MA9001 Introduction to Energy Topic 4 Nuclear Energy

Weeks 5 & 6 (6 hours) presentedby A/PStuartVictorSpringham Natural N lS Sciences i and dS Science i Ed Education i (NSSE) (NSSE),NIE Email:[email protected] Phone: o e:6 6790 903838
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NuclearEnergy gyWorldwide
440operatingcommercialpowerreactors 31countries 376,500MWe 62newreactorsunderconstruction 154 newreactorsplanned PrimarilyusedforElectricityGeneration Produces16%oftheWorldsElectricity Otherapplicationsbeyondelectricitygeneration HydrogenProduction fora Waterdesalination futureHydrogenEconomy! ChemicalProcessHeat
Source:WorldNuclearAssociation:www.worldnuclear.org/info/reactors.html

AttitudestoNuclearEnergy gy
IntheWest,NuclearEnergywasatalowebbforabout20yearsfollowingthe ChernobylAccident(1986).HoweverithascontinuedtogrowinAsia;especiallyinJapan, South hKoreaand dTaiwan,b butnowalso l inChina, h India, d Vietnam,United dArab bEmirates, Indonesia, InrecentyearstherehasalsobeenaresurgenceofinterestinNuclearEnergyinthe West,duelargelytoconcernsaboutGlobalClimateChangeandEnergySecurity. Wecanagreerenewableenergies,suchaswind,geothermalandhydroarepartofthe solution.Butnuclearenergyistheonlynongreenhousegasemittingpowersourcethat caneffectivelyreplacefossilfuelsandsatisfyglobaldemand.
PatrickMoore,FounderOfGreenpeace, ChairandChief ScientistofGreenspirit

Ibelievethattheworldnuclearindustrywillcontinuetosupplyelectricityinasafeand reliablemannerandthatthissupplywillgivecivilizationthechancetosurvivethrough thedifficulttimessoontocome. Nuclearenergyistheonlygreensolution. solution. Nuclear

JamesLovelock,Geophysicistwhodeveloped theGaiaTheoryofEarthEcology
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ButFukushimaDisaster2011
Nuclearreactorcoremeltdowns,and releasesofradioactivematerialsat theFukushimaNuclearPowerPlantin Japan,followingtheearthquakeand t tsunami ion11March M h2011. 2011

EconomicalSimplified BoilingWaterReactor (ESBWR)

EuropeanPressurized E P i dWater W t Reactor(EPR)

Howevermanynew GenerationIII+Reactor Designsthatoffer significantly i ifi tl improved i d Safety andEconomics relativetothe(mainly) GenerationIIReactors whichareinoperation today.

PebbleBed Modular Reactor (PBMR)

AdvancedPassive Reactor(AP1000)

SourcesofEnergy
NonRenewable Coal Oil NaturalGas Propane P Uranium Renewable Biomass Geothermal Hydro Solar S l Wind

Allsourceshavepositive andnegative attributesrelatedto environmentalimpacts,abundance,cost,reliability,etc. Manygovernmentsnowtaketheviewthatthebestwayto meetEconomic,EnvironmentalandEnergySecurityconcerns istohaveaMixofEnergySources.

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Electricity y Daily yLoadProfile

HighDemand DayinSummer HighDemand DayinWinter

Electricity GenerationMUST equalElectricity Consumption p in RealTime Animportant constraintbecause thereareveryfew goodwaystostore electricityonthe scalerequired. (HydroPumped Storageistheonly significantstorage methodatpresent).
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Electricity y Daily yLoadProfile

Germany: daily electricity consumption &fuelsource contributions

Nuclear isespeciallywellsuitedforBaseLoadGeneration
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E.g.Intermittency isakeyproblemforsome renewableenergysources

andwillprobablylimitwind&solarcontributionto nomorethan20%to30%formostcountries
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TheEnergy gyPolicy yTriangle g

Economics

Energy Policy Environment Securityof Supply

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Electricity Generation: CO Emissions 2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Electricity Production WholeLifeCycle
1400

Indirect, from life cycle

1200 289 1000
grams g CO2 equivalent per kWh

800 600
1017

176 113 77 575 362 236 4

Direct emissions from burning Twin bars indicate range

Electricity

400

790

101 17

200

280

0 Coal
Source: IAEA 2000

100

48 10

21

Gas

Hydro

Solar PV

Wind

Nuclear
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AtmosphericImpactofFuelUse
Every 26 T n of Tons f U3O8 yellow cake saves 1,000,000 Tons of Atmospheric CO2 Relative to Coal !

