Absorption

In chemistry absorption can mean two things: Firstly it can imply that powerful forces exist holding two substances together, and that seperation of the two is not easily accomplished. Secondly it can mean absorption of heat, light etc.. . The absorption of ultraviolet, visible and infrared radiation is the basis of some forms of spectrometry which can be used to identify different chemical compounds. See also infrared radiation. A substance that when dissolved in water dissociates and can donate a hydrogen (proton) to another molecule. Examples include sulphuric acid and nitric acid. Under these conditions nitric acid dissociates according to the following equation:

Acid

In water the protons attach themselves to the water molecules, giving the following equation:

Actinides

This is a group of elements within the periodic table and are also known as the transuranics. The name refers to those elements with increasing atomic no. from actinium, which all have similar chemical properties, like the lanthanides. The first few members of the group are the naturally occuring elements actinium, thorium, proactinium and uranium. Beyond this elements have been made artificially by radioactive bombardment. These artificial elements are unstable, some have very short lifeimes and undergo spontaneous radioactive decay. Any compound that can stick two surfaces together is classified as an adhesive. Simple adhesives are of cellulose, starch and rubbers. Modern adhesives are based upon complex polymeric materials. The adhesive is spread in an unpolymerised form, and the adhesive properties increase as polymerisation occurs between the two surfaces. A chemical or mechanical process which takes place without heat entering or leaving the system. The term is only applicable to enclosed and isolated systems - so in essence is idealistic and purely theoretical and is important in the study of thermodynamics.

Adhesive

Adiabatic

Adrenaline

This was the first naturally produced hormone to be isolated it a pure state. It is known as epinephrine, but its chemical name is 1-[3,4-dihydroxyphenol]-2methylaminoethanol. Its main action is to raise blood pressure, producing a faster pulse rate. If any compound, solid, liquid or gas, is loosely held by weak attraction to the surface of a solid it is said to have undergone adsorption. This process is much weaker and less permanent thanabsorption. The air that we breathe is a mixture of gases. The composition of dry-air at sea level is shown below:

Adsorption

Air

Alchemy

Several of the great Greek philosophers considered all matter to be composed of four basic "elements", fire, air, earth and water, and that all materials were had these components mixed in different proportions. If this theory was true, then it was believed that all substances could be converted (transmuted) into each other by varying the proportions of the mixture. This tansmutation theory was the basis of Alchemy from approx. 300 B.C. to 1500 A.D., after which it slowly gave way to the more scientific concepts of chemistry from the 17th century onwards. The alchemists represented their "element" by a variety of symbols (see below), some of which were based on astrological signs

They were mainly concerned with trying to turn base metals into gold and looking for the elixir of life although they also developed medicinal drugs, developed couterfeiting techniques and the debasement of precious metals. An organic compound which has the general formula CnH2n+1OH, they consist of hydrocarbon chains terminated by hydroxyl groups, O-H. Smaller members are water soluble, flammable and are useful as organic solvents and fuels. As with hydrocarbons, each member differs from the previous by an additional -CH2- group. Alcohols with branced chains are also possible. Some of the simpler alcohols are listed below:

Alcohol

Aldehyde

An organic compound containing the -CHO group (see below). An example of these distinct aromatic compounds is formaldehyde.

Alicyclic compounds

An alicyclic compound contains rings of -CH2- units joined by single bonds. Their general formula is CnH2n, the simplest member being cyclopropane. An example of these compounds iscyclohexane (see below):

