UNIT-V-Synchronous Machines

1
IFETCE/EEE/ M.SUJITH / III YR/VI SEM/EE2355/DEM/ VER 1.0

2
Output equations choice of loadings Design of salient
pole machines Short circuit ratio shape of pole face
Armature design Armature parameters Estimation of
air gap length Design of rotor Design of damper winding
Determination of full load field mmf Design of field
winding Design of turbo alternators Rotor design.
3
TYPES OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
It is classified as
Salient pole machines and
cylindrical rotor machines
depending upon the construction.
SALIENT POLE MACHINES:
driven by water wheels or diesel engines.
operate at low speeds.
requires large no.of poles to produce the
required frequency.
has projected poles and the field coils are
mounted on the poles.
4
CYLINDRICAL ROTOR MACHINES:
Driven by steam turbines and gas turbines.
Run at very high speeds.
Have slots on the outer periphery of smooth
cylindrical rotor.
Field conductors are placed on this slots.
Synchronous machines operating on general power supply
networks may be divided into the following categories:
I. HYDRO-GENERATORS:
Prime mover - water wheel.
speed - 100 to 1000rpm.
capacity - 750 MW
5
II. TURBO-ALTERNATORS:
Prime mover- steam turbine or gas turbine
Speed - 3000rpm
Capacity - 1000MW
III. ENGINE DRIVEN:
Prime mover- I.C engine (diesel or petrol)
Speed - 1500rpm
Capacity - 20MW
IV. MOTORS:
Motors are manufactured with wide ranging
capacity.
They are provided with damper windings.
V. COMPENSATORS:
Speed - 3000rpm
Rating - 100MVAR
6
CONSTRUCTION
Stationaryarmature, rotating field type of construction is
preferred.
High speed alternators have non-salient pole rotor (Turbo
alternators) and they have either 2-pole or 4-pole.
Slow speed alternators have salient pole rotor (water wheel
alternators) and they have more than 4 poles.
7
In a synchronous generator, a DC current is applied to the
rotor winding producing a rotor magnetic field. The rotor is
then turned by external means producing a rotating magnetic
field, which induces a 3-phase voltage within the stator
winding.
In a synchronous motor, a 3-phase set of stator currents
produces a rotating magnetic field causing the rotor magnetic
field to align with it. The rotor magnetic field is produced by a
DC current applied to the rotor winding.
Field windings are the windings producing the main magnetic
field (rotor windings for synchronous machines); armature
windings are the windings where the main voltage is induced
(stator windings for synchronous machines).
8
Construction of synchronous
machines
The rotor of a synchronous machine is a large electromagnet. The magnetic poles can be
either salient (sticking out of rotor surface) or non-salient construction.
Non-salient-pole rotor: usually two- and four-pole rotors. Salient-pole rotor: four and
more poles.
Rotors are made laminated to reduce eddy current losses.
9
OUTPUT EQUATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
The output equation of A.C machine is given by,
Q =C
o
D
2
L n
s
x 10
-3
and
The output coefficient, C
o
=11 B
av
ac K
w
x 10
-3
Where,
Q =kVA output for alternator and kVA input for
synchronous motor.
D =diameter of the stator bore, m
L =length of the stator core, m
n
s
=synchronous speed, rps
B
av
=specific magnetic loading, Wb/m
2
Ac =specific electric loading, amp.cond/m
K
w
=stator winding factor.
10
CHOICE OF LOADING
Choice of specific magnetic loading depends on:
Iron loss
Voltage rating
Stability
Parallel operation
Transient short circuit current
Choice of specific electric loading depends on:
Copper loss
Temperature rise
Voltage rating
Synchronous reactance
Stray load losses
11
CHOICE OF SPECIFIC MAGNETIC LOADING (B
av
)
i) high B
av
high flux density in the teeth and core
high iron loss higher temperature rise.
ii) high B
av
low Tph low leakage reactance (Xl )
high short circuit current
iii) In high voltage machines slot width required is more to
accommodate thicker insulationsmaller tooth width small
allowable B
av
iv) Stability : P
max
=VE/Xs .
Since high B
av
gives low Tph and hence low Xl
P
max
increases and improves stability.
