247, 251,
Japanese Combined Fleet: 46, 54, 56, 64. See also Japa252, 266, 266n, 267, 269, 270, 271, 272,
nese naval forces.
274n, 275, 277, 291, 293, 305, 307, 315, 316, Japanese ground units
Southern Army: 55, 56, 57, 59, 61, 124, 261, 262,
317, 319, 321, 322, 323, 324, 327, 329, 406,
262n, 414
411, 431, 432, 433, 437, 438, 439, 440, 442,
616
Japanese ground unitsContinued

RegimentsContinued
14th Army
9th InfantryContinued
dispositions and place in organization: 55,
56-57
334, 335, 340, 345, 347, 350
drives on Manila: 181, 182, 186, 208, 210, 214,
10th Independent: 136-37
216, 230n
16th Engineer: 140, 195
landings of: 103, 104n, 108, 112, 122, 123, 125,
16th Reconnaissance: 140, 142, 143, 144, 190,
125n, 127, 131, 132, 133, 144, 162

occupation of Manila: 232, 235
plans to seize the Philippines: 58, 60, 501
in siege of Bataan: 2 6 1 , 262, 263, 265, 279,
281, 296, 312, 332, 336, 343n, 347, 348, 349,

350, 350n, 4 1 2 , 413, 414, 414n, 415, 416,
420, 433, 448, 464, 465
in siege of Corregidor: 485, 493, 521-27, 525n,
537, 553, 556, 559, 567, 568
in southern Philippines: 501
staff: 58n
strength on Luzon: 216
strength in landing: 125-26, 125n
15th Army: 55, 56, 238
16th Army: 55, 56, 112, 261
23d Army: 55, 238
25th Army: 55, 56, 77, 145, 238
Divisions
194, 195, 196, 197, 199, 236, 348

20th Infantry: 139, 140, 142, 190, 191, 195, 196,
236, 281, 283, 284, 300, 303, 308, 312-13,
312n, 314, 317, 324, 324n, 336, 337, 338,
345, 346, 347, 348, 349
21st Engineer: 322
21st Independent Engineer: 524, 526
23d Independent Engineer: 526
33d Infantry: 109, 281, 312n, 340, 343, 347, 348,
349, 350
37th Infantry: 429, 438, 439, 552
41st Infantry: 501
47th Infantry: 125, 127, 129, 132, 134, 135, 136,

182, 183, 216, 236
48th Reconnaissance: 132, 134, 135, 174, 182
61st Infantry: 416, 424, 429, 443, 444, 552, 555,
556, 557, 558, 571
62d Infantry: 413
122d Infantry: 262, 266, 279, 280, 281, 283, 284,
295n, 300, 336, 340, 347, 350
124th Infantry: 501
141st Infantry: 262, 265, 266, 267, 269, 270, 271,
272, 273, 275, 276, 277, 287, 294, 330, 332,
334 350
142d infantry: 262, 266, 271, 275, 330, 332, 334,
350
146th Infantry: 112
4th: 55, 413, 413n, 416, 417, 420, 424, 426,

427, 428, 429, 430, 433, 437, 438, 439, 444,
447, 448, 448n, 450, 451, 521, 522, 523, 524,
525, 526, 527, 546, 551, 552, 553, 554, 559
5th: 501
16th: 55, 56, 59, 61, 109, 112, 123, 138, 139,
140, 144, 190, 191, 235, 261, 262, 263, 264,
281, 312, 312n, 334, 336, 337, 340, 347, 348,
349, 350, 412, 413, 416, 417, 420, 429, 448,
522, 523, 526, 527, 552
Battalions
48th: 55, 56, 58, 59, 61, 103, 123, 125, 126, 170,
2d Independent Mortar: 414n
178, 181, 182, 183, 184, 186, 187, 188, 208,
3d Mortar: 414n
235, 235n, 236, 261, 262, 263, 264
14th Independent Mortar: 414n
Brigades
Detachments
9th: 501
Hayakawa: 486, 489
35th: 501
Ikuta: 4l4n
65th: 56, 59, 224, 261, 262, 263, 264, 281, 295,
Imai: 228
329, 330, 331, 336, 347, 348, 349, 350, 412,
Kamijima: 127, 128, 129, 131, 182, 184, 186,
413, 415, 416, 417, 420, 424, 426, 427, 429,
187
433, 435, 436, 437, 438, 444, 448, 522
Kanno: 104, 106, 107, 108, 125, 184, 185, 186,
Regiments
188, 211, 212, 213, 215
1st Formosa Infantry: 125, 127, 129, 132, 134,
Kawaguchi: 501, 503, 503n, 510, 511, 512
135, 170, 174, 176, 178, 182, 223, 228, 236
515
2d Formosa Infantry: 103, 108, 125, 131, 138,
Kawamura: 502, 503, 507, 510, 516, 518
170, 174, 182, 184, 211, 214, 216, 235n
Kimura: 109, 110, 111, 112, 141, 142, 281, 329
4th Tank: 126, 126n, 127, 132, 134, 136, 138,
Kondo: 485, 486, 487
170, 174, 177, 182, 235
Miura: 112, 113, 502, 503, 508, 51
7th Tank: 126, 127, 182, 206, 2 2 1 , 228, 235,
Nagano: 417, 420, 429, 433, 444, 447, 448, 450,
262, 263, 265, 416, 424, 426, 427, 438, 450,
451, 521, 522
Sakaguchi: 112, 113, 507
522, 552
8th Infantry: 416, 424, 428, 445, 446, 450
South Seas: 77, 238
Takahashi: 216, 219, 220, 224, 264
9th Infantry: 126, 127, 182, 187, 188, 211, 213,
Tanaka: 103, 104, 105, 106, 125, 214, 215, 221,
216, 218, 219, 263, 266, 267, 270, 271, 272,
273, 275, 276, 277, 287, 289, 312n, 329, 332,
222, 223
INDEX
617
Kawamura, Maj. Gen. Saburo: 501, 507, 510, 519.

Forces
See also Japanese ground units, Detachments.
Left Wing: 416, 424, 426, 428, 429, 430, 434,
Kelly, Capt. Colin P., Jr.: 105
435, 438
Kelly, Lt. R. G.: 359n
Right Wing: 416, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429.
Kenney, Gen. George C.: 19
430, 434
Kimmel, Admiral Husband E.: 46, 78n
3d Tractor Unit: 414n, 486
Kimura. Maj. Mitsuo: 317, 318, 319, 322, 322-23
10th Independent Garrison: 414, 508, 510
Kimura, Maj. Gen. Naoki: 109, 110, 142, 281, 283,
16th Infantry Group: 109, 281
300, 308, 312, 312n, 313, 324, 329, 330, 336, 337.
21st Infantry Group: 413
See also Japanese ground units, Detachments.
Japanese Imperial General Headquarters: 51, 54, 55, 56, Kindley Field. See Airfields.
98, 123, 125, 181, 232, 232n, 238, 261, 262n, King,
347, Maj. Gen. Edward P., Jr. See also Task forces,
4 1 2 , 413, 414, 414n, 493, 501, 524, 576n, 582.
Luzon Force, North Luzon Force.
583
Bataan defense: 306, 365, 365n, 366, 375, 376, 378,
Japanese naval forces
404, 405, 406, 4 1 1 , 431, 432, 440, 443, 445, 447,
Close Cover Force: 60
451, 452, 453
and Bataan surrender: 454, 455, 455n, 456, 457,
Kure 1st Special Naval Land Force: 109
Kure 2d Special Naval Land Force: 112, 113
457n, 458, 458n, 459, 461, 462, 462n, 463, 464,
Pearl Harbor Striking Force: 78
464n, 465, 466, 467
commands Luzon Force: 365-66
Japanese naval units
commands North Luzon Force: 69
1st Sea Operation Unit: 526, 552, 554
comparison with Wainwright's surrender problem:
2d Fleet: 60, 126, 261
561, 562, 564, 569
2d Sea Operation Unit: 526
USAFFE artillery officer: 120, 306
3d Fleet: 60, 60n, 126
King, Admiral Ernest J.: 151n, 390n, 399
3d Gunboat Division: 100
Kirun: 61, 123, 126, 140
3d Sea Operation Unit: 526
Kitajima, Lt. Gen. Kishio: 414, 416, 522, 523, 553
4th Carrier Division: 59, 60
Kitamura, Lt. Col. Kuro: 174
17th Minelayer Division: 110
Kitano, Lt. Gen. Kenzo: 413, 413n, 416, 4 1 7 , 438,
32d Naval Base Force: 508n
526, 552
Japanese-Soviet neutrality pact: 51
Kondo, Vice Adm. Nobutake: 60, 126, 261
Jolo Force: 113
Kondo, Maj. Toshinori: 485, 486, 488. See also JapaJolo Island: 98, 112, 113, 145, 241n, 507
nese ground units, Detachments.

