Even though some three million school-age children are classified as having specific learning disabilities (LD), this

category of special need is often widely misunderstood. Surveys of both parents and educators confirm that many people mistakenly link LD with mental retardation and disorders of mental health and believe that, left alone, children are likely to outgrow LD over time. Lets Set the Record Straight

The term specific learning disability refers to one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written, and affects a persons ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. LD does not include problems primarily due to visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, although students with such diagnoses can also have learning disabilities. LD does not include problems that result primarily from mental retardation or emotional disturbance, although, again, children who experience such difficulties can also have learning disabilities. LD does not include problems that result primarily from cultural, environmental, or economic disadvantage. Learning disabilities are real! Although they often arent observed until a child is doing schoolrelated tasks, a proven biological basis for LD exists, including emerging data that document genetic links for LD within families. LD is common, affecting an estimated four percent to six percent of the public school population. And if you include individuals who, for a number of reasons, struggle with reading, the numbers are considerably higher.

Learning disabilities are lifelong. That said, individuals with LD can learn to compensate for areas of weakness and, with early, effective support, can be highly successful and productive members of society. Serving Students With LD: Its the Law! The quality of services and support children receive in school are key to their learning success. Working together, general and special educators are charged with ensuring that all children receive a free and appropriate public education in the least restrictive setting. Although states and school districts have considerable latitude in how they meet this challenge, a few important federal laws underlie their efforts:

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) provides for special education services for children and youth, ages 321, with disabilities. It ensures each child receives a free, appropriate public education based on his or her individual needs, and it specifies 13 possible educational disabling conditions, including specific learning disabilities. It also guarantees a number of important rightstimely evaluation, access to all meetings and paperwork, transition planning, and related servicesfor children with disabilities and their parents or guardians. Most children with LD are served under IDEA. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 is a civil rights law prohibiting discrimination on the basis of disability in programs and activities that receive federal funding. It does not provide funding for these programs, but it does permit the government to withdraw funds from programs that do not comply with the law. To qualify for services under Section 504, a person must have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities. Some schools use this law to support students with LD who need only simple accommodations or modifications. It is also frequently used for children with Attention-

Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and who do not need more-comprehensive special education support.

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is also a civil rights law that protects individuals with LD from discrimination in schools, the workplace and other settings. ADA does not provide funding for services and accommodations, and, as with Section 504, persons must have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities. Learning is considered a major life activity under ADA, so if a student qualifies for services under IDEA, he or she is also protected under ADA. No Child Left Behind (NCLB) is the current version of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, first passed in 1965, which affects all public education, from kindergarten through grade 12. The power of NCLB is that it holds schools accountable for student progress by demanding clearly defined content standards (what students should be learning) and achievement standards (how well they should be learning). It also requires schools to measure student progress to see whether all students are making adequate yearly progress. NCLB ensures that schools report overall student progress data as well as progress for various student subgroups, including students with disabilities.

Child Welfare League of America. Reprinted with permission. This article originally appeared in Children's Voice (December 2005), published by the Child Welfare League of America.

What Is Dyslexia?
| More Sharing Services Share on facebook Share on twitter Share on email

Espaol

By NCLD Editorial Team 26 Comments

Dyslexia at a Glance

Dyslexia is the name for specific learning disabilities in reading. Dyslexia is often characterized by difficulties with accurate word recognition, decoding and spelling.

Dyslexia may cause problems with reading comprehension and slow down vocabulary growth. Dyslexia may result in poor reading fluency and reading out loud. Dyslexia is neurological and often genetic. Dyslexia is not the result of poor instruction. With the proper support, almost all people with dyslexia can become good readers and writers.

As with other learning disabilities, dyslexia is a lifelong challenge that people are born with. This language processing disorder can hinder reading, writing, spelling and sometimes even speaking. Dyslexia is not a sign of poor intelligence or laziness. It is also not the result of impaired vision. Children and adults with dyslexia simply have a neurological disorder that causes their brains to process and interpret information differently. Dyslexia occurs among people of all economic and ethnic backgrounds. Often more than one member of a family has dyslexia. According to the National Institute of Child and Human Development, as many as 15 percent of Americans have major troubles with reading. Much of what happens in a classroom is based on reading and writing. So it's important to identify dyslexia as early as possible. Using alternate learning methods, people with dyslexia can achieve success.

What Are the Effects of Dyslexia?

Dyslexia can affect people differently. This depends, in part, upon the severity of the learning disability and the success of alternate learning methods. Some with dyslexia can have trouble with reading and spelling, while others struggle to write, or to tell left from right. Some children show few signs of difficulty with early reading and writing. But later on, they may have trouble with complex language skills, such as grammar, reading comprehension and more in-depth writing. Dyslexia can also make it difficult for people to express themselves clearly. It can be hard for them to use vocabulary and to structure their thoughts during conversation. Others struggle to understand when people speak to them. This isn't due to hearing problems. Instead, it's from trouble processing verbal information. It becomes even harder with abstract thoughts and non-literal language, such as jokes and proverbs. All of these effects can have a big impact on a person's self-image. Without help, children often get frustrated with learning. The stress of dealing with schoolwork often makes children with dyslexia lose the motivation to continue and overcome the hurdles they face.

What Are the Warning Signs of Dyslexia?

The following are common signs of dyslexia in people of different ages. If you or someone you know displays these signs, it doesn't necessarily mean you have a learning disability. But if troubles continue over time, consider testing for dyslexia.