12
v) Parallel operation: Ps = (VE sin)/Xs ; where is the torque
angle. So low Xs gives higher value for the synchronizing
power leading stable parallel operation of synchronous
generators.
GUIDE LINES :
Non-salient pole alternator : 0.54 0.65 Wb/m
2
Salient pole alternator : 0.52 0.65 Wb/m
2
13
CHOICE OF SPECIFIC ELECTRIC LOADING (ac)
COPPER LOSS AND TEMPERATURE RISE:
High value of ac higher copper loss leading high temperature
rise. So choice of depends on the cooling method used.
OPERATING VOLTAGE :
High voltage machines require large insulation and so the slot space
available for conductors is reduced. So a lower value for ac has to be
chosen.
SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE (Xs) :
High value of ac results in high value of Xs , and this leads to,
a) poor voltage regulation
b) low steady state stability limit.
STRAY LOAD LOSSES:
Increase with increase in ac.
Guide lines :
Non-salient pole alternators : 50, 000 75,000 A/m
Salient pole alternators : 20,000 40,000 A/m
14
DESIGN OF SALIENT POLE MACHINES
Diameter of stator bore
Outer diameter Dr =D length of air gap
The selection of diameter D depends upon
(i) the type of poles used (ii) permissible peripheral speed
Two types of poles
(i) Round poles (ii) Rectangular poles
Round poles ratio of b
s
is between 0.6 to 0.7
Length of poles =Width of pole shoe (or) L=b
s
Rectangular poles Ratio of pole arc to pole pole pitch varies
between 1 to 5 . Not should exceed for normal machines
Otherwise the design of field system becomes not economical
Ratio L / =1 to 5
15
The deciding factor is the peripheral speed with circular poles
larger than with rectangular poles
The value of allowable peripheral speed
Bolted on pole construction =50m/s
Dovetailed and T head constructions - 80 m/s
Bolted Constructions DovetailedConstructions
16
SHORT CIRCUIT RATIO (SCR)
SCR =Field current required to produce rated voltage
on open circuit / Field current required to
produce rated current on short circuit
=1/ direct axis synchronous reactance
=1/Xd
Thus SCR is the reciprocal of Xd , if Xd is defined in p.u.
value for rated voltage and rated current. But Xd for a
given load is affected by saturation conditions that then
exists, while SCR is specific and univalued for a given
machine.
For Salient pole Hydroelectric generators , SCR varies
from 1.0 - 1.5
Modern turbo alternators SCR varies from 0.5 to 0.7
17
O.C.C and S.C.C Characteristics
op
SCR
os
=
18
EFFECT OF SCR ON MACHINE PERFORMANCE:
i) Voltage regulation :
A low SCR high Xd large voltage drop
poor voltage regulation..
ii) Parallel operation :
A low SCR high Xd low synchronizing
power parallel operation becomes difficult.
iii) Short circuit current :
A low SCR high Xd low short circuit
current. But short circuit current can be limited by
other means not necessarily by keeping a low
value of SCR.
19
iv) Self Excitation :
Alternators feeding long transmission lines should
not be designed with small SCR as this would lead
to large terminal voltage on open circuit due to large
capacitance currents.
Summarizing ,high value of SCR leads to,
i) high stability limit
ii) low voltage regulation
iii) high short circuit current
iv) large air gap
The present trend is to design machines with low value of
SCR, this is due to the recent development in fast acting
control and excitation systems.
20
SHAPE OF POLE FACE
The ratio of pole arc to pole pitch varies between 0.67 and
0.75.
If value of is too large >0.75 Interpolar flux leakage
becomes excessive leading to high value of flux density in
pole body and improper flux distribution over the armature
If the value <0.67 Insufficient overhang of the pole shoe
to support the field coil in radial direction
Common practice is to use a value of =0.7
In salient pole machine the length of air gap is not constant
over the pole arc but increase from centre outwards in order to
produce the required flux distribution
21
For machines requires no damper windings in the pole faces , the
tip of the pole face may be rounded off as shown by full line.
Fig : Shape of pole face for sinusoidal flux distribution
/ cos
gx g
x
l l

