Effective Mass

EFFECTIVE MASS OF AN ELECTRON:
A free electron has well defined mass and obeys Newtons law when accelerated by an
external electric field; but when electron is in periodic potential of the crystal lattice, its
behaviour in external electric field is different from that of a free electron. The deviation of
the actual electron behaviour than free electron behaviour may be accounted simply by
considering the electron to have effective mass, m* rather than free electron mass m.
According to wave mechanical theory (de-Broglie) an electron with velocity v is
equivalent to a wave packet moving with group velocity v
g

dK
d
v v
g
e
= = ........................................................................................(1)
where is the angular frequency of de-Broglie wave and K = 2/ is propagation constant.
The energy of particle
e = E
dK
d
dK
dE e
= or ,
dK
dE
dK
d
1
=
e

Now equation (1) gives
dK
dE
v
1
= ................................................................................................ (2)
For free particle,
m
K
m
K
dK
dE
m
K
E
2 2
2 2
2
2
,
2

= = =
Then, from Eqn (2) ] [ ,
2
2
1
2
p
h
As
m
p
m
h
m
K
v = = = =
t
t

This gives linear variation of v with K.
But according to band theory (with periodic potential) of electron, E is not, in general,
proportional to K
2
, there the variation of E with K is as shown in Fig. 5(a). Using this type of
variation of E with K and using equation (2), one can calculate the velocity v, this gives a
curve of the type illustrated as in Fig 5(b). We observe that the velocity of the electron varies
with the slope.
For K=0 and K= t/a, the slope, dE/dK is zero, thus the velocity of the electron is zero at
bottom as well as the top of the first Brillouin Zone.
After K=0, as the value of K increases (i.e., the energy E increases), the velocity increases
reaching its maximum value at K=K
0
where K
0
corresponds to the point of inflection on the
E-K graph. Beyond this point the velocity begins to decrease and finally assumes the zero
value at K=t/a which is the top of the band.
It is significant to note that the decrease of the velocity beyond this point of inflection (with
increase in energy) and its zero value at the top of the band are the entirely new features
which do not appear at all in the behaviour of free electron.
Acceleration and effective mass of electron:
It has been known for a very long time that an electron has a well defined mass, and when
accelerated by an electric field, it obeys Newtonian mechanics. Now, we will discuss the
behaviour of electron when it is to be accelerated inside a crystal due to external electric
field.
When an electric field
e
X
is applied on the electron, then force on electron

e
X e F

=
Work done by electric field over a small distance dx travelled in time dt is
dx eX dE done work
e
= =
Or, ) (vdt eX dE
e
=
,
(Since dx/dt = v)
Substituting value of v from equation (2), we get
dt
dk
dE
eX dE
e
|
.
|
\
|
=
1

, dt
dk
dE eX
dk
dk
dE
e
e
eX
dt
dk
= ............................................................... (3)
Acceleration of electron:
Differentiating eqn (2) with respect to time
|
.
|
\
|
= =
dk
dE
dt
d
dt
dv
a
1

dt
dk
dk
E d
a or .
1
,
2
2
=

Using equation (3) we get,
2
2
2
dk
E d eX
a
e
= -.............................................................................................(4).
When we compare this result with the acceleration of a free electron of mass m i.e.
m
eX
a
e
= ......................................................................................................(5)
Compare eqn. (4) and (5) it follows that an electron in the periodic lattice behaves as an
electron of effective mass m* given by
2
2
2
1
*
1
dk
E d
m
=
Therefore the effective mass of electron:
) 6 ...( .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... *
2
2
2
dK
E d
m

=

Clearly the effective mass of electron is determined by d
2
E/dK
2
and is a function of K. It
indicates the importance of E-K curves for the motion of electron. [(Fig 5(c)] represents the
effective mass (m*) of the electron as a function of K.
The figure shows that the effective mass m* is no longer a strict constant, being now a
function of K. It increases with increase of K, becomes maximum at point of inflexion and
then it becomes negative. The behaviour of the effective mass is as follows
(i) m* is positive in the lower half of the
energy band
(ii) m* is negative in the upper half of the
energy band.
Physically it means since this region is now
close to the top of the band that in upper
half of the band, electron behaves as a
positively charged particle. The negative
mass can be seen dynamically by noting
that the velocity decreases, thus
acceleration negative i.e., opposite to the
applied force, implying a negative mass.
This means that in this region the lattice
exerts such a large retarding force on the
electron that it overcomes the applied force
and produces a negative acceleration. Here
the band behaves as a positively charged
particle referred to as a hole.
(iii) At inflexion points (K=K
0
) in E-K
curves, the effective mass m* becomes
infinite.
For a free electron,
m dk
E d
hence and
m
k
m
k
dK
dE
m
k
E
2
2
2 2 2 2 2
2
2
,
2

= = = =
From equation (6), m
m
m = =
2
2
*

For a free electron m* = m,
But for a periodic potential, m* = m
It may be concluded that all the results of the free electron are correct provided m in each
case is replaced by suitable m
*
. Accordingly energy in periodic potential will be given by
* 2
2 2
m
k
E

=

This is known as the effective mass approximation.
As a summary, in the periodic potential, the electron in the crystal will thus behave
dynamically just like a particle with variable effective mass and the whole effect of the
periodic potential on the motion of the electron is to replace the free electron mass with
proper effective mass.
The degree of freedom of an electron in periodic potential is defined by a factor
2 2
2
* dK
E d m
m
m
f
K
= =
f
K
is a measure of the extent to which an electron in state K is free. If m* is large, i.e. the
electron behaves as a heavy particle. When f
k
= 1, the electron behaves as free particle, Fig.
5(d) represents the plot of f
K
against K. It may be noted that f
K
is positive in the lower half of
the band and negative in upper half.

Effective Mass

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EFFECTIVE MASS OF AN ELECTRON:

is applied on the electron, then force on electron

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