Translation,

Grammatically

Viewed

Abdul- Hassan Sh. Qassim Assistant Professor

200

University of Baghdad College of Languages English Department

University of Baghdad College of Languages English Department

Translation, grammatically, viewed,

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced , stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the author.

Certification

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Preface Translation is a field of knowledge that is wide open and has not been exhausted yet. This book is written with intention to be simplified, easier and more suitable for students to read. The book views translation as a practical subject in teaching and learning as well as application. It is hoped that students can benefit from the suggested approach of this book and put it to use. It is also hoped that it can be enriched and developed by interested and experienced teachers, translators and readers. Part one deals with the translation of grammatical terms. The importance of style in translation is referred to in part two. Part three administers a test to check the predicted problems yielded by the test and the results arrived at might prove useful for pedagogical purposes. The author

Foreword To The Student

This book is intentionally written in a simple and plain language to help students face no difficulty in comprehending what they read. Each point of grammar is presented with some examples to demonstrate its use in language to be helpful in translation. The book contains exercises which are meant to be translated from Arabic into English. Students should not write down the answers to these exercises in the book itself, because they will be of very little use later. Students should go on translating not only these exercises but also many other texts again and again until they have a mastery of the construction, vocabulary or point of grammar which students are practicing. To get mastery over translation IS should go on translating texts in general at least two paragraphs a day to practice all that they learned about translation.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my deep gratitude to professor Saad Al_Sagheer, Head of the English Department, College of languages, for his precious observations and suggestions and for the great kindness he has shown me during the written of this book. I wish to thank Dr. Munthir Manhal AL_Dulaymi Assistant professor at the English Dept. for his great kindness he has shown me. I am also grateful to the Assistant professor Fareed Qazzazi for his valauable notes on the manuscript. I am especially indebted to my colleague, assistant professor. Mr. Ameer_EL_Juboori for his sincere help and encouragement.

Contents Subjects 0.0. Introduction. 0.1. Aims of the study. 0.2. The scope of the study. 0.3. What do we translate? Part one 1.0. Grammatical problems. 1.1 Translation of verbs.

Pages 11 15 16 17 19 21 21 24 26 28 31 35 35 37 38 39 41 43 44 48 50 52 53

1.2. Translation of was/were into (). 1.3. The Verb Do. 1.4. Do as a substitute verb. 1.5. The translation of the verb have. 1.6. The translation of modals 1.7. The translation of May: Shall. Should. Must have and should have. Will. Would. Can. Could. Exercise (1) Exercise (2) 2.0. Translation of questions

Exercise (3) 3.0. The translation of negation

56 58 62 63 63 64 66 67 69 70 72 73 77 78 80 81 82 87 90 94 96 97 99 109

Neither Nor Either Not only (But) also The translation of No Exercise (4) 4.0. Word order 5.0. Translation of imperative statements 6.0. The translation of personal pronouns Exercise (5) 7.0. The translation of ing Form Exercise (6) 8.0. The translation of past participle 9.0. The translation of Adjectives The translation of adjectives used as nouns 10.0. Tenses 11.0. The articles 12.0. Passive voice 13.0. Adverb Exercise (7) Part two 1.0. 14.0.the style Fronting

Complex vs. simple sentences The style of long or short sentence Part three 4.0.The test 4.1. test administration 4.2.Finding of test 78 2.0. Conclusion Bibliography Appendix test sheet

111 113 117 119 120 121 128 130 132

0. Introduction

At the early stages of learning translation, some learners wrongly think that translation is a matter of word-for-word process; hence, translation to them is no more than a mechanical way.

It is certain that translation is a human activity, therefore, the text that is translated into the target language should be written in a rhetorical style that is intended to impress or influence readers and must have the same language effect that the source language does. But this cannot be produced without using imagination or skills which characterize human mind. Consequently, it is unreasonable to think that computers can be used as an aid to translation.

Iraqi college students of English face difficulty in translation, particularly at the early stages of learning. Translation is viewed as a number of problems of different kinds that require suitable and possible solutions. English and Arabic belong to two different language families Germanic and Semitic, therefore difficulty will definitely arise.

Some grammatical features of both languages pose problems in translation from Arabic into English or vice versa. Arabic

students should know that English grammar is not identical with Arabic grammar so we cannot translate each other in a straightforward way.

Translation plays an important role in rendering a text from one language into an equivalent version in another language, thus through translation, highly advanced international societies can be created despite their differences or the similarities of their peoples culture and the degree of the level of their civilization and superiority.

Translation helps people to exchange ideas and equipments that cannot be dispensed with in our daily life. So we need efficient translators who will translate masterpieces of art in such a manner that the translated text should be a true copy of the original one and have the same effect without any deformity. One of the responsibilities of a translator is to be clever in choosing names for scientific innovation of every sort of science that he/she intends to translate to his/her mother tongue.

Since English is used as a foreign language in Iraq or in any other Arabic country and as there is no linguistic clubs of English where learners can go and see the latest publication of books, journals and references, the case that will not help to familiarize learners with translation which may facilitate the process of

learning translation or any other linguistic or grammatical unit.

0.1. Aims of the study Translation should not be taken to mean the translation of words from one language into another, that is a word for word or a phrase for phrase, a clause for clause etc. This method of translation may not be acceptable and sometimes it may lead to absolute nonsense, particularly when we translate phrasal verbs, idioms or proverbs in the source language (henceforth SL) to its equivalent into the target language (henceforth TL), consequently, the present study aims to diagnose what mistakes Iraqi students commit and why, and which items form most of the trouble. Theortically,this study will clarify some areas of difficulty unknown to the Iraqi students (henceforth-IS). As to the practical side the result of this study may be useful for pedagogical aims.

0.2. The scope of the study Translation needs to be investigated accurately and in detail, and to carry out this requires covering a comprehensive field. However, it would be impractical to deal with all facts, principles and problems with which translation is characterized. Therefore, the present study deals merely with such a limited section of this subject as the literal translation as far as grammar is concerned from Arabic into English or the other way round. Other topics of translation will be dealt with whenever they come up in the context to make the discussion more complete.

