EOR Screening

Learning Objectives
Describe the main methods which can be used
to improve reservoir recovery efficiency.
For each method, state whether it can improve
displacement, vertical or areal sweep efficiency
and explain how it works.
Describe screening criteria for enhanced oil
recovery methods.
Use a systematic decision analysis approach for
selecting an alternative to improve reservoir
recovery efficiency.
1. The goal of any enhanced oil recovery process is to
mobilize "remaining" oil. This is achieved by enhancing oil
displacement and volumetric sweep efficiencies.
Oil displacement efficiency is improved by reducing oil
viscosity (e.g., thermal floods) or by reducing capillary
forces or interfacial tension (e.g., miscible floods).
Volumetric sweep efficiency is improved by developing
a more favorable mobility ratio between the injectant
and the remaining oil-in-place (e.g., polymer floods,
water-alternating-gas processes).
2. It is important to identify remaining oil and the mechanisms
that are necessary to improve recovery prior to
implementing an EOR process.
Goal of EOR Techniques
Fig.1-2. EOR methods
EOR Methods
CLASSIFICATION OF ENHANCED RECOVERY BY THE
MACN MECHANISM OF OIL DISPLACEMENT

Solvent Extraction or Miscible-Type Processes
Hydrocarbon Miscible Methods
Carbon Dioxide Flooding
Nitrogen and Flue Gas
Alcohol Flooding or other Liqufied Solvent Flooding
Solvent Extraction of Mined, Oil-Bearing Ore
Interfacial Tension Reduction Processes
Surfactant Flooding
Surfactant/Polymer (Micellar) Flooding (sometime including miscible-type
flooding above)
Alkaline Flooding
Viscosity reduction (of oil) or viscosity increase (of driving fluid)
Steam Flooding
Fire Flooding
Polymer Flooding

Chemical EOR Methods
Polymer Flooding
Description
Polymer augmented waterflooding consists of adding water
soluble polymers to the water before it is injected into the
reservoir.

Mechanisms That Improve Recovery Efficiency:
Increasing the viscosity of water.
Decreasing the mobility of water.
Contacting a larger volume of the reservoir.


Polymer Flooding
Limitations:
High oil viscosities require a higher polymer concentration.
Results are normally better if the polymer flood is started before the
water-oil ratio becomes excessively high.
Clays increase polymer adsorption.
Some heterogeneity is acceptable, but avoid extensive fractures. If
fractures are present, the crosslinked or gelled polymer techniques
may be applicable.
Challenges:
Lower injectivity than with water can adversely affect oil production
rates in early stages of polymer flood
Acrylamide-type polymers loose viscosity due to sheer degradation,
or it increases in salinity & divalent ions
Xanthan gum polymers cost more, are subject to microbial
degradation, & have greater potential for wellbore plugging
Polymer Flooding Screening parameters
Description
Surfactant / polymer flooding consists of injecting a slug that
contains water, surfactant, electrolyte (salt), usually a co-solvent
(alcohol), and possibly a hydrocarbon (oil), followed by polymer-
thickened water.

Mechanisms That Improve Recovery Efficiency
Lowering the Interfacial tension between oil and water.
Solubilization of oil.
Emulsification of oil and water.
Mobility enhancement.

Surfactant/Polymer Flooding
Surfactant/Polymer Flooding
Challenges
Complex and expensive system.
Possibility of chromatographic separation of chemicals.
High adsorption of surfactant.
Interactions between surfactant and polymer.
Degradation of chemicals at high temperature.

Limitations:
An areal sweep of more than 5O% for waterflood is desired.
Relatively homogeneous formation is preferred.
High amounts of anhydrite, gypsum, or clays are undesirable.
Available systems provide optimum behavior within a narrow set
of conditions.
With commercially available surfactants, formation water chlorides
should be < 20,000 ppm and divalent ions (Ca++ and Mg++) < 500
ppm.

