IATA

IATA
Airport Development Reference Manual

9th Edition Effective January 2004
International Air Transport Association
NOTICE DISCLAIMER. The information contained in this

publication is subject to constant review in the light of changing government requirements and regulations. No subscriber or other reader should act on the basis of any such information without referring to applicable laws and regulations and/or without taking appropriate professional advice. Although every effort has been made to ensure accuracy, the International Air Transport Association shall not be held responsible for loss or damage caused by errors, omissions, misprints or misinterpretation of the contents hereof. Furthermore, the International Air Transport Association expressly disclaims all and any liability to any person, whether a purchaser of this publication or not, in respect of anything done or omitted, and the consequences of anything done or omitted, by any such person in reliance on the contents of this publication. Opinions expressed in advertisements appearing in this publication are the advertiser's opinions and do not necessarily reflect those of IATA. The mention of specific companies or products in advertisement does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by IATA in preference to others of a similar nature which are not
Airport Development Reference Manual Ref. No: 9044-09 ISBN 92-9195-086-6 2004 International Air Transport Association. All rights reserved. Montreal Geneva
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................................. vii
Chapter A Introduction
Section A1: lATA's Role................................................................................................................... Section A2: Purpose of the Manual ................................................................................................. 3 5
Chapter B Planning
Section B1: Major Planning Processes............................................................................................ Section B2: The Planning Process .................................................................................................. 11 37
Chapter C Master Planning

Section C1: Principles ..................................................................................................................... Section C2: Forecasting................................................................................................................... Section C3: Land Use Planning ....................................................................................................... Section C4: Control Towers ............................................................................................................ 43 88 98 103
Chapter D Airport Economics

Section D1: Airport Management..................................................................................................... Section D2: Airport Cost Structures and Revenue Sources............................................................. Section D3: Airport Investment Decisions and Financing................................................................. Section D4: Aeronautical Charge Policies ....................................................................................... Section D5: International Cost Variations ........................................................................................ 109 114 116 120 130
Chapter E Environmental Issues

Section E1: Main Issues................................................................................................................... Section E2: Social and Political Considerations .............................................................................. Section E3: Noise............................................................................................................................. Section E4: Emissions ..................................................................................................................... Section E5: Waste Management...................................................................................................... 137 141 146 152 155
Chapter F Airport Capacity

Section F1: Capacity and Level of Service....................................................................................... Section F2: Capacity Definitions ..................................................................................................... Section F3: Airport Systems............................................................................................................. Section F4: Planning Schedule ....................................................................................................... Section F5: Runway Systems ......................................................................................................... Section F6: Taxiway......................................................................................................................... Section F7: Apron ........................................................................................................................... Section F8: Aircraft Stand ............................................................................................................... Section F9: Passenger Terminal Facilities....................................................................................... 159 161 162 165 166 171 173 174 178
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Section F10: The Airport Scheduling Process ................................................................................. Section F11: Computational Fluid Dynamics....................................................................................
213 216
Chapter G Airport Flight Operations Issues

Section G1: Aircraft Characteristics ................................................................................................ Section G2: Visual Aids.................................................................................................................... Section G3: Non-Visual Aids............................................................................................................ 221 234 239
Chapter H Airport Security

Section H1: General Principles ....................................................................................................... Section H2: Passenger Operations.................................................................................................. Section H3: Cargo Operations ........................................................................................................ 245 246 260
Chapter I Airport Access

Section 11: Roads ........................................................................................................................... Section 12: Rail ............................................................................................................................... Section 13: Intermodality and Airport Access .................................................................................. 269 277 282
Chapter J Passenger Terminal

Section J1: Outline of Principle Functions ....................................................................................... Section J2: Categories of Passenger Terminal ............................................................................... Section J3: Small Airport Terminals................................................................................................. Section J4: Common Systems CUTE & CUSS ............................................................................... Section J5: Airline Communications Networks ................................................................................ Section J6: Passenger Processing Facilities Planning .................................................................... Section J7: Concession Planning..................................................................................................... Section J8: Maintenance ................................................................................................................. Section J9: Check-In ....................................................................................................................... Section J10: People Mover Systems ............................................................................................... Section J11: Passenger Boarding Bridges ...................................................................................... Section J12: Signage ...................................................................................................................... 289 301 318 320 325 331 340 344 348 356 362 370
Chapter K Passenger Facilitation