Dyslexia: Warning Signs By Age

Young Children
Trouble With:

School-Age Children
Trouble With:

Teenagers and Adults

Trouble With:

Recognizing letters, matching letters to sounds and blending sounds into speech Pronouncing words, for example saying mawn lower instead of lawn mower Learning and correctly using new vocabulary words Learning the alphabet, numbers, and days of the week or similar common word sequences Rhyming

Mastering the rules of spelling Remembering facts and numbers Handwriting or with gripping a pencil Learning and understanding new skills; instead, relying heavily on memorization Reading and spelling, such as reversing letters (d, b) or moving letters around (left, felt) Following a sequence of directions Trouble with word problems in math

Reading at the expected level Understanding non-literal language, such as idioms, jokes, or proverbs Reading aloud Organizing and managing time Trouble summarizing a story Learning a foreign language Memorizing

How Is Dyslexia Identified?

Trained professionals can identify dyslexia using a formal evaluation. This looks at a person's ability to understand and use spoken and written language. It looks at areas of strength and weakness in the skills that are needed for reading. It also takes into account many other factors. These include family history, intellect, educational background, and social environment.

How Is Dyslexia Treated?

It helps to identify dyslexia as early in life as possible. Adults with unidentified dyslexia often work in jobs below their intellectual capacity. But with help from a tutor, teacher, or other trained professional, almost all people with dyslexia can become good readers and writers. Use the following strategies to help to make progress with dyslexia.

Expose your child to early oral reading, writing, drawing, and practice to encourage development of print knowledge, basic letter formation, recognition skills and linguistic awareness (the relationship between sound and meaning). Have your child practice reading different kinds of texts. This includes books, magazines, ads and comics. Include multi-sensory, structured language instruction. Practice using sight, sound and touch when introducing new ideas. Seek modifications in the classroom. This might include extra time to complete assignments, help with note taking, oral testing and other means of assessment. Use books on tape and assistive technology. Examples are screen readers and voice recognition computer software. Get help with the emotional issues that arise from struggling to overcome academic difficulties.

Reading and writing are key skills for daily living. However, it is important to also emphasize other aspects of learning and expression. Like all people, those with dyslexia enjoy activities that tap into their strengths and interests. For example, people with dyslexia may be attracted to fields that do not emphasize language skills. Examples are design, art, architecture, engineering and surgery.

This article is made possible by a grant from the American Legion Child Welfare Foundation.

What Is Dyscalculia?
| More Sharing Services Share on facebook Share on twitter Share on email

Espaol

By NCLD Editorial Team 112 Comments

Dyscalculia refers to a wide range of lifelong learning disabilities involving math. There is no single type of math disability. Dyscalculia can vary from person to person. And, it can affect people differently at different stages of life. Two major areas of weakness can contribute to math learning disabilities:

Visual-spatial difficulties, which result in a person having trouble processing what the eye sees Language processing difficulties, which result in a person having trouble processing and making sense of what the ear hears

Using alternate learning methods, people with dyscalculia can achieve success.

What Are the Effects of Dyscalculia?

Disabilities involving math vary greatly. So, the effects they have on a person's development can vary just as much. For instance, a person who has trouble processing language will face different challenges in math than a person who has trouble with visual-spatial relationships. Another person may have trouble remembering facts and keeping a sequence of steps in order. This person will have yet a different set of math-related challenges to overcome. For individuals with visual-spatial troubles, it may be hard to visualize patterns or different parts of a math problem. Language processing problems can make it hard for a person to get a grasp of the vocabulary of math. Without the proper vocabulary and a clear understanding of what the words represent, it is difficult to build on math knowledge. When basic math facts are not mastered earlier, teens and adults with dyscalculia may have trouble moving on to more advanced math applications. These require that a person be able to follow multistep procedures and be able to identify critical information needed to solve equations and more complex problems.

What Are the Warning Signs of Dyscalculia?

Having trouble learning math skills does not necessarily mean a person has a learning disability. All students learn at different paces. It can take young people time and practice for formal math procedures to make practical sense. So how can you tell if someone has dyscalculia? If a person continues to display trouble with the areas listed below, consider testing for dyscalculia. Extra help may be beneficial.

Dyscalculia: Warning Signs By Age

Young Children
Trouble With:

School-Aged Children
Trouble With:

Teenagers and Adults

Trouble With:

Difficulty learning to count Trouble recognizing printed numbers Difficulty tying together the idea of a number (4) and how it exists in the world (4 horses, 4 cars, 4 children) Poor memory for numbers Trouble organizing things in a logical way - putting round objects in one place and square ones in another

Trouble learning math facts (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) Difficulty developing math problem-solving skills Poor long term memory for math functions Not familiar with math vocabulary Difficulty measuring things Avoiding games that require

Difficulty estimating costs like groceries bills Difficulty learning math concepts beyond the basic math facts Poor ability to budget or balance a checkbook Trouble with concepts of time, such as sticking to a schedule or approximating time Trouble with mental math Difficulty finding

strategy

different approaches to one problem

How Is Dyscalculia Identified?

When a teacher or trained professional evaluates a student for learning disabilities in math, the student is interviewed about a full range of math-related skills and behaviors. Pencil and paper math tests are often used, but an evaluation needs to accomplish more. It is meant to reveal how a person understands and uses numbers and math concepts to solve advanced-level, as well as everyday, problems. The evaluation compares a person's expected and actual levels of skill and understanding while noting the person's specific strengths and weaknesses. Below are some of the areas that may be addressed:

Ability with basic math skills like counting, adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing Ability to predict appropriate procedures based on understanding patternsknowing when to add, subtract, multiply, divide or do more advanced computations Ability to organize objects in a logical way Ability to measuretelling time, using money Ability to estimate number quantities Ability to self-check work and find alternate ways to solve problems.

How Is Dyscalculia Treated?