0.3. What do we translate? Whenever we want or we are asked to translate any text, we are not going to translate grammar, words, style or sounds. What do we translate then? We always translate one thing, which is meaning and only meaning, but if we translate meaning literally, we will get a weak and boring translation, since it will not convey the exact effect of the language of the original text. Therefore, learners of translation should be aware of this point and be very careful to use a well-formed structure to write sentences that are grammatically as well as semantically correct to keep a true copy of the translated text ,for example, translate the following sentence into English;

Without youth there seems to be no meaning in life. The two sentences above are nearly similar in structure, but each one has its own well formed structure and keep the same meaning.

Part one

1.0. Grammatical problems: Ghazala (1995:32) believes that learners of translation should be warned against their presupposition that English grammar is identical with Arabic grammar and hence they can translate each other in a straightforward way. The following discussion will concentrate on explaining the process of translating texts from SL into TL or the other way round to make IS have clear knowledge of how to deal with the grammatical terms of Arabic and English. 1.1. Translation of verbs. verb to be. When these verbs are the main verbs in a sentence, IS translate them literally into ( )which is a weak translation, for example; 1-They are student.

The sentence above can be translated into Arabic by dropping verb to be from the Arabic version and have an Arabic nominal sentence, as in; 2-They are students.

Verb to be (am, is, are) is dropped when used as an auxiliary verb to form the present progressive tense and the present passive voice. Iraqi Students learning translation usually translate them literally at the early stage of learning, as in. 3-I am drinking water.

The best version of this example is to drop verb to be am

from the Arabic version, as in. 4-I am drinking water.

Verb to be disappears in Arabic translation as there is no equivalent tense in Arabic. Therefore the use of ( )in sentence (3) above does not refer to the progressive tense, or the time of action. The same applies to the translation of am, is, and are when used in the present passive voice; as in: 5-sally is invited to the party. To make the translation of sentence (5) normal and acceptable in Arabic we must drop ( )from the Arabic version to be as in sentence (6) below; 6- Sally is invited to the party. So keeping ( )in a version of Arabic translation is unacceptable and poor in Arabic grammar and it is out of place in the word order of the sentence.

1.2. Translation of was/were into () Verb to be was and were, as main verbs as well as auxiliaries referring to the past, are translated literally into (). a) As main verbs: 7- Mary was quite happy. . b) As auxiliary, the past progressive. 8- Layla was reading. . Nevertheless, the literal translation of was is unfavorable when was, and were are used as auxiliaries to form the past passive voice; as in: 9 -The child was deceived. ()

The Arabic verb ( )should be dropped in the Arabic version in sentence (9) above as follows; 10- The child was deceived. ()

So was and were are retained in a, and b, above but dropped in the passive voice. It is worth mentioning that the Arabic equivalent of (am, is, are, was and were) is ( )hal as a question word in an interrogative Arabic sentence; as in: 11- Is Tom a teacher? 12- Are you going? 13- Was Tom going home?

14- Were they happy?

1.3. The verb Do. Do and Does are used with the present simple, whereas did is used with the past. In translation, all these forms as auxiliaries have no Arabic equivalent and they cause no difficulty in translation whether they are used in a negative or interrogative sentence; as in: 13- Layla does not like tea. 14- Do they play football?

In affirmative sentences do is used for emphasis only as in; Do come in . Or He does help you. . As a main verb do does not pose a problem in translation, as in; 15-He did his work well.

A worthy point to notice is that in interrogative sentences most forms of verb to be,do,have and all the modals are translated into a question word ( )in Arabic, as in; 16-Is that your book? 17-Do you go home?

18- Have you a grammar book? 19-Can you speak English?

In certain linguistic areas ( )hal can be replaced by ()/alhamza/ to ask a question, as in; Do you go home?

1.4. Do as a substitute verb Moreover, do is used as a substitute for a whole clause, phrase or a verb, especially in an answer to a question, as in: 20-a- Do you agree? Yes, I do.

The underlined do can be replaced by the main verb in the answer of the question as follows,

B-Do you agree? Yes, I agree. Do as an auxiliary verb can be dropped in negative and affirmative sentences when it is translated into Arabic, but it is used as a question word meaning ( )as it is mentioned before. - Jack did not go out. . Do in the sentence above is a helping verb, so it is not

appearing in the Arabic version. Students face difficulty in translating an Arabic negative sentence into English, because the process of negation in English is different from that in Arabic. For example, to translate an Arabic negative sentence like;

/lam ya hab Khalid ilaalhaflati/

into English , the students are supposed to know that the Arabic verb/yahab/ meaning (to go) is present, it is used here to refer to the past, so to construct an English negative sentence as a counterpart to the Arabic one, students should use the past tense of the helping verb do with the negative particle not i.e, did not, as in;

21-Khalid did not go to the party.

1.5. The translation of the verb have As an auxiliary verb, have is used to perform an important grammatical function in language, as in; 22- We have arrived early today

The underlined verb have in sentence (22) above is dropped when the sentence is translated into Arabic because in a context like this and others, have has no equivalent in Arabic .the same is true with other forms ofhave,has and had if they are used in a context like that in sentence(22) which is the present perfect and past perfect tense, as in;

23- She has arrived early today. 24-Before he came to college, he had visited his uncle. It is commonly known that students usually translate have into its general common meaning, to posses (), which is only one of its several meanings, therefore, students should take care of this at translation. Below are several meanings of have, Have a good journey.

Jane has a telephone call this afternoon.

Jane has a nice weekend. . Jane has her dinner at 6 oclock every evening. Jane has the tablets on time. Jane has to speak at least three languages. Jane has money. . Jane has already had her examination result. . However, students can distinguish between all these meanings of have through the context in which it is used, particularly the word that comes after have for example: 25- We have a nice holiday.

It is nonsense to translate the sentence above literally into . . Which means in English. 26-We possess a nice holiday

A causative construction. There is also a special use of have in English which is called a causative have. Iraqi students face difficulty in using it in a situation when one person causes another person to do something which one may not do it oneself, like the following: / ureedo an ahliqa shari / I want to have my hair cut The difficulty of translating this sentence is shown in the test (tables 4&5). Another example; . Mrs Allen has the butcher slice her meat thin.