Section K1: Principles ..................................................................................................................... Section K2: Roles and Responsibilities of Governments/Airlines..................................................... Section K3: Immigration Processes ................................................................................................ Section K4: Customs Processes...................................................................................................... Section K5: Simplifying Passenger Travel ...................................................................................... Section K6: Disabled Passengers and Staff..................................................................................... 385 386 388 392 396 400
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Table of Contents
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Chapter L Aircraft Parking Aprons

Section L1: Current and Future Aircraft Types ................................................................................ Section L2: Physical and Functional Requirements ........................................................................ Section L3: Gate Stands and Remote Stands.................................................................................. Section L4: Ground Handling Equipment......................................................................................... Section L5: Service Roads & Storage Areas.................................................................................... Section L6: Distributed Electrical Power & Air.................................................................................. Section L7: Aircraft De/Anti-lcing Facilities ...................................................................................... 407 409 419 426 433 438 445
Chapter M Aviation Fuel Systems

Section M1: Safety Issues................................................................................................................ Section M2: Delivery to Apron ......................................................................................................... Section M3: Storage Distribution Facilities & Processes.................................................................. 453 456 458
Chapter N Contingency Management

Section N1: Aviation Crisis Management......................................................................................... 463
Chapter O Cargo & Separate Express Facilities Terminal

Section 01: Planning Principles........................................................................................................ Section 02: Forecasting and Sizing.................................................................................................. Section 03: Flows and Controls ....................................................................................................... Section 04: Expedited & Express Cargo Processing........................................................................ Section 05: Perishable Cargo........................................................................................................... Section 06: Mail Faciltities................................................................................................................ 469 471 487 492 501 507
Chapter P Airport Support/Ancillary Facilities

Section P1: Aircraft In-Flight Catering Facilties ............................................................................... Section P2: Aircraft Maintenance..................................................................................................... Section P3: Hotels and Business Centers ....................................................................................... 513 516 519
Chapter Q Landside Facilities

Section Q1: Road System and Curb Arrangements......................................................................... Section Q2: Traffic Studies & Parking ............................................................................................. 525 530
Chapter R Airport Commissioning

Section R1: Checklist for the Successful Opening of a New Airport................................................. 537
Chapter S Future Technologies & Miscellaneous

Section S1: Future Technology Systems......................................................................................... Section S2: Developing & Adopting Future Technology................................................................... Section S3: Interfaces People & Cultural Issues ........................................................................ 549 551 553
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Chapter T Airport Processes

Section T1: Terminal Processes ..................................................................................................... Section T2: Apron Processes........................................................................................................... Section T3: Support Processes........................................................................................................ 557 560 562 567 573 613 618 622 631 634 638 641 647 651 659 669 677 685 688 690 692 697 699
Chapter U Airport Baggage Handling

Section U1: Baggage System User Requirements........................................................................... Section U2: Departures Systems .................................................................................................... Section U3: Transfer Systems ......................................................................................................... Section U4: Early Baggage Processes............................................................................................ Section U5: Arrivals Baggage Systems ........................................................................................... Section U6: Control Systems .......................................................................................................... Section U7: Management Information Systems (MIS)..................................................................... Section U8: Oversized Baggage...................................................................................................... Section U9: Sort Allocation Computer (SAC) .................................................................................. Section U10: Baggage Hall Design.................................................................................................. Section U11: Hold Baggage Screening ........................................................................................... Section U12: Passenger & Hand Baggage Screening ....................................................................
Chapter V IATA Airport Project Process

Section V1: Concept/Feasibility/Detail Design/Commissioning/Handover....................................... Section V2: Project Cost Management.............................................................................................
Chapter W Anti-Terrorism and Police Facilities

Section W1: Terminal Building Considerations................................................................................ Section W2: Pier Area Considerations............................................................................................. Section W3: Airfield Area Considerations........................................................................................ Section W4: Airport Police Facilities ................................................................................................
Chapter X Airport Fire Services