Surfactant/Polymer Flooding
Screening parameters
Alkaline Flooding
Description
Best result are obtained if the alkaline material reacts with the crude oil; the oil
should have an acid number of more that 0.2 mg KOH/g of oil.
The interfacial tension between the alkaline solution and the crude oil should be
less than 0.001 dyne/cm.
At high temperatures and in some chemicals environments, excessive amounts
of alkaline chemicals may be consumed by reaction with clays, mineral or silica
in the sandstone reservoir
Carbonates are ussualy avoided because they often contain anhydrite or
gypsum, which interact adversely with the caustic chemical.
Mechanisms That Improve Recovery Efficiency
A reduction of interfacial tension resulting from produced surfactants.
Changing wettability from oil-wet to water-wet.
Changing wettability from water wet to oil-wet.
Emulsification and entrainment of oil.
Emulsification and entrapment of oil to aid mobility control.
Solubilization of rigid oil films at oil-water interfaces


Alkaline Flooding
Limitations
Alkaline or caustic flooding involves the injection of
chemical such as sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate,
or sodium carbonate. These chemicals react with
organic petroleum acids in certain crudes to create
surfactants in situ and also react with reservoir rock to
change wettability.
Challenges
Scaling and plugging in the producing wells.
High caustic consumption.

Alkaline Flooding Screening parameters
Gas Floodings
Miscible Gas Flooding (CO2 Injection)
Miscible Gas Flooding (CO
2
Injection)
Description
CO
2
flooding consists of injecting large quantities of
CO
2
(15% or more hydrocarbon pore volumes) in the
reservoir to form a miscible flood.
EOR Mechanisms
CO
2
extracts the light-to-intermediate components from
the oil, and, if the pressure is high enough, develops
miscibility to displace oil from the reservoir (vaporizing
gas drive).
Viscosity reduction / oil swelling.
Miscible Gas Flooding (CO
2
Injection)
Limitations
Very low Viscosity of CO
2
results in poor mobility
control.
Availability of CO
2
Challenges
Early breakthrough of CO
2
causes problems.
Corrosion in producing wells.
The necessity of separating CO
2
from saleable
hydrocarbons. Repressuring of CO2 for recycling.
A large requirement of CO
2
per incremental barrel
produced.
Miscible Gas Flooding (CO
2
Injection)
Screening Parameters
Gravity > 27 API
Viscosity <10 cp
Composition C5 C20 (C5 C12)
Oil saturation >30% PV
Formation type sandstone/carbonate
Net thickness relatively thin
Average permeability not critical
Transmissibility not critical
Depth > 2,300 feet
HYDROCARBON MISCIBLE FLOODING
HYDROCARBON MISCIBLE FLOODING
Limitations
Minimum depth is set by the pressure needed to
maintain the generated miscibility. The
required pressure ranges from about 1,200 psi for the
LPG process to 3,000-5,000 psi for the High Pressure
Gas Drive, depending on the oil.
Challenges
Viscous fingering results in poor vertical and
horizontal sweep efficiency.
Large quantities of expensive products are required.
Solvent may be trapped and not recovered.