Source: EU-EUR 20198, 2003

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StructureofGlobalElectricityProduction
Hydro y 16.0%

Globalelectricity generation i i in2006: 2006 18,930TWh

Coal 41.0%

Renewables 2.3%

Nuclear 14.8%

Note: 1TWh=1millionMWh 1TWh=1billionkWh

Naturalgas 20.1%

Oil 5.8%

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StructureofGlobalElectricityProduction
Globalelectricity generation i i in2006: 2006 18,930TWh

Note: 1TWh=1millionMWh 1TWh=1billionkWh

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FuelsforElectricity yGeneration(USA) ( )
NetU.S.Electric Generation(2006) 4,065TWh NetNonemittingSourcesof Electricity
Hydropower7.1% Nuclear 72.3%

Nuclear 19 5% 19.5%

NaturalGas 20.1%

Renewables (nonhydro) 2.5%

Petroleum1.7% Coal49.1%

Geothermal 1.3% Wind1.6%

Hydropower 24.9% Solar0.05%

FossilFuels: NonEmitting:

70.9% 29.1%
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FuelsforElectricity yGeneration(France) ( )

FossilFuels: NonEmitting:

9.5% 90.5%
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Source:

InternationalEnergyOutlook2010: http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/index.html

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World

Electricity
o

Demand&ConsumptionofElectricityis growingfasterthanforofotherformsof Energy CO2 EmissionsrelatedtoElectricity GenerationaregrowingfasterthanCO2 emissionsfromsectors

World

World

CO2

CO2

Source:

InternationalEnergyAgency,CO2 EmissionsfromFuelCombustionHighlights (2009Edition) www.iea.org/co2highlights/co2highlights.pdf

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Fact:ElectricityandHeatproductioncontributesabout 40%oftheWorldsCO2 emissions,andDemandfor ElectricityisgrowingfasterthanforotherformsofEnergy Energy. Prediction:TheWorlds World sElectricityconsumptionis predictedtoincreaseby~75%inthenext25years.The mostrapidgrowthbeinginnonOECDcountries countries. Challenge:TomeetthisgrowingdemandforElectricity, Electricity andtodoitwithoutacceleratingGlobalClimateChangeor causingotherwidespreadEnvironmentalDamage Damage.

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CharacteristicsofNuclearElectricityGeneration
o Highpowerdensity,smallfuelvolume,largeoutput o Environmentalbenefits:cleanair,carbonfree o Costs: Capitalintensive:largeunits,highcosttobuild,lowcosttooperate Major j componentof fBaseLoad dElectricity l i i supply l ( (alongside l id coal) l) o Longreactorlifetimes:4060years o ExcellentSecurityofSupply(Uraniumfrompolitically stablecountries,e.g.Australia &Canada) o Excellent E ll safety f record d(except ( f formerUSSR) o Concernsover: SafetyofLongtermRadioactiveWasteDisposal NuclearWeaponsProliferation Accidents ThreeMileIsland,Chernobyl, andFukushima
BaseLoad

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NumberofEnergyAccidentsfrom1969to1996 withatleast5Fatalities
(PaulScherrerInstitut,"SevereAccidentsintheEnergySector)

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0

334

No. o of accid dents

187 86 77 9
C l Coal Oil Natural N t l gas LPG

HydroH d N l Nuclear pow er

NuclearPowerisEconomical
USElectricityProductionCosts
18 16 14 Years:19952009(Averagesin2009centsperkilowatthour) Coal C l(2 (2.97 97cent/kWh) t/kWh) Gas(5.0cent/kWk) Nuclear(2.03cent/kWh) Oil(12.4cent/kWh) ProductionCosts=Operation&MaintenanceCosts+FuelCosts 8 6 4 2 0 1994 1996 1998 2000

Cents/kWh

12 10

Year

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

Source:NuclearEnergyInstitute,Washington,D.C. http://www.nei.org/resourcesandstats/documentlibrary/reliableandaffordableenergy/graphicsandcharts/uselectricityproductionc 22 ostsandcomponents/

InvestmentCostsfor1,000MWe
C l Coal Clean coal Nuclear Wind farm Natural gas
0 1 2 3 4

NuclearPower Plantsare costlytobuild

Billion US $
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LevelizedGeneratingCostsofNewElectricity G Generating i C Capacities ii

Coal

Clean coal

Nuclear

butOperationalCosts arerelativelylowdueto lowfuel(uranium)costs

Wind farm

N t Natural l gas
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

US cents / kWh
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FuelasaPercentageofElectricPower P d ti Costs Production C t

4% 7%
Conversion C i Fabrication WasteFund

Fuel 26% Fuel 78%

11% 26%

Enrichment

Fuel 94% O&M 74%

52%
Uranium

O&M 22% Coal

6% Gas Nuclear Nuclear Fuel Cost Components

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Source: Global Energy Decisions/Energy Administration