Section X1: Fire Response Category............................................................................................... Section X2: Fire Response Services & Equipment .........................................................................
Chapter Y Networks
Section Y1: Frontline Operational and Security................................................................................ Section Y2: Building Services ......................................................................................................... 705 710
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
IATA gratefully acknowledges the technical assistance and input provided by IATA Members and the IATA Members Document Review Panel: Air France American Airlines British Airways FEDEX KLM LOT Polish Airlines Northwest Airlines Qantas Swiss International Air Lines Ltd. Text and Diagram Contributions: Airbus Industries Airport Design Associates (ADA) APS Aviation Inc. ARINC Boeing Aircraft Corp. Davis Langdon Everest Fabricom Airport Systems HDP Group International Air Rail Organisation Mott MacDonald Consultancy Netherlands Airport Consultants B.V. (NACO) Norman Shanks Associates International Ove Arup & Partners SITA Swiss International Air Line Ltd. Sypher Mueller Mr. Sebastien Lavina Mr. Rick Stevens & Mr. Alan Clayton Mr. Jean Valiquette & Mr. John D'Avirro Mr. Edward King Mr. Brad Bachtel Mr. Tony Potter Mr. David Reynolds & Mr. Chris Owens Mr. David Langlois & Mr. Jeremy Hill Mr. Andrew Sharpe Mr. Chris Chalk Mr. Huib Heukelom Mr. Norman Shanks Mr. Graham Bolton & Mr. Tony Barker Mr. Graham McLachlan & Mr. Peter Dalaway & Mr. Rene Azoulai Mr. Davor Frank Mr. Gordon Hamilton Ms. Catherine Lafond Mr. Eduardo Juranovic Mr. John Conlon Mr. Jim Sartin Mr. Hans Smeets Mr. Dariusz R.Sawicki Mr. Bob Lamansky & Ms. Yasuko Hashimoto Mr. Derek Sharp Mr. Davor Frank
IATA
IATA
Chapter A Introduction
Section A1: lATA's Role A1.1 IATA......................................................................................................... A1.2 IATA Airports Activities ............................................................................ A1.3 Other IATA Airports Activities................................................................... Section A2: Purpose of the Manual A2.1 Scope of the Airport Development Reference Manual ............................ A2.2 How to Use the Manual............................................................................. 5 6 3 3 4
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IATA
CHAPTER A INTRODUCTION
SECTION A1: A1.1 IATA
International air transport is one of the most dynamic and fastest-changing industries in the world. It needs a responsive, forward-looking and universal trade association, operating at the highest professional standards. IATA is that association. Originally founded in 1919, IATA brings together approximately 280 airlines, including the world's largest. Flights by these airlines comprise more than 98 percent of all international scheduled air traffic. Since these airlines face a rapidly changing world, they must cooperate in order to offer a seamless service of the highest possible standard to passengers and cargo shippers. Much of that cooperation is expressed through IATA, whose mission is to "represent, lead and serve the airline industry". Continual efforts by IATA ensure that people, freight and mail can move around the vast global airline network as easily as if they were on a single airline in a single country. In addition, IATA helps to ensure that Members' aircraft can operate safely, securely, efficiently and economically under clearly defined and understood rules. IATA is pro-active in supporting the joint industry action essential for the efficient development of the air transport system. lATA's role isto identify issues, help establish industry positions and communicate these to governments and other relevant authorities. The Airports and Infrastructure Consultancy Services section of IATA, positioned in the SO&I Division, works to put this theory into practice.
lATA'S ROLE
A1.2
IATA AIRPORTS ACTIVITIES

IATA Airports and Infrastructure Consultancy Services is responsible for influencing airport planning and development projects worldwide to ensure that airline requirements are met with respect to appropriateness, efficiency and cost-effectiveness. It produces guidelines on airport planning and design, such as this manual, and actively promotes airline user requirements to airport authorities through Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) activity and commercial airport consultancy services on airport projects worldwide. The section works to assist airlines in the development of airport facilities that will meet airline requirements in a cost-effective manner. The mandate of the section is: To take a leadership role in influencing airport planning and development worldwide in order to achieve safe and efficient, capacity balanced, cost-effective, functional and user-friendly airports. Major activities of the section are defined within subsequent clauses A1.2.1 through to A1.2.3 inclusive.
A1.2.1 Airport Consultative Committees