| |
=
|
\ .
22
ARMATURE DESIGN
The winding in synchronous machines may be single layered
or double layered type.
Machines having larger values of flux per pole have small
number of turns per phase
High voltage machines with small value of flux per pole have
a larger number of turns per phase
Number of Armature slots
Coil span
Turns per phase
Conductor section
23
Double layered windings have following advantages over the
single layered windings
Ease manufacture of coils
Low cost of windings
Less no. of coils required
Fractional slot pitch coil can be used
The single layer windings have the following advantages
Higher efficiency
Space factor for slot is higher
24
NUMBER OF ARMATURE SLOTS
The following factors should be considered for selection of
armature slots
Balanced windings Unbalanced windings leads to over heating
of rotor surface
Cost fewer coils to wind , insulate
Hot spot temperatures conductors are close to each other
leaving small space for air circulation it gives rise to internal
temperature
Leakage reactance Number of slots is small , Lr increased
Tooth ripples Pulsation loss in pole face decreased if large
number of slot is used
Flux density in Iron -larger number of slots a greater space is
taken up by insulation , results in narrower teeth giving flux
densities beyond the acceptable limits
25
The value of slot pitch y
s
serves as a guide for choosing the
number of armature slots
Y
s
<25mm for low voltage machines
Y
s
<40mm for 6 kV machines
Y
s
<25mm for machines up to 15KW.
Fractional slot windings reduces the distribution factor for
higher harmonics that reducing their corresponding generated
emfs and making the voltage waveforms nearly sinusoidal
Coil Span Highest amplitude in flux distribution curve of
salient pole generators are 5
th
and 7
th
harmonics .
The maximum reduction of harmonics is given by a coil span
of 8.33% of pole pitch
26
Turns per phase
Flux per pole
Turns per phase
(All turns of a phase connected in series)
But if there a a parallel paths
av
B l =
4.44
ph
ph
w
E
T
fK
=
4.44
ph
ph
w
E a
T
fK
=
27
Conductor section
Current in each conductor
But if there a a parallel paths , the conductor current is
Area of cross section of conductor
s
=current density in armature conductors in A/mm
2
3
10 / (3 )
z ph ph
I I kVA E = =
/
z ph
I I a =
z
s
a
I
a
=
28
Armature resistance
Lmts=length of mean of stator m, a=area of stator conductor, mm
2
The stator d.c. resistance per phase
Armature copper loss
Effective a.c.resistance per phase
Per unit armature resistance
ARMATURE PARAMETERS
.
mts
d c ph
s
L
r T
a
=
2
2 4
( ') 2
9
ph
ph mts
s
T
N
I L ah L
a

(
= +
(

2
4
.
( ') 2
9
ph
d c mts
s
T
N
r L ah L
a

(
= +
(

. .
( ) /
a c ph a c ph
R I r E =
29
Armature Leakage reactance
Stator leakage reactance per phase
Overhang leakage reactance per phase
The value of overhang permeance
K= 0.23 X 10
-6
for Concentric windings
K= 0.29 X 10
-6
for Barrel windings
2
8
s
as ph
x fT L
pq
=
2
0
0
8
ph
x fT L
pq
=
2
0
0 0
2 2
s
KL
L
y
=
30
ESTIMATION OF AIRGAP LENGTH
No load field mmf per pole is equal to the product of armature
mmf per pole and the short circuit ratio
The value of armature mmf per pole
Mmf Required for air gap =0.8 AT
fo
=800,000B
g
K
g
l
g
Where B
g
=maximum flux density in the air gap
Length of air gap at the centre of the pole l
g
0 f a
AT AT SCR =
2.7
ph ph wl
fo
I T K
AT SCR
p
=
0.8
800000
fo
g
g g
AT
l
B K
=
1000,000
f fo
av g
K AT
B K
=
31
DESIGN OF ROTOR
Flux in the pole body

f
=leakage coefficient x useful flux per pole =C
l
The value of leakage coefficient C