PowerPlantLandUseRequiredinkm2/MWe
Source:J.Davidson(2000) Coal 0.01/0.04 Nuclear 0 001/0 01 0.001/0.01

1000MWePOWER PLANTSRUNNINGAT 100%CAPACITY (8766GWh/year)

Biomass 52 5.2

PV 0.12

Wind 0.79 Solar Thermal 0 08 0.08 Hydro 0.07-0.37

Geothermal 0.003

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NuclearEnergyWorldwide

Source:InternationalNuclear SafetyCenter,Argonne NationalLaboratory http://www.insc.anl.gov/pwrm aps/map/world_map.php

ReactorTypesin useWorldwide, January2004

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NuclearEnergyWorldwide

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/

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Nuclear Physics & The Basics of Nuclear Reactors

UnitsusedforNuclearEnergyCalculations
electronvolt:eV Theenergyanelectronacquireswhenitmovesthrough anelectricpotentialdifferenceofonevolt: 1eV V = 1 1.602 602x1019J NuclearBindingEnergiesarecommonlyexpressedinunits ofmegaelectronvolts(MeV) 1MeV=106 eV=1.602x10 13J Aparticularlyusefulfactorconvertsagivenmassdifference inatomicmassunitstoitsenergyequivalentinelectron volts: 1u=931.5x106 eV=931.5MeV

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PERIODICTABLE
SHOWINGCHEMICALELEMENTSBYATOMICNUMBERANDCHEMICALSYMBOL
1(IA) 1 2 H (IIA) 3 4 Li Be 11 12 3 4 Na Mg (IIIA) (IVA) 19 20 21 22 K Ca Sc Ti 37 38 39 40 Rb Sr Y Zr 55 56 57 72 Cs Ba La Hf 87 88 89 104 Fr Ra Ac Lanthanides (RareEarths) Actinides GROUPNUMBER (Alternativedesignationinparentheses) 18(VIII) 16 17 2 (VIB) (VIIB) He 8 9 10 O F Ne 16 17 18 S Cl Ar 34 35 36 Se Br Kr 52 53 54 Te I Xe 84 85 86 Po At Rn 13 (IIIB) 5 B 13 Al 31 Ga 49 In 81 Tl 14 15 (IVB) (VB) 6 7 C N 14 15 Si P 32 33 Ge As 50 51 Sn Sb 82 83 Pb Bi

5 (VA) 23 V 41 Nb 73 Ta 105

6 7 (VIA) (VIIA) 24 25 Cr Mn 42 43 Mo Tc 74 75 W Re 106

8 9 10 ( VIIIA) 26 27 28 Fe Co Ni 44 45 46 Ru Rh Pd 76 77 78 Os Ir Pt

11 12 (IB) (IIB) 29 30 Cu Zn 47 48 Ag Cd 79 80 Au Hg

El Elements t with ithNo N St Stable bl I Isotopes t Radioactive R di ti

61 Pm 93 Np 62 Sm 94 Pu 63 Eu 95 Am 64 Gd 96 Cm 65 Tb 97 Bk 66 Dy 98 Cf 67 Ho 99 Es 68 69 70 Er Tm Yb 100 101 102 Fm Md No 71 Lu 103 Lr

58 Ce 90 Th

59 Pr 91 Pa

60 Nd 92 U

FissileNuclides:233U, U 235U, U 239Pu Fuels for Nuclear Reactors Elements in vertical columns havemoreorlesssimilarchemistry FertileNuclides:232Th,238U
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Elements,Isotopes,etc.
Atomic nuclei are made up of protons and neutrons The number of protons ( (= atomic number Z) determines Chemical Element: H, He, Li, Be, B, C,, U Neutrons p provide the remaining g nuclear mass, , but may y vary y in number N Nuclei with same Z but different N of are called isotopes: e.g. 12C, 13C, 14C
isotopesofcarbon

M Mass number b A (= ( sum of f protons & neutrons = Z + N) e.g. Uranium235 (Z=92, N=143) , Uranium238 (Z=92, N=146)

Isotopes have identical chemistry (except for the usually negligible effects of mass), but they have different nuclear properties Not all nuclear combinations are stable many decay spontaneously and are radioactive Specific combinations of protons and neutrons are generically called nuclides, and if unstable radionuclides 32

Howtowriteanelementssymbolforagivenisotope
A Z

Example
232 90

Th

Note:N=AZ Definition:AtomicMassUnit( (u) ) =12th ofthemassofone12Catom 1u=1.66054 1027 kg(soverysmall!) Energyequivalentof1uis931.5MeV

33

 Theprotonandneutronnumbersforthemostcommonisotopesof severalelements Thenucleusgetslargerasthenumberofprotonsandneutronsincreases

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SegrChartoftheNuclides
deuteron

proton

neutron Interactiveonlineversion: http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/

35

atomic masses

Proton Mass Neutron Mass Mass Sum Deuteron Mass Missing Mass (Mp + Mn Md)

= = = =

1.007825 u 1.008665 u 2.016490 u 2.014102 u

0 002388 u 0.002388

What happened to the mass?

