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Acid rain describes any form of precipitation with high

levels of nitric and sulfuric acids. It can also occur in the
form of snow, fog, and tiny bits of dry material that settle
to Earth.

Rotting vegetation and erupting volcanoes release some

chemicals that can cause acid rain, but most acid rain falls
because of human activities. The biggest culprit is the
burning of fossil fuels by coal-burning power plants,
factories, and automobiles.

When humans burn fossil fuels, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and

nitrogen oxides (NOx) are released into the atmosphere.
These chemical gases react with water, oxygen, and other
substances to form mild solutions of sulfuric and nitric
acid. Winds may spread these acidic solutions across the
atmosphere and over hundreds of miles. When acid rain
reaches Earth, it flows across the surface in runoff water,
enters water systems, and sinks into the soil.

Acid rain has many ecological effects, but none is greater

than its impact on lakes, streams, wetlands, and other
aquatic environments. Acid rain makes waters acidic and
causes them to absorb the aluminum that makes its way
from soil into lakes and streams. This combination makes
waters toxic to crayfish, clams, fish, and other aquatic
animals.
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Some species can tolerate acidic waters better than
others. However, in an interconnected ecosystem, what
impacts some species eventually impacts many more
throughout the food chain—including non-aquatic species
such as birds.

Acid rain also damages forests, especially those at higher

elevations. It robs the soil of essential nutrients and
releases aluminum in the soil, which makes it hard for
trees to take up water. Trees' leaves and needles are also
harmed by acids.

The effects of acid rain, combined with other

environmental stressors, leave trees and plants less able
to withstand cold temperatures, insects, and disease. The
pollutants may also inhibit trees' ability to reproduce.
Some soils are better able to neutralize acids than others.
In areas where the soil's "buffering capacity" is low, the
harmful effects of acid rain are much greater.

The only way to fight acid rain is by curbing the release of

the pollutants that cause it. This means burning fewer
fossil fuels. Many governments have tried to curb
emissions by cleaning up industry smokestacks and
promoting alternative fuel sources. These efforts have
met with mixed results. But even if acid rain could be
stopped today, it would still take many years for its
harmful effects to disappear.
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Individuals can also help prevent acid rain by conserving
energy. The less electricity people use in their homes, the
fewer chemicals power plants will emit. Vehicles are also
major fossil fuel users, so drivers can reduce emissions by
using public transportation, carpooling, biking, or simply
walking wherever possible.

A stand of withered red spruce and Fraser fir trees blights

a green vista in North Carolina's Mount Mitchell State
Park. The trees fell victim to balsam wooly aphids after
being weakened by the effects of acid rain.

Over the years acid deposition, commonly referred to as

"acid rain," has rendered dozens of lakes in the
Adirondacks uninhabitable for fish and other wildlife. Now,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute researchers at the Darrin
Fresh Water Institute (DFWI) have indicated that some of
the most severely affected lakes in that region are
showing signs of recovery.

"In about half of the 30 lakes under study, an increase in

the pH has been observed, a sign that acidic levels are
decreasing," says Director Sandra Nierzwicki-Bauer.
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Levels of nitrogen influenced by nitric oxide, a primary
source of acid rain, have decreased moderately in 18 of
the 30 lakes the DFWI has monitored since 1994 through
its federally funded Adirondack Effects Assessment
Program. There also has been an overall reduction of
sulfuric acid, another main contributor of acid rain that
comes from industry pollutants.

The reductions may be correlated with the 1990 Clean Air

Act, a federal mandate to significantly reduce emissions
that cause acidification, says Nierzwicki-Bauer.

More research is needed to pinpoint the exact reasons for

the apparent changes seen in the lakes in the
southwestern part of the Adirondack Park, an area
hardest hit by acid rain.

"Recovery doesn't happen overnight," says Charles

Boylen, professor of biology and DFWI associate director.
"One of the reasons we need long-term data is that other
factors can come into play. More or less rainfall in a year,
for instance, can lead to a temporary shift in acid-rain
levels. You need to track specific data over 10 to 15
years."
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The DFWI's long-term strategy recently has led to a $2.36
million grant from the Environmental Protection Agency.
The five-year grant will allow the DFWI and its
collaborators to study acid rain effects in four more lakes
in addition to monitoring the other 30. During a workshop
in June at the Institute, researchers will announce the
most up-to-date results in the acid-rain studies to leading
scientists around the country.

The Darrin Fresh Water Institute, established more than

25 years ago, has helped increase public awareness
concerning the protection of land, water and air. The
Institute's all-encompassing study of fresh water systems
and ecological processes has earned it high regard in the
national scientific community and high marks from the
general public.

