Learning Theories Glossary

Acquisition (Behaviorism, Skinner) - Linking a new behavior to a stimulus by providing reinforcement after the correct behavior is produced.
Algorithmic processes - consist of a series of elementary operations that are performed in a regular, uniform manner and are designed to solve a particular class of problems. These sequences are ideally performed in the same way every time. Examples might include shooting free-throws in basketball, or bowling.

Anchored Instruction (Bransford) - is actually a paradigm for technology-based instruction and is based on a general model of problem solving. Anchored instruction has found applications in primary levels of reading, math, and language skills. The name is derived from the technique of designing instructional activities around an "anchor" which may be a theme, case-study, or problem to be solved. Learners engage in exploration and discovery learning. Learning activities draw from many fields. Andragogy (Knowles) - the art and practice of teaching adult learners. Behaviorism (Watson) - the school of psychology that emphasizes describing and measuring only that with is observable directly or through assessment instruments. Category (Bruner) - Rules for specifying similarities and differences among phenomena in cognitive processing. Bruner defined at least three types of categories: identity, equivalence, and formal. Centralism the view that learning mainly involves the central nervous system. Stimuli and responses are mediated in the CNS. Centralists explain behavior in terms of cognition, purpose, attitudes, problems solving, and other cognitive processes. Chunk, Chunking - G.A.Miller- any meaningful unit of information. Miller proposed that short-term memory could only hold and manage 7 plus or minus 2 chunks at a time. Classical Conditioning- (behaviorism) - model developed by Pavlov (1927) which was the basis for several of the early theoretical approaches to learning. A neutral stimulus, when repeatedly paired with a stimulus that normally elicits a response, comes to elicit a similar or identical response. Coding Systems (Bruner) - Clusters of hierarchically related categories. Cognitive Apprenticeship- (John Seely Brown) - This model of learning is derived from the notion that cognitive tools are acquired in the same way as apprentices learn a craft or trade. Learners enter a culture of practice. Cognitive Map (Tolman) a complex internal representation or image of the external environment. Cognitive - mental processes including thinking, memory, planning, decision making, computing, etc. Conditioned stimulus (behaviorism, Pavlov)- a neutral stimulus which, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, produces an instinctive response. Example- the famous experiment in which the ringing of a bell came to stimulate dogs' salivation. The salivation then becomes a conditioned response. At my house, the sound of the can opener causes my cats to run to the kitchen and meow while turning in circles until the food is given to them. Conditioned response (behaviorism, Pavlov) - a response which becomes associated with a conditioned

stimulus, such as Pavlov's dog's salivation when a bell was rung.

Connectionism- (Thorndike) - the idea that bonds between stimulus and response take the form of neural connections. Learning involves the "stamping in" of connections, forgetting involves "stamping out" connections. Contiguity- (Behaviorism) - One explanation for learning in behaviorism; an association is built between two events simply because they occurred simultaneously or overlapping in time. For example, if food is presented while some auditory signal is given, a dog will "learn" to salivate when it hears the auditory signal, even if no food is present. Counterconditioning - a procedure for weakening an unwanted conditioned response by associating the stimuli to a new response incompatible with the conditioned response. Dependent variables variables being observed and measured in response to the independent variables, such as amount of time taken to learn a task or respond after a stimulus is given, number of responses, etc. Discrimination -(behaviorism, Pavlov) - Development of sensory acuity to make distinctions between similar stimuli. For example, in cattle herds, a cow will only respond to the call of its own calf, even if other calves are in the vicinity. Discrimination Learning Theory- (Spence) - reinforcement combined with frustration or inhibitors facilitated finding a correct stimulus among a cluster which included incorrect ones. This was a "carrot and stick" model. Drive Reduction Theory - (Hull) - the notion that behavior occurs in response to "drives" such as hunger, thirst, sexual interest, feeling cold, etc. When the goal of the drive is attained (food, water, mating, warmth) the drive is reduced, and this constitutes reinforcement of the behaviors that lead to the drive reduction, and ultimately learning. Expectancy Theory - (Tolman)- the theory that animals (and humans) develop expectancy or anticipation of rewards for completing behaviors they have learned, and this expectancy functions as an internal incentive or motivation. Extinction - (behaviorism, Pavlov) occurs when an organism that has been reinforced for engaging in a behavior ceases to be reinforced. The outcome will be a cessation of the behavior in question over a relatively brief period of time. Forgetting - (see also extinction) - gradual cessation of a response as a result of passage of time with no repetition of the behavior during this time. Generalization (behaviorism, Pavlov) - Stimulus which is similar to a conditioned stimulus comes to produce a response similar to a conditioned response. Example, we have a dog that barks frantically if someone knocks on the door. Eventually, she began barking when she hears any knocking sound, such as hammering, or knocking sounds on television. Heuristic processes involve some sort of decision making. Heuristic processes tend to branch out as in a flow chart, with the operator making decisions and one or more choice points in response to changing conditions. Examples might be having a conversation or discussion, or diagnosing a problem. Independent variables variables which the researcher can control and manipulate, such as the design of a maze, withholding food, providing reinforces, etc.

