Economic Geology

Lec. No. 1 & 2

Introduction to Economic Geology
Topics

What is economic geology?

Introduction and aims
 Brief history of Economic geology
 A simple classification scheme for mineral
deposits Magmatic Ore Deposits
 What make a viable mineral
deposit? Terminology
 Some relevant compilations: [Periodic table of the elements,
Table of the main ore and gangue minerals]
What is economic geology?
Economic geology involves the study of mineral resources and their
geological environments. You will learn about the geological
processes that lead to the formation of ore deposits, and how we
explore for new deposits using geochemistry and geophysics.

Economic geology is concerned with earth materials that can be used

for economic and/or industrial purposes. These materials include
1- precious and base metals,2- nonmetallic minerals, construction-
grade stone,3- petroleum, coal, and 4- water.
The term commonly refers to metallic mineral deposits and mineral
resources.
Introduction and Objectives:

Given the unprecedented growth of human population over the past

century, as well as the related increase in demand for and production of
natural resource, it is evident that understanding the nature, origin, and
distribution of the world's mineral deposits remains a strategic topic.
The discipline of economic geology which covers all aspects pertaining
to description and understanding of mineral resource is therefore, one
which traditionally has been and should remain a core component of the
University earth science curriculum.
This lecture intended to provide a comprehensive glossary term used
in economic geology and brief history of economic geology as well as
classification scheme for ore deposits.
 Brief history of Economic geology

These Ages refer to different periods in human cultural development

A classification scheme for ore deposits
There are many different way of categorizing ore deposits
 4- ways of classification
 On basis of shape(Layered, lenses, stockwork, vein form, disseminated)
 On basis of useful metals(FERROALLOY : Fe,Mn,Cr,Ti,Ni,Mo etc
PRECIOUS METALS : Gold,Silver,PGE`S
BASE METALS : Cu,Pb, Zn etc
LIGHT METALS : Al etc

 Regional scale basis(Idian plate, himalay, Caledonian,

appalchian, alpine)
 ????????
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and the best classification schemes are probably those that remain
as independent of genetic linkage as possible these are:
i Igneous, ii Sedimentary ore deposits i i i Metamorphic, and (Fig 1, a,
b) iv. Hydrothermal. Grouping together deposits with similar
characteristics facilitates description, permits generalization concerning
genesis and ore controls and locations, and improves our collective
abilities for exploration.
Einaudi, (2000), stated that all mineral deposits can be classified
into three types based on process, namely
magmatic deposits, hydrothermal deposits, and surfacial deposits
formed by surface and groundwater.
Fig 1 classification of the principle rock types (a) and an analogous, but
much simplified, classification of ore deposit types (b) photograph show
interplay between ore forming processes
Magmatic Ore Deposits
Magmatic ore deposits are those which are formed during
crystallization of a magma, deep underground. The host rock for
the mineralization can range from ultramafic to felsic. The deposit
can consist of massive ores in some cases, and disseminations of rare
minerals in others. In the case of more massive ores, there are three
primary means of concentrating minerals of value during the
formation of these deposits (Fig. 3.38):

Ł gravitational settling
Ł differentiationcrystln
Ł immiscible separations
immiscible separations

Oil and water don™t mix –

As magmas cool, they can split into two liquids
of different composition and density.

One of these liquids is the silica-rich melt. It has the

most volume

The other, typically much smaller in volume, can be

rich in metal oxides, sulfides or carbonates.
 High T Low T

Desirable element preferentially concentrated into low-volume melt

Ł Types of Immiscible Melts

Ł Oxide melts can be rich in Fe (Fe2O3, hematite) and Ti

(FeTiO3, ilmanite).

Ł Sulfide melts can be rich in Ni, Cu, and the platinum-

group elements, in addition to iron sulfur (FeS,
pyrrhotite).

Ł Carbonate melts can be rich in niobium, tantalum, rare

earths, copper, thorium, and phosphorous.
Epithermal: hydrothermal ore deposits formed at shallow depth (less
than 1500 m) and fairly low temperature (50-200 ˚C)

Mesothermal: hydrothermal ore deposits formed at intermediate

 depth (1500 -4500 m) and temperature 200 - 400˚C)

Hypothermal: hydrothermal ore deposits formed at substantial depth

(grater than 4500 m) and elevated temperature (400-600 ˚C)
What make a viable mineral deposit?
Table 1 average crustal abundance for selected metal and typical concentration
factors that need to be achieved in order to produce a viable ore deposits
(From Evan, A.M, 1993)
Note: 1 ppm is the same as 1 gt -1
Elements Average Crutal Typical exploitable Approximate
abundance grade or \ concentration
(Av.minimum exploitable factor
grade)
Al 8.20% 30 % *4
Fe 5.60% 50 % * 10
Cu 55 ppm 1% * 180
Ni 75 ppm 1% * 130
Zn 70 ppm 5% * 700
Sn 2 ppm 0.5 % * 2500
Au 4 ppb 5 gt -1 * 1250
Pt 5 ppb 5 gt -1 * 1000
Terminology:
Ore: any naturally occurring material from which a mineral or
aggregate of value can be extracted at profit.
To be ore must be ,
1-Payable, 2- Involve economic consideration, 3- involving geologic
consideration.
Economic Consideration:
Ł Mineral exploration
Ł Economic evaluation
Ł Mine development
Ł Mine extraction
Ł Ore dressing
Ł Smelting
Ł Refining
Ł Marketing
Ł Power supplies
Ł Eqipments cost Ł
water supplies
Ł Transport metal cost
Gangue minerals: Usually worthless, non metallic minerals of a
deposit that may be:

Introduced minerals, b- The inclosing rocks c- are discarded in

the treatment of the ore

Economic minerals: Are natural resources which, once extracted

and used, are not renewable.