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, founded in 1824, is the

nation's oldest technological university. The school offers
degrees in engineering, the sciences, information
technology, architecture, management, and the
humanities and social sciences. Institute programs serve
undergraduates, graduate students, and working
professionals around the world. Rensselaer faculty are
known for pre-eminence in research conducted in a wide
range of research centers that are characterized by strong
industry partnerships. The Institute is especially well
known for its success in the transfer of technology from
the laboratory to the marketplace so that new discoveries
and inventions benefit human life, protect the
environment, and strengthen economic development.
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History

Since the Industrial Revolution, emissions of sulfur dioxide

and nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere have increased.[2]
[3] In 1852, Robert Angus Smith was the first to show the
relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution
in Manchester, England.[4] Though acidic rain was
discovered in 1852, it was not until the late 1960s that
scientists began widely observing and studying the
phenomenon. The term "acid rain" was generated in
1972.[5] Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to
research a "dead" lake. Public awareness of acid rain in
the U.S increased in the 1970s after the New York Times
promulgated reports from the Hubbard Brook
Experimental Forest in New Hampshire of the myriad
deleterious environmental effects demonstrated to result
from it.[6][7]
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Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below
2.4 (the acidity of vinegar) have been reported in
industrialized areas.[2] Industrial acid rain is a substantial
problem in Europe, China,[8][9] Russia and areas down-
wind from them. These areas all burn sulfur-containing
coal to generate heat and electricity.[10] The problem of
acid rain not only has increased with population and
industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The
use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has
contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases
into regional atmospheric circulation.[11][12] Often
deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind of
the emissions, with mountainous regions tending to
receive the greatest deposition (simply because of their
higher rainfall). An example of this effect is the low pH of
rain (compared to the local emissions) which falls in
Scandinavia.[13]

[edit] History of Acid Rain in the United States

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In 1980, the U.S. Congress passed an Acid Deposition Act.
This Act established a 10-year research program under
the direction of the National Acidic Precipitation
Assessment Program (NAPAP). NAPAP looked at the entire
problem. It enlarged a network of monitoring sites to
determine how acidic the precipitation actually was, and
to determine long term trends, and established a network
for dry deposition. It looked at the effects of acid rain and
funded research on the effects of acid precipitation on
freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems, historical
buildings, monuments, and building materials. It also
funded extensive studies on atmospheric processes and
potential control programs.

In 1991, NAPAP provided its first assessment of acid rain

in the United States. It reported that 5% of New England
Lakes were acidic, with sulfates being the most common
problem. They noted that 2% of the lakes could no longer
support Brook Trout, and 6% of the lakes were unsuitable
for the survival of many species of minnow. Subsequent
Reports to Congress have documented chemical changes
in soil and freshwater ecosystems, nitrogen saturation,
decreases in amounts of nutrients in soil, episodic
acidification, regional haze, and damage to historical
monuments.
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Meanwhile, in 1990, the US Congress passed a series of
amendments to the Clean Air Act. Title IV of these
amendments established a program designed to control
emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Title IV
called for a total reduction of about 10 million tons of SO2
emissions from power plants. It was implemented in two
phases. Phase I began in 1995, and limited sulfur dioxide
emissions from 110 of the largest power plants to a
combined total of 8.7 million tons of sulfur dioxide One
power plant in New England (Merrimack) was in Phase I.
Four other plants (Newington, Mount Tom, Brayton Point,
and Salem Harbor) were added under other provisions of
the program. Phase II began in 2000, and affects most of
the power plants in the country.

During the 1990s, research has continued. On March 10,

2005, EPA issued the Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR) .
This rule provides states with a solution to the problem of
power plant pollution that drifts from one state to
another. CAIR will permanently cap emissions of SO2 and
NOx in the eastern United States. When fully
implemented, CAIR will reduce SO2 emissions in 28
eastern states and the District of Columbia by over 70
percent and NOx emissions by over 60 percent from 2003
levels.[14]

[edit] Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification

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The most important gas which leads to acidification is
sulfur dioxide. Emissions of nitrogen oxides which are
oxidized to form nitric acid are of increasing importance
due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur containing
compounds. 70 Tg(S) per year in the form of SO2 comes
from fossil fuel combustion and industry, 2.8 Tg(S) from
wildfires and 7-8 Tg(S) per year from volcanoes.[15]

[edit] Natural phenomena

The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-

producing gases to the atmosphere are emissions from
volcanoes and those from biological processes that occur
on the land, in wetlands, and in the oceans. The major
biological source of sulfur containing compounds is
dimethyl sulfide.