Consultation with airport authorities via the Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) mechanism brings together the airlines' airport planning expertise, together with the IATA secretariat, in meetings with airport authorities worldwide. ACCs serve as a focal point for consultation between airlines and airport authorities concerning the planning of major airport expansions or the development of new airports. The airports selected for such intervention are determined by Regional Airport Steering Groups in Asia/Pacific and Europe.
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A1.2.2 Airport Consultancy Services

IATA offers a wide range of Airport Planning and Development Consultancy services. It brings a global perspective to the projects it undertakes, drawing on its extensive in-house expertise and its unique access to airline experts and other specialists. Typical clients include airport authorities, private airport owners, airlines, governments, manufacturers, suppliers to the industry, consulting firms and other parties involved in airport infrastructure decisions. IATA can act as an independent consultant or provide a review of detailed work undertaken by specialised consulting firms.
A1.2.3 International Industry Working Group

The IIWG brings together IATA, Airports Council International (ACI) and the International Coordinating Council of Aerospace Industries Associations (ICCAIA). The IIWG was founded in 1970 and its main goal is to review airport/aircraft compatibility issues which might improve the development of the air transport system.
A1.3
OTHER IATA AIRPORTS ACTIVITIES

In addition to the Airport Planning and Development activities of IATA, which this Manual addresses, IATA is active in many other Airport related areas such as User Charges, Fuel, Ground Handling, Security, Passenger Services and Environment. For more information on www.iata.org/airports.htm the full range of lATA's Airport related activities, please visit
Consulting enquiries should be addressed to: [email protected]
IATA
Introduction
PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL
SECTION A2: A2.1
SCOPE OF THE AIRPORT DEVELOPMENT REFERENCE MANUAL