1.6. The translation of modals In English, modal verbs, as crystal (1984:195) believes, are primarily expressed as a subclass of auxiliary verbs, e.g. , may, might , shall, should, will, would, can, could. This subclass is symbolized as M in the phrase. Structure rules of the generative grammar. 1.7. The translation of May It is a modal verb used for saying that something is possible, as in,

27- I may be going to China next year. .

The verb May in sentence (27) above has the meaning of possibility and needs two Arabic words as its counterpart in Arabic, () In some contexts, it may need more than two words, as in, 28- May I help you? Might is used as the past form of May and it is often used indirectly. It is also used to ask for something politely. 29- Might I say something? Asking for doing or saying something in Arabic can have more

than one English counterpart, as in ; 30-May I open the window, please? 31-Can I open the window, please? 32-Would you mind opening the window, please? Shall: It is a modal verb used with I and we in future tense, meaning in Arabic , as in; 33- I shall be very happy to see him again. .)( It is also used for suggestion that you do something with the person you are talking to. 34-shall we go out for a walk? In law shall is used to mean must, obligation, but not future which is a special use of shall.e.g. 35- The defendant shall appear before the court at once. . It is used to make offer, as in; Shall I drive? {would you like me to drive?)

Should It is a modal verb used for saying that it is right for somebody to do something or something that one must do, as in; 36-You should try that new restaurant. . It is usually used to express the sense of obligation. 37- I suggested that he should cancel the meeting. . This shows that should is always translated into ( )just like must. It is used to indicate what is right or wrong, as in; 38-You shouldnt drink and drive.

Must have and should have

Students may understand these two constructions as having the same meaning of obligation in the past. In fact they are not so, but they are opposites. Must have is used to express an action that took place, whereas, the action which should have, refers to, as in (40} below did not take place. So students should take care of these verbs at translation. Thus they should distinguish between must have which implies action and should have which implies no action, as in,

39- The students must have gone. .

40-The students should have gone. () . The word ( )labudda meaning maybe is used to express, the doing, or the expectation of doing something; whereas ( ) has the meaning of the wish to have something done, but it didnt happen.

Will As a modal verb it is used in forming the future tense, as in, 41- He will be here soon. . It also shows that somebody is willing to do something, as in; 42- I need some more paper, Ok, I will get it. . , , It is used for asking somebody to do something, e.g. 43- Will you open the door please? . or offer something to somebody. 44- Will you have a cup of tea? It is used for saying that you think something is probably true. 45- That will be the postman at the door. . In indirect speech will is changed into would as a past tense, as in; 46- He said they would go home. . As a noun; It can be used as a noun, as in; 47- My father seems to have lost the will to live. .

48-Have you made a will? Therefore, students learning translation should be aware of a verb that can be used as a verb and a noun as well.

Would It is the past tense of will used to express polite requests, with the second person. 49- Would you mind opening the window, please? It is also used to express desire and preference, as in; 50-would you rather have tea or coffee? 51- He would prefer to have coffee. .

Can It is a modal verb used to express the meaning of capacity (know how), as in, 52- I can swim. " Can" also has the meaning of permission, as in, 53- You can go as soon you like. . . . It is used to ask somebody to do something, as in; 54- Can you help me carry these books? Can is used to express the continuity of an action which cannot be used with verbs like, feel, hear, see, smell, taste, as in; 55-I can smell something burning. . (Not I am smelling) Like will, can is used as a verb and as a noun as well. As a noun it means a metal or plastic container that is used for holding or carrying liquid; an oil can=a can of oil- It is used for drinks. In British English it is a tin,as in; 56-I want to get two cans of sardines. Can as a main verb canning, canned; means to put food, drink etc. into a can to keep it fresh for a long time. Example; 57-The factory canned the whole product of the fruit.

 Can be+adj This construction can be+adj has the meaning of capacity which is only shown on some occasions, as in; 58-He can be nervous. . Can be in sentence 58 above means, sometimes he may be nervous. Can has no infinitive or participle to refer to future or to perfect tense when an Arabic word ( )which means can occurs in a sentence that is supposed to be translated into English. Can is not used as a synonym to the Arabic word ( )because the Arabic sentence which is used to refer to future use this phrase be able, instead, as in;

59-One day people will be able to travel to Mars. .

To keep the meaning of the text more acceptable, we use a well-formed English sentence Another example: Translate the following sentence into English .

60-Surely, Selma cannot be hungry; she has only just had

lunch. Here can is used in negative for saying that they are sure that something is not true.

Could As a modal verb means possessed the ability but it does not achieve something by means of this ability. It is not used with the meaning of achievement of something in the face of difficulties. Have a look at these two sentences translated into Arabic;

61- The mechanic couldnt repair our car. . ) (

62-She couldnt finish her book last night. .

Could is also used to express permission, as in; 63- I could do anything I wanted when I stayed with my uncle. . In sentence (63) above could expresses permission in general, but when we are talking about the permission of a particular occasion, we dont use could, instead, we use be allowed to as in; 64- We were allowed to visit Tom in hospital yesterday. . The two sentences above show the importance of understanding the meaning of a text you want to translate. Could only means possessed the ability, but it does not mean achieved something by means of this ability as Corder (1969:8)

;states. Consider these sentences 65-The mechanic couldnt repair our car. 66-The mechanic was able to repair our car. )(no difficulty )67-The mechanic managed to mend our car. (with difficulty )Exercise (1 1-Translate the following sentences into English. -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15

. . . . . ) ( ) . ( . . . . . . 2- Translate the following sentences into English. -1 . -2 . -3 .

 -4 -5 . -6 -7 . -8 . -9 . -10 . -11 . -12 . -13 .

)EXERCISE (2 3-Translate the following sentences into English. . . . . . . . . . -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10

 . .

-11 -12

2.0. Translation of questions: Iraqi students may face difficulty in translating Arabic questions into English because the type of the structure of the two questions is different. The word order of the English question is the one in which the subject and the verb exchange positions with each other, and other changes also take place to keep the tense of the verb correct, as in; Arabic English 68- He plays football in the afternoon. Arabic English 69-Does he play football in the afternoon? Arabic English 70-When does he play football?