HYDROCARBON MISCIBLE FLOODING
Screening Parameters
Gravity >27 API
Viscosity <10 cp
Composition C2 C7
Oil saturation >30% PV
Formation type sandstone/carbonate
Net thickness relatively thin
Average permeability not critical
Transmissibility not critical
Depth >2,000 feet (LPG)
>5,000 feet (lean gas)
Temperature <250 F
NITROGEN ANO FLUE GAS FLOODING
Description
Nitrogen or flue gas injection consists of injecting large quantities of
gas that may be miscible or immiscible depending on the pressure
and oil composition.
Large volumes may be injected, because of the low cost.
Nitrogen or flue gas are also considered for use as chase gases in
hydrocarbonmiscibl and CO2 floods.
Mechanisms that Improve Recovery Efficiency
Vaporizes the lighter components of the crude oil and generates
miscibility if the pressure is high enough.
Provides a gas drive where a significant portion of the reservoir
volume is filled with lowcos gases.
NITROGEN ANO FLUE GAS FLOODING
Limitations
Miscibility can only be achieved with light oils at high pressures;
therefore, deep
reservoirs are needed.
A steeply dipping reservoir is desired to permit gravity
stabilization of the displacement,
which has a very unfavorable mobility ratio.
Challenges
Viscous fingering results in poor vertical and horizontal sweep
efficiency.
Flue gas injection can cause corrosion.
Nonhydrocarbon gases must be separated from saleable gas.
NITROGEN ANO FLUE GAS FLOODING
Screening Parameters
Gravity >24 API (35 for nitrogen)
Viscosity <10 cp
Composition C1 C7
Oil saturation >30% PV
Formation type sandstone/carbonate
Net thickness relatively thin (not critical for pressure
maintenance)
Average permeability not critical
Transmissibility not critical
Depth >4,500 feet
Temperature not critical
Thermal (Steamflooding)
Description
Steamflooding consists of injecting 80% quality
steam to displace oil.
Normal practice is to precede and accompany the
steam drive by a cyclic steam stimulation of the
producing wells (called huff and puff).
EOR Mechanisms
Viscosity reduction / steam distillation.
Supplies pressure to drive oil to the producing well.
Thermal (Steamflooding)
Limitations
Applicable to viscous oils in massive, high permeability sandstones or
unconsolidated sands.
Oil saturations must be high, and pay zones should be > 20 feet thick to
minimize heat losses to adjacent formations.
Less viscous crude oils can be steamflooded if they don't respond to
water.
Steamflooded reservoirs should be as shallow as possible, because of
excessive
wellbore heat losses.
Steamflooding is not normally done in carbonate reservoirs.
Since about 1/3 of the additional oil recovered is consumed to generate
the required
steam, the cost per incremental barrel of oil is high.
A low percentage of water-sensitive clays is desired for good injectivity.
Challenges
Adverse mobility ratio and channeling of steam.

Thermal (Steamflooding)
Screening Parameters
Gravity <35 API (10-35 API)
Viscosity >20 cp (10-5,000 cp)
Composition not critical
Oil saturation >500 bbl/acre-ft (>40-50% PV)
Formation type sandstone
Net thickness >20 feet
Average permeability >200 md
Transmissibility >100 md ft / cp
Depth >200-5,000 feet
Temperature not critical
Cost of EOR
Cost of Chemicals
As the oil prices rise, so does the cost of chemicals,
but not in the same proportion
Typical Costs:
Polymer - $3/lb
Surfactant - $1.20/lb
Caustic - $0.60/lb
Isopropanol - $20/gallon
Micellar slug - $25/bbl
EOR Recovery Processes
Typical
EOR Recovery Processes
Estimated Cost of a Barrel of EOR Injectant
Taber, 1990
EOR Screening Criteria
EOR Screening
Chemical Floods Worldwide
Incremental Oil
Recovery Evaluation
Incremental Oil Recovery (IOR)
Oil (HC) produced in excess of
existing (conventional) operations
Difficulties.
Comingled production
Oil from outside project
Inaccurate decline estimates
IOR recovery efficiency =


100
IOR
OOIP
Decline Curve Analysis


a =
1
q
dq
dt
[=]time
1
Decline rate:


N
p
= q()d
=0
=t
}
Cumulative
oil produced:
Decline Curve Analysis
Decline rate:
Decline rate
types:


a = a
i
q
q
i
|
\

|
.
|
b


b =
0 Exponential
0 < b < 1 Hyperbolic
1 Harmonic





Decline Curve Analysis
Exponential decline:
Rate-time


q = q
i
e
at


q = q
i
aN
p
Rate-cumulative
Rate-Time...
Rate-Cumulative...
Accelerated Production...
Increased Mobile Oil...
Deaccelerated Production...
Accelerated Production...
IOR Example