Helping a student identify his/her strengths and weaknesses is the first step to getting help. Following identification, parents, teachers and other educators can work together to establish strategies that will help the student learn math more effectively. Help outside the classroom lets a student and tutor focus specifically on the difficulties that student is having, taking pressure off moving to new topics too quickly. Repeated reinforcement and specific practice of straightforward ideas can make understanding easier. Other strategies for inside and outside the classroom include:

Use graph paper for students who have difficulty organizing ideas on paper. Work on finding different ways to approach math facts; i.e., instead of just memorizing the multiplication tables, explain that 8 x 2 = 16, so if 16 is doubled, 8 x 4 must = 32. Practice estimating as a way to begin solving math problems. Introduce new skills beginning with concrete examples and later moving to more abstract applications. For language difficulties, explain ideas and problems clearly and encourage students to ask questions as they work. Provide a place to work with few distractions and have pencils, erasers and other tools on hand as needed.

Help students become aware of their strengths and weaknesses. Understanding how a person learns best is a big step in achieving academic success and confidence.

This article is made possible by a grant from the American Legion Child Welfare Foundation.
1 Comment

Busy parents need fast facts and tips to help their children succeed. If your child struggles with math or has been identified with a learning disability (LD) in math, called dyscalculia, you want to know what it means and what you can do to help your child succeed. Here are the top-level findings based on several expert-hosted LD Talks that covered this subject. 1. Dyscalculia is not a single type of math disability, but a wide range of lifelong learning disabilities involving math. People with dyscalculia may struggle with number sense, such as counting, estimation and comparison of quantities and basic arithmetic. Quick retrieval of number facts and calculation fluency seem to be key characteristics of people with dyscalculia. 2. Mathematical learning disabilities are common among school-age children. Recent studies suggest that the incidence of math LD ranges from 5% to 9% of children. Math LD can co-occur with other types of LD, but a substantial percentage of children have math LD alone. Boys are more likely to have math LD than girls. 3. Researchers have found a link between kindergarten math performance and later math achievement. Because of this, it is important to nurture math in preschool and elementary students If your school-age child struggles with math, do not delay sharing your concerns with school personnel or other professionals. Math instruction builds upon foundational skills taught in the lower grades, so it is important that children who struggle receive interventions early. 4. Students with strong executive function skills are more likely to do well in math. Those with poor executive function skills may struggle with organizing information for multiple-step problem solving, monitoring the use of problem-solving strategies and other crucial processes for answering math problems. It is possible that remediating executive function skills may help students with dyscalculia. 5. Learning strategies for students who struggle with math depend in large part on the type of difficulty the student is experiencing. Whether the child has reading difficulties should also be taken into account. In general, programs for students with math LD should include attention to basic skills, explicit instruction and lots of opportunities for practice and mastery. Programs should make sure that students revisit and master earlier concepts and skills before moving forward. 6. Research on math LD lags behind research on reading and other learning disabilities. While 30 years of solid research on reading has been applied to classroom practices and intervention programs, the same is not true for mathematics. However, there is much hope as research on math ld is becoming more common. Are you concerned that you or your child may be displaying signs of a math learning disability? Review our dyscalculia warning signs for Pre KGrade 2, Grades 38, Grades 912, and college students and adults. Visit our Interactive LD Checklist of Signs and Symptoms for more information on learning disability warning signs in all areas of development and learning.

What Is Dysgraphia?
| More Sharing Services Share on facebook Share on twitter Share on email

Espaol

By NCLD Editorial Team 17 Comments Page 1 of 2

Dysgraphia is a learning disability that affects writing, which requires a complex set of motor and information processing skills. Dysgraphia makes the act of writing difficult. It can lead to problems with spelling, poor handwriting and putting thoughts on paper. People with dysgraphia can have trouble organizing letters, numbers and words on a line or page. This can result partly from:

Visual-spatial difficulties: trouble processing what the eye sees Language processing difficulty: trouble processing and making sense of what the ear hears

As with all learning disabilities (LD), dysgraphia is a lifelong challenge, although how it manifests may change over time. A student with this disorder can benefit from specific accommodations in the learning environment. Extra practice learning the skills required to be an accomplished writer can also help.

What Are the Warning Signs of Dysgraphia?

Just having bad handwriting doesnt mean a person has dysgraphia. Since dysgraphia is a processing disorder, difficulties can change throughout a lifetime. However since writing is a developmental processchildren learn the motor skills needed to write, while learning the thinking skills needed to communicate on paperdifficulties can also overlap.

Dysgraphia: Warning Signs By Age

Young Children
Trouble With:

School-Age Children
Trouble With:

Teenagers and Adults

Trouble With:

Tight, awkward pencil grip and body position Avoiding writing or drawing tasks Trouble forming letter shapes Inconsistent spacing between letters or words Poor understanding of uppercase and lowercase letters Inability to write or draw in a line or within margins Tiring quickly while writing

Illegible handwriting Mixture of cursive and print writing Saying words out loud while writing Concentrating so hard on writing that comprehension of what's written is missed Trouble thinking of words to write Omitting or not finishing words in sentences

Trouble organizing thoughts on paper Trouble keeping track of thoughts already written down Difficulty with syntax structure and grammar Large gap between written ideas and understanding demonstrated through speech

What Strategies Can Help?

There are many ways to help a person with dysgraphia achieve success. Generally strategies fall into three main categories:
o o o

Accommodations: providing alternatives to written expression Modifications: changing expectations or tasks to minimize or avoid the area of weakness Remediation: providing instruction for improving handwriting and writing skills

Each type of strategy should be considered when planning instruction and support. A person with dysgraphia will benefit from help from both specialists and those who are closest to the person. Finding the most beneficial type of support is a process of trying different ideas and openly exchanging thoughts on what works best. Although teachers and employers are required by law to make reasonable accommodations for individuals with learning disabilities, they may not be aware of how to help. Speak to them about dysgraphia and explain the challenges faced as a result of this learning disability. Here are examples of how to teach individuals with dysgraphia to overcome some of their difficulties with written expression.