Jones, Maj. Gen. Albert M.: 338, 406, 407. See also
Koura. Col. Jiro: 438
Corps. I Philippine: Divisions (PA), 51st.
Kubo.
Bataan defense: 251, 266, 272, 273, 274, 274n,
275,Rear Adm. Kyuji: 141
276
commands Left Sector, I Corps: 328, 329, 337
LaPaz: 178, 183, 185, 186
commands South Luzon Force: 165-66, 190
Laguna de Bay: 109, 139, 140, 191, 195, 197
Lake Lanao: 510, 514, 515
commands I Corps: 361, 362, 405
commands 51st Division: 109, 214
Lamao River: 408, 451, 452, 459, 464
illness, relieved of command: 344
Lamao River Valley: 553
Pocket Fights plans and operations: 340, 342, 343 Lamon Bay: 57, 112, 119, 123, 138-44, 161, 191, 195,
201, 216
South Luzon defense and w i t h d r a w a l : 109, 1 1 1 ,
112, 141, 142, 191, 193, 194, 195, 195n,
196,Sector:
197. 508
Lanao
198, 199, 199-201, 206, 207, 208, 209
Landing craft: 126, 127, 488, 523, 524, 549, 557
success of South Luzon Force w i t h d r a w a l : 201-02. Langley: 9 1
230
Laoag: 60, 107, 108, 128
surrender: 459
Lapiay Point: 301, 302, 303, 306. See also Battle of the
views on counterattack orders: 274-75, 447, 453 Points.
Lathrop, Lt. Col. Leslie T.: 342
Lavantan River: 266n
Kabacan: 512
Kalakuka, Lt. Col. Theodore: 571, 574, 574n
Lawrence, Lt. Col. Charles S.: 179, 180, 256
Lawrence, Maj. William: 567, 568
Kamijima.CoL: 127n, 131, 132, 184, 186, 1
8
7
. See also
Layac: 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228
Japanese ground units. Detachments.
Kanno, Lt. Col.: 103n, 108, 185. 186. 187. See also
Layac junction: 222, 223, 224, 225, 225-31, 2
352
Japanese ground units. Detachments.
Kawaguchi, Maj. Gen. Kiyotake: 501, 503, 510,Layac
511.
line: 227, 230
512, 513, 514, 515. See also Japanese ground Lee, Lt. Henry G.: 291n, 389
u n i t s . Detachments.
Left Sector. See Corps. I Philippine.
618
Legaspi: 57, 60, 98, 109, 110, 111, 112, 122, 123, 141,
MacArthur, Gen. DouglasContinued

574
defense of Bataan: 247, 254, 256, 261, 268, 269n,
Legaspi: 396
285, 290, 290n, 291, 295, 296, 304, 348, 350, 352,
Lepus: 396
371, 377, 387, 441, 452, 453, 455
Lewis, Lt. Col. Eugene T.: 275
defense of Corregidor: 361, 362, 491, 521, 528, 535
Leyte:5,11,238,499,501,502,507,581
evacuation of: 353-60, 359n, 388-89
Leyte-Samar Force: 577
and Far East Air Force organization: 39-43
Lilly, Col. Edmund J. Jr.: 317, 319, 320, 323, 439, 442. and Formosa attack plan: 81-84, 82n, 89, 92
See also Infantry units, Regiments (PS), 57th.
interns aliens: 119
Lim, Brig. Gen. Vincente: 109, 251, 422, 423. See also and Japanese landings: 100, 104, 121, 122, 133, 161
Divisions (PA), 41st.
Luzon defense: 135-36, 138, 141
Limay: 254, 257, 258, 290, 327, 329, 330, 331, 332, as Military Advisor to Philippines: 9, 11, 15, 16
336, 380, 406, 417, 446n, 449n, 551, 552
organization of command after departure: 360-65
Limay line: 415, 417, 429, 433
organizes USAFFE staff: 19, 23
Limay River: 433, 437
and Philippine Army development and mobilizaLingayen: 59, 107, 107n, 125, 130, 131, 132, 133, 138,
tion: 12, 16-17, 23-26, 119
139, 162n, 218, 373, 501-02, 523, 552n
and Philippine defense plans: 61, 64-71
Lingayen Gulf: 7, 57, 69, 84, 91, 100, 102, 102n, 104,
pleads for reversal of strategy: 151-52
107, 108, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131,
recalled to active duty: 15, 15-16
132, 144, 154, 161, 162, 166, 178, 216, 223, 227,
reinforcements and supplies: 31, 32-37, 37-45,
262, 399, 414, 414n, 501, 503, 523, 568
48-49, 120, 121, 153, 154, 154-55, 155, 156, 157,
Lipa: 199
239, 240, 241, 242, 387, 390, 390n, 391, 392, 397,
Little Baguio: 381, 444
398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404
Little Pocket. See Pocket Fights.
surrender in the Philippines: 561, 562, 563, 564,
Logistics. See Rations; Shipping; Supplies.
569, 570, 571, 572, 573, 575, 576, 577, 578, 579,
Longoskawayan Point: 300-08, 314, 317, 319, 323,
580
324, 328, 345. See also Battle of the Points.
surrender on Bataan: 455, 455n, 456, 462-63
Los Banos: 180, 195, 195n, 197, 199
Symbol of resistance: 145
Lough, Brig. Gen. Maxon S.: 69n, 286, 291, 292, 327,
under ABDA command: 242
warned of Japanese attack: 71-73, 79-80
406, 422, 425, 428, 432, 433, 435, 436, 437, 438,
439, 440, 442, 443. See also Divisions (US), withdrawal to Bataan: 161, 162-63, 162n, 164, 168,
Philippine.
174, 179, 181, 199, 200, 202, 203, 205, 226, 227,
228, 230
Lubao: 208, 222, 223, 259
Lucban: 139, 191, 193, 196
MacDonald, Col. Stuart C.: 194, 200, 201, 342, 344
Lucena: 195, 196
McBride, Brig. Gen. Allan C.: 247, 248, 256n, 296,
Luisiana: 194
298, 304, 305. See also Bataan Service Command
Lusacen: 197, 198
Area.
Luzon: 3, 21, 2 1 n , 27, 37, 216, 360. See also Task McConnell, Col. Alva E.: 254
forces, Luzon Force, North Luzon Force, South McKee, Maj. Montgomery: 194, 199
Luzon Force; Terrain and geography.
McLaughlin, Maj. Charles A.: 214
American defense plans and deployment: 10, 11, McLennan, Col. Carter H.: 581
21, 33, 43, 47, 62, 63, 65, 92, 97 McMicking, Capt. Joseph: 359n
Japanese air attacks: 84, 85, 89, 90, 95, 96
McNarney, Maj. Gen. Joseph T.: 562, 563
Japanese estimates of strength: 57-58
Mabatang: 247, 251, 266, 266n, 277
Japanese invasion plans and deployment: 57, 59,
Mabatang-Mauban line. See Abucay-Mauban line.
60, 72, 98, 103, 123-28, 139-41
Macajalar Bay: 510, 516
Japanese landings: 100, 103, 104-06, 106-08, 109Machine guns: 29, 35, 36, 45, 131, 194, 223, 303, 307,
12, 128-38, 141-44
309, 320, 322, 323, 332, 334, 335, 339, 341, 409,
resistance after surrender instructions: 562, 574
475, 480, 499, 516, 559
and southern islands defense: 499, 500, 501
Maeda Lt. Gen. Masami: 58, 108, 232n, 235n, 347,
strength of forces: 22, 23, 24, 48, 49, 70, 71, 90-91
413
withdrawal plans: 161-66, 166-69
Magalang-Concepcion road: 212, 213
Luzon Strait: 100
Maher, Col. William F.: 166, 342
Main battle positions: 247, 248, 250, 251, 254, 285
MacArthur, Gen. Douglas
Main lines of resistance: 197, 198, 518
assumes USAFFE command: 16-18
and attacks on Far East Air Force: 87-88, 96
on Bataan: 249, 251, 252, 266n, 269, 270, 272, 273,
biographical sketch: 17-19
275, 278, 280, 281, 282, 284, 289, 290, 300, 325,
declaration of Manila as Open City: 232
330, 332, 334, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 343,
INDEX
619
Main lines of resistanceContinued