Alkali

A water soluble hydroxide on one of the alkali metals. The term is virually synonymous with the term base. An example is Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH. Group I of the periodic table consists of the alkali metals. They are the most electropositive elements known, are monovalent, have low melting points and react violently with water. Group II of the periodic table consists of the alkaline earth metals. They are bivalent and react with water to produce water soluble hydroxides. A naturally occuring organic compound containing nitrogen that acts as a base. Many alkaloids are physiologically active and can be used in small quantities as medicines, but if taken in larger doses they can be extremely poisonous. An example is caffeine. This is the correct chemical term for compounds known as paraffins. They are considered the simplest organic compounds and are a family of chain hydrocarbons having the general formulaC2H2n+2. All of the bonds are single bonds (-C-H-, and -C-C-). The chains can be straight or branched. The smaller members (less than 4 carbons) are gases, while larger ones (five to seventeen carbons) are liquids. Beyond seventeen carbons the alkanes are waxy solids. Some simple alkanes are listed below:

Alkali metals

Alkaline earth metals

Alkaloid

Alkanes

Alkenes

These compounds are similar to alkanes, in that they can be straight or branched aliphatic hydrocarbons. The only difference is that the alkenes (also known as olefins) contain a carbon-carbon double bond, and have the general formula C2H2n. The simplest group member is ethene which is a gas. The double bond can be anywhere within the length of the carbon chain, resulting in a large number of possible isomers. The double bond means that these compounds are "unsaturated" and react readily with compounds capable of adding across the double bond. Some simple alkenes are listed below:

Alkynes

These compounds are also similar to alkanes. They have the general formula C2H2n-2 corresponding to carbon chains with a triple carbon-carbon bond included. The simplest member of this family is ethyne (also known as acetylene). The triple bond makes these compounds very reactive. Some simple alkynes are listed below:

Allotropy

Certain chemical elements have the ability to exist in two or more different structural forms known as allotropes. These allotropes may possess different physical properties such as density and melting points. Allotropic elements include carbon, tin, phosphorus and sulphur. Each allotrope is stable within a certain range of temperature and pressure only, and under certain conditions an allotrope can be converted into another. An alloy consists of an intimate mixture of two elements, usually metals to give a metal compound or solid solution. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin and brass on of copper and zinc. By varying the composition it is possible to alter the chemical and physical properties of the alloy such as conductivity, ductility and corrosion resistance. These are particles possessing a positive charge, and are emited from radioactive elements. The particles are actually helium nuclei, ie. helium atoms that had lost their outer electrons. The study of the alpha particle played a major part in the development of modern atomic theory. Rutherford bombarded other elements with alpha particles to produce nuclear disintegration. An alum is a double salt comprising a sulphate salt of a monovalent element, with the sulphate salt of a trivalent element. The most well known example is potash alum (aluminium potassium sulphate) KAl(SO4)2.12H2O which is used to clear murky water. Liquid mercury has the ability to dissolve other metals to produce alloys and these alloys are called amalgams. Amalgam examples

Alloy

Alpha particles

Alum

Amalgam

are gold/mercury, silver/mercury and copper/mercury all of which are used in dentistry. Amide An organic compound containing the -CONH2- group (see below). Also see peptide.

Amine

An amine is a distinctive smelling organic compound with one or more of the hydrogen atoms in ammonia replaced by organic groups. There are three classes of amines, dependant on the number of hydrogens replaced (see below):

The organic groups can be aliphatic, alicyclic or aromatic, and some common amines are listed below:

Amino group

An organic compound containing the -NH2- group. Substances which contain this group are called amines. Examples include urea, and trimethylamine. A large class of substances with molecules including the amino and carboxyl groups.In the human body, amino acids are joined together to form long chains as part of the structures of proteins. Because they possess two functional groups, amino acids exhibit both acidic and basic characteristics. Each amino acid has an abbreviation when in a protein chain, so that the protein GlyAlaValwould indicate that a molecule of Glycine is joined to one of Alanine which is in turn joined to one of Valine. A list of the more common amino acids are given below:

Amino acid

Anhydride

These are compounds formed by the removal of water or Hydrogen and Oxygen together from another substance. In inorganic chemistry most anhydrides are formed by the loss of the water of crystallisation. eg. Copper(II) sulphate is a blue hydrated salt with the formula CuSO4.5H2O, but if heated, the water is driven off leaving the colourless anhydrous salt CuSO4. In organic chemistry an anhydride is usually the result of the loss of a water molecule from a dicarboxylic acid, eg. from phthalic acid to give phthalic anhydride (see below):

Anion Antioxidant

A negatively charged ion or group of atoms. A substance which decrease the rate at which another substance is oxidised.