Early Writers
Be patient and positive, encourage practice and praise effort. Becoming a good writer takes time and practice.

Use paper with raised lines for a sensory guide to staying within the lines. Try different pens and pencils to find one thats most comfortable. Practice writing letters and numbers in the air with big arm movements to improve motor memory of these important shapes. Also practice letters and numbers with smaller hand or

finger motions. Encourage proper grip, posture and paper positioning for writing. Its important to reinforce this early as its difficult for students to unlearn bad habits later on. Use multi-sensory techniques for learning letters, shapes and numbers. For example, speaking through motor sequences, such as b is big stick down, circle away from my body. Introduce a word processor on a computer early; however do not eliminate handwriting for the child. While typing can make it easier to write by alleviating the frustration of forming letters, handwriting is a vital part of a person's ability to function in the world.

Young Students
Encourage practice through low-stress opportunities for writing. This might include writing letters or in a diary, making household lists, or keeping track of sports teams.

Allow use of print or cursivewhichever is more comfortable. Use large graph paper for math calculation to keep columns and rows organized. Allow extra time for writing assignments. Begin writing assignments creatively with drawing, or speaking ideas into a tape recorder. Alternate focus of writing assignmentsput the emphasis on some for neatness and spelling, others for grammar or organization of ideas. Explicitly teach different types of writingexpository and personal essays, short stories, poems, etc. Do not judge timed assignments on neatness and spelling. Have students proofread work after a delayits easier to see mistakes after a break. Help students create a checklist for editing workspelling, neatness, grammar, syntax, clear progression of ideas, etc. Encourage use of a spell checkerspeaking spell checkers are available for handwritten work. Reduce amount of copying; instead, focus on writing original answers and ideas. Have student complete tasks in small steps instead of all at once. Find alternative means of assessing knowledge, such as oral reports or visual projects.

Teenagers and Adults

Many of these tips can be used by all age groups. It is never too early or too late to reinforce the skills needed to be a good writer.

Provide tape recorders to supplement note taking and to prepare for writing assignments. Create a step-by-step plan that breaks writing assignments into small tasks (see below). When organizing writing projects, create a list of keywords that will be useful. Provide clear, constructive feedback on the quality of work, explaining both the strengths and weaknesses of the project, commenting on the structure as well as the information that is included. Use assistive technology such as voice-activated software if the mechanical aspects of writing remain a major hurdle.

How to Approach Writing Assignments

Plan your paper (Pull together your ideas and consider how you want them in your writing.) Organize your thoughts and ideas. Create an outline or graphic organizer to be sure youve included all your ideas. Make a list of key thoughts and words you will want to use in your paper.

1. Write a draft This first draft should focus on getting your ideas on paperdont worry about making spelling or grammar errors. Using a computer is helpful because it will be easier to edit later on. 2. Edit your work o Check your work for proper spelling, grammar and syntax; use a spell checker if necessary. o Edit your paper to elaborate and enhance contenta thesaurus is helpful for finding different ways to make your point. 3. Revise your work, producing a final draft o Rewrite your work into a final draft. o Be sure to read it one last time before submitting it.
For more on dysgraphia, check out these 10 dysgraphia resources.

This article is made possible by a grant from the American Legion Child Welfare Foundation.

What Is Dyspraxia?
More Sharing ServicesShare | Share on facebook Share on twitter Share on email By NCLD Editorial Team

1 Comment

Dyspraxia is a disorder that affects motor skill development. People with dyspraxia have trouble planning and completing fine motor tasks. This can vary from simple motor tasks such as waving goodbye to more complex tasks like brushing teeth. It is estimated that dyspraxia affects at least two percent of the general population, and 70% of those affected are male. As many as six percent of all children show some signs of dyspraxia. A person with dyspraxia can learn to function independently. Special learning methods and repeated practice of basic tasks can help. Sometimes occupational, physical, or speech therapy is also needed.

What Are the Effects of Dyspraxia?

Dyspraxia is a lifelong disorder. Its severity and symptoms can vary from person to person. And, it can affect people differently at different stages of life. Dyspraxia can affect many basic functions required for daily living. It is often broken down into categories like these:

Dyspraxia By Category
Category
Ideomotor Dyspraxia

May Cause Troubles With

Completing single-step motor tasks such as combing hair and waving goodbye.

Ideational Dyspraxia

Multi-step tasks like brushing teeth, making a bed, putting clothes on in order, as well as buttoning and buckling

Oromotor Dyspraxia

Coordinating the muscle movements needed to pronounce words

Constructional Dyspraxia

Establishing spatial relationships, for instance, being able to accurately position or move objects from one place to another

Dyspraxia often exists along with learning disabilities such as dyslexia (e.g., trouble reading, writing and spelling) or dyscalculia (e.g., trouble with mathematics), and other conditions that impact learning, such as Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Some symptoms of all of these are similar. Weaknesses in comprehension, information processing and listening can contribute to the troubles experienced by people with dyspraxia. They may also have low self-esteem, depression and other emotional and behavioral troubles.

What Are the Warning Signs of Dyspraxia?

Babies with dyspraxia may avoid crawling and rolling over and other tasks involving motor skills. As they become older, children with dyspraxia are prone to problems such as those listed below. Having these problems does not necessarily mean a person has dyspraxia. But if they continue over time, consider testing by trained professionals. You or your child may benefit from special help. But if troubles continue over time, consider testing for dyslexia.