The IATA Airport Development Reference Manual (ADRM) is the industry's most important guide for airlines, airports, government authorities, architects and engineering consultants who are either planning new or extending existing airport facilities. The ADRM's information is an invaluable consolidation of best industry practice with respect to the development of world class airports through better design. Its content represents the consolidated recommendations of world-renowned industry specialists and organizations seeking to promote the development of world-class airport facilities. The ADRM has been completely revised since the previous (8th) edition. These revisions and new content additions reflect recent changes within the civil aviation industry, and include entirely new chapters dedicated to security and anti-terrorism issues in particular. In addition to this, specific commercial issues have been discussed and recommended practices for running airport projects have been developed. These address the need for authorities to run projects efficiently as they seek to create unique airport environments through world class design. Environmental issues have also been updated, primarily to promote savings in operational costs for airports which would then be passed-on to lATA's member airlines. This latest evolution of the ADRM also incorporates IATA Recommendations (IRs) at the end of each content section. These recommendations have been included to focus the airport operator and designer on lATA-determined best practice design principles, and to help convey the expectations of the world's major airlines with respect to the development or refurbishing of airport facilities. To foster overall ease-of-use and help the airport planner to locate key information within the ADRM, the six chapters of the previous edition document have now been divided into twenty five more concise content sections. The following new chapters with multiple sections have been included to broaden the coverage and scope of the publication and provide further essential airport planning guidance:
Airport economics. Contingency management. Airport commissioning. Future technology & miscellaneous items. Airport processes. IATA airport project process. Anti-terrorism and police facilities. Airport fire services. Networks.
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HOW TO USE THE MANUAL
This ADRM should be used by airport planners worldwide as the primary source of best practice airport design guidance. In certain instances specified within the relevant clauses of this ADRM, it is advised by IATA to refer to further external supplementary international or national publications to aid the airport planner. Seeking additional guidance from the sources listed below will help the airport planner to ensure that best and safe practices are adhered to and built into the airport design and that national standards are observed and implemented where appropriate. IATA recognizes that national standards will vary from region to region across the world. While the ADRM should be the initial source of design guidance for airport developments, the airport designer should seek to clarify national mandatory standards and decide appropriately on any potentially conflicting standards. Professional engineering and architectural guidance should be used to assess and resolve areas of conflict between the ADRM standards stated herein and any supplementary national standards. In the event that professional guidance is not sought and used for this adjudication, which is not a recommended course of action, then the designer should seek to use the higher more onerous standards in areas of uncertainty. Particular reference should be made to national air transport and nationally recognized design standards, as well as to any pertinent national legislation or construction codes, as deemed applicable within the region. The ADRM should be used in conjunction with the national legislation pertaining to the country where the airport resides. Examples of typical national legislation for consideration for the countries of Canada, United States of America and the United Kingdom include: International and national government aviation and security authorities, to include (but not limited to): International Civil Aviation Authority (ICAO), European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) Federal Aviation Authority-Transport Security Administration (FAA-TSA), United Kingdom Department for Transport (DfT) and Transport Canada-Canadian Air Transport Security Authority (CATSA). National and international legislation defining best design engineering practice to include (but not limited to) standards published by: American National Standards Institute (ANSI), British Standards Institute (BSI), International Standardization Organization (ISO). Engineering Standards Codes of Best Practices published by: Architectural: Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). Engineering: Institute of Civil Engineers, Institute of Structural Engineers (IStructE), Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE). Building Services: The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE). Fire Mitigation Engineering: Institution of Fire Engineers (United Kingdom/Canada).
A2.2
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Introduction
For general information regarding the standards defined within this manual please refer to: Mike O'Brien Director, Airport Development and Infrastructure Consultancy Services International Air Transport Association (IATA) 800 Place Victoria, P.O. Box 113 Montreal Quebec Canada. airportdev @ iata.org Fax+1 (514) 874 2662 For consultancy assistance please refer inquiries to: Chris Mirfin Director, Infrastructure Consultancy Services International Air Transport Association (IATA) 800 Place Victoria, P.O. Box 113 Montreal Quebec Canada. [email protected] Fax +1 (514) 874 2662
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IATA
Chapter B Planning
Section B1: Major Planning Processes B1.1 Airline Participation................................................................................. B1.2 Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) ..................................................... B1.3 Key Planning Items .................................................................................. B1.4 "World-Class" Airports .............................................................................. B1.5 Typical Features of World-Class Hub Airport ............................................ B1.6 IATA Global Airport Monitor ..................................................................... B1.7 IATA Facilities Planning Questionnaire..................................................... B1.8 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section B2: The Planning Process B2.1 National Planning Considerations ........................................................... B2.2 Regional Planning Considerations ........................................................... B2.3 The Airport Master Plan ............................................................................ B2.4 Local Community Issues .......................................................................... B2.5 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 37 38 38 39 39 11 11 15 23 24 31 32 36
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CHAPTER B PLANNING
SECTION B1: B1.1 MAJOR PLANNING PROCESSES
AIRLINE PARTICIPATION
As airlines are the primary users of airports and are a major source of revenue for airport authorities, it is essential that their requirements in respect of airport development projects are met effectively and at an acceptable cost. Experience has shown that the most useful and mutually beneficial course of action when considering airport development projects is to establish full, joint consultation between the airlines and an airport authority and its consultants. This should be undertaken as early as possible in the planning and design process, in order to allow operational impact assessments and/or cost benefit analysis to be determined and, if required, alternative solutions to be presented and discussed. The IATA forum for this consultation is the Airport Consultative Committee (ACC). IATA has forecast that passenger traffic will double in the next 12-15 years and it is estimated that over $400 billion will be spent worldwide to expand and upgrade airport facilities. The IATA ACC process is effective in ensuring that as many new airport facilities as possible are efficient, capacity balanced, cost effective, functional and user-friendly. In 2003, about two dozen ACCs were active mainly in Europe and Asia Pacific. IATA strives to obtain information as soon as possible regarding any proposed international airport development projects from Airline Operators Committees (AOC), Board of Airline Representatives (BAR), and other sources. Upon receipt of such information, IATA will contact the national airline and the planning specialists of the major airlines operating to that airport to determine if there is sufficient interest in the proposed airport project. If there is sufficient interest, IATA will endeavour to obtain the agreement of the airport or government authority concerned for consultation with the airlines on all aspects of the proposed development. Once the principle of joint consultation has been agreed, an ACC will be established. If it is not practicable to establish a formal ACC, the principle of airline and airport authority consultation on a local level are still valid. In such consultation, the principles and practices outlined in this manual should still be followed.
B1.2
AIRPORT CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE (ACC)
B1.2.1 ACC Objective