Inert knowledge- (Brown, Cognitive apprenticeship)- knowledge which lacks application or cross contextual understanding. Intervening variables- (Tolman) - these are hypothetical constructs rather than physical parameters. They are definable and measurable but not observable. They have functional relationships with both independent and dependent variables. They are internal cognitive processes. Latent Learning (Tolman) -learning which is not apparent in the learner's behavior at the time of learning, but which manifests later when a suitable motivation and circumstances appear. Law of Effect (Thorndike) - Responses which occur just prior to a satisfying state of affairs is more likely to be repeated, and responses just prior to an annoying state of affairs are more likely NOT to be repeated. Law of Exercise (Thorndike) - the idea that bonds between stimulus and response are strengthened by regency, frequency, and contiguity. Learning - a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. Learning to Learn (Estes) - the tendency of learners to become increasingly effective at solving problems as more problems are solved. Negative reinforcement (Behaviorism, Skinner) - A stimulus which when taken away from a situation increases the probability of a response occurring. (Note that both positive and negative reinforcement increase the probability of a response or behavior occurring) Neurophysiology (Hebb)- biological functioning of the nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system, through the actions of neurons, synapses, neural networks, and neurotransmitters. Operant Conditioning (Behaviorism, Skinner) - a model which states that when a response is followed by a reinforcer, the result will be an increase in the probability that this response will occur again under similar conditions. Operants- (Behaviorism, Skinner) - responses simply emitted by an organism. In operant behavior, the organism acts on the environment. Peripheralism the view that learning involves mainly receptors, muscles and glands. Peripheralists explain behavior in terms of habits, drives, and motor responses. Plasticity - (Hebb) - the ability of an organism to change its response patterns over time. Positive reinforcement - (Behaviorism, Skinner) - a reinforcement of a behavior which increases the probability that the behavior will occur again. Punishment - (Behaviorism, Skinner) - a type of reinforcement which suppresses or reduces the probability of the response it follows. Also read the definition for negative reinforcer, which increases response when taken away. Reactivity - (Hebb) - the capacity of an organism to react to external stimuli. Reinforcement- (Behaviorism, Thorndike, Skinner) - The notion that learning takes place because of the consequences of a behavior. This could be a pleasant consequence, removal of something unpleasant, or

both.

Respondents - (behaviorism) - responses elicited by a stimulus. In respondent behavior, the organism reacts to the environment. Response - (behaviorism) - the desired or expected behavior which is produced when reinforcement is provided after the behavior. Schedules of Reinforcement (Behaviorism, Skinner) - giving reinforcement on different schedules has different results for training. Click on link for more detail Schema- (Piaget) - an element of a cognitive structure. Schema refers to a general potential to perform a class of behaviors, and content describes the conditions that prevail during any particular example of that potential being activated. (Schemata = plulral) Script - (Schank) - Scripts are schemata for generalized episodes or events. Sign Gestalt (Tolman) - a complex of signs (stimuli), significates (goals or rewards), and means-end relations (one's relationship regarding direction, distance, and orientation of objects to the individual. Social Constructivism (Vygotsky) - The perspective that learning and development is a social, collaborative activity. Spiral Curriculum (Bruner) - Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over, building upon them and elaborating to the level of full understanding and mastery Statistical Learning Theory - a learning theory in which the probability of a response is the dependent variable. Independent variables are usually stimuli controlled by the researcher. These are attempts to quantify and objectify learning research. Stimulus - Sensory input from the environment that may cause some response or behavior in a subject. Stimulus - Response Models of Learning - as a group, the conditioning, behaviorist and neobehaviorist models are considered as stimulus response models. Stimulus Sampling Theory (SST) - (Estes) - A theory developed by Estes that attempts to show how stimuli are sampled and attached to responses. A statistical learning theory. TOTE's. (G. A. Miller)- (Test - Operate - Test - Exit). These are operational feedback units that function within a self-regulated system. Unconditioned response - (Pavlov, classical conditioning) - a natural, instinctive response to stimuli from the environment. Examples include salivation in response to food, hair standing on end in response to a threat, a mother cat licking her kittens in response to mewing sounds. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - (Pavlov, classical conditioning) - a stimulus that causes reflexive, unlearned behavior (Unconditioned response (UCR). Smelling food stimulates salivation, or the presence of a threatening dominant pack member elicits submissive behavior in a lower ranked animal. Zone of Proximal development (ZPD) - Vygotsky - ZPD refers to the observation that children, when learning a particular task or body of information, are unable initially to do the task. Later they can do it with the assistance of an adult or older child mentor, and finally they can do it without assistance. The ZPD is the stage where they can do it with assistance, but not alone.