Whereas, translating the English question into Arabic, will cause no difficulty because IS will simply put the common Arabic question word ( )hal or a question word like, ( ) where , ( when) ( how) ( why) ( what){ )who(

(which) at the beginning of the sentence and they end the sentence with a question mark, as in;

71-Do you go? /hal tahab/ 72-Will you play football? /hal talabu kuratalqadam/ 73-who are you? / men anta/ 74-where have you been? / ayna kunta/ 75-when did he go? /mata ahaba/ 76-what is this? / maa haaa/

Therefore, most of the modal auxiliaries that exchange position with the subject to make interrogative sentences are dropped when translating into Arabic, as shown in the examples above;

)EXERCISE (3 4-Translate the following sentences into English -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 . -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 -17 . -18 . -19 . -20 . -21 .

3.0. The translation of negation Negation is common to all languages of the world .This linguistic device is used to reverse the meaning of a statement so as to deny or exclude its normal meaning (Francis, 53-54). Languages in general differ in the way by which they express negation. In English, negation can be expressed either by inserting the negative particle not after the first modal auxiliary of the verb phrase in the sentence sentences; 77- I shall not go home. /saofa lan ahaba ilaa lbayti/ 78-We do not play football. / nahnu laanalabu koratel qadami/ 79-She has not written the essay yet. / lam taktub ?lmaqaalata ba?d/ or by including a negative word as, no, none, nowhere, nothing, never, as in; 80-He got nothing. / lam yahsal ?alaa shayin/ . as it is underlined in the following

In general negation in Arabic is expressed by many particles such as/laysa/( ), /laa/(), /lam/(), /lan/() , /maa/(), all these particles have the meaning of not. A point to notice is that the negative particles are not used interchangeably in Arabic as there are certain restrictions on their uses. One of these restrictions is the type of the sentence that is being negated. In Arabic there are two types of sentences, verbal and nominal. In translating an English negative sentence into Arabic, IS will face no difficulty, because IS will simply negate it either by putting the negative particle /lam/,not at the beginning of the sentence, i.e. before the verb if it is a verbal sentence and by dropping the auxiliarydo, as in the following examples; English; 81-zayd did not write.

Arabic / lam yak tub zaydun/

However, in nominal sentences the negative particle /laysa/ not is usually used and placed before the subject and it can ,but less commonly, be placed before the predicate of the sentence , as in; 82- The girl is not sad. /laysat i lbintu hazeenatan/

 Or /albentu laysat hazeenatan/

Never as a negative word is translated into two words in Arabic, as in; 83-I never saw him before. /lam arahu min qablu Abadan/

Neither nor. It is a negative phrase meaning a refusal of two things, as in; 84-I like neither lying nor cheating. /ana laa uhibu ?lkiba ao ?l isha/ A point to notice is that both is changed into neither in a negative sentence, as in; It is unacceptable to say; *Both of them did not go to school. Instead, we should say; Neither of them went to school.

Either This word is used as a substitute foralso in a negative sentence, as in; . /lam arahu aydhan/ I didnt see him either. Not only..(But ) also. This term is used for emphasizing the fact that there is something more, so it is not a negative phrase, as shown below; Translate the following into English. . , They not only have two houses in London, they also have one in France. (Hornby:1995)

The translation of No This negative word is not always translated /laa/ into Arabic as we see in the following examples; 85-No smoking heen mamnoo?/ /?al tadk Smoking is forbidden. 86-She has no money.

 /laysa maaha nuquudun/ There is no money with her. Nevertheless, the translation of Arabic negative sentences into English will cause some difficulty for IS because the word order of the structure of the negative sentence in English is different from its counterpart in Arabic, as in; /lam yalab zaydun fi sharii/ 87-zayd does not play in the street. Reading the sentence above, we find that the Arabic sentence, unlike English, can be negated only by putting a negative word like for example, /lam/ not at the beginning of the sentence before the verb. Grammatically speaking, Arabic sentences are of two types: nominal and verbal, whereas, English sentences are usually nominal because they begin with a noun. Most verbal Arabic sentences become nominal sentences when translated into English, as in; Arabic /yaktubu taalibu ismahu/ After translated into English, it becomes nominal, as in; 88- The student writes his name.

)Exercise (4 5-Translate the following sentences into English . . . . . . , . , . -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9

-10 .

4.0. Word order When the word order of a sentence structure in a SL is the same as that in a TL, there will be no problem in translation or no difficulty at all, as in; 89- This house is new. /haaa lbaitu jadeedun/ However, if the word order of a sentence in the SL is nearly similar to that in the TL, the sentence should not be translated literally, i.e. word for word, as in; 90- My friend always comes to college early. If it is literally translated we will have this Arabic sentence; . / sadeeqi daiman ya? ti ila lkuliyati mubakiran/ Rather, we are always seeking a more rhetorical style to have a sentence like the following which is nearly literal, . / ya?ti sadeeqi ila lkuliyati mubakiran daaiman/ Most English imperative sentences can be literally translated into Arabic and may cause no difficulty to IS and also most sentences of the English patterns like the following; N. be. Adj., as in; He is happy.

Or N. be. adv., as in;

She is there.

Or N. be. N. as in; He is a teacher.

Can be literally translated.

5.0. Translation of imperative statements It is found that there is an absolute identification between the English and Arabic word order of imperative statements, so it is possible to translate English imperative sentences into Arabic or vice versa literally, as shown in the following examples; a- Come here. b- Go away. c- Beware of the dog. d- Come closer e- Dont believe him. fStand up.

. /

g- Sit down. h- Wash your hand. ijHold your tongue. Stop where you are.

6.0. Translation of personal pronouns

When English personal pronouns used as subjects of verb to be, they can be literally translated into Arabic and they appear in isolation and cause no difficulty to IS, as shown in the following sentences;

91-I am a student. 92-She is a nurse. 93-They are students. 94-He is a farmer. 95-You are a pupil.

However, unless emphasized, personal pronouns are omitted in verbal sentences, as in; 96-I will see you later. Being translated into Arabic, sentence (96) above is read as follows; . The letter ( ) in sentence(96) refers to the pronoun I as a subject of the verb see, so there is no need to repeat the pronoun by saying; /saaraka fima bad/ I will see you later. We come to conclude that personal pronouns+verb to be + noun/+Adj/+Adv. constitute no difficulty in translation since they

can be literally translated.