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Answer: It represents the Nuclear Binding Energy according to Einsteins mass-energy relation

E=mc2
For the deuteron example, example this is is BE = 0.002388 u x 931.5 MeV/u = 2.22 MeV (the binding energy of the deuteron) o To break the deuteron apart p we must p put this energy gy in o If we form a deuteron from a free proton and a free neutron then we get this energy out (here free means unbound)
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Butitsoftenmoreconvenienttothinkintermsof

bindingenergypernucleon
ForDeuteron:BE/A=2.22MeV/2 2 22MeV/2=1.11 1 11MeV/nucleon

Energyfrom FISSION Energy from FUSION

Forboth b hFusion and dFission there h isanincreasein BindingEnergypernucleonEnergyisreleased AtomicMass(A)

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Note: 1) Nucleon number is conserved (i (i.e. e the number of nucleons remains the same in all nuclear reactions and radioactive processes) 2) Energy is E i released l df from a Nuclear N l R Reaction ti (e.g. ( f i fusion, fi i fission, radioactive decay, etc.) only when it results in: o an increase in total binding energy o a decrease in total mass (these two things are actually identical, because of E=mc2)

Overview: EnergyfromFission Chainreactionandthermalneutronreactors ControlofReactors UraniumandtheOpenFuelCycle TypesofFissionReactors NuclearSafety

39

EnergyfromNuclearFission
E.g. E g Suppose one 238U nucleus (Z=92) splits into two 119Pd nuclei (Z=46) spontaneous fission and apply conservation of mass-energy

) Q = [M ( U ) 2 M (
M
238 238

U = 238.050785 u , M
119

Pd 931.5 MeV/u
119Pd

)]

119

Pd = 118.922705 u
splits

238U

Q = 191 MeV
Q is positive when energy is released (and mass )

119Pd

On the atomic scale, 191 MeV is an enormous amount of energy its about 50 million times the energy involved in the formation of a CO2 molecule l l f from one carbon b atom t (C) and d an oxygen molecule l l (O2)

fission fragments

In Fission this energy mostly goes to the KE of the Fission Fragments (the two 119Pd nuclei in the above case) case). The fission fragments slow down and stop over a very short distance (in any material, e.g. fuel rod) and KE is converted to HEAT.

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SpontaneousFission:aRadioactiveProcess
happensallbyitself witha(verylong)halflife accordingtotheradioactive decaylaw ofnoimportanceforreactors

NeutronInducedFission
induced byabsorptionofaneutron happenstheinstanttheneutronisabsorbed 2or3neutrons t arealso l emitted itt d thereforepossibilityofachainreaction vitallyimportantprocessfornuclearreactors
41

NeutronInducedFission& F l for Fuels f Reactors R t

Thereare3mainnuclideswithsufficientlylonghalflivesandlarge enoughfissioncrosssectionsthatthattheyreadilyundergo neutron inducedfission,andareusefulforfissionreactors Ofthese,onlyoneexistsnaturallyonEarth:Uranium235 Butonly0.72% ofnaturalUraniumatomsare235U atoms,nearly alltherest(99.28%) (99 28%)are238U atoms Anucleuswhichundergoesfissionwhenabsorbinganeutronof any y energy gy(f fast orslow)issaidtobeFissile Thethreefissile nuclidesare:
233U 235U 239Pu

T1/2 1 59x105 years / =1.59 T1/2 =7.04x108years

(artificial) (natural)

fissionprobability probability =f =531barns fissionprobability=f =585barns fissionprobability probability =f =750barns

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T1/2 =2.44 2 44x105 years (artificial)

3OptionsforInducedFission
238Uand232Tharesaid

fissile

ThefissionofU235 wasdiscoveredby yOtto HahnandLise Meitner in1938. fissile

Uranium 235 Uranium-235 (0.7% of all U)

tobefertile nuclides neutronabsorptionby thesenucleileadsto fissile nuclei: 238U 239Pu u 232Th233U

fertile

Uranium-238 (99.3% of all U)

Plutonium-239

Pu239asafissilefuel wasdiscoveredby GlennSeaborgin March1941 1941.

f til fertile

fissile

Thorium-232 (100% of all Th)

Uranium-233

U233asafissilefuel wasdiscoveredby Seaborgs Seaborg sstudentJohn Gofman inFebruary 1942.