Dyspraxia: Warning Signs By Age

Young Children
Trouble With:

School-Age Children
Trouble With:

Teens and Adults

Trouble With:

Learning to walk, jump, hop, skip and throw or catch a ball Pronouncing words and being understood Establishing left- or right- handedness Bumping into things Moving the eyes instead, moving the whole head Being sensitive to touch such as being irritated by clothing on skin, hair brushing, nailcutting, or teethbrushing

Poor pencil grip and letter formation and slow handwriting Doing activities that require fine motor skills, like holding a pencil, buttoning, cutting with scissors Playing sports, riding a bike and other activities requiring coordination Sensing direction Speaking at a normal rate or in way that can be easily understood Making social connections due to speech challenges Phobias and obsessive behavior

Speech control volume, pitch, articulation Writing and typing Over- or undersensitivity to light, touch, space, taste, or smells Personal grooming and other selfhelp activities Cooking or other household chores Driving Clumsiness

How Is Dyspraxia Identified and Treated?

There is no cure for dyspraxia. However, early identification and intervention can greatly help. Depending upon the severity of the disability, work with occupational, speech and physical therapists can improve a person's ability to function and succeed independently. It can be very frustrating to have trouble communicating or moving. Beginning at an early age, it is vital that parents offer patience, encouragement, help and support. All people with dyspraxia need help practicing simple tasks. They can benefit from step-by-step progress into more complex activities. Start with easy physical activities that develop coordination. This can increase confidence. Encourage friendships to broaden experience and understanding of social relationships.

This article is made possible by a grant from the American Legion Child Welfare Foundation.
7 Comments Page 1 of 2

Executive function is a set of mental processes that helps connect past experience with present action. People use it to perform activities such as planning, organizing, strategizing, paying attention to and remembering details, and managing time and space. If you have trouble with executive function, these things are more difficult to do. You may also show a weakness with working memory, which is like seeing in your minds eye. This is an important tool in guiding your actions. As with other learning disabilities, problems with executive function can run in families. It can be seen at any age, but it tends to become more apparent as children move through the early elementary grades. This is when the demands of completing schoolwork independently can trigger signs of a problem with executive function.

The brain continues to mature and develop connections well into adulthood. A persons executive function abilities are shaped by both physical changes in the brain and by life experiences, in the classroom and in the world at large. Early attention to developing efficient skills in this area can be very helpful. As a rule, it helps to give direct instruction, frequent reassurance and explicit feedback.

How Does Executive Function Affect Learning?

In school, at home or in the workplace, were called on all day, every day, to self-regulate behavior. Executive function allows us to:

Make plans Keep track of time and finish work on time Keep track of more than one thing at once Meaningfully include past knowledge in discussions Evaluate ideas and reflect on our work Change our minds and make mid-course corrections while thinking, reading and writing Ask for help or seek more information when we need it Engage in group dynamics Wait to speak until were called on

What Are the Warning Signs of Executive Function Problems?

A student may have problems with executive function when he or she has trouble:

Planning projects Comprehending how much time a project will take to complete

Telling stories (verbally or in writing), struggling to communicate details in an organized, sequential manner Memorizing and retrieving information from memory Initiating activities or tasks, or generating ideas independently Retaining information while doing something with it, for example, remembering a phone number while dialing

How Are Problems With Executive Function Identified?

There is no single test or even battery of tests that identifies all of the different features of executive function. Educators, psychologists, speech-language pathologists and others use a variety of tests to identify problems. Careful observation and trial teaching are invaluable in identifying and better understanding weaknesses in this area.

What Are Some Strategies to Help?

There are many effective strategies to help with the problem of executive function challenges. Here are some methods to try:

General Strategies

Take step-by-step approaches to work; rely on visual organizational aids. Use tools like time organizers, computers or watches with alarms. Prepare visual schedules and review them several times a day. Ask for written directions with oral instructions whenever possible. Plan and structure transition times and shifts in activities.

Managing Time

Create checklists and to do lists, estimating how long tasks will take. Break long assignments into chunks and assign time frames for completing each chunk. Use visual calendars at to keep track of long term assignments, due dates, chores and activities. Use management software such as the Franklin Day Planner, Palm Pilot or Lotus Organizer. Be sure to write the due date on top of each assignment.

Managing Space and Materials

Organize work space. Minimize clutter. Consider having separate work areas with complete sets of supplies for different activities. Schedule a weekly time to clean and organize the work space.

Managing Work

Make a checklist for getting through assignments. For example, a students checklist could include such items as: get out pencil and paper; put name on paper; put due date on paper; read directions; etc. Meet with a teacher or supervisor on a regular basis to review work; troubleshoot problems.

19 Comments

Page 1 of 3

I have often written about learning strategies, and how important it is to help students become strategic in their approach to learning, and I discussed some ways that teachers can promote student learning by both teaching and reinforcing the use of effective strategies to their students and by imbedding effective teaching strategies into their classroom instruction. What was missing from that discussion was any real focus on the kinds of thinking students need to do when they are confronted with different types of learning challenges and opportunities. These thinking ingredients fall under the umbrella term executive functioning.

A Working Definition of Executive Functioning

Executive functioning is a term used to describe the many different cognitive processes that individuals use to control their behavior and to get ready to respond to different situations. Whether the task at hand is to read a newspaper article, write an email to a friend, have a telephone conversation with a relative or join in a soccer game at the park, executive functioning is at work behind the scenes, helping to accomplish the desired goal. In other words, executive functioning:

Is conscious, purposeful and thoughtful. Involves activating, orchestrating, monitoring, evaluating and adapting different strategies to accomplish different tasks. Includes an understanding of how people tap their knowledge and skills and how they stay motivated to accomplish their goals. Requires the ability to analyze situations, plan and take action, focus and maintain attention and adjust actions as needed to get the job done.