l
lies between 1.15
to 1.2
Round Poles Rectangular Shaped Pole
32
Area of cross section of pole body
The flux density in pole body Bp has a permissible
value of 1.5 to 1.7 wb / m
2
For rectangular poles
For circular poles
p
p
p
A
B
=
0.98
p p p
A L b =
2
4
p p
A b
| |
=
|
\ .
33
HEIGHT OF POLE
An approximate estimation of full load mmf can be
made by the method given below
No load mmf
Armature mmf per pole
0 f a
AT SCR AT =
2.7 /
a ph ph ph
AT I T K p =
34
DESIGN OF DAMPER WINDINGS
It depends of damper winding depends upon the purpose for
which it is provided.
In synchronous generator , it is provided to suppress the
negative sequence field and to damp the oscillation when the
machines starts hunting
Function provide starting torque and to develop damping
power when the machine starts hunting
The amplitude of fundamental mmf AT
l
of one phase of a
polyphase winding is obtained
*
4
2
2
l m wl
ph ph
s
m s
AT AT K
I T
I
AT qZ
p
=
= =
35
Current in each conductor I
s
= I
ph
Conductors per slot
MMF of damper winding
Ampere conductors per pole
1
4 2
ph ph wl
I T K
AT
p
=
6
.
ph ph
I T
ac
p
=
2 2 .
6
0.143 .
w
ac
k
ac
=
=
36
Let total area of damper bars per pole
Area per pole of damper pass provided
Pole arc=number of bars per pole x y
s
x0.8
Length of each damper bar Ld=1.1L for small machines
Ld=L+0.1m for large machines
Cross section of damper bars
Circular Bars
Area of each ring
0.143
d d
A ac =
0.2 /
d d
A ac =
d
d
d
A
a
N
=
2
4
(0.8 1)
d d
ring d
a d
A to A
| |
=
|
\ .
=
37
METHODS OF ELIMINATING HARMONICS
By using,
i) distributed windings
ii) fractional coil pitch
iii) fractional slot windings
iv) skewing
v) large air gap.
Further calculations needed after determining D and L :
i) Flux per pole = = B
av
( DL/p )
ii) T
ph
is calculated from the EMF equation taking
E
ph
= V
ph
iii) I
ph
= (Qx 10
3
) / 3 V
L
iv) Armature MMF/pole = At
a
= 2.7 I
ph
T
ph
K
w
/p
v) Effective area per pole = 0.6 0.65 times actual
area.
38
DETERMINATION OF FULL LOAD FIELD MMF
The value of mmf calculated by
1. Select the suitable voltage
2. Draw oa=voltage per phase (Eph=V)
3. Draw oI =armature current per phase at angle w.r.to
Eph(where cos=p.f lagging )
4. Draw ab=resistance drop per phase =Iph rac and
parallel to oI
5. Draw bc=leakage reactance drop per phase =Iph xl
and perpendicular to oIJ oin oc . Then oc is the
generated voltage
6. J oin oc . Then oc is the generated voltage
7. Plot od =ATgen to some scale
8. Draw de =field mmf equivalent to armature mmf per
pole at full load perpendicular to oI at d.
39
Determination of full load field mmf AT
fl
o
I
f
e
c
d a b
o
40
9. Find the value of Kr
10. J oin of and extend it
11. Draw a perpendicular from e on of extended cutting it at gi
Field mmf equivalent to armature mmf per pole
2.7
ph ph w
d
I T K
fieldmmf
p
=
sin
4sin / 2
d
value