When a personal pronoun used as a subject of a full verb, it is omitted and it is replaced by a letter, as in; English. 97- We play football. Arabic The Arabic letter ( )meaning {n} which initiates the verb /nalabu/ meaning we play, comes to substitute for the omitted personal pronoun (we). EXERCISE (5) 5-Translate the following sentences into English.

. . . . . . . .

-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8

7.0. Translation of ing Form The ing form is sometimes a gerund and sometimes a participle (Corder, 1969-53). This may cause some difficulty in translation. English has two verbal nouns; the infinitive and the gerund. In translation, students are often confused to know when they must use one or the other. Let us translate these two sentences; 98- I forgot to go to the post office. . 99- I forgot going to the post office. . Sententece (98) means that he forgot to go to the post office, so he didnt go.

As to sentence (99), it means that the speaker forgot that he was going to the post office and now he remembers that he was going. Consider sentence (100) below; 100- I shall never forget washing my hands in that dirty water. The speaker in sentence (100) will never forget that he washed his hands in that dirty water. . Let us translate the following sentences; 101- I like to swim. Sentence (101) means, Im willing to swim now or later today.

.() . But with a gerund. 102- I like swimming.

Sentence (102) means I like swimming as a hobby or as an exercise, and it is translated into Arabic as follows .

The gerund is also used to express a situation in which one sometimes cannot stop or avoid doing something, as in; 103- I couldnt help laughing. Sentence (103) above means that the situation may be so funny that the speaker was not able to stop laughing or to avoid doing it, so it can be translated into Arabic as follows; . Learners of translation usually face difficulty in translating gerund and present participle; because they find it not easy to differentiate between the two. To overcome this difficulty, the best way to distinguish between them is to substitute them for a noun of any kind. If the-ing form accepts the noun grammatically as well as semantically, the ing form then is a gerund and if not, it is a present participle; as in; 104-Stealing and gambling are social diseases. .

We can exchange ing forms by nouns, as in; 105-Poverty and hunger are social diseases. . So they are gerunds But sentence (106) below; 106- Stealing and gambling all the time, he had been sent to prison. . Does not allow nouns to substitute for ing forms, so they are present participles, since sentence (106) means; because he was stealing and gambling all the time, he had been sent to prison. -

)EXERCISE (6 7-Translate the following sentences into English. -1 . -2 . -3 . -4 . -5 . -6 ., -7 . -8 . -9 . -10 .

8.0. The translation of past participle

The past participle, used as a modifier, refers to an action already completed, in contrast to action in process, as in;

107-Boiled water is water which has been boiled. 108-Boiling water is water which is in the process of boiling. Examples: 109-Please add some tea to this boiled water. 110- Carry all these broken trees away of the road. . . 111- The baby is playing near the boiling water. . Learners of translation should take care of the past participle when used as noun modifiers. They are closely related to the passive construction, as in; 112- The course includes assigned readings. . The past participle may come after the noun it modifies, as in; 113- They refused to pay the money demanded. . or before, as in; 114- This is the wanted man. .

9.0. Translation of Adjectives Unlike Arabic, an English adjective usually goes before the noun it modifies, for example; 115- I bought a new bicycle. . A word may be modified by more than one adjective, so the successive adjectives in English can be translated into Arabic, usually the same order is reserved. However, translating them in the back order is feasible(Ghazala: 1995:66); 116- It was a long, boring, technical lecture. . . And as a conjunction word in English, is placed before the last adjective only when a series of adjectives is used as in sentence (117) below, however in translation, it is repeated before every adjective in Arabic, as in; 117- The president discussed the political, social and economic matters. . Translation of adjectives used as nouns. A point to notice is that an English adjective preceded by a definite article the can be used as a plural noun, as in; 118- The rich should help the poor. . 119- The injured were rushed to hospital.

 . 120- The handicapped can do many things. .

10.0. Tenses A tense is a form of a verb which refers to the time at which something happens. Very often IS make mistakes in using or translating English tenses. The mistakes may occur because the number of tenses in English may be more than any other language. Learners of a foreign language, as Corder (1969:73) states, will transfer to English the association of adverb and tense of their own language to the language they are learning. Consider the following Arabic sentence; /hal nimta murtahan alaylata albariha/ Which means;

121-Did you sleep well last night? To translate the Arabic sentence above into English the Iraqi learner think directly of the Arabic question word/hal/ () under the influence of interference so he starts his sentence with any auxiliary verb as a substitute for /hal/, and imitates the Arabic sentence leaving it without any other change, as in; 122 - Did you slept well last night? Which is grammatically wrong. In Arabic, there are two tenses; present and past. As to the future it can be expressed by the present simple tense preceded by the common word meaning shall or will placed at the beginning of the verbal Arabic sentence to refer to future, as in ;

123- I shall go. or

The alphabetic Arabic letter (S) joins the verb and it constitutes the first letter of the simple present verb in Arabic to refer to future, as in; . 124- I shall go. The number of tenses in English is more than those used in Arabic, so the time at which an action occurs can be expressed by more than one tense. The two sentences below express a past action by two different tenses, as in, 125- I wrote the letter. (Past simple) . 126- I have written the letter. (Present perfect) . Usually, the future can be expressed by using shall and will, as in; 127- I shall visit him tomorrow. . The context of sentence (127) above can also be expressed by present continuous, as in; 128- I am visiting him tomorrow. . Going to also indicates future, as in; 129- I am going to buy a new house after summer holiday.

. The simple present tense is also used with future meaning, but not with all verbs, it is used with verbs of going and coming (corder; 1969:81) 130-The climbing party plan to set off at dawn tomorrow. . Translation from Arabic into English, as far as conditional sentences are concerned, will not be easy because the structure of the conditional sentence in Arabic is not the same as that of English. Consider the following example;

. To translate the sentence above into English we need to use a conditional sentence that expresses a situation which is unlikely to happen, because George did not go to the party and consequently he did not see his friend, so the structure is absolutely different from that in Arabic , as in; 131- If Georg had gone to the party, he would have seen his friend. The present study explains and sometimes translates any grammatical unit that is widely used in English by giving one or two examples related to the topic under discussion for the purpose of clarity.