The objective of an ACC is to consolidate airline views and to provide a focal point for consultation between the airlines and the airport authority concerning the planning of a major airport expansion or a new airport in order to input airline functional requirements. The ACC will consolidate airline views and provide a focal point for consultation between the airlines and airport authorities concerned in the planning of major airport expansion projects or new airports in order to input airline considerations. When considering proposals for new or additional airport facilities, ACC members must constantly bear in mind that capital and subsequent maintenance and operating costs of airport developments will be ultimately reflected in user charges. Furthermore, airline operating costs are often adversely affected by inefficient airport design orterminal construction. In the analysis of an airport development project, the ACC will ensure that it provides additional capacity to meet present and projected demand in a cost-effective manner.
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B1.2.2 ACC Formation

An ACC will normally be formed under the guidance of IATA in consultation with the Regional Airports Steering Group (RASG) and the Regional Co-ordinating Group (RCG where flight operations related matters are concerned, e.g. a new runway or new airport). If there are only one or two airlines interested in the development of a particular airport, an IATA Mission may be conducted to the specific location instead of convening an ACC. Normally, IATA will participate directly in ACC meetings and will maintain close contact with its activities at all times. It should be noted that ACC activity must be separate from AOC activity because of the scale of the projects involved and the facility planning expertise required.
B1.2.3 ACC Membership

Membership on the ACC is open to all airlines serving the airport involved. Airline Headquarters will be invited to nominate either a suitably qualified planning specialist or their local representative to participate in ACC meetings. The level of expertise required will be dependent upon the scope of the project concerned. If the number of airline representatives attending an ACC meeting is very large, the Committee may elect a limited number of delegates to meet with the airport authority and act on behalf of all carriers. Today, nearly all airlines are engaged in some form of partnership, code share, or marketing agreement. These have led to the formation of alliances among the world's major carriers. Four or five global alliances dominate the airline industry, each with a need to rationalise its requirements to create the most efficient airport operations possible. In order to best achieve their needs, global alliances may consider the appointment of a single representative to oversee the needs of that alliance. To ensure that local airline views and requirements are included in the ACC proposals and effect appropriate co-ordination, the AOC will be invited to nominate a representative to participate in all ACC meetings. It will be the duty of this AOC representative (usually the AOC Chairman) to keep the full AOC informed of all ACC deliberations. At airports with multiple terminal operations, individual terminal AOC Chairman will be invited to participate. The local Board of Airline Representatives (BAR) will be invited to nominate a representative to participate in all ACC meetings. Because the ACC is the primary forum for consultation with the airport authority on all aspects of airport expansion programs, it may be necessary to obtain participation of airline representatives from other related disciplines where specific problems exist, as follows:
Facilitation Facilitation representatives may be requested to participate regarding Customs and Immigration matters that affect airport terminal design and passenger/cargo flow. Security A security advisor is assigned to an ACC early in the terminal planning process to provide input on security matters, which may affect terminal design. 20 Flight Operations If ACC discussions are likely to involve flight operations matters (e.g. new runway, taxiways, docking guidance systems, etc.), the respective IATA Regional Coordinating Group will be requested to nominate a suitably qualified representative to participate in ACC meetings. A specialist working group of the ACC may be formed to undertake detailed studies of flight operational matters. Fuel Efforts in this area are directed at monitoring jet fuel costs world-wide and trying to secure reductions particularly in cases where costs are inflated by local supply or handling monopolies, or by government taxation.
IATA
Planning

Cargo Expertise is available pertaining to all air cargo areas. User Charges As airport development projects normally impact on airport user charges, a representative of the User Charges Panel (UCP), may be requested to participate in the early planning stages of major airport projects. Airport Development and User Charges staff jointly liaise regarding locations where UCP participation is appropriate. Air Transport Action Group (ATAG) The Air Transport Action Group (ATAG) is a coalition of organisations from the air transport industry, formed to press for economically beneficial aviation capacity improvements. ATAG is a leading proponent of aviation infrastructure development, advocating the economic benefits of air transport, the industry's excellent environmental performance, and the need for major improvements in airport surface access and air traffic management capacity. ATAG's worldwide membership includes airlines, airports, manufacturers, air traffic control authorities, airline pilot and air traffic control authorities, chambers of commerce, tourism and travel associations, investment organisations, ground transport and communication providers. Recognising that its goals need to be consistent with environmental expectations, ATAG:
Emphasizes the air transport industry's progress in minimising environmental impact. Promotes the environmentally responsible growth and development of air transport.
B1.2.4 ACC Scope