We All Have It and We All Do It

Sometimes these processes seem to happen in a seamless and automatic way, and at other times they seem to not happen quickly enough (or not at all), resulting in what some people refer to as getting stuck, not knowing what went wrong and having a hard time discerning what to do next. At its best, executive functioning allows us to be mentally and behaviorally flexible to all sorts of task demands, to adjust our thinking to accomplish our goal (even when there are changing conditions along the way) and to adapt our reflexes and responses in ways that result in coherence and smoothness of responses.

How does someone know if their executive functioning abilities are well tuned and ready for action? A few indicators might be if you:

Make good use of past knowledge and experience (both before you start an activity and while it is ongoing) Take notice of the current situation for cues about what is expected of you and how you might best proceed doing the task at hand Think about what you are doing (or are about to start doing), imagine what if any implications it has for you in the future, and allow yourself to feel whether this activity has any personal values or relevance to you (taking your emotional temperature really does matter because it often has a very real impact on how you think!) Feel you are ready and can be flexible in changing your thinking along the way if need be Can delay gratification (not jump to conclusions too quickly) and inhibit any impulsive responses that might take you off track or distract you from your goal Are able to adjust the way you think and respond when the rules change unexpectedly.

Learning Disabilities and Executive Functioning

Our article,What Is Executive Functioning? describes how in school, at home or in the workplace, we're called on all day, every day, to self-regulate behavior. Normally, features of executive functioning are seen in our ability to:

Make plans Keep track of time Keep track of more than one thing at once Meaningfully include past knowledge in discussions Engage in group dynamics Evaluate ideas Reflect on our work Change our minds and make mid-course corrections while thinking, reading and writing Finish work on time Ask for help Wait to speak until we're called on Seek more information when we need it.

Problems with executive functioning may be manifested when a person:

Has difficulty planning a project Has trouble comprehending how much time a project will take to complete Struggles to tell a story (verbally or in writing); has trouble communicating details in an organized, sequential manner Has difficulty with the mental strategies involved in memorization and retrieving information from memory Has trouble initiating activities or tasks, or generating ideas independently Has difficulty retaining information while doing something with it; e.g., remembering a phone number while dialing.

These problem behaviors are often the descriptors we hear about students with learning disabilities (LD) as well as those with ADHD and language processing disorders. Parents and

teachers complain that they:

Forget to look ahead, and have trouble planning and setting goals Have difficulty sorting, organizing and prioritizing information Focus either on details or the big picture at the expense of the other Have difficulty shifting from one activity to another (especially when rules/task demand change) Have a hard time juggling multiple details in working memory Struggle shifting between information that is literal vs. figurative, past vs. current, etc. Are often overwhelmed by the increased and varied work load in the middle and upper grades Get it (e.g., the information being taught, the work tasks assigned) but often don't know what to do with it (e.g., how to complete the task in a way that demonstrates their knowledge).

For individuals with LD, problems with executive functioning are often complicated by performance anxiety. Feeling anxious about what to do and how well you're doing (especially when, as is the case with LD, you are winging it without a strategy or plan of attack) can easily lead to feeling overloaded and overwhelmed. This in turn leads to exhaustion, inattentiveness and a cycle of insecurity and feeling out of control. Not a great scenario for learning!

An Excellent Resource
A fine summary of executive function difficulties and learning disabilities can be found in the fifth chapter of a new book titled Executive Function in Education: From Theory to Practice, edited by Dr. Lynn Meltzer (2007, Guilford Press). The chapter discusses some of the core executive function processes that affect academic performance:

Selecting appropriate goals Initiating work Organizing Prioritizing Memorizing Shifting strategies and being flexibly in thinking Self-monitoring/checking

The chapter also includes an explanation of the inter-relationships between strategy use, effort, self concept and academic performance.

Useful sections can also be found on reading comprehension, written language, independent study, homework and long-term projects and test taking. This chapter also addresses the challenge of identifying difficulties in executive function because of diagnostic fuzziness, a term that means exactly what it sounds like. There is much overlap between the shared behaviors we typically attribute to executive function LD, and ADHD. There is also considerable controversy around how motivation, effort and persistence affect the types of behaviors that fall under the executive function umbrella. And the part of this chapter that I like the best talks about intervention approaches on two different levels: the environment and the person. It offers (as simplified and paraphrased below) a set of principles that are important for teaching all students, and are especially critical for students who show weakness in executive function processes:

Executive function strategies should be taught explicitly and systematically.

Teach students how when and why specific strategies should be used. Embed strategy instruction into the curriculum. Students should be encouraged to modify and personalize strategies to match their own learning preferences. Practice using strategies with different tasks across content areas. Keep motivation high (as being a strategic learner can be very hard work!). Help students set realistic goals and use self-monitoring and self-management strategies to identify areas of weakness and self-correct behaviors and performance. Make sure that students experience success in using strategies and encourage their consistent use over time. Count strategy use as part of a student's grade (focus on the how of learning, not just the what) Help students understand the limitations of hard work without a strategic plan for learning; effective executive function tools and strategies can greatly improve learning efficiency.

Attention and Learning Problems: Which Came First?

More Sharing ServicesShare | Share on facebook Share on twitter Share on email By Karen J. Miller, MD

0 Comments Page 1 of 3

Charlie looks around his first grade classroom when its reading time. He needs frequent reminders to get back to work. His teachers and his parents are puzzled why such a bright boy is having trouble in school. Could it be an attention deficit causing the problem? Could a learning problem cause the inattention? How can they help Charlie succeed? Learning and attention problems are common and can range from mild to severe. From five to 10 percent of school-age children are identified with learning disabilities (LD). At least five to eight percent are diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Many of these children have both.