Grade: The concentration of an element in a mineral deposit is termed

grade usually expressed as % or in ppm

Cut-off grade: The lowest percentage at which deposits can be

economically worked is termed cut-off grade.

Tenor: The grade or amount of commodity actually present

Factors controlling cut-off grade limit:
A-Geological factor, B-Geochemical factors, C-Other factors
The point B and C depend on the following factors:
1-By product
2-Undesirable substance
3-Mineralogical form
4-Grain size and shape
5-Size and shape of ore body
6-Mineral characters
The other factors controlling the classification of Cut-off grade are:
Ł 1-Commodity price
Ł 2-Cost of capital
Ł 3-Location
Ł 4-Environmental consideration
Ł 5-Taxation
Ł 6-Political factors
Syngenetic: refers to ore deposits that form at the same time as their host
rocks.
Epigenetic: refers to ore deposits that form after their host rocks.
Hypogene: refers to mineralization caused by ascending hydrothermal
solution.
Supergene: refers to mineralization caused by descending solutions.
Generally refers to the enrichment process accompanying the
weathering and oxidation of sulfide and oxide ores at or near the
surface.
Metallogeny: the study of genesis of mineral deposits, with emphasis
on their relationship in space and time to geological features of the
Earths crust.
Metallotect: any geological, tectonic, lithological, or geochemical
feature that has played a role in the concentration of one or more
elements in the Earths crust.
Metallogeneic Epoch: a unit of geologic time favorable for
deposition of ores or characterized by a particular assemblage of
deposit types.
Metallogenic Province: a region characterized by a particular
assemblage of mineral deposit type.
Periodic table of the elements:

Fig 2 Periodic table showing the 92 geologically relevant elements classified on

the basis of their rock and mineral associations ( From Robb, 2005)
Common Ore and Gangue mineral
1- Native element

Metals Non-Metals

Gold - Au Sulfur ΠS
Silver - Ag Diamond ΠC
Platinum - Pt Graphite - C
Palladium - Pd
Copper - Cu
2- Halides
Ł Halite Œ NaCl
Ł Sylvite Œ Kcl
Ł Chloragyrite ŒAgCl
Ł Fluorite - CaF2
Ł Atacmite Cu2 Cl(OH)3
3- Sulfide and Sulfo-salts
Sulfide Sulfo-salt
Chlcocite ΠCu2S Tetrahedrite Π(Cu,Ag)12 Sb4 S13
Bornite ΠCu5FeS4 Tennanite Π(Cu,Ag) 12 As4 S13
Galena ΠPbS Energite ΠCu3 AsS4
Sphalerite ΠZnS
Chlcopyrite ΠCuFeS2
Phrhotite ΠFe 1-x S
Pentlandite Π(Fe,Ni) 9 S8
Millerite ΠNiS
Covellite - CuS
Cinnabar ΠHgS
Pyrite ΠFeS2
 4- Oxides:

Oxides Hydroxide (or Oxyhydroxide)

Cuprite- Cu2O
Hematite ΠFe2O3 Geothite FeO(OH)
Illminite ΠFeTiO3 Gibbsite ΠAl(OH)3
Hercynite ΠFeAl2O4 Boehemite ΠMnO(OH)
Gahnite ΠZnAl2O4
Magnetite ΠFe3O4
Chromite ΠFeCr2O4
Rutile ΠTiO2
Anatase ΠTiO2
Pyrlucite ŒMnO2
Casseterite ΠSnO2
Uraninite ΠUO2
Thorianite ΠThO2
 5-Oxy-Salts
Carbonates Tungestates Salfates Phosphates Vanadates
Calcite CaCo3 Scheelite Barytes BaSO4 Xenotime YPO4 Carnotite
CaWO4 K2(UO2)(VO4)2.3H2O
Dolomite CaMg(CO3 Wolformite Anhydrite CaSO4 Monazite
(Fe,Mn)WO4 (Ce,La,Th)PO4
Ankerite CaFe(CO3)2 Alunite Apatite
KAl3(OH)6 Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)
(SO4)2
Siderite FeCO3 Gypsum
CASO4.2H2O
Rhodochrosite MnCO3 Epsomite
MgSO4.7H2O
Simthonite ZnCo3
Cerussite PbCO3

Azurite Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2

Malachite Cu2(OH)2 CO3

 6- Silicate

Tekto (Framework) Neso (Ortho) Cyclo Soro (Di) Phyllo(Sheet) Ino (Chain) Unknown
(Ring) structure

Ouartz Zircon Beryl Lawsonite Kaolinite, Tremolite Chrysocolla

Montmorilionite,
Illite,Talc

Albite,Orthoclase Garnet, Tourmaline Epidote Biotite, Chlorite Spodumene,

Sillimanite Wollastonite
References:
 Evans, A.M., 1993, Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals
An Introduction, Third Edition, Blackwell Publishing,
PP.84-95
 Jensen, M. L and Batman, A. M., 1979, Economic mineral
deposits 3rd edition, New York, 593p.

 Robb, L., Introduction to ore-forming process, (2005)

Blackwell Publishing, 373p.