The ACC is mainly concerned with airport infrastructure developments, strategic planning issues and the associated capital expenditure (CAPEX) programme of the airport. These include, but are not limited to:
Airport Master Plan includes airport layout and land use. Aircraft Parking Apron aircraft layout and related docking guidance systems. Passenger Terminal planning and design of new terminals or major expansions of existing terminals. Airside and Landside Infrastructure & Surface Access Systems. Cargo Terminal Developments air freight and air express facilities. Airport Support Facilities e.g. cargo terminals and flight kitchens.
ACCs will concentrate on achieving a rational balance between:
The level of service provided for both passenger and cargo in their respective terminal areas and
fields of operation.
The long term facility footprint and land area requirements for all parties operating at an airport.
The need for efficient, cost-effective ground handling operations and the increased facility,
resource and equipment requirements to support multiple handlers.
Increasing demand and airport capacity improvement programmes. The impact and need to allocate global airline alliances within a single operating area or terminal.
The proposed capital investment and the resultant operating cost to airlines over an agreed
period.
The need to increase concession areas and resulting revenues, and the potential impact on
passenger flows and airline operations.
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The differing needs of international carriers compared with those of domestic carriers, charters and emerging low-cost carriers (LCCs).
ACC activity will include an assessment of the capacity of existing facilities and a comparison against current and projected demand. The ACC will seek as much financial information as possible to facilitate an economic assessment of various planning options in terms of layout, space requirements, labour, equipment, etc.
B1.2.5 ACC Method of Operation

Once consultation between the airlines and airport copies of the proposed airport development plans to ACC meeting. If this is not possible, then the initial a detailed presentation of the proposed plans. authority has been agreed, IATA will request circulate to participants in advance of the first ACC meeting with the airport authorities includes
The ACC will then meet independently to analyze the plans and develop an airline position including alternative proposals regarding the proposed project. The ACC recommendations, which reflect the majority point of view, are presented verbally to the airport authority following the internal closed session. Every effort is made to resolve airline differences of opinion and to agree to a joint unified position. Presentation of the airline position is made by a suitably qualified spokesperson or if desired, by the IATA representative. The ACC recommendations are subsequently confirmed to the airport authority in writing by IATA. ACC meetings normally take place at the location of the proposed project. In certain circumstances, it may be preferable for a working group meeting to be conducted at an alternative site, which is convenient to a majority of participants. The dates of all proposed ACC meetings are usually coordinated to ensure adequate airline representation. The ACC shall decide if and when specialist ACC working groups, and/or sub-consultants should be employed to study and resolve detailed problems. This is particularly important where very large airport development projects are concerned (i.e. new airports) and specialist expertise is required for specific subject areas (i.e. terminals, apron/operations, baggage handling and cargo working groups). Each working group is expected to develop its own routine and procedures, however it is responsible to the full ACC and must report to the ACC through the Chairman and IATA . IATA will only participate where this is felt to be necessary to progress activity. If working group proposals vary significantly from that approved by the ACC, details and reasons for such must be substantiated by the group to the next ACC so that they may discuss and resolve differences of opinion. These WGs will be dissolved when a solution is found or when a satisfactory answer to a problem cannot be found. IATA can employ ACC Project Managers on behalf of member airlines to more effectively monitor airport authority Capital Expenditure programmes. This position recognises the need for continuous airline consultation, as distinct from what may be limited consultation provided by formal and infrequent ACC meetings. The airlines may request the creation of an ACC PM position through the ACC, who will discuss the arrangements for airline funding and the budget to be allocated for the position.
B1.2.6 Regional Airports Steering Groups (RASG)

IATA Regional Airports Steering Groups established in Europe and Asia/Pacific. They their regions. The review includes: are meet multi-disciplinary bodies twice a year to review of airline representatives airport developments within
Review of airport development activity in the region. Updating the Core Document, which contains a profile of the main airports in the region. Status report of ACC activity within the region. Review of proposals for new ACCs. Determining the need for an IATA Mission as a first step in establishing an ACC.
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Planning