Although the studies vary, 25 to 70 percent of children with ADHD have a learning disability and from 15 to 35 percent of children with LD have ADHD. There are many children who have milder learning or attentional problems but the additive effects can be significant. Even mild dysfunctions in these critical brain functions can create problems as demands increase in secondary school, college and in life. Attention and learning are related brain processes, separate but dependent on each other for successful functioning. Learning is the way the brain uses and remembers information like a factory taking in raw materials, storing parts and then manufacturing and shipping a finished product. Attention involves brain controls which regulate what information gets selected as important and gets acted on. The attention/behavior control system acts like the executives at the factory distributing the brain energy budget, setting priorities, deciding what to produce and monitoring quality control. Late shipments or poor quality products could be the result of any number of glitches in either system. Minor problems in one system can be compensated for but when both systems are affected failure looms. Sorting out the breakdown points is critical but can be complicated.

Evaluation: Look Beyond Symptoms

Comprehensive assessment is needed as some of the symptoms of learning and attention problems may look similar, at least on the surface. A child may be distractible because weak attention controls are unable to filter out unimportant sights or sounds. However, if reading is too difficult the child may look around because it doesnt make sense. A child might be disruptive because their behavior controls are weak and they impulsively call out or annoy others. Some children with learning problems may act-up out of frustration or embarrassment. They would rather be considered bad than dumb. Other difficulties that can occur with either learning or attention problems might be:

Underachievement despite good potential Inconsistent concentration Difficulty with time-limited tasks Problems with starting/completing work Messy writing or disorganized papers Low self-esteem Problems with peer relations Behavior problems Secondary emotional problems due to repeated failure and frustration

Evaluation includes a careful review of a childs history (medical, developmental, behavioral, educational), family situation, current functioning and appropriate testing. Information is gathered from parents, school records, school staff, medical providers, other professionals and the child. Testing for learning disabilities includes cognitive (IQ) and achievement testing with speech/language, motor skill and other evaluations as needed. Medical consultation with a primary care provider, developmentalbehavioral pediatrician, child psychiatrist or neurologist is often needed, especially when attentional, medical, developmental or emotional issues are present. Rating scales are often used to assess behavior or emotional functioning.

Learning Disabilities: Looking for Processing Problems

As learning disabilities reflect the brain's difficulty in processing certain kinds of information, the evaluation process looks for historical clues and evidence of specific patterns of strengths and weaknesses. Children with learning disabilities are more likely to show:

history of developmental delays family history of learning problems normal medical evaluation but can have motor coordination issues language delays that may include mixing up sounds in words (e.g., aminal for animal)

a lot of knowledge but difficulty in expressing ideas clearly slowness with learning academic readiness skills (e.g., letter identification) difficulty applying learned skills rapidly and automatically resulting in labored reading and poor reading comprehension report cards and tests that show consistent pattern of difficulty in one area individual testing shows distinctive patterns, such as deficits in phonological processing (pulling apart sounds in words) and delays in reading words. behavioral issues occur when processing weakness are stressed (e.g., too many instructions given at once when deficits in language processing are present). social problems because language processing impacts negotiation skills or visual-spatial problems result in standing too close to others.

Attention Problems: Looking for Problems In SelfManagement

Attention/behavior control problems may range from normal temperament variation to severe Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). ADHD is the most current term for children who experience levels of inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity that are excessive for their age and causes impaired functioning in more than one setting (home, school, friends, play or work). The three subtypes of ADHD are the predominantly Inattentive type (formerly called ADD), the predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive type, and Combined type (with both inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive symptoms).

Children with ADHD are more likely to show

normal milestones although sometimes with fine motor delays a family history of ADHD, attention or behavioral problems hyperactivity, when present, noted in preschool but decreases to restlessness as the child ages impulsivity such as calling out, acting without thinking or excessive talking difficulty with effortful attention, often more evident once in school problems with budgeting of attention and may over-focus on favored activities need for frequent prompts or reminders to start or complete routine tasks problems across multiple situations but with variable severity difficulty in group or independent work but does well one-on-one impulsive, careless errors and inattention to detail across subjects problems with listening comprehension or academic gaps due to inattention or superficial grasp of material written expression problems are most common report cards and tests show highly inconsistent grades across subjects difficulty with organization in and outside of school tendency to fade or drift off during sustained tasks such as reading or chores low frustration tolerance and lack of persistence unless highly engaged better scores in testing than performance in the classroom or on homework testing often shows deficits in executive functions, such as poor planning or problem-solving social problems because of annoying behavior and conflict

Succeeding With LD and ADHD: Targeted Interventions and Positive Supports

Once learning and attention problems are identified a multi-modal management plan should be developed. LD and ADHD are chronic problems but functioning can be improved with targeted interventions and positive, strength-based approaches.