on BataanContinued
Mariveles Mountains: 245, 247, 259, 296, 300, 318,
330, 379, 381, 406, 407, 408, 416, 417, 447, 448,
484, 489, 520
346, 411, 424, 427, 428, 429, 431, 432, 438, 444,
448
Mako: 60, 61, 103, 123, 126
Malay Barrier: 96, 147, 157, 240, 242, 583
Marquat, Brig. Gen. William F.: 10, 359n
Marshall Islands: 4, 52, 79, 394

Marshall, Gen. George C.: 15, 16, 17, 39, 43, 65n,
72, 88, 145, 162, 163, 164, 295, 354, 360, 441,
Malay Peninsula: 54, 145, 238, 240
455, 455n, 521, 549, 562, 575
Malaya: 4, 52, 54, 56, 59, 72, 242, 300, 356, 414,
names Wainwright as USAFFE commander: 362,
414n, 493, 501, 503
Malinta Hill: 472, 474, 475, 490, 539, 540, 547, 553,
363, 363n, 364, 365n
557, 558, 559, 571. See also Corregidor.
RAINBOW revisions: 65, 67
Malinta Hospital: 545
Malinta Tunnel: 475, 481, 490, 491, 492, 493, 495,
525, 529, 531, 532, 534, 538, 539, 546, 547, 551,
557, 558, 565, 565n, 566, 572. See also Corregidor.
Mallone, Col. Richard C.: 26n, 107, 136, 162, 162n,
188, 216, 218, 220, 224, 257, 269n, 370, 387, 388
Mamala River: 296, 417, 438, 445, 446, 446n, 447,
448
Manchuria: 56, 60
Mangima Canyon: 517, 518, 519
Manila: 120, 121, 363n, 385, 413, 569, 573, 576, 577
as communication center: 5, 7, 255
evacuation of: 161, 165, 199, 200, 200n, 201, 255,
256, 258
and impact of war: 115-22
Japanese drive on: 102, 128, 130, 132, 133, 138,
139, 140, 141, 157, 166, 181, 182, 188, 191, 195,
199, 203, 206, 210, 223
as military and naval installation: 18, 19, 22, 23,
33, 34, 42, 43, 44, 45n, 57, 58, 59, 60n, 61, 63,
69, 70, 71, 85, 92, 94, 95, 97, 104, 104n, 128, 149,
163, 471
occupation by Japanese: 232-38, 261, 385, 412-13,
484
open city: 161, 162, 163, 164, 190
Manila Bay: 163, 263, 348, 349, 446n, 449n, 525n. See
also Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays,
blockade-running: 348, 395, 396, 397, 401, 402
defenses deny Japanese use of: 22, 32, 45, 47, 62, 65,
role in Philippine reinforcements: 14, 31, 32, 33,
34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 43-44, 48, 147-48,

151, 153, 155, 239-40, 241, 242, 390, 390n,
391-92, 393, 394, 397, 398, 398-99, 400,
402, 402-03
views on MacArthur's evacuation: 353-54,
356, 357, 358, 359
150,
391,
401,
355,
Marshall, Brig. Gen. Richard J.: 10, 19, 164, 165,
190n, 200, 234, 247, 274, 274n, 290, 304, 304-05,

359n, 378
Mataling line: 513, 514
Mauban: 119, 139, 141, 142, 142n, 164, 191, 195, 247,
249, 296. See also Abucay-Mauban line.
Mauban line. See Abucay-Mauban line.
Mauban Ridge: 249, 278, 284
Maya: 103, 105
Mayan: 164
Medal of Honor: 270, 341
Medical Corps: 120

Medical Department: 50
Medical depot: 120
Medical problems: 376-84, 400, 401-02, 403, 404,
410, 412, 433-34, 444, 454-55, 524, 525, 531-32,

544-46
Medical Regiment, 12th: 22
Meier, Capt. Philip A.: 272
Meigs: 146n
Melbourne: 146, 364, 397, 575
Merle-Smith, Col. Van S.: 146, 154

71, 166, 238, 352, 471-79, 583
Merrill, Col. Gyles: 179
description of: 6, 7
Middle Sector: 529, 530, 531, 558. See also Corregidor.
Japanese air strikes: 234-35
Middleside: 472-73, 481, 482, 494, 529, 531, 540. See

also Corregidor.
Midway: 38, 77-78, 584
Japanese invasion plans: 57, 58
naval base: 46, 90-91, 155-56

tides upset Japanese landings on Corregidor: 55354
Manila Railroad: 109, 110, 111, 142, 176, 177, 178
Manzano, Lt. Col. Narcisco L.: 209, 210
Maps, need and use: 270, 271, 277, 280, 289, 289n,
300, 313, 330, 338, 339, 525
Marblehead: 91
Marett, 1st Lt. Samuel H.: 106n
Marines, 4th Regiment. See Infantry units, Regiments,
United States.
Mikami, Maj. Gen. Kizo: 414, 416, 422, 553

Military Advisor. See MacArthur, Gen. Douglas.
Miller, Col. Ernest B.: 176, 176n, 177, 222, 223, 229,
293
Mindanao: 358, 359, 520
conquest of: 507-19
landings on: 98, 112, 123, 145, 238
plans to occupy: 57, 59, 98, 122, 414n, 47 1, 503

plans to use as base of operations: 239, 354, 356-57,
Mariveles: 7, 47, 91, 95, 155, 263, 300, 301, 302, 306,
311, 317, 318, 329, 414, 415, 429, 453, 454, 457,
459, 460, 473, 494, 523, 537
360, 500-01, 502