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Aslowmovingneutroninducesfissionin Uranium235
fission fragment

fission fragment

235 92

U + n Ba + Kr +3 n
1 0 141 56 92 36 1 0

oneofmanypossiblesplits
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EnergyreleasedinthisFissionReaction
U + n Ba + Kr +3 n M(235U)=235.043929u Min =236.052594u )=91.926156u M(92Kr) Mout 235 866562u t =235.866562 M(141Ba)=140.914411u M =+0.186032u Mn =1.008665 1 008665u Q =+173MeV
235 92 1 0 141 56 92 36 1 0

MostlyQKEofFissionFragments HEAT Manyotherinducedfissionreactionsoccur,e.g.

235 92 235 92 1 95 1 U+0 n 139 Te + Zr + 2 52 40 0n

U + n Sn + Mo +3 n
1 0 131 50 102 42 1 0

Note: i. Numberofemittedneutronsvaries! Averageof2.5for235U ii. Energyreleased(Q)alsovariesabit betweenreactions(i.e.different fissionfragmentscomingout) 45

Using g200MeV(equiv. ( q M=0.215u) )asaverage g ( (sumof) )energies g releasedin fission,thenfraction of235UmassconvertedtoenergyforthisreactionisM /M(235U)=0.215/235=9.1x104 Soalmost1/1000th ofmassenergy

Ifwedothiswith1kgofpure235U,theenergyreleasedis: E =9.1x104 x1kgx(3.0x108 m/s)2 =8.2x1013 J =2.3x107 kWh(thermalenergy) Morerealistically,ifwestartwith1kgof5%enrichedU(5%235U,95%238U)then E =4.1x1012 J=1.1x106 kWh(thermalenergy gy) Equivalenttoburningabout195tonsofcoal.

46

Uranium U i is i very energydense bycomparison withotherfuels

47

Discoveryofnuclearfission Heavynucleussplitsunder neutronbombardment PossibilityfirstsuggestedbyIdaNoddackin1934 OttoHahn&FritzStrassmanexperimentsinBerlin(1938)observed bariumafterbombardinguraniumwithfast neutrons. neutrons Published resultsinNaturwissenschaften,Jan1939.
LiseMeitner

OttoHahn communicatedresultssecretly ytohiscolleague, g Lise Meitner,whohadfledNaziGermanyearlierthesameyear. Meitner&nephewOttoFrischexplaineditasnuclearfission!

PublishedinBritishj journal, ,Nature, , inFeb1939. Hahnwasawardthe1944NobelPrizefor Ch i t for Chemistry f original i i ldiscovery di However,itwasLise Meitnerwhofirstrealized thepossibilityofachainreaction outgoing neutronsfromonefissionreactionproducing one(ormore)otherfissionreactions
48

fastneutron

AnUncontrolled NeutronChain Reaction!

A chain reaction is one in which the products of an initial step initiate further reactions Here, the three neutrons emitted by the fission reaction (far left) strike other U-235 nuclei, and induce fission in them ... Producing more neutrons, which can go on to strike more U-235 U 235 nuclei...

49

SlowNeutronsforInducedNuclearFissioninReactors
TheFastNeutrons(KE~1MeV)emittedfromthe fissionreactioncannotsustainachainreaction. TheprobabilityoffissionismuchlargerforSlow Neutronsandafissionchainreactioncanoccur. Togetaselfsustainingchainreactionthefast neutronshavetobesloweddowntothermal energies(KE~1/10th eV).Thisisdoneby arrangingforthemtomakemanycollisionswith l massnuclei low l i(such ( hashydrogen, h d deuterium, d t i or carbon). Thematerialwithlotsoflowlowmassnucleiis calledthemoderator.Lightwater,heavywater andgraphite arealleffectivemoderators. Usuallythemoderatorisphysicallyseparated fromthefuelseenext4slides fast neutron

slowneutron

fastneutron

50

RoleofNeutronModerationintheChainReaction

238U

235U

Neutron

51

RoleofNeutronModerationintheChainReaction

3 outgoing fast neutrons emitted

52

RoleofNeutronModerationintheChainReaction

53

RoleofNeutronModerationintheChainReaction

slowneutron(duetolossofKE overmanyelasticcollisions)
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AControlledChainReaction
Clearly,aneverexpandingchainreactioncannotbesustained. Forcontrollednuclearpower,oncewereachourdesiredpower l lwewanteach level hneutroni induced d dfission fi i toproduce d exactly l onesubsequentneutroninducedfission(criticality:f=1.00) thenthechainreactionislinear&thep population p ofneutronsis constantandthereactorpowerlevelisconstant

55

PiecingTogetheraNuclearReactor
1. 2 2. 3. 4. 5 5. 6. 7 7. 8. Fuel M d Moderator ControlRods Coolant SteamGenerator Turbine/Generator P Pumps HeatExchanger
56

BasicReactorModel
4. Coolant 6. 3. Contr 3 rol rod 5.Steamgene erator
HeatExchang ger

Electricity generatedby turbine+ generator

1.Fuel

Fuel

8.