An example includes BHA. A substance containing one or more benzene rings. These compounds although unsaturated do not undergo normal reactions for unsaturated compounds as shown by their saturated open-chain analogues. This ability is related to the way in which their bonding electrons are spread evenly over the planar ring. Substances classified as being aromatic include those with one benzene ring such as:

Aromatic compound

- or several rings such as:

Certain other compounds can posses aromatic character - ie. they react in an aromatic manner even though they do not have the six-membered carbon ring. This group of compounds includes:

Atactic Atom

A polymer is atactic if the groups attatched to the backbone are not arranged in any regular geometric pattern. Also see Isotactic. The smallest part of an element that retains its properties. It is possible to

"split" the atom up further into components; protons - which have a positive charge, electrons, which have a negative charge and neutrons which have no charge. The simplest atom is hydrogen, which consists of a single proton nucleus and has a single electron forming an orbit or shell around the proton. The next simplest is helium, with two protons and two neutrons in the nucleus with two electrons orbiting within the shell - see selow for diagram:

In all atoms the number of protons and electrons are the same but the number of neutrons can vary. Most of the mass of an atom is composed of the protons and neutrons, while the different isotopes of the same element vary in their number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atomic structure. In some elements the arrangement of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is unstable, and the atom may disintegrate forming radioactivity. An azo dye is one of an extensive range of synthetic organic dye made from aniline, by first converting it with sodium nitrite to a diazonium chloride salt which is then reacted with otheraromatic amines, phenols and sulphonic acids. The well known indicator methyl-orange is formed by making the diazo salt of sulphanilic acid, and reacting the product with dimethylaniline(see below):

Azo dye

All azo compounds have the general formula Ar-N=N-Ar' with the characteristic -N=N- group in the middle. A substance that reacts with acid to produce a salt and water only. It does this by accepting a hydrogen ion from the acid. An example is ammonia which accepts a proton to become theammonium ion - NH4+ Radioactive elements can emit several types of radiation. Beta particles are very fast moving electrons. The particles have a velocity of between 30-99% speed of light, and it is this velocity which gives the beta particles greater penetrating power than alpha particles. A chemical link between two atoms. In an ionic bond the attraction is between opposite charges on two neighbouring ions. In a covalent bond the two atoms share a pair of electrons. This is an abbreviation of "carbon anion", and is applied to negatively charged ions that are believed to occur during organic reactions. The carbanion then reacts with positive species to produce new products. To acquire a negative carbon ion it is necessary for the atom to retain two electrons forming a bond between itself and another group - see below:

Base

Beta particles

Bond

Carbanion

Carbonyl group

An organic compound containing the >CO group (see below). When a hydrogen atom is attached to the carbon, the resulting compound is known as an aldehyde. When only carbon atoms are attached, the resulting compound is known as a ketone. See also carboxyl group and amide group.

Carboxyl group

An organic compound containing the -COOH group (see below), Where a carbonyl group is attached to a hydroxyl group. See also carboxylic acids.

Carboxylic acid

A substance containing the carboxyl group. The carboxylic hydrogen can be lost as a hydrogen ion, so these substances are also acidic. An example includes acetic acid. A substance capable of causing cancer in living organisms. It includes substances such as blue asbestos (crocidolite), which is a mineral, and benzene. Benzene has been used extensively for decades in chemistry and strict saftey guidlines must now be followed befrore it is used. Any new pharmaceutical, cosmetic or food chemical has to be checked to ensure that they are not carcinogenic. A substance that changes the rate at which a reaction equilibrium is attained, without itself being consumed. Catalysts can increase the rate of reaction (positive catalysts) or decrease them (negative catalysts or inhibitors). A positively charged ion or group of atoms. A reaction where the product of one step is a reactant in a later step, which produces a reactant for a later step, and so on. Means "handedness" - A chiral or asymmetric molecule is one which can be distinguished from its mirror image. An example includes lactic acid. Compounds with double bonds, or alicyclic rings can exhibit isomerism, due to the attached groups lying above or below the plane of the oduble bond or ring. The "cis" compound is the one with the groups on the same side of the bond, and the "trans" has the groups on the opposite sides. The different isomers have different physical and chemical properties. Examples are fumaric acid/maleic acid and 1,3-dimethylcyclohexane - see below:

Carcinogen

Catalyst

Cation Chain reaction Chiral

Cis-trans isomerism

Combustion

Combustion is the combination of a substance with oxygen in the presence of a flame accompanied by the production of heat and light. Combustion requires a supply of both fuel and oxygen (air) and can take place in the open atmosphere such as an open fire, or in a closed system, such as a car engine. This is mainly an organic reaction where a simple molecule such as water or ammonia is eliminated when two molecules combine to produce another compound. A typical reaction is the esterification of an acid by an alcohol - in this case water is eliminated - see below:

Condensation reactions

Condensation reactions reaction play a major part in the polymer industry for the synthesis or artificial polymers. To increase the rigidity and density of synthetic polymers groups are introduced into the monomer molecules which enable bonds to form between polymer chains - this is known as cross-linking. The degree of cross-likning can have a marked effect on the physical properties of the final product. An example are the silicones - they can vary from oils (low degree of crosslinking) to waxes (high degree of cross-linking). A discrete solid where the atoms,ions or molecules are arranged in an ordered

Cross-links

Crystal

3-dimensional structure. The regular structures have the ability to "bend" or diffract beams of X-rays, and this aspect of crystallography is an extremely helpful tool in structure determination. Cyclic compounds A cyclic compound is one where the atoms are joined together so as to form a closed ring. Where chemical compounds are broken up into simple molecules and even as far as their original elements. These processes are normally irreversible. An example of decomposition is whenammonium nitrate is heated. This produces nitrous oxide and water which are unable to recombine - see below:

Decomposition

Detergents

These are organic chemicals designed to clean surfaces or objects. They do this by reducing the surface tension and suspend dirt in suspension from the object to be cleaned. Early detergents were long chain alcohol derivatives of sodium sulphate salts, such as sodium lauryl sulphate CH3(CH2)11O.SO2.ONa they were superseded by alkyl benzene sulphonates but these could not be broken down easily by bacteria at sewage works so these were eventually replaced by more eco-friendly detergents. Detergent molecules come in two parts - the sulphate or phosphate end (water soluble hydrophilic portion) and an organic hydrocarbon chain (water insoluble hydrophobic portion). This is a series of organic compounds possessing the general formula ArN=N-Y, where Ar is an aromatic group and Y is any group linked to the nitrogen except via a carbon atom. They are different from the azo compounds which have the general formula Ar-N=N-Ar'. Diazo compounds are formed from amines by a two stage diazotisation reaction. Stage one is the conversion of an aromatic amine into a diazonium chloride salt using cold sodium nitrite and hydrochloric acid - see below:

Diazo compounds

The second stage is the reaction of the diazonium chloride salt with an appropriate compound - such as another aromatic amine, eg. the reaction with p-toluidine - see below:

Distillation

The separation and purification of a mixture of components by vapourisation followed by condensation, based on the different volatilities of each component. A typical experimental set up for distillation is shown below:

Drug

Any chemical compound used for medicianal purposes can be considered a drug. There are naturally occuring substances such as ethanol and caffeine as well as synthetic drugs such as aspirin andamphetamines. In general the term "drug" is used for compounds that can cause addiction with emphasis on narcotics A molecule containing at least one ring of carbon atoms, and which also has at least one atom from a different element, (nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen etc..) within the ring. Examples are shown below:

Heterocyclic molecule