as supply collection base: 378, 395, 396, 398, 399,
400, 401, 402, 403
surrender of: 570, 572, 573, 574, 577, 578
Mariveles Bay: 296, 406
terrain: 6, 498-99
620
Murasame: 107
use as military base: 10, 11, 43, 70, 88, 92, 92n, 97, Myers, Capt. Gordon R.: 339
97n, 119, 156, 239, 360
Naga: 111, 505, 506
Mindanao Force. See Task forces.
Nagano, Maj. Gen. Kameichiro: 413, 416, 433, 444,
Mindanao River: 511
461, 462, 463, 464, 466, 467
Mindanao Sea: 359, 499
Nagumo, Vice Adm. C.: 78
Mindoro: 10, 349, 414n
Naka: 107
Minelayers: 110, 126
Nakajima, Lt. Col. Yoshio: 58n, 181, 230n, 350n,
Mines: 95, 283, 320, 411, 436, 537, 550
569n
Minesweepers: 46, 91, 95, 126, 141, 150, 155, 307
Nakanishi, Col.: 283, 284
Mitchell, Col. Eugene H.: 513, 514
Miura, Lt. Col. Toshio: 112, 507, 508, 510, 511, 512 Nakar, Col. Guillermo: 573, 574, 574n
Nakayama, Col. Motoo: 347, 416, 464-66, 566-67,
Mizuho: 142
568, 570
Moncada: 177
Napa: 459
Monkey Point: 555, 557
Moore, Maj. Gen. George F.: 22, 44-45, 71, 279, Nara, Lt. Gen. Akira: 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267-68,
271, 272, 273, 275, 277, 279, 280-81, 287, 289n,
279n, 360, 361, 375, 478, 479, 486, 486n, 488,
294n, 295, 296, 312n, 325-26, 329-30, 331, 332,
494, 535, 540, 546, 547, 547n, 550, 551, 557, 561,
333, 334, 335, 336, 340, 347, 348, 416, 424, 427,
567, 571
437, 442
Moore, Col. Joseph H.: 87n, 117
Morale: 245, 247, 293-94, 321-22, 350-51, 354, 384- Nasugbu: 164n, 264, 524
89, 419, 424-25, 436, 444, 445, 449, 454-55, Nasugbu Bay: 141
National Defense Act (1935): 10-11
527-28, 531, 547, 549, 550, 558
Naval losses: 105, 106, 107, 129
Moran, Col. John: 225
Naval strength
Morehouse, Maj. C. H.: 359n
Allied: 46, 47, 90-91
Morioka, Lt. Gen. Sasumu: 138-39, 139, 140, 142,
190, 191, 196-97, 201-02, 202n, 218, 235, 236, Japanese: 103, 110, 112, 126-27
236n, 312-13, 312n, 317, 322, 337, 340, 340-41, Naval Task Force 5: 91, 91-92, 91n, 95
Naval units. See Asiatic Fleet (US).
341, 342, 343, 347-48, 348, 349-50, 417, 522
Navy Basic War Plan. See RAINBOW 5.
Morita, Col. Haruji: 416, 426, 428, 445, 446
Navy Department, U.S.: 47, 73, 95n, 149, 459
Mormacsum: 393, 395
Moron: 245, 248, 249, 250, 263, 266, 279, 281, 300 Needham, Lt. Robert F.: 194
Negros: 5, 7, 11, 499, 502, 507, 578, 581
Morrison Hill: 494, 527, 538
Nelson, Lt. Col. R. J.: 511
Morrison Point: 527
Netherlands Indies: 4, 52, 54, 56, 59, 98, 145, 150,
Morse, Col. William P.: 516, 517, 518
152, 155, 156, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 356, 357,
Mortars: 221, 223, 288, 294, 335, 339, 436, 444, 475
365, 390, 391, 392, 393, 395, 396, 397, 400, 401,
ammunition: 321, 335, 339, 496, 540
507
3-inch Stokes: 288, 321, 335
Niagara: 145
3-inch trench: 29
12-inch: 306, 307, 474, 476, 478, 487, 489, 494, 496, Nichols Field. See Airfields.
Nieto, Col. Manuel: 161n
540, 541, 549n, 550, 556
Nininger, 2d Lt. Alexander R., Jr.: 270
60-mm.: 321
Nishimura, Rear Adm. Shoji: 122
81-mm.: 35, 306, 307, 321, 436, 439
Nomura, Kichisaburo: 78
Motor torpedo boats: 9, 11, 12, 13, 47, 48, 60, 91, 97,
100, 126, 155, 300-01, 318, 322n, 359, 359n, 361 North Channel: 8, 523
North Dock: 540
Mount Arayat: 166, 203, 213, 215
North Luzon Force. See Task forces.
Mount Banahao: 191
North Point: 549, 551, 554, 555, 557
Mount Bataan: 245
Nueva Ecija Province: 178
Mount Limay: 446n, 448
Mount Natib: 245, 247, 248, 251, 252, 266, 266n, 274,
276, 325, 379
Obata, Lt. Gen. Hideyoshi: 57, 479, 480
Mount Natib trail: 266, 266n
Observation: 228, 274, 306, 315, 326, 407, 418, 421,
Mount Pucot: 301, 302, 303, 306, 307, 308
422, 488, 540, 548, 549, 553
Mount Samat: 326, 327, 330, 332, 333, 406, 407, 414, aircraft: 228 422, 449, 540, 541, 549
415, 416, 417, 418, 432, 434, 438, 440, 441, 443 balloon: 523n, 537, 539
capture of: 421-31
post: 298, 306, 541
Mount Santa Rosa: 248, 265
visibility: 113, 301, 309, 314, 315, 338, 339
Mount Silanganan: 248, 249, 250, 278, 281, 282, 283,O'Day, Col. Ray M.: 162n, 170, 225, 385
285n
O'Donnell, Maj. Emmett, Jr.: 38
MindanaoContinued
621
INDEX
Office of Military Advisor: 9, 11, 19. See also Mac-
Arthur, Gen. Douglas.

Oigawa Maru: 107
Parker, Maj. Gen. George M., Jr.Continued
Task forces, South Luzon Force; Corps, II Philippine.
Commander, Bataan Defense Force: 165

Olongapo: 29, 47, 58, 91, 96, 223, 264, 266, 279, 280,
313, 322, 337, 349, 452, 453, 454, 476, 523, 524, Commander, South Luzon Force: 69
Commander, II Philippine Corps: 247
528
directs II Corps operations: 251, 268, 268n, 271-72,
Olongapo Naval Station: 29
273, 274-75, 277, 285, 287, 289, 290, 290n, 328,
Onuma, Maj. Kiyoshi: 525n
331, 335, 384, 425, 439, 446, 447, 451-52
Operation Baus Au: 502, 503, 507. See also Visayan
surrender: 459
Islands.
Pasig River: 115, 121, 234, 235
ORANGE Plan. See War Plan Orange-3.
Orani: 266, 524
Paysawan River: 296
Orani River: 270
Pearl Harbor: 46, 52, 54, 78, 78n, 79, 80, 81, 82, 86,
Ord, Lt. Col. James B.: 9, 10
88, 89, 90, 145, 149, 152, 394, 479, 583
Ordnance
Peck, Maj. Allen L.: 519
Philippine Ordnance Depot: 92
Peck, Capt. Gordon H.: 177, 222-23
17th Ordnance Battalion: 32
Penaranda River: 183
Ordnance Department: 24, 50
Pensacola convoy: 145-48, 150, 151, 152, 153, 153-54,
Orion: 251, 289, 325, 326, 327, 329, 332, 405, 406, 154, 157
407, 417, 429, 440, 445n, 456
Permit: 399
Orion-Bagac line: 325-30, 350, 406, 410, 417, 493, Pescadores: 60, 123, 126
552n
Philippine Army. See also Divisions; Infantry units;
Orion cutoff: 330, 331, 440, 444
Philippine Constabulary; and appropriate arm
Ota, Col. Kumataro: 581
or service. 16, 17, 18, 19, 23, 32, 34, 35, 36, 47,
Otter, Lt. Bethel B.: 559
48, 49, 58, 62, 63, 64, 65, 69, 70, 71, 102, 109,
Outpost lines: 137, 197, 198, 247, 250, 251, 265, 269,
113, 115, 119, 120, 131, 132, 136, 142, 143, 157,
272, 278, 279, 281, 332, 334, 338, 417, 438
162n, 163, 165, 166, 189, 212, 238, 258, 262, 294,
298, 351, 354, 366, 372, 373, 381, 383, 385, 405,
408, 430, 441, 445, 451, 454, 461, 478, 481, 499,
Paalungan River: 448, 449n
529, 583
Pacific Fleet: 46, 46n, 47, 51, 52, 54, 56, 64, 78, 79,
mobilization and training: 25-30
91, 149, 152, 155, 394. See also Asiatic Fleet (US);
organization and development: 8-13
U. S. Navy.
Philippine Army Air Force: 13, 25, 26, 62, 502, 529.
Padre Burgos: 109, 142
See also Air Forces units; Far East Air Force.
Pagbilao: 144, 195, 196
Philippine Coast Artillery Command: 44-45, 65, 71,
Palau: 59, 60, 61, 98, 109, 110, 112
478. See also Harbor Defenses of Manila and
Palawan: 10, 91, 574
Subic Bays.
Palsabangon River: 196
Philippine Coastal Frontier: 65, 67
Pampanga River: 166, 180, 181, 182, 183, 202, 203,
Philippine Constabulary: 9, 10, 10n, 12, 26, 27, 58,
205, 206, 207, 208, 210, 213, 214, 215, 114,
418 118-19, 119, 199, 200, 298
Pan American Airways: 147, 148
Philippine Department: 9, 10, 12, 16, 18, 21, 22, 23,
Panama: 14, 36, 48, 71n, 241, 398
61, 62, 63, 70, 71, 121, 163, 247, 296
Panay: 5, 6, 7, 11, 238, 396, 499, 501, 502, 503, Philippine Division. See Divisions.
506-07, 510, 574, 579, 580. See also Christie, Col. Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company: 7, 15
Albert F.
Philippine Scouts: 21, 26, 27, 28, 34, 49, 70, 71, 102,
Panay Force: 502
120, 162n, 238, 239n, 258, 383, 384, 405, 478,
Pandacan: 234
529. See also Divisions; Infantry units; and approPandan River: 332, 334
priate arm or service.
Paniquian River: 296, 406
organization and strength: 9, 12, 21, 21n, 22, 24
Pantingan River: 326, 327, 327-28, 337, 405-06, 408, Phillips, Maj. Paul D.: 517, 518
416, 420, 422, 424, 426, 427, 432, 433, 435, 436, Phillips, Vice Adm. Sir Thomas: 72
442, 443, 447
Pico de Loro hills: 486, 488
Pantingan River Valley: 406, 411, 416, 426, 427, 429, Pierce, Brig. Gen. Clinton A.: 131, 133, 134, 135, 138,
460
171, 174, 218, 305, 310, 314, 315, 316, 317, 320,
Parang: 510, 511, 513
328, 407. See also Cavalry, 26th Regiment.
Parker, Maj. Gen. George M., Jr.: 109, 141, 165, 166,
Piis: 193, 194
190, 193, 225, 227, 229, 252, 265, 266, 271, 275, Pilar: 245, 251, 332
282, 289, 290, 291, 305, 327, 332, 405, 406, 424,Pilar River: 332, 334, 335, 438, 439
431, 432, 454. See also Bataan Defense Force; Pio: 218, 219, 220, 224
622
Plaridel: 180, 200, 201, 203, 205, 206-08, 214, 215,