Waterin tertiary coolant circuit (open) Waterin secondary d coolantcircuit (closed)

7 7.

Primarycoolant circuit(closed)

57

ControlRods
Controlrodsaremadeof materialsthatreadilyabsorbslow neutrons(i.e.elementswithlarge neutroncapturecrosssections ( Cadmium (e.g. C d i orHafnium) H f i ) Thecontrolrodsaremovedin andoutofreactorcoretocontrol thenumberofneutrons Bycontrollingthenumberof neutrons,wecancontroltherate offission(andthereforetherate ofHeatProduction)
LowReactivity HighReactivity

58

ReactorCore

Coolantin(closed)primarycircuitcan belightwater,heavywater,helium gas,CO2 gas,liquidNametal,lead bismuthliquid q metal, ,etc.Formost operatingreactorsitslightwater.

OutgoingHighTemperatureWater

Controlrodsof neutronabsorbing substance Uraniuminfuel cylinders

Herelightwaterfunctionsas b th: both Coolant,and Moderator

I Incoming i L LowTemperature T t Water W t

59

NuclearPowerPlant: PressurizedWaterReactor(PWR)
SecondaryCoolant Circuit(closed)

TertiaryCoolant Circuit(open) PrimaryCoolant Circuit(closed)

60

Componentscommontomosttypesofreactors:
Fuel:Usuallyintheformofuraniumoxide(UO2):aceramicmaterialwithahigh meltingpoint(2 (2,800 800C). C) Inmanyreactordesigns, designs theUO2 fuelpelletsarearrangedin longzirconiumalloy(zircaloy)tubestoformfuelrods.Zircaloy isusedbecauseitis hard,corrosionresistantandpermeabletoneutrons. Moderator:Thismaterialslowsdowntheneutronsreleasedfromfissionreactions. Shouldprimarilybecomposedoflowmassatoms,sothatfastneutronsgiveupa g amountofKEinelasticcollisionswithlowmassnuclei.By yfarthemost significant commonmoderatormaterialsarelightwater,heavywaterorgraphite(carbon). ControlRods:Thesearemadewithneutronabsorbingmaterialsuchascadmium, boron,gadoliniumorhafnium.Thecontrolrodsaregraduallyinsertedorwithdrawn fromthecoretocontroltherateofthechainreaction.Thecontrolrodsarefully insertedtoshutdownthereactor bringingthechainreactiontoanabrupthalt. Coolant:Aliquidorgascirculatingthroughthecore,removingheatfromthecore, andtransportingittothepowergenerationplant.Insomereactordesigns,either l h waterorheavy light h water,functions f both b hasthe h moderator d and dthe h coolant. l
61

ReactorPressureVessel (RPV):Arobuststeelvesselenclosingthereactorcore, withinletsandoutletsforthecoolant.Usuallythecontrolrodsalsopassthrough theRPV. ReactorCore:Thevolumeinsidethepressurevesselwithanarrangementoffuel elementssurroundedbymoderator,flowingcoolant,andcontrolrods. SteamGenerator:Partofthecoolingsystemwheretheheatfromthereactoris usedtomakesteamfortheturbine.ThisunitisnotpresentinBWRorHTGR reactors(seelater) later). Containment:Thestructurearoundthereactorcorewhichisdesignedtoprotectit fromoutsideintrusion intrusion,andtoprotectthoseoutsidefromtheeffectsofradiationin caseofanymajormalfunctioninside.Itistypicallyameterthickconcreteandsteel structure.Itcontainsthereactorcore,coolantcirculationpumps,andheat exchanger/steamgenerator.