+
=
41
DESIGN OF FIELD WINDINGS
Wire wound coils are generally used for machines with a small
number of poles
The field coil of alternators having large number of poles are
wound with glass covered rectangular strips
The field coils of large slow speed alternators use strip on edge
windings wherein the bare with strip on edge conductors
For machine with class B insulation , interturn consists of
2layers of treated asbestos paper , with thickness of 0.18m
Due to pressing and consolidation thickness of interturn
insulation is reduced from 0.36mm to 0.26mm
The pole body insulation is of epoxy glass laminates is 4mm
thick
Coil is consolidated under a pressure which varies 4 to
12MN/m
2
42
Procedure
The voltage across the field coil
We know h
pl
be height of the pole
Voltage across the field coil
Area of the conductors
Current density in field conductors is 3 to 4 A/mm
2
(0.8 0.85)
f
to Ve
E
p
=
1 f pl
h h h =
f f mtf
f
I T L
a
=
fl mtf
f
f
AT L
a
E
=
43
Calculation of length of mean turn
bp
Lm
L
5mm
44
Field winding depth
The resistance of the winding is calculated at 75 degree c
Cooling coefficient to rotating field coils
The minimum clearance between adjacent field coils is 15mm
Pole pitch mm Winding depth mm
0.1 25
0.2 35
0.4 45
f mtf
f
f
T L
R
a
=
0.08 0.12
1 0.1
f
a
to
c
V
=
+
45
DESIGN OF TURBO ALTERNATORS
In turbo-alternators the diameter is limited by the
maximum peripheral speed, V
a
.
Peripheral speed, V
a
=Dn
s
.
Diameter, D=V
a
/n
s
.
The output kVA, Q =C
o
D
2
L n
s
x 10
-3
and
The output coefficient, C
o
=11 B
av
ac K
w
x 10
-3
So, Q=11 B
av
ac K
w
x 10
-3
(V
a
/n
s
) L n
s
Q=1.11 B
av
ac K
w
L V
a
2
/ n
s
x 10
-3
46
The value of specific loadings for conventionally
cooled alternators are:
B
av
=0.54 to 0.65 Wb/m
2
ac =50000 to 75000 amp.cond/m
The value of specific loadings for large water cooled
alternators are:
B
av
=0.54 to 0.65 Wb/m
2
ac =180000 to 200000 amp.cond/m
47
Length of air gap
Taking sinusoidal distribution of flux density in the air gap
For all practical purposes Bg is taken as 1.5Bav and Kg as 1.1
NOTE:
The armature slot, winding, turns per phase and conductor
designs of turbo-alternator are same as that of salient pole
alternator.
6
0.5
10
g
g g
ac
l
k B

=
( / 2)
g av
B B =
48
STATOR DESIGN
The number of slots per pole per phase is 8 to 9 used.
The slot pitch is normally about 25 to 60mm but in case of
turbo alternator is 75mm to 90mm
The stator conductors must be subdivided and transposed to
reduce eddy current losses
Two layer windings chorded by about 1/6 pole pitch and more
commonly eliminates 5
th
and 7
th
as well as 17
th
& 19
th
harmonics
The current density in the stator windings of water cooled
generator is about 8 to 9.5 A/mm
2
and conventionally cooled
machine is 4 A/mm
2
The deep slot is used to increase leakage reactance. This is
done to reduce the forces under short circuit conditions
49
ROTOR DESIGN-TURBO ALTERNATORS
The width of the rotor slots is limited by stresses at
the root of the teeth and by hoop stress in the end
rotating rings
The insulation thickness varies from 0.25 to 0.33 mm
per 100V across the windings
Rotor density may be about 2.5 A/mm
2
for
conventionally cooled machines. Modern direct
cooled generators about 9.5-14 A/mm
2
50
PROCEDURE FOR ROTOR WINDING DESIGN
Full load field mmf can be taken as twice the armature mmf
Full load field mmf
Voltage across the field coil
-coil span
The length of mean turn of field winding is approximated
2
2.7 /
fl a
a ph ph w
AT AT
AT I T K p
=
=
2 2.3 0.24
mtf
L L = + +
(0.8 0.85)
e
f
to V
E
p
=
51
Area of the field coil
Assume a suitable current density of field windings
Total area of field conductors
Conductors per slot
Sr=number of wound slots in the rotor
fl mtf
f
f
AT L
a
E
=
2
fl
f f
pAT
a
=
2
fl
f f r
pAT
a S
=

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IFETCE/EEE/ M.SUJITH / III YR/VI SEM/EE2355/DEM/ VER 1.0

The value of leakage coefficient C

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