Reinforcements
265
American: 31, 32-37, 273, 274, 282, 305, 306-07,
Pocket Fights: 336-38, 341-46
309. See also Pensacola convoy; Blockade-running.
Big Pocket: 339-41, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346
Japanese: 317, 318, 413, 413-14, 414n, 501-02, 523
establishment of pockets: 338-39
Republic: 146n
Little Pocket: 339, 341, 342, 343
Repulse: 72
Upper Pocket: 340, 341, 342, 343, 345
Reserve area: 70-71
Polk: 148
Reserve Force: 70
Porac: 213, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220,
223,
225,C.:262.
See
Richards,
Lt. Grover
220n
also Guagua-Porac line.
Right Sector. See Corps, I Philippine.
Port Darwin: 149, 150, 156
Roadblocks: 177, 183-85, 194, 282-84, 282n, 290,
Port Moresby: 38, 584
437-38, 443, 450, 511
Post of Limay: 21
Roads and trails
Post of Manila: 21
Bauang-Baguio Road: 128, 132
Pozorrubio: 131, 134, 136, 137
Cabanatuan-Tarlac Road: 184, 187
President Harrison: 47
East Road: 245, 251, 254, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269,
Preston: 91, 110
271, 274, 293, 326, 330, 332, 334, 415, 417, 433,
Primrose, Capt. John: 222
438, 445n, 448, 449, 451, 460, 461/467
Prince of Wales: 72
Guitol trail: 276, 289
Princessa: 396
Junction 2-10: 445, 446
Provisional Air Corps Regiment. See Infantry Units,
Junction 2-46: 446
Regiments (PA).
Junction 4-429: 434
Provisional Battalion, 51st Division: 339, 341, 342,
Junction 6-8: 432, 433, 436, 437, 438, 439, 442, 443
343, 345
Junction 8-29: 432, 437, 442, 443
Provisional Field Artillery Brigade: 449
Junction 8-44: 445n
Psychological warfare: 268-69, 269n, 323, 418, 494,
Junction 29-429: 435
527
Junction 44-429: 435, 438, 439
PT's. See Motor torpedo boats.
Pilar-Bagac road: 245, 247, 248, 268, 281, 282, 291,
Pugh, Lt. Col. John R.: 567, 568, 569, 574, 575
294, 295, 296, 300, 325, 326, 332, 335, 336, 337,
Puntian: 517, 518, 519
405, 407, 408, 422, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 438
Puntian Sector: 518
Route 1: 7, 111, 139, 140, 142, 144, 191, 195, 196,
Purnell, Rear Adm. William R.: 72-73, 73
197, 200, 498, 499, 508, 510, 511, 512, 51
515
Route 2: 434n
Quartermaster: 21, 22, 50, 62, 70, 120, 121, 255,
Route 3: 7, 102, 107, 108, 127, 128, 131, 136, 166,
256-57, 258, 370
168, 170, 174, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 186,
Quezon, Manuel: 4, 9, 10, 13, 72, 84, 116, 161, 164,
187, 188, 201, 203, 206, 210, 211, 212, 213, 215,
203, 239, 354, 355, 399, 400, 456, 482, 491, 492,
498
544
Route 5: 7, 102, 105, 106, 166, 178, 180, 182, 183,
Quinauan Point: 299, 300, 301, 303, 304, 305,
184, 200, 201, 203, 206, 213
308-12, 314, 317, 318, 320, 323, 324, 328, 345
Route 6: 424
Quintard, Col. Alexander S.: 120, 419, 449
Route 7: 165, 203, 210, 215, 216, 220, 221, 222, 223,
Quail: 307
224, 225, 228, 245, 265, 266, 279
Route 8: 178
Radar: 43
Route 10: 210, 213
Radio Tokyo: 232
Route 13: 166, 170, 178, 186
Railroads: 109, 176, 177, 473, 484
Route 17: 199, 200
RAINBOW 5: 46n, 65, 67, 71, 79, 82, 83, 148, 149
Route 20: 451
Rations: 63, 179, 276, 288, 289, 309, 317, 321, 322,
Route 21: 195, 200
340, 344, 391, 392, 393, 395, 396, 399, 400, 401,
Route 23: 193, 194, 195, 196, 197
402, 412, 412n, 440, 452, 453, 490, 491, 507, 528,
Route 25: 199, 200
534-35, 543-44, 552-53. See also Supply; Medical
Route 29: 425
problems.
Route 67: 180
Ray, Capt. Harold G.: 359n
Route 74: 181, 203, 210, 213, 216, 218, 222, 223,
Real River: 381, 448
262, 264
Rear battle positions: 247, 248, 251, 290, 295, 325
Route 110: 223, 225, 226, 227, 245
Reconnaissance: 315, 316, 319, 409, 482, 541
Trail 2: 325, 330-36, 431, 434, 435, 438, 439, 440,
445, 445n, 446, 446n, 449n
counterreconnaissance: 417-18
reconnaissance in force: 351, 418
Trail 4: 407, 416, 422, 429, 430, 432, 434, 435, 438
623
INDEX
Roads and trailsContinued
San Fernando, Pampanga: 63, 102n, 104, 165, 165n,
Trait 5: 337, 338, 341, 344

168, 170, 178, 184, 195, 202, 203, 206, 210, 213,
Trail 6: 407, 424, 425, 426, 427, 430, 432, 437, 439,
214, 214-15, 216, 221, 223, 230, 255, 281, 336,
440
347, 351, 416, 467
Trail 7: 328, 329, 337, 339, 340, 341, 343, 344, 407,San Francisco: 4, 32, 33, 38, 39, 44, 148, 385
431
San Jose: 166, 178, 182, 218, 222, 472, 507, 571
Trail 8: 407, 422, 427, 432, 441, 442, 443, 447
San Marcelino: 28, 92
Trail 9: 407, 431
San Quintin: 174, 182
Trail 10: 431, 446n
Trail 12: 286
Trail 15: 407
San Vicente line. See San Vicente River.