62

Schematicofa PressurizedWaterReactor(PWR)

http://www.nrc.gov/

63

Schematicofa BoilingWaterReactor(BWR)

http://www.nrc.gov/

64

AREVA EPR(EuropeanPressurizedWater Reactor)

4500 MWt(thermal) 1650MWe(electricity) 60 yrServiceLife 3 4yrC Construction i MultipleBarriersand Si l S Simple Safety f Systems S

http://www.youtube.com/user/arevaresources?blend=8&ob=5#p/a/f/2/K6kuN9njqIY
65

U Uranium i
(and the Front Front-End of the Fuel Cycle)

BasicsofUranium
Discoveredin1789byMartinKlaproth,aGermanchemist,in themineralcalledpitchblende Itoccursinmostrocksinconcentrationsof2to4partsper million(ppm) AboutascommonintheEarth'scrustastin,tantalumor germanium.Italsooccursinseawater. Highdensity:19.1g/cm3

67

UraniumOretoYellowcake
o EachtonofUraniumore produces1to2 2.5 5kgof Uraniumcompounds o Uraniumoreisprocessednear theminetoproduceyellow cake, ,whichisp predominantly y U3O8. y0.72%ofnaturaluranium o Only (asmined)intheyellowcake isfissile U235. o About99.28%isU238which isnotfissile.But,aswellsee later,theU238 isfertile.
68

UraniumProduction

69

UraniumResources

70

SustainabilityofUraniumResources

71

FromStart toFinish Uranium

Open ( oncethrough) (or h h) FuelCycle

FrontEnd

BackEnd
72

Conversion
Toenrichuraniumitmustbein gaseousformasUF6.Thisstepiscalled conversion.Firsttheyellowcakeis convertedtouraniumdioxideUO2 throughaprocessofreactingitwith hydrogen.Thenanhydroushydrofluoric acidisusedtomakeUF4.NexttheUF4 ismixedwithfluorinegastomake uraniumhexafluoride.Thisliquidis y storedinsteeldrumsandcrystallizes.

73

Enrichment
Tobeusedasfuelinmostpowerreactors(forelectricity generation), g ),uraniummustbeenrichedto35%U235 YellowcakeisconvertedintoUF6 andthiscompoundis enrichedusinggaseousdiffusionorcentrifuges Centrifugesarethemoremodernandefficienttechnology Therearesomereactordesignsthatrunonnatural(un enriched)uranium HighlyEnrichedUranium(HEU) upto~90% 90%U235, 235 isusedfor weaponsandnavalreactors Depleted p Uranium( (DU) )with ~0.25%U235inproducedasa byproductoftheenrichment process

Pellets, ,Rods&Assemblies
o UO2 isahighmeltingpointceramic o Fuelpelletsareinsertedintolongzircalloy tubestoformfuelrods o Zircalloy ircalloyispermeabletoneutrons andverycorrosionresistant o Thefuelrodsarecollectedinto b dl ( bundles (~200rods d perb bundle) dl ) calledfuelassemblies o Typicallytherecouldbe~175 175 bundlesinthereactorcore o Ittakesapproximately pp y25tonsof fueltopowerone1000MWe reactorforayear
8mm 15mm

Afuelassemblythatwillproduceenergy equivalenttoburning72,000tonsofcoal
75

Fromap previouslectureonCOAL

Sothefuelassemblyonthepreviousslide isequivalenttoa9milelongcoaltrain!
76

TourofaBoilingWaterReactor(BWR)

http://www.energy northwest.com/generation/cgs/index.php
77

Spent Nuclear Fuel

(and the Back Back-End of the Fuel Cycle)

SpentNuclearFuel
Most is U and Pu, which can be recycled and burned Most heat produced by fission products decays in 100 yr
1 metric tonne of SNF* SNF contains: 955.4 kg U 8.5 kg Pu (5.1 kg 239Pu) Minor actinides (MAs): 0.5 kg 237Np 0 6 kg Am 0.6 0.02 kg Cm Long-lived fission products (LLFPs): 0.2 kg 129I 0.8 kg g 99Tc 0.7 kg 93Zr 0.3 kg 135Cs Short-lived fission products (SLFPs): 1.0 kg 137Cs 07k 0.7 kg 90Sr S
*33,000 MWD/MT, 10 yr cooling

Most radiotoxicity is in the actinides (TRU) could be transmuted and/or disposed in much smaller packages
Shortlived FissionProd.0.2%

Iodine&Tc0.1% LongerLivedFission Products0.1% Plutonium0.9% MinorActinides0.1%

Uranium95.5%

Other

StableFissionProducts3.1%

79

AtReactorStorageofSpentFuel
Wetstorage
Thegreatmajorityofspentnuclearfuelisinitially storedasspentfuelassembliesinwaterfilledpools onpowerplantsites Thepoolsprovideradiationshieldingandcooling

DryStorage

http://infocusmagazine.org/5.2/eng_nuclear_plants.html

SpentFuelisusuallyplacedindrycaskstorageafter5yearsinwet storage(NRCregulationrequiresatleast1yearinwetstorage) Drycaskstorageusesconcreteorsteel containersasaradiationshieldandiscooled b inert by i tgasorair i Thecasksarebuilttowithstandtheelements andaccidentsanddonotrequire q electricity, y, water,maintenance,orconstantsupervision
80
U.S.DOE