Acidic deposits have been detected in glacial ice

thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe.[16]

[edit] Human activity

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The coal-fired Gavin Power Plant in Cheshire, OhioThe
principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen
compounds from human sources, such as electricity
generation, factories, and motor vehicles. Coal power
plants are one of the most polluting. The gases can be
carried hundreds of kilometres in the atmosphere before
they are converted to acids and deposited. In the past,
factories had short funnels to let out smoke, but this
caused many problems locally; thus, factories now have
taller smoke funnels. However, dispersal from these taller
stacks causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing
widespread ecological damage.

[edit] Chemical processes

Combustion of fuels creates sulfur dioxide and nitric

oxides. They are converted into sulfuric acid and nitric
acid.[17]

[edit] Gas phase chemistry

In the gas phase sulfur dioxide is oxidized by reaction

with the hydroxyl radical via an intermolecular reaction
[4]:

SO2 + OH· → HOSO2·

which is followed by:

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HOSO2· + O2 → HO2· + SO3

In the presence of water, sulfur trioxide (SO3) is converted

rapidly to sulfuric acid:

SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (l)

Nitrogen dioxide reacts with OH to form nitric acid:

NO2 + OH· → HNO3

[edit] Chemistry in cloud droplets

When clouds are present, the loss rate of SO2 is faster

than can be explained by gas phase chemistry alone. This
is due to reactions in the liquid water droplets.

Hydrolysis

Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like carbon

dioxide, hydrolyses in a series of equilibrium reactions:

SO2 (g) + H2O SO2·H2O

SO2·H2O H+ + HSO3−

HSO3- H+ + SO32−

Oxidation
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There are a large number of aqueous reactions that
oxidize sulfur from S(IV) to S(VI), leading to the formation
of sulfuric acid. The most important oxidation reactions
are with ozone, hydrogen peroxide and oxygen (reactions
with oxygen are catalyzed by iron and manganese in the
cloud droplets).

For more information see Seinfeld and Pandis (1998).[4]

[edit] Acid deposition

Processes involved in acid deposition (note that only SO2

and NOx play a significant role in acid rain).

[edit] Wet deposition

Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of

precipitation (rain, snow, etc.) removes acids from the
atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface. This can
result from the deposition of acids produced in the
raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by the
precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below
clouds. Wet removal of both gases and aerosols are both
of importance for wet deposition.

[edit] Dry deposition

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Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the
absence of precipitation. This can be responsible for as
much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition.[18] This
occurs when particles and gases stick to the ground,
plants or other surfaces.

[edit] Adverse effects

This chart shows that not all fish, shellfish, or the insects
that they eat can tolerate the same amount of acid; for
example, frogs can tolerate water that is more acidic (i.e.,
has a lower pH) than trout.Acid rain has been shown to
have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils,
killing insect and aquatic life-forms as well as causing
damage to buildings and having impacts on human health.

[edit] Surface waters and aquatic animals

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Both the lower pH and higher aluminum concentrations in
surface water that occur as a result of acid rain can cause
damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At pHs lower
than 5 most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pHs can kill
adult fish. As lakes and rivers become more acidic
biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain has eliminated insect life
and some fish species, including the brook trout in some
lakes, streams, and creeks in geographically sensitive
areas, such as the Adirondack Mountains of the United
States.[19] However, the extent to which acid rain
contributes directly or indirectly via runoff from the
catchment to lake and river acidity (i.e., depending on
characteristics of the surrounding watershed) is variable.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency's
(EPA) website states: "Of the lakes and streams surveyed,
acid rain caused acidity in 75 percent of the acidic lakes
and about 50 percent of the acidic streams".[19]

[edit] Soils

Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by

acid rain. Some microbes are unable to tolerate changes
to low pHs and are killed.[20] The enzymes of these
microbes are denatured (changed in shape so they no
longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions of acid
rain also mobilize toxins such as aluminium, and leach
away essential nutrients and minerals such as
magnesium.[21]

2 H+ (aq) + Mg2+ (clay) 2 H+ (clay) + Mg2+ (aq)

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Soil chemistry can be dramatically changed when base
cations, such as calcium and magnesium, are leached by
acid rain thereby affecting sensitive species, such as
sugar maple (Acer saccharum).[22][23]

[edit] Forests and other vegetation

Effect of acid rain on a forest, Jizera Mountains, Czech

RepublicAdverse effects may be indirectly related to acid
rain, like the acid's effects on soil (see above) or high
concentration of gaseous precursors to acid rain. High
altitude forests are especially vulnerable as they are often
surrounded by clouds and fog which are more acidic than
rain.

Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain, but the

effect on food crops is minimized by the application of
lime and fertilizers to replace lost nutrients. In cultivated
areas, limestone may also be added to increase the ability
of the soil to keep the pH stable, but this tactic is largely
unusable in the case of wilderness lands. When calcium is
leached from the needles of red spruce, these trees
become less cold tolerant and exhibit winter injury and
even death.[24][25]

[edit] Human health

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Scientists have suggested direct links to human
health.[26] Fine particles, a large fraction of which are
formed from the same gases as acid rain (sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen dioxide), have been shown to cause illness
and premature deaths such as cancer and other
diseases.[27] For more information on the health effects
of aerosols see particulate health effects.

[edit] Other adverse effects

Effect of acid rain on statuesAcid rain can also cause

damage to certain building materials and historical
monuments. This results when the sulfuric acid in the rain
chemically reacts with the calcium compounds in the
stones (limestone, sandstone, marble and granite) to
create gypsum, which then flakes off.

CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CaSO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

This result is also commonly seen on old gravestones

where the acid rain can cause the inscription to become
completely illegible. Acid rain also causes an increased
rate of oxidation for iron.[28] Visibility is also reduced by
sulfate and nitrate aerosols and particles in the
atmosphere.[29]

[edit] Affected areas

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Particularly badly affected places around the globe
include most of Europe (particularly Scandinavia with
many lakes with acidic water containing no life and many
trees dead) many parts of the United States (states like
New York are very badly affected) and South Western
Canada. Other affected areas include the South Eastern
coast of China and Taiwan.

[edit] Potential problem areas in the future

Places like much of South Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia and

Thailand), Western South Africa (the country), Southern
India and Sri Lanka and even West Africa (countries like
Ghana, Togo and Nigeria) could all be prone to acidic
rainfall in the future.

[edit] Prevention methods

[edit] Technical solutions

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In the United States, many coal-burning power plants use
Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) to remove sulfur-containing
gases from their stack gases. An example of FGD is the
wet scrubber which is commonly used in the U.S. and
many other countries. A wet scrubber is basically a
reaction tower equipped with a fan that extracts hot
smoke stack gases from a power plant into the tower.
Lime or limestone in slurry form is also injected into the
tower to mix with the stack gases and combine with the
sulfur dioxide present. The calcium carbonate of the
limestone produces pH-neutral calcium sulfate that is
physically removed from the scrubber. That is, the
scrubber turns sulfur pollution into industrial sulfates.

In some areas the sulfates are sold to chemical companies

as gypsum when the purity of calcium sulfate is high. In
others, they are placed in landfill. However, the effects of
acid rain can last for generations, as the effects of pH
level change can stimulate the continued leaching of
undesirable chemicals into otherwise pristine water
sources, killing off vulnerable insect and fish species and
blocking efforts to restore native life.

Automobile emissions control reduces emissions of

nitrogen oxides from motor vehicles.

The term acid rain refers to what scientists call acid

deposition. It is caused by airborne acidic pollutants and
has highly destructive results.
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Scientists first discovered acid rain in 1852, when the
English chemist Robert Agnus invented the term. From
then until now, acid rain has been an issue of intense
debate among scientists and policy makers.

Acid rain, one of the most important environmental

problems of all, cannot be seen. The invisible gases that
cause acid rain usually come from automobiles or coal-
burning power plants.

Acid rain moves easily, affecting locations far beyond

those that let out the pollution. As a result, this global
pollution issue causes great debates between countries
that fight over polluting each other's environments.

For years, science studied the true causes of acid rain.

Some scientists concluded that human production was
primarily responsible, while others cited natural causes as
well. Recently, more intensive research has been done so
that countries have the information they need to prevent
acid rain and its dangerous effects.

The levels of acid rain vary from region to region. In Third

World nations without pollution restrictions, acid rain
tends to be very high. In Eastern Europe, China, and the
Soviet Union, acid rain levels have also risen greatly.
However, because acid rain can move about so easily, the
problem is definitely a global one.

For many years, there was considerable debate and

disagreement over what caused acid rain. Recent
scientific work, however, has helped to clarify this
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The primary causes of acid rain are sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides. These chemicals are released by certain
industrial processes, and as a result, the more
industrialized nations of Europe as well as the US suffer
severely from acid rain.

Most sulfur dioxide comes from power plants that use coal
as their fuel. These plants emit 100 million tons of sulfur
dioxide, 70% of that in the world.

Automobiles produce about half of the world's nitrogen

oxide. As the number of automobiles in use increases, so
does the amount of acid rain. Power plants that burn
fossil fuels also contribute significantly to nitrogen oxide
emission.