San Vicente River: 408, 432, 434, 434n, 435, 438,
439, 440, 442, 443, 444, 445

Trail 20: 448, 449, 449n, 450, 451
Sangley Point: 7, 91, 95, 155
Trail 29: 407, 416, 422, 424, 425, 426, 427, 432, Santa Cruz: 195, 222, 223, 225
433, 436, 437, 440, 442
Santa Ignacia: 166, 178
Trail 38: 445n
Trail 44: 434, 434n, 440, 445
Trail 46: 445, 445n, 447
Trail 429: 407, 422, 430, 434, 435

Robenson, Col. John A.: 392, 393, 394, 395
Rockwell, Rear Adm. Francis W.: 91, 94, 95, 155,
359n, 363
Rodman, Col. John H.: 176, 282, 283, 284
Rogers, M Sgt. Paul P.: 359n
Romulo, Col. Carlos: 234, 544
Roosevelt, President Franklin D.: 71, 394, 550
decision to base fleet at Pearl Harbor: 46
and MacArthur's appointment as Miliary Advisor:
9, 16-17
and MacArthur's evacuation: 353, 354, 355, 356,
357-58
message to Wainwright: 572, 574
"no surrender" order: 354-55, 355, 456
obligation to aid Philippines: 145, 146, 148, 150,
151, 153, 154, 239-40, 241, 242, 397

promises aid to Wainwright: 401
rejects Quezon's independence proposal: 354-55
and USAFFE command: 18, 363, 364-65
and Wainwright's surrender decision: 561, 562-64
Resales: 131, 178
Santa Rosa: 186, 187
Santiago: 129, 199, 200, 201

Santo Thomas: 128
Sanyo Maru: 103n
Sargo: 399
Sariaya: 195, 196, 197, 198
Sato, Col. Gempachi: 429, 430, 434, 443, 553, 556,

558, 571
Savoie, Lt. Carl J.: 188
Sayre, High Commissioner Francis B.: 72, 164, 203n,
491
Sayre Highway: 498, 508, 510, 511, 512, 513, 516,
517, 519, 576
Schumacher, Lt. (jg) V. S.: 359n
Scudder, Col. Irvine C.: 502
Sculpin: 141
Seacoast Artillery. See Coast Artillery guns.
Seacoast defenses. See Corregidor.
Seadragon: 94, 399

Sealion: 94
Seaplane carriers: 60, 126-27
Seaplane tender: 103, 103n
Searaven: 399
Rosario: 127, 128, 131, 132, 133-36, 136, 163, 174
Searchlights: 33, 45, 299, 318, 474, 475, 476, 481, 531,
537-38, 540, 555
Searight, Col. Hamilton F.: 196, 197
Rosario-Infanta line: 109

Roxas, Brig. Gen. Manuel A.: 582
Seaward Defenses: 306, 481, 489, 490

Segundo, Brig. Gen. Fidel V.: 278, 280, 337, 338, 341,
Rumbold, Maj. Ralph E.: 193, 194
342. See also Divisions (PA), 1st Regular.

Selleck, Brig. Gen. Clyde A.: 134, 135, 136, 226, 227,
228, 229, 250, 298, 299, 302, 303, 304, 305, 305n.
Russia. See Soviet Union.
Ryujo: 97, 110, 113

Ryukyus: 61, 123, 138, 140
S-38: 129
S-39: 110
Sage, Col. Charles G.: 451, 457
Sakaguchi, Maj. Gen. Shizuo: 112
Samal: 269, 270
Samar: 5, 98, 499, 501, 502, 507, 581

Sampaloc: 193
San Bernardino Strait: 98, 110
See also Divisions (PA), 71st.

Service Command Area. See Bataan Service Command Area.
Sexmoan: 220, 223
Shanghai: 7, 19, 46, 47, 77, 380, 413, 528
Shark: 155
Sharp, Brig. Gen. William F.: 69, 70, 238, 356, 360,
395, 395n, 499, 500, 501, 502, 508, 510, 516, 517,
519, 562, 564, 569, 570, 572, 573, 575, 576, 577,
578, 579, 580, 581, 582
Commander, Visayan-Mindanao Force: 69, 506
San Carlos: 166, 169, 170

San Fabian: 129, 133, 135, 144
Sherr, Lt. Col. Joe R.: 359n
San Fernando, La Union: 102, 102n, 108, 122, 128,
Shipping: 36-37, 47, 48, 95, 125n, 390-01, 401-04.
131, 165n
See also Pensacola convoy.
624
Shoemake, Capt. Andrew D.: 419n
Short, Lt. Gen. Walter C.: 71

StrategyContinued
Japanese: 51-61, 347
Shortages: 28-30, 134, 180, 284, 321, 367-76, 376-84, Strickler, Maj. Dudley G.: 308, 309
401-02, 489, 496, 499-500, 508, 526, 559. See also Subic Bay: 12, 22, 45, 47, 62, 65, 71, 91, 96, 120, 128,
Ammunition; Rations; Supply.
278, 279, 313, 403, 452, 478, 523
Shreve, Lt. Col. Arthur L.: 195n, 197, 201
Siain: 139, 142
Sierra Madre: 178
Signal Corps: 22, 50, 120
12th Signal Regiment: 22
Si-Kiang: 255
Submarine tenders: 95
Submarines
American: 46, 47, 49, 90-91, 91, 94, 95, 97, 110,
129, 130, 131, 141, 155, 156, 358, 390, 398, 399,
402, 403, 548
Japanese: 59, 78
Silaiim Bay: 314, 316, 323
Sulu Archipelago: 6, 10, 112, 238
Silaiim Point: 312-24, 345, 347, 347-48
Sumatra: 52, 54, 240, 356
Silaiim River: 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 319, 323
Supply: 36, 63, 152, 164-65, 179-80, 197, 254-59,
Silen, Bert: 232
317, 340, 352, 361, 485, 486, 528, 533, 533-34,
Silver Star awards: 361n
546, 552-53. See also Blockade-running; Pensacola
Singapore: 4, 56, 72, 77, 91n, 145, 147, 150, 152, 238,
convoy; Rations; Shipping; Shortages.
241, 350n, 356, 418
Surabaja: 154, 157
Singora: 77
Sutherland, Maj. Gen. Richard K.: 10, 67, 73, 79, 81,
Sipoco: 111
82, 82n, 83, 88, 88n, 89, 90, 115, 121, 164, 206,
Sison: 136, 137, 138
207, 225, 226, 268, 273-74, 290, 290n, 291, 294,
Skardon, 1st Lt. Beverly N.: 282
304, 305, 328, 358n, 359, 359n, 360, 361, 364,
Skerry, Col. Harry A.: 208-09, 209, 210, 226, 227,
364n, 365, 479, 528
245, 248, 248-49, 383
Army background: 19
Sloan, Capt. Raymond: 323
Chief of Staff, USAFFE: 19
Smith, Lt. Col. Ross B.: 319
Suzuki, Col. Tatsunosuke: 348, 349
Snapper: 399
Swordfish: 399
Solomon Islands: 365, 584
Somervell, Maj. Gen. Brehon B.: 398, 401
Tacloban: 577
Sonoda, Col. Seinosuke: 206, 207
Takagi, Rear Adm. Takeo: 109, 110, 112
Sorsogon Bay: 91
Takahashi, Vice Adm. Ibo: 57, 60, 103, 105, 126, 129
South Channel: 8
Takahashi, Lt. Col. Katsumi: 188, 216, 219, 220, 224,
South China Sea: 4, 7, 64, 85, 100, 128, 248, 296, 310,
225
328, 548, 583
Takao: 60, 61, 100, 123, 261, 262
South Dock: 539
Takao Maru: 107
South Luzon Force. See Task forces.
Takechi, Col. Susumu: 266, 267, 270, 271, 272, 277,
South Sector. See Corps, I Philippine.
287, 289, 289n, 332, 334, 335, 340
Southeast Pacific Force: 46n
Tala River: 429, 430
Soviet Union: 14, 33, 67, 150
Talisay River: 348, 408, 420, 429, 433
Spaatz, Brig. Gen. Carl A.: 37
Tanabe, Maj. Tadaji: 332, 334
Spearfish: 399
Tanaka, Col. Toru: 103, 108, 128, 131, 178, 215, 216
Stark, Admiral Harold R.: 36, 46, 94, 148, 149, 150, Taniguchi, Maj. Gen. Kureo: 416, 424, 425, 426, 427,
151, 155
429, 430, 434, 435, 438, 439, 552, 553
Station Hospital: 24, 50
Tank action
Steel, Col. Charles L.: 228, 229, 286
American: 33, 58, 134-35, 168, 176, 176n, 177,
Stevenot, Joseph: 15, 120
177n, 178, 184-85, 185-86, 187, 194, 207-08,
Stevens, Brig. Gen. Luther: 170, 174, 207, 209, 214,
219, 220n, 221, 222-23, 223, 225, 227, 229, 247250, 328, 337, 371-72, 373, 405, 407. See also Di- 48, 283, 287, 293, 294, 310, 314, 318, 319-20,
visions (PA), 91st.
341, 346, 409-10, 418, 433, 436, 451
Stewart, Lt. Col. Loren P.: 201, 208
Japanese: 126, 126n, 135, 138, 207, 221, 229, 424,
Stilwell, Lt. Gen. Joseph W.: 403
427, 433, 438-39, 444, 450, 512, 515, 560
Stimson, Henry L.: 15, 16, 17, 17n, 31, 31-32, 39, 145, Tank units
148, 150, 239-40, 241
Provisional Tank Group: 33, 121, 168, 176, 178,
Stingray: 131
405, 406, 409, 431
Stivers, Col. Charles P.: 359n
192d: 33, 50, 134, 135, 169, 171, 176, 178, 183n,
Strafing: 86, 87, 94, 106, 129, 294, 318, 425, 427, 450,
184, 205, 218, 227, 319, 346
480, 512, 519
194th: 32, 33, 50, 73, 169, 171, 176, 177, 178, 178n,
Strategy
181, 205, 214, 221, 222, 223, 227, 283, 293, 294
American: 61-64, 64-71, 145-57, 238-42, 353-66,
Tank-infantry co-operation: 310, 320, 321, 341, 346,
390, 393-94, 401
410
INDEX
625
Toledo: 503, 505, 506