SpentFuelCoolingPool

81
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html

TransportCaskfor SpentNuclearFuel

82

DryCaskStorage

83
http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/nuclear_waste_storage/nuclear_waste_storage.html

HandlingNuclearWaste
WasteReprocessing Reconditionforfurtheruseasfuel WasteDisposal Temporary T storage Permanentdisposal(geologicalrepository)

WasteDisposalFunding
Fundedbypowercustomers perkWh 0.1centp About$18billioncollectedtodate About$6billionhasbeenspent YuccaMountain,elsewhere

84

Howdifferenttootherwastes?
Radioactive( (asmallp proportion p ishighly g y radioactive) ) Selfheatingduetoradioactivity q Shielding g Requires Containedandmanaged,notdispersedtoenvironment Radioactivitydecaysovertime! To ensure that no significant environmental releases occur over a period of about ten thousands of years, years a multiple barrier concept is used to immobilize the radioactive elements e e e ts in high g level e e wastes astes a and d isolate so ate t them e from o t the e biosphere. It involves stabilizing, containment and finally, remote disposal.
85

Amount(volume)ofRadioactiveWastes
(froma1000MWereactorfor1yearofoperation)
200
200

m3
100

Spent Nuclear Fuel

70

10

0
Source:OECDNEA1996

2.5

High Level

Intermediate Level

Low Level

86

Wastesproducedduring FuelPreparationand/orPlantOperation
Milliontonnes perGWyr
0.5
Fluegas des sulphurizatio on

0.4

0.3

Gass sweetening waste

Ra adioactive waste(HLW)

0.2

Fluegas s desulphuriza d ation

0.1

Ash

0 Coal Oil

Natural gas

Ash

Wood

Nuclear

Solar PV
Source:IAEA,1997 87

To oxic waste

Ash A

Spentfueltransport

Spentfuelreprocessing Vitrification

Basis:33000MWd/t Source:Cogema

88

PlannedGeological g Repository p yfor SpentFuelinFinland

SpentFuelisplacedinCastIronInsert thenincoppercanister canisterisembeddedinBentoniteclay thenburiedinGraniterock500metersunderground

89

90

YuccaMountainProject:NuclearFueland HighLevelWasteRepository
Muchmoresecurerepositorythanleavinghighlevelwasteat60 reactorsitesaroundtheUSA Onoldatomicbombtestingbase,insideamountain Thestorageisabovethewatertable TheYuccaMountainsitewouldbe60%filledbypresentwaste USgovernmenthaslegalcommitmenttothereactorindustry Sitehasbeenstudiedextensivelybyscientistsforover20years. Willstorewasteduringits10,000yeardecaytime.
91

YuccaMountain,Nevada,USA

92

CrossSectionof YuccaMountain DeepGeological R Repository it

93

InteriorofYuccaMountain

94
http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/nuclear_waste_storage/nuclear_waste_storage.html

StorageofHighLevelWastesatYuccaMountain

95

WasteIsolationPilotPlant(WIPP)
Theworld'sfirstfully licenseddeepgeologic repositoryfornuclear waste,ownedand operated p by ytheUS government. Usedasaresearch facility Storageat2,150feet underground Source: http://www.wipp.ws/i ndex htm ndex.htm

96 http://www.wipp.energy.gov/general/general_information.htm

WasteIsolationPilotPlant(WIPP),NewMexico,USA

97

WIPP Wasteisplacedinrooms655m undergroundthathavebeen excavatedwithina1000mthick saltformationwhichhasbeen geologicallystableformorethan 250millionyears.

Thesurroundingsaltgradually flows flows inwardsfillinggapsand spaces sothatthewaste canistersbecomecompletely surroundedby, by andembedded within,thesaltformation.

98

SpentFuelCanBeTransported SafelyandSecurely
Spentfuelassembliesconsistofinertceramicpelletsinside corrosionresistantzirconiumalloytubes Shipmentoccursinmassivesteeltransportcanistersweighing manytens t of ft tons ThousandsofshipmentsintheU.S.,andtensofthousandsin Europe(wheremostspentfuelisreprocessed)haveoccurred withoutharmtoasinglememberofthepublic Spentfueltransportaddsverysmallsafetyandsecurityrisks comparedtotheroutinetransportofmuchlargerquantities (liquefied q naturalg gas, ,liquid q chlorine, , ofhazardouschemicals( sulfuricacid,etc.)

99

TransportationContainerDurability
A120tonlocomotive, travellingat80milesper hour,crashedbroadside intoacontainerona flatbed Theimpactdemolishedthe train,buthardlydentedthe container

Average A Annual l Radiation Dosein Canada

101