11.0. The articles A noun of a nominal clause in Arabic usually occurs identified by the definite article ( )meaning the in written as well as in spoken Arabic. Therefore, Translating an Arabic text into English IS will transfer this linguistic habit to the TL which makes them use the definite article the with the English nouns which require no definite articles in a given linguistic situation. Out of my experience as a teacher of English and as the test revealed in table (8), it is found that IS translated all the Arabic sentences below into English using the definite article the with all the nouns which require no definite article in English, as in; *I like the swimming.

*The industry is the basic of our economy. *The water is necessary to the life. *The bicycles are useful in the towns.

A point to notice is that all the nouns underlined in the sentences above are used with the. But when they are modified by a modifier that restricts their meanings to a particular example

the definite article the is necessary. As we see in the following examples; 132-I like the swimming which gives fitness. 133-The industry of petroleum is the basic of our economy. 134-The water in that glass is not fit to drink. 135-The bicycles in this shop are all second-hand. This occurs with abstract nouns and with common nouns when they are plural, as in; . I like music. . I like the music of Beethoven. Or . Books are useful. . The books of history are useful.

12.0. Passive Voice Passive voice is used more frequently in written English, where it gives an impersonal effect; this is especially so in scientific writing and objective reporting (Corder: 1969:24). Translating the Arabic active sentence below into English will have more influence on readers if it is passivised, as in; . Active 136-The present study revealed that the solution would change its colour if water was added. Passive 137- It is found that the solution would change its colour if water was added. The translator can feel free in translating active sentences into passive or the other way round, but this is not always possible with all sentences. Crystal (1988:222), states that there are active sentences in English that have to passive counterparts, as in; 138-The boy fell. 139-They have a car. Although active sentences and passive sentences share a common sense, and sometimes each of the active and passive have the same meaning and each one can be used instead of the other, as in;

140-Tom wrote the letter. 141-The letter was written by Tom.

Students should be aware of the idea that not all passive sentences have the same meaning as that of the active, as in; Active 142-Every student in this room speaks two languages. 143-Two languages are spoken by every student in this room. Sentence (142) means that every student speaks two languages which are different from those spoken by another student, whereas sentence (143) means that all the students speak only two languages. Semantically speaking, sometimes it will be better to translate a passive sentence in a SL into an active sentence as its counterpart in the TL, as in; English Ramadan was fasted .(passive) Arabic And The meeting was cancelled by the manager.(passive) Arabic . .(active) And Be prepared for the worst. .

Or the other way round, as in; English; I lost my book.(active) Arabic; . .(passive)

13.0. Adverb Adverb is a term used in the grammatical classification of words to specify the mode of action of the verb (Crystal, 1988:9). When adverb occurs with a verb in an imperative case or with other word-classes as a phrasal verb, it shares meaning with the verb or the other words and usually the two-word verb can be translated into one word in Arabic, as in; Be away Bear out Blow out Blow over Bring off Bring forward Go out Come in Come closer Stand up Sit down Slow down Right now

The underlined adverb of manner quickly in sentence ( 145) below modifies the verb come which is used as an answer to the question How did he come? 145- He came quickly.

Whereas in Arabic / jaaa musrian/ Whereas the underlined word /musrian/ quickly in the )( Arabic sentences above modifies the implied subject /huwa/ he and not the verb.

)EXERCISE(7 8-Translate the following sentences into English. -1 . -2 . -3 . -4 . -5 . -6 . -7 . -8 . -9 . -10 . . -11

Part two

14.0. The Style Since style is the manner or the way that somebody usually writes, so it plays an important role in affecting the meaning of any translated text. Ambiguity results from using a bad style and sometimes we may get a different meaning. Therefore, a translator should get control over using a clear and correct style in the (SL) and the (TL) as well. A good piece of translated text needs a distinctive style. Shapiro (1986_27-28) says I see translation as an attempt to produce a text so transparent that it does not seem to be translated. A good translation is like a pane of glass. Iraqi students face difficulty in translating the target language, because they have to use structures, lexical words, word order with which they are not familiar. Let us consider the following sentences which show how the style which lacks clarity makes a translated text nonsensical. Translate into English; : 146- He loves his dog more than his mother Sentence (146) above is ambiguous, since it may mean (he loves his dog more than he loves his mother) or (he loves his dog more than his mother loves his dog). So to make sentence (146) unambiguous, we should write it as follows; 147-He loves his dog more than his mother does. or

148-He loves his dog more than he loves his mother Sentence (149) below is a piece of advice said to a kid not to play in the street ; . Translating this sentence into English as in (149). 149 My mother told me not to play in the street on Friday. Will be ambiguous because It means that the kid is allowed to play in the street all the days of the week except on Friday. The sentence can be correct if it is written as follows; 150-My mother told me on Friday not to play in the street. or 151-On Friday my mother told me not to play in the street. In translation, as we mentioned before, we attempt to keep the same meaning of the translated text in the target language in such a manner that it does not seem to be translated. Have a look at this sentence; . 152- Jane likes English, but French seems better to me. In sentence (152) above, the subject of the first clause is a person, whereas in the second clause the subject becomes a thing (French). The sentence can be improved by making the subject of the second clause a proper noun or pronoun; as in; 153- Jane likes English, but I prefer French. .