Tankulan: 517, 518
Topside: 473, 480, 481, 482, 490, 494, 528, 529, 531,
Tarkington, Col. Hiram W.: 503, 508, 516
Tarlac: 63, 96, 166, 176, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 186, 537, 540, 547, 549. See also Corregidor.
Torres Strait: 154, 155
187, 188, 203, 211, 212, 216, 262
Tarlac-Cabanatuan Line: 169-89
Trails. See Roads and trails.
Townsend, Col. Glen R.: 105n, 213, 337, 339, 340
Tarlac Depot: 179
Training: 12-13, 16, 27, 28, 29-30, 102, 109, 131, 262,
Task forces
298-99, 308, 408-11, 508, 522, 529, 530, 552,
Initial Protective Force: 62
Lanao force: 514-15
558
Transportation: 29, 63, 197, 255, 498-99
Leyte-Samar Force: 577
Luzon Force: 361, 362, 362n, 363, 364, 365, 366,Trapnell, Maj. Thomas J. H.: 135
Col. Jesse
T., Jr.: 199, 462, 572, 573, 576,
384, 404, 405, 406, 407, 411, 431, Traywick,
432, 451,
452,
453, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 562, 577

564, 570
Tree bursts: 314, 314n, 320, 339

Mindanao Force: 508, 516, 517, 570
North Luzon Force: 50, 67, 69, 69n, 70, 72, 102, Troop dispositions, American
120, 122, 131, 133, 165, 166, 168, 169, 170, 174, Bataan: 247-48, 248-54, 278-79, 285-86,
09, 316, 319, 327-28, 329, 330-31, 337, 342, 345,
178, 179, 180, 180n, 181, 183, 186, 188, 190, 199,
405, 405-07, 422-24, 431-32, 439-40, 448-49
200, 201, 202, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208-09, 210,
215, 216, 219, 226, 227, 230, 366
Corregidor: 529
Defense line D-1: 166, 168, 170, 190
Luzon: 196, 218, 220-21, 226-27
Defense line D-2: 166, 171, 174, 176, 179
Mindanao: 510-11, 512-13, 516, 516-17
Defense line D-3: 166, 176, 177, 178
Visayas: 502
Defense line D-4: 166, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183,
Troop dispositions, Japanese: 216, 228, 265-66, 276,
186, 187
312n, 329, 332, 336-37, 340, 414-15, 416-17,
Defense line D-5: 166, 180, 183, 186, 187,
420, 424, 426, 429, 433, 522, 552
188, 202, 203, 210-14, 215
Troop strengths, American: 299, 302, 308, 435, 449,
Panay Force: 502
454, 461, 476, 478, 502, 507, 518
South Luzon Force: 50, 67, 69, 70, 109n, 110, 119,
Bataan: 247, 401, 455
120, 141, 165, 166, 168, 180, 181, 183, 188, 190,
Corregidor: 401, 475, 476, 535
190n, 193, 194, 195, 197, 199, 200, 200n, 202, Harbor Defenses and Beach Defenses: 70, 529, 530,
205, 206, 207, 210, 214, 215, 227, 230, 266, 328, 531
361
Luzon: 22, 162, 162n, 239, 239n
Visayan Force: 501, 502, 506
Visayan-Mindanao Force: 49, 67, 69, 70, 1 13, 360,
Luzon Force: 405, 406

Marines: 47, 299n, 476, 528, 529, 530
North Luzon Force: 70
395, 499, 500, 506, 562, 569, 572, 574, 575
Philippine Army: 26-27, 49, 65, 70
Tayabas: 195, 196
Tayabas Bay: 100, 142, 196
Reserve Force: 70
Tayabas Mountains: 139, 144, 191
South Luzon Force: 70
Tayug: 138, 169, 170, 171, 174
U.S. Army in Philippines: 21-23, 49, 50, 58, 65, 70,
71
Terauchi, Gen. Count Hisaichi: 56, 261
Visayas: 502, 507
Ternate: 264, 485, 486, 488, 523
Visayan-Mindanao Force: 70
Terrain and geography
11th Division (PA): 102
Bataan: 8, 245, 248, 251, 266n, 273-74, 276, 296,
51st Division (PA): 330
300, 301, 303, 309, 313-14, 325-26, 337-38, 338,
71st Division (PA): 226
339, 346, 407-08, 442, 445n, 446n, 449n, 484-85
Troop strengths, Japanese: 54, 54n, 55, 103, 112,
Caballo Island: 476
125n, 216, 262, 281, 295n, 300, 302, 303, 314,
Carabao Island: 478
329-30, 336-37, 338, 345, 349-50, 350n, 412,
Corregidor: 245 472-73
Luzon: 5-7, 100-02, 109, 127-28, 132, 166, 186, 413, 503, 507, 508n, 515, 559
Troops, condition of: 288, 531-35, 542-46. See also
191, 195-96, 203, 212, 216, 221, 226-27
Morale; Medical problems.
Mindanao: 4-6, 498-99, 519
Truk: 4, 79
Philippine Islands: 4-8
Tsuchibashi, Lt. Gen. Yuichi: 125, 133, 170, 174, 182,
Visayan group: 499
184, 191, 206, 235, 236n
Thailand: 4, 54, 56, 72, 77, 238, 484
Tsukahara, Vice Adm, Nishizo: 57
Thayer, Lt. Col. Allen: 518, 519, 579, 580
Tsunehiro, Lt. Col. Nariyoshi: 139, 142, 191, 194, 196,
Thompson, Maj. Donald G.: 229n
300, 303, 308, 312
Tiaong: 196, 197, 198, 199, 200
Tuguegarao: 84, 102, 105, 106
Tiawir River: 334, 348, 408, 424, 427
Tuol River: 337, 338, 344
Tiawir-Talisay River: 408, 423, 426, 428
Turner. Rear Adm. Richmond K.: 146
Tisdelle, Maj. Achille C.: 369, 385, 464, 464n
626
Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934): 4, 13, 61
Uegirna. See Kamijima, Col.
Umingan: 174, 176
Upper Pocket. See Pocket Fights.
Urdaneta: 134, 166, 169, 170, 178
U. S. Army: 9, 12, 15, 26, 35, 36, 48, 49, 50, 58, 62, 64,
70, 71, 238, 239n, 258, 529
U. S. Army Forces, Far East (USAFFE): 34, 44, 48,