Though human causes are primarily responsible for acid

rain, natural causes exist as well. Fires, volcanic
eruptions, bacterial decomposition, and lightening also
greatly increase the amount of nitrogen oxide on the
planet. However, even the gigantic explosion of Mt. St.
Helens released only about what one coal power plant
emits in a year.

Once the tiny pollutant molecules have entered the

atmosphere, they can travel for thousands of miles.
Eventually, the particles will combine with other
compounds to produce new, often harmful, chemicals.

Acid rain comes down to the earth in the form of rain,

snow, hail, fog, frost, or dew. Once it reaches the ground,
the acidity in the substance can harm and even destroy
both natural ecosystems and man-made products, such as
car finishes.
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Acid rain is having harmful effects both on people and on

the natural ecosystems of the world. Scientists today are
convinced that acid rain is severe in many areas, and that
it is having an adverse effect on the environments of
those locations.

The problem of acid rain is rapidly spreading. Because it

is mainly caused by industrial processes, automobiles,
and power plants, those countries that are developed
have the most severe acid rain problems. However, as
the undeveloped nations begin to industrialize, acid rain
will increase greatly.

Determining just how much the planet is being hurt by

acid rain is very difficult because the ecosystems that it
affects are so diverse and complex.

Many ecosystems are affected by acid rain. Bodies of

water, such as lakes and rivers, see many of their
inhabitants die off due to rising acidity levels.

Acidic water also ruins plant nutrients, hurting plants'

ability to survive and to give life to other organisms.

Human-made products are also experiencing degradation

from acid rain. Cars can lose their finishes, and outdoor
statues are beginning to rust.

Acid rain's effects are destructive and long lasting.

Though scientists have studied lakes, streams, and many
other natural ecosystems to prove its negative effects,
acid rain continues to be produced and is increasing in
many parts of the world.
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Modern science has proven that acid rain is a dangerous

and highly destructive problem. As a result, various ways
to limit acid rain have been invented, and some are now
being used.

Debate over acid rain and ways of preventing it have

raged between environmentalists and corporations.
Businesses such as power companies and car makers
oppose controlling acid rain because they fear the effects
on their profits.

But in some cases, industries have attempted to curb acid

rain production. The Northern States Power company
began working to reduce acid rain in the 1980s, and has
invested over a billion dollars to that end.

There are many ways that power plant companies like

Northern States can reduce acid rain creation. They can
use coal with a low sulfur content, they can remove the
sulfur from smoke their plants release, and they can limit
processes known to generate high levels of acid rain.

Policy makers and environmental experts are now looking

into the best methods to limit acid rain.

Environmentalists advocate the installation of sulfur

cleaning scrubbers in factories, washing sulfur out of coal,
and finding new methods of burning coal. Power plant
operators are looking for less expensive solutions to the
problem.
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Individuals can help by conserving energy or driving their
cars less. Governments can pass laws restricting pollution
levels, or can use a variety of methods such as tradable
emission permits to reduce acid rain. Whatever way it is
done, acid rain will certainly have to be limited in the
future.

Acid Rain--A Contemporary World Problem

Acid rain is one of the most dangerous and widespread

forms of pollution. Sometimes called "the unseen plague,"
acid rain can go undetected in an area for years.
Technically, acid rain is rain that has a larger amount of
acid in it than what is normal. The acidity of rain in parts
of Europe and North America has dramatically increased
over the past few decades. It is now common in many
places for rain to be ten to seventy times more acid than
unpolluted rain. Many living and non-living systems
become harmed and damaged as a result of acid rain. This
website gives an informational, in-depth look at acid rain--
it's causes and effects; and solutions to the acid rain
problem.

Causes of Acid Rain

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Acid rain is caused by smoke and gases that are given off
by factories and cars that run on fossil fuels. When these
fuels are burned to produce energy, the sulfur that is
present in the fuel combines with oxygen and becomes
sulfur dioxide; some of the nitrogen in the air becomes
nitrogen oxide. These pollutants go into the atmosphere,
and become acid.

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are produced especially

when coal is burnt for fuel. Burning coal produces
electricity, and the more electricity that people use, the
more coal is burnt. Of course, nowadays people probably
couldn't live without electricity, so coal will continue to be
burnt; but electricity and energy are constantly being
overused. Think of it this way: every time you turn on a
light switch or the television set without really needing to,
you're indirectly contributing to the acid rain problem.
Automobiles produce nitrogen oxides (which cause acid
rain), so every time you don't carpool when you can, you
are helping to cause acid rain. So now that we know what
causes acid rain, here's a look at how acid rain can hurt
you and the world around you. . .