Children with learning disabilities benefit from specialized instruction targeting their processing deficits in a systematic manner. If they qualify as having a Specific Learning Disability (SLD) under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) an Individualized Education Program (IEP) is developed to meet their needs. Interventions for children with ADHD should include positive behavior management, educational interventions and medication when appropriate. Behavior management at home and school should emphasize increased structure, reinforcement for appropriate behavior and avoid punitive punishments. If ADHD results in substantial educational impairment they can qualify for an IEP under the Other Health Impaired (OHI) category. If a child with ADHD doesnt qualify under IDEA but requires supports, modifications or accommodations in the classroom a Section 504 plan may be implemented. Medication can be an important part of the treatment program for children with ADHD. Medications, such as Ritalin, Adderall or Strattera, improve capacity for sustained, effortful attention and impulse control. However, medications do not teach better skills or extinguish bad behaviors. Appropriate educational and behavioral interventions are still essential. Medications can help a child with ADHD be more available to absorb and apply new skills and to be able to reflect (at least briefly!) before acting. Response to medication cannot be used as a test for ADHD. Only about 70 percent of children with ADHD respond to the first medication tried. Even if a child shows behavioral improvement, medication will not address an underlying learning disability. When both LD and ADHD are present medication can help support the extra brain work needed to compensate for processing problems. The key to long-term success for children with LD and/or ADHD is a positive attitude and an emphasis on developing strengths. Parents and teachers should foster a resilient, problem-solving approach to lifes challenges. Children should have opportunities to devise alternative ways of meeting goals, develop their talents and use their skills to help others. A child should not be limited by their learning or attention differences, but inspired to achieve by using their different strengths and passions.

Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: A Primer

More Sharing ServicesShare | Share on facebook Share on twitter Share on email By Sheldon H. Horowitz, EdD

7 Comments Page 1 of 2

When most people think about learning disabilities (LD), and particularly as they present themselves during the early elementary and middle school grades, attention is focused on language-related problems such as reading, writing and spelling. This is consistent with the definition of specific learning disabilities that is found in federal law and with the consensus papers written by the National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities.

We all agree that learning disabilities are not a single thing but rather a group of disorders that can affect a persons ability to receive, process, store and respond to information. We also agree that these seemingly unexplained difficulties occur in persons of at least average intelligence and that these difficulties cannot be explained by health, cultural, environmental or economic factors. And let's not forget that many individuals with LD experience significant struggle with non-academic learning and behavior, an often overlooked feature of LD that was mentioned by Dr. Samuel Kirk more than three decades ago when he spoke about children with LD who had trouble with skills needed for social interaction. So what exactly do we mean by the term nonverbal learning disabilities (NVLD)? There is no simple answer

Verbal vs. Non-verbal LD

At the risk of oversimplification, lets group learning disabilities into two distinct types:

language-based LD: This is characterized by poor speech and/or language skills, difficulties with vocabulary and speed/accuracy of performance on language-related tasks, and overall problems with reading and writing. non-verbal LD: This points to great difficulties with problem solving that do not involve written or spoken language. It also points to struggles staying organized in terms of time and space, while having (at least on the surface) good language skills.

And lets add in a few typical (or frequently reported) characteristics to the non-verbal LD list

a tendency to talk (often excessively), using age-appropriate and even advanced sentence structures, an uncanny ability to read and spell single words (with performance deteriorating on extended narratives), and a predisposition to memorize and repeat large amounts of verbal information, but a pronounced weakness in knowing how and when to share this knowledge in socially appropriate ways.

Thinking about the clusters of strengths and weaknesses that typify non-verbal learning disabilities, it is apparent how individuals with NVLD pose unique challenges to parents and educators. Adding to the challenge is the fact that the features of NVLD, more than in other subtypes of LD or categories of disability, change (for the worse!) as a child gets older. For example, a first grader with NVLD may demonstrate very strong verbal skills (a little professor) and be expected to know how to apply these skills to promote school success. Over time, given weaknesses in such areas as organization, abstract thinking and social cueing, in conjunction with apparent early strengths in isolated skill areas, this same student might quickly fall behind and be perceived as not trying hard enough.

A Diagnostic Dilemma
Just like there is no single profile of learning disabilities in general, there is also no single profile for individuals whose challenges fall into these verbal and non-verbal domains. Not only does the menu of challenges experienced by those with LD frequently overlap between these categories, but it can also include features of other disability categories such a Expressive and Receptive Language Disorders, Aspergers Syndrome, Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD), and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). This is especially true for NVLD, with some researchers and clinicians even hypothesizing that NVLD is a mild form of Aspergers Syndrome.

At this time there is no real consensus about the prevalence of NVLD or even about a definition for this subtype of LD. What we do know is that non-verbal learning disabilities can be hard to recognize and pinpoint, and as a result, the challenges faced by some individuals with this disorder are going to be attributed to other disorders or educational classifications such as autism and emotional disturbance. Clinicians who work with NVLD often report that these individuals are at increased risk for developing emotional and social adjustment problems and that NVLD is often associated with having fewer friends, being overly dependent upon parents, and being prone to problems such as obsessive-compulsive disorder or depression.

Special Challenges In the Social-Emotional Domain Perhaps the most debilitating feature of non-verbal learning disabilities falls within the areas of social and interpersonal skills. For example:

having heard a joke being told by a radio talk-show host, John proceeded to retell it to everyone in the roomone person at a time!not realizing that some people were listening over their shoulders (so they heard it already) and that others (by not making eye contact or by positioning themselves away from the conversation) were just not interested. after breaking a glass, Beth was confused by her brother's commenting good job (not understanding the sarcasm in his voice or realizing that his animated facial expression conveyed the real meaning of his words).

These sorts of social challenges are the hallmarks of NVLD. Without meaning to be difficult or intrusive, individuals with NVLD can often be:

physically awkward (e.g., dont quite know what to do their hands during casual conversation; prone to show anxiety-induced and potentially embarrassing behaviors in public), socially intrusive (e.g., stand too close to someone or follow someone around during casual conversation; not sure when or how to break in, join a conversation, or engage in the give and take of interpersonal communication), and socially isolated (e.g., unsure or unaware of their option to join a group or initiate social interaction). Additionally, a common feature of NVLD is seemingly incessant talking! These individuals often narrate their thoughts aloud, sometimes sharing too much detail (of a personal nature) without realizing theyve done so, or repeat details and have trouble getting to the point or sharing the big picture during conversation.