Wainwright, Lt. Gen. Jonathan M.Continued
part in the defense of the Southern Islands: 506, 510
part in withdrawal to Bataan: 162, 163, 165, 168,
174, 176, 180, 190, 199, 200, 203, 205, 206, 207,
209, 210, 216, 219, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227, 230
surrender of Bataan: 452, 453, 454, 455, 455n, 456,

457, 457n, 458, 458n, 459, 460, 462, 462n, 46263, 465-66
surrender of Corregidor: 560-61, 562, 562-64, 56450, 70, 71, 80n, 81, 85, 100, 104, 110, 116, 118,
74, 584
120, 121, 130, 133, 136, 138, 153, 163, 164, 190,
surrender in the Southern Islands: 572, 573, 574,
193n, 197, 199, 234, 247, 248, 274, 282, 290, 305,
575, 576, 577, 578, 579, 580, 582
317, 318, 324, 328, 329, 339, 360, 361, 362, 363, views on reinforcements: 390, 401-02, 403
365, 371, 373, 409, 410, 480, 481, 501, 548
Wake: 47
Bataan echelon of: 290, 371, 372, 377
Wake Island: 38, 52, 54, 65, 77, 145, 394
organization and strength: 14-30
Wappenstein, Lt. Col. William A.: 425
U. S. Forces in the Philippines (USFIP): 365, 453, War Plan ORANGE-3: 61-64, 65n, 69, 161-66
535, 548
War Plans Division: 15n, 16, 31, 32, 153, 240, 241,
organization: 363
390
U. S. Navy: 13, 36, 37, 148, 298, 529. See also Asiatic Warner, Lt. Col. Everett L.: 574
Fleet (US); Pacific Fleet.
Watanabe, Col. Yunosuke: 266, 279, 280, 281
USSR. See Soviet Union.
Wavell, Gen. Sir Archibald P.: 242, 353, 356, 398, 399
Weaver, Brig. Gen. James R. N.: 33, 121, 134, 135,
Vachon, Brig. Gen. Joseph P.: 512-13
168, 176, 176n, 209, 214, 216, 221, 229, 287, 293,
Vance, Col. John R.: 565
310, 318
Vance, Col. Lee C.: 446
Webb, Maj. Joseph R.: 516
Vesey, Lt. Col.Robert H.: 514, 515
West Road: 245, 248, 250, 280, 281, 284, 290, 298,
Vigan: 57, 60, 98, 102, 103, 104, 106-08, 122, 128 299, 301, 303, 304, 305, 308, 314, 315, 316, 317,
Villamor, Capt. Jesus A.: 488
319, 324, 326, 329, 337, 338, 406
Villasis: 174, 178
West Sector. See Bataan Service Command Area;
Visayan Force. See Task forces.
Corregidor.
Visayan Islands: 5, 6, 10, 27, 43, 57, 59, 69, 88, 91, 95, Wheeler Field: 78
119, 238, 239, 360, 396, 401, 403, 414, 414n, 471, Whitlock, Lt. Col. Lester J.: 390n
499, 501, 520, 569
Wickord, Col. Theodore: 176, 181
Japanese seizure: 502-07
Williams, Col. Everett C.: 458, 459, 461, 462, 464, 466
surrender: 572
Williams, Maj. Francis: 558
Visayan-Mindanao Force. See Task forces.
Williams, Mrs. Maude R.: 542
Visayan-Mindanao Sector: 70
Willoughby, Col. Charles A.: 122, 304, 359n
"Voice of Freedom": 385, 388, 544, 563
Wilson, Lt. Col. Albert T.: 508n
Volckman, Maj. Russell W.: 184, 186
Wilson, Lt. Col. Francis H.: 359n
Wood, Col. Stuart: 403n
Wachi, Maj. Gen. Takaji: 413, 568, 576n
Woodbridge, Lt. Col. John P.: 516
Wainwright, Lt. Gen. Jonathan M.: 65, 65n, 72, 195,
197, 252, 336, 375, 418, 561
assumes command in Philippines: 360-66
Yamashita, Gen. Tomoyuki: 145, 163, 238, 300, 350n
Commander, Philippine Division: 21
Yanagi, Col. Isamu: 132, 134, 135
Commander, North Luzon Force: 69, 69n
Yoshida, Col. Motohiko: 448n, 521, 522, 554, 555,
Commander, I Philippine Corps: 247
556n, 559, 560
and Japanese landings on Luzon: 102, 104, 108, Yoshioka, Col. Yorimasa: 336, 338, 339, 340, 343, 344,
122, 133-34, 134, 135, 137-38, 138
345, 346
mission in the defense of north Luzon: 69, 122
Yoshizawa, Col. Masataro: 332
part in the defense of Bataan: 248, 250, 268, 269n,
274, 277, 279, 280, 281, 282, 282n, 284, 284n,
290, 291, 300, 305, 305-06, 306-07, 308, 311, Zambales Mountain range: 8, 100, 169, 178, 203, 212,
312, 319, 325, 327-28, 329, 337, 340, 341, 342,
218, 227, 245
344, 347, 350-51, 373, 375, 377, 383, 434, 440, Zambales Province: 28, 29, 69, 166, 223
441, 447, 448, 452, 452-53
Zamboanga: 21n, 22, 508, 508n, 511
part in the defense of Corregidor: 495, 527-28, 535, Zamboanga Peninsula: 498, 510
536, 541-42, 543, 547, 547n, 549, 549n, 550, Zamboanga Sector: 508, 508n
550n, 550-51
Zaragoza: 183, 184, 185, 186, 212, 213
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1993 333-159

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Chief of Military History

Prewar Plans and Preparations

II. U.S. ARMY FORCES, FAR EAST . . . . . . . . . . . .

III. THE REINFORCEMENT OF THE PHILIPPINES . . . . .

IV. PREWAR PLANS, JAPANESE AND AMERICAN . . . . .

The Isolation of the Philippines and the Japanese Landings

The Attack on Clark Field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VII. THE IMPACT OF WAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VIII. T H E MAIN LANDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Withdrawal to Bataan

XI. WITHDRAWAL IN THE SOUTH . . . . . . . . . . . .

XII. HOLDING THE ROAD TO BATAAN

The Defense of Calumpit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XIII. INTO BATAAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Siege of Bataan

XVI. THE FIRST BATTLE OF BATAAN .

The Service Command Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XVIII. TRAIL 2 AND THE POCKETS

XIX. T H E JAPANESE WITHDRAWAL

XXI. T H E BATTLING BASTARDS

XXII. "HELP I S O N T H E WAY". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XXIII. PREPARATIONS F O R BATTLE . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XXV. T H E DISINTEGRATION O F I I CORPS . . . . . . . . .

Corregidor and the Southern Islands

The Harbor Defenses of Manila Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XXVIII. T H E SOUTHERN ISLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Islands and Their Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XXIX. JAPANESE PLANS A N D AMERICAN DEFENSES . . . . .

XXX. T H E LAST TWENTY-SEVEN DAYS . . . . . . . . . . .

XXXI. T H E FALL O F CORREGIDOR

BASIC MILITARY M A P SYMBOLS

1. Strength of Philippine Division, 31 July 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . .

Japanese Plan and Disposition of the Armies, November 1941 . .

16. Anyasan and Silaiim Points Area . . . . . . .

USAFFE Headquarters on Bataan, February 1942 . . . . . . . . . . .

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

The Philippine Islands

THE FALL OF THE PHILIPPINES

Ibid., Secs 10(b) and 11.

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

Manila is located. Next in size to Luzon

Unless otherwise noted, this description of the

tween 78 and 80 F. The year may be

THE FALL OF THE PHILIPPINES

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

Gulf. With mountains to the east and

THE FALL OF THE PHILIPPINES

On either side of the entrance to Manila

south of the tip of the tail is Caballo, less

The Philippine Army

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

1946), pp. 153-55.

MacArthur's title in his new assignment

Ltr of Instructions to Gen MacArthur, signed

THE FALL OF THE PHILIPPINES

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

a 13-foot beam, three 12-cylinder engines,