Example; Translate the following sentence into English, . 154-Zayd took summer courses, and his leisure hours were devoted to tennis. Sentence (154) can be improved by keeping one subject only, and making both verbs active, as in; 155-Zayd took summer courses and devoted his leisure hours to tennis. Consider the following sentence as being translated into English; . 156-Jack met Tom when he was going to the theatre. Sentence (156) is ambiguous since one cannot decide which one of the two men was going to the theatre, and to which one the pronoun (he) refers. The ambiguity will disappear if the sentence is written as follows; 157-When Jack was going to the theatre, he met Tom. Or 158-When Tom was going to the theatre, he met Jack. Consider the following Arabic sentence translated into English;

. 159- The house was built near the river which has a beautiful

garden and two large living rooms was sold for eighty thousand dollars last month. In sentence(159), the clause which has a beautiful garden and two large living rooms comes immediately after the river so it modifies the river which is nonsense, whereas this clause is syntactically used to modify the house and not the river , therefore it must come directly after the house, as in; 160- The house which has a beautiful garden and two large living rooms near the river was sold for eighty thousand dollars last month. Or, we can make was sold for eighty thousand dollars last month an adjectival clause modifying the house, as in; The house which was sold for eighty thousand dollars last month, has a beautiful garden and two large living rooms near the river. As mentioned before, using good and correct sentences in translation will help to produce a language that interests readers or listeners and will be away of ambiguity and vagueness. To avoid the misuse of literal translation, one should know that the meaning of a sentence can be expressed, orally or in a written language, in more than one structure, so in translation there is no need to follow the same word order of the sentence we intend to translate. The examples below show how we can translate an Arabic sentence into English without being confined to literal translation, as in;

. 161- He was nowhere to be found. Or 162- We cannot find him anywhere. Or 163- We never seem to find him anywhere. Or 164- No one could find him anywhere. Another Arabic sentence to translate; : 165- They put him in charge of running the company. Or 166- He is now in charge of running the company. Or 167- He has been appointed in charge of running the company. Examples; . 168- Flattery will get you nowhere. Or 169-serving two masters, you will get nothing. . 170- He is up to his neck in work. Or 171- He is too busy to work.

The same thing can be applied to English sentences translated into Arabic where we can use more than one Arabic sentence as a counterpart for one English sentence, as in; 172- There is a green book on the table.

. - . - . - . -

Giving more than one counterpart to a translated sentence, the translator can have options to choose the counterpart that is congruent with the text he is translating, as in; 173- In the end, they reached the city. . . . . . Ghazala (1995:201) belives that style is no longer seen as

secondary to meaning and it is no longer separated from meaning. Nowadays it is regarded as a part and parcel of meaning. Part two is mainly concentrating on the grammatical style such as fronting, complex vs. simple sentences, the style of short sentences, passive vs. active, excluding any other grammatical style. Fronting. As to fronting, it means that the writer moves a word, a phrase, or a clause from its original position in the sentence to the front position in the sentence. The following are some examples of fronting; In the holy Quran. We have the following verse which expresses fronting to emphasize meaning that we worship only God Allah and no one else, "" " /iyaka nabudu wa iyaka nastaien/ We worship you Fronting; You alone we worship. And to you alone we look for help. Another example; 174-The man lives up in the mountains Fronting: 175-Up in the mountains the man lives.

Fronting is used to express emphasis as in; Give the book to your brother, not to me.

Fronting; 176-To your brother give the book, not to me. However, fronting is widely used in the poetic style.

Complex vs. simple sentences. A complicated text in a SL or TL will definitely has its impact on the meaning of a translated unit. Complexity in a source language can render the same function and effect at translation into another language. Below is an example of an Arabic sentence that shows how its inaccuracy transfers from Arabic into English through translation;

177-She told me to switch off the light three times. Does she think l am deaf?

To correct the sentence above, we should reconstruct the Arabic sentence above in order to have a well-formed English version; as in; Arabic

English 178-She told me three times to switch off the light. Does she think I am deaf? Another examples; . 179-Tom offered to buy the only car.

But the sentences below do not give the same meaning as sentence (179) does. Tom offered to buy only the car. Only Tom offered to buy the car. Tom offered only to buy the car.

The style of long or short sentences. Linguistically speaking, a sentence is the unit of a written language. Ghazala(1995:225) thinks that when short sentences are dominate in the SL text, the translation of the TL needs to be so. The writer has a different view. Let us have a look at the following Arabic sentence. It consists of many short sentences. Instead of leaving them short, they were joined into one long sentence keeping the same meaning of the SL, as shown below; All these ten fruitful interlacing forest trees were cut down last week. Or All these ten forest trees which were fruitful and interlacing were cut down last week. As to a long sentence, he also believes that it can be taken as one unit and one idea and learners of translation cannot separate between its clauses since they are interconnected and cannot be understood unless they are taken together as one as a whole. The following example will clarify the idea of translating a long Arabic sentence into English; The man whom I met

in the street on my way home is one of my old friends. Or

On my way home I met an old friend of mine in the street. Or On my way home I met one of my old friends in the street. A sentence in a SL may have one word as its counterpart in the TL, as we see in the following sentences: Do come in Here you are Hold your tongue Come closer Slow down He thanked him They watched him To keep pace with

Active and passive had been dealt with in part one.

Part three

4.0. The Test To make the results of this study more reliable, the writer finds it reasonable to conduct a test to find out which unit of translation imposes difficulty to IS or learners of translation in general. To carry out a test is important because we may detect both difficulty in learning and errors in performance. The test may also reveal that if the structure of a text in the SL is identical to that in the TL, less difficulty or no difficulty at all is anticipated. The test is also intended to be of use in teaching translation as it provides teachers with necessary information they need. It is also intended to find out the students control of translation, so it is constructed with the aim of testing the students ability of translation. The test consists of 32 Arabic sentences which are all intended to test IS production level. 4.1. Test Administration. The test was administrated to fourth year-college students learning translation for three years. The students participating in the test, about fifty students, were regarded as of equal level. The procedure was as follows; The test consists of thirty-two Arabic sentences and the students were asked to translate them into English. The test items are all intended to test IS production level only. The complete form of the test items can be seen in the appendix.

They were told to answer in as much time as they wanted. The students undergoing the test have been learning translation for three years. The students were told not to write their names on the test sheets. After the answer, the sheets have been given numbers from 150. The presentation of the grammatical items in the sentences may make IS answer the test unaware that any grammatical item likes plural s 3rd person singular for example, is deliberately tested more than one time. This will help the examiner to check the IS mastery of translation regarding the use of the grammatical items that occur repeatedly in different situations. The students answers were corrected on a right-wrong basis.

4.2. Findings of the Test;

The test revealed that only (11) students out of (50) were able to pass. This indicates that IS face much difficulty in translating Arabic sentences into English without committing grammatical mistakes. Most of the mistakes occurred because IS translated literally from Arabic. Thus errors they committed were attributed to the influence of the mother tongue on the target language. As table one shows, the number of the students who passed the test is (11) out of (50). The percentage of success is 22%, which indicates

that Iraqi students facing much difficulty in translating Arabic texts into English. They used wrong English sentences because most of the sentences were literally translated.

TABLE ONE Summary of the students results in the test Number of students 50 Number of students passing the test 11 The percentage of success 22%

This was clearly shown when the students were asked to translate the following Arabic sentence into English. Sawaba nahwa ttayri Aimed toward bird He aimed toward the bird. TABLE TWO Summary of the students answers to the items of the test as a whole. Number Number Number percentage of the of the of the tested correct wrong items answers answers 50 32 1600 263 1337 16.4375% The number of the wrong answers in table two which is 1337 out of 1600 demonstrates a high rate of errors, since the findings identified in table two above reflect the fact that IS face difficulty in translating Arabic sentences into English whose word-order is different from that of Arabic. Therefore, the errors they committed were attributed to the influence of the mother tongue on the target language. Unlike English, an Arabic statement can be written or said without an apparent subject. The performer of an action, a noun or pronoun, which is not always visible and it does not appear in the Number of students Number of the sentences

sentence, can referred to as an implied subject, thus (36) out of (50) students do not write a subject to precede its verb in English imitating the Arabic sentence under the influence of interference as shown in Table three below. TABLE THREE A sentence with no subject Number of students 50 Number of the correct answers 14 Number of the wrong answers 36 The 28%

The Arabic sentences were constructed with the aim of testing the students control of using the English grammatical terms correctly. The test revealed that the students face much difficulty in writing good English. As tables Four and Five reveal, the students were nearly unable to use a causative have as a counter part to an Arabic sentence like, , (I want to have my hair cut), where the percentage of the correct translation to this sentence was 8% which is very low, whereas Table Five shows that no one managed to translate the sentence { I shall have a pair of shoes made} and of course the percentage was 0%. TABLE FOUR CAUSATIVE HAVE The sentence Number of the students I want to 50 have my hair cut Number of correct answers 4 Number of wrong answers 46 The percentage 8%

TABLE F IVE CAUSATIVE HAVE The sentence Number of Number of Number of The the correct wrong percentage students answers answers I shall have a pair of shoes 50 0 50 0% made Table Six shows that the preposition ?ilaa(to) in Arabic should be substituted for by the preposition for in this language area. The test interestingly revealed that only Six students used the preposition for while the others used the preposition to as a substitute for the Arabic preposition ?ilaa. The students used the wrong preposition because they translated literally from Arabic, so the mistake they committed was also attributed to the influence of the mother tongue on the target language. TABLE SIX THE PREPOSITION ILAA (TO) The Number of sentence the students They are 50 leaving for Paris soon Number of the correct answers 6 Number of the wrong answers 44 The percentage of correct answers 12%

Table Seven shows that the use of English tense constitutes less difficulty when it occurs in identical linguistic areas. The percentage of the correct answers was 48%.

TABLE SEVEN THE TENSE OF THE VERB The sentence He provided his son with all he needs Number of the students 50 Number of the correct answers 24 Number of the wrong answers 26 The percentage of correct answers 48%

For the definite article ,the, Table Eight demonstrates that students also face difficulty in using this grammatical term in English, since the percentage of the correct answers is 40% . This occurs simply because in Arabic students always use the definite article al, (the) with the noun with which they begin a sentence in a nominal sentence. TABLE EIGHT THE USE OF THE ARTICLE The sentence Nature is beautiful in spring Number of the students 50 Number of the correct answers 20 Number of the wrong answers 30 The percentage

40%

Conclusion As stated before, the two languages namely, English and Arabic are related to two different families, so it is absolutely expected to have different points in grammar , word orders, types of sentences, forms of verbs, terms, articles, adverbs, adjectives, etc. from all this, problems in translation will arise. What is previously mentioned is not enough or final. There are many other problems, like those in the translation of style, collocations, idioms, phrasal verbs, proverbs, Lexical word. Most of the results arrived at in the test appear to be capable of speaking for themselves. However, there are some important phenomena concerning the process of translation which pervade the test. Of these the interference phenomenon plays an important role in causing difficulty to Iraqi students. The errors detected often follow from the habit of literal translation from the mother tongue to the foreign language. The test also showed that the greater the difference between the source and the target language, the greater the difficulty. The absence of the Arabic counterpart for certain linguistic areas makes students err. And when the students seem to ignore how to use the grammatical terms in the target language, they start padding from their mother tongue. However, mistakes are not entirely caused by differences between the source and the target language. The results of this work revealed that students often have a

vague understanding of the meaning of the lexical words. These troublesome words seem abstract and elusive. It is hoped that the results of this study may provide those who are concerned with the teaching of Iraqi students with information relative to the causes of mistakes as a helpful step to prepare remedial exercises.

Bibliography A.

Razzak. F., AL_Hassan Helen, 1981, College Composition, IDELT. Baghdad.

Corder S.Pit (1969), An Intermediate English practice Book. Longmans London.

Crystal David, (1988), A Dictionary of linguistics And Phonetics, Blackwell, Inc, press limited, Oxford.

Francis, w.Nelson. (1965).The English Language: An Introduction. London: The English Universities Press Ltd.

Ghazala. Hassan (1995).Translation As Problems and Solutions. Malta interprint Limited.

Hornby. A.S. (1995), Oxford Advanced learners Dictionary of Current English, Oxford university Press. Kratz. D (1986)An Interview With Norman Shapiro, Translation Review 19:27-28.

APPENDIX Test sheet Translate the following sentences into English: (1 . (2 . (3 . (4 . (5 . (6 . (7 . (8 . (9 . (10 . (11 . (12 . (13 . (14 . (15 . (16 . (17 . (18 . (19 . (20 . (21 .

 (22 . (23 . (24 . (25 . (26 . (27 . (28 . (29 (30 . (31 . (32 . -

Notes _______________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

Notes _______________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________

ABDUL_HASSAN SH. QASSIM is

Assistance professor of English language and

linguistics. He is the author of these books Translation, Grammatically Viewed and English Grammar Versified. He has published a number of articles dealing with English Teaching. He was formerly Head of the Consultant Bureau of Foreign Languages and Translation.