Determining the need for airport traffic forecasts. Setting the priorities for future ACC activity in the region.
Membership of the RASG meetings is taken from active participants in the regions' ACC activities. This includes representation from airport planning, operations and scheduling disciplines. In addition, the RCG Chairman, User Charges Panel (UCP), Facilitation, Fuel, Environment and Security disciplines, and selected industry working groups such as ATAG, may also be invited to participate.
B1.2.7 Co-ordination with Other Groups

The User Charges Panel is responsible for representing the IATA airlines in negotiations with airport authorities regarding the charges for the use of the airport, including but not limited to landing fees, terminal building charges, passenger-related elements, lighting charges, air traffic control and monopoly-type user charges. It is therefore very important that the activities of ACCs and the UCP are closely co-ordinated so that the UCP is fully aware of costs emerging from ACC discussions to assist them in future negotiations with airport authorities regarding user charges. Airport authorities often misunderstand the difference between an ACC and an AOC. For information on the establishment of an AOC please see the guidelines for the establishment of the AOC in the IATA Airport Handling Manual AHM 073. These committees are concerned with the day-to-day operation of the airport for which they are established. Usually, information concerning a proposed airport development is first received from the airport authority at AOC meetings Liaison between the AOC and ACC is continuous and therefore the chairman or a representative of the AOC is invited to be a member of the ACC and participate regularly in all ACC meetings. ACC representatives must ensure that their local airport managers are fully briefed regarding the work covered at each ACC meeting and the planned action for future meetings.
B1.3
KEY PLANNING ITEMS

This section provides an initial overview of the main considerations in any airport planning and development activity. Further detail on each of these elements is provided in later sections of the manual. These items impact the airport layout and the passenger terminal design and are considered to be of major importance by the airlines. These key planning items include:
1. Runway/Taxiway Layout. 2. Road/Rail Access. 3. Terminal Design. 4. Check-in Hall. 5. CUTE. 6. Signage. 7. Security. 8. Baggage Handling System (BHS) including Hold Baggage Screening (HBS). 9. Airline Offices. 10. Airline CIP Lounges. 11. Terminal Retail Space. 12. Departure Gate Lounges. 13. Baggage Claim Hall.
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1. Meeter/Greeter Hall. 2. Apron Layout. 3. Aircraft Servicing Installations. 4. Location of Support Facilities.
B1.3.1 Runway / Taxiway Layout
Runway capacity is the most critical component at an airport. It largely depends upon the number of runways and their layout and spacing, the runway occupancy times of successive aircraft and the approach spacing applied by ATC to successive aircraft in the traffic mix. The key items that affect runway capacity are a combination of:
Availability of exit taxiways particularly Rapid Exit Taxiways (RETs) to minimise runway occupancy times. Availability of a dual taxiway system. Appropriate taxiway, holding bays and access. Aircraft mix/performance. ATC procedures and wake vortex approach spacing. Availability of A-SMGS systems during low visibility operations.
Where there are two or more runways, capacity is critically dependent upon the following aspects of the utilisation and configuration:
The spacing between parallel runways. The mode of operation; i.e. segregated or mixed. The intersecting point of intersecting runways.
B1.3.2 Access to the Passenger Terminal

The public road system and the non-public or service road system should be planned carefully in order to avoid congestion near the passenger terminal. Traffic for the support facility areas of the airport should be handled on a separate road system so that truck traffic can be kept away from the main road to/from the passenger terminal. All public roads should be clearly signposted. Clearly visible signs should be positioned on the roads and on the terminal curbside areas well in advance of desired destinations to allow drivers to make the necessary adjustments without abrupt changes. Signs should be properly lighted for night use and lettering and background colours should enhance clarity and visibility. Messages should be concise, quickly identifiable and easily understood. Colour coding for multi-terminals, airlines, car parks, etc. is recommended. Car park locations should be close to the passenger terminal. The connection between the car park and the terminal should have weather protection and provide a safe environment with adequate lighting. Arrival and departure curbside should provide large weather protected areas for passengers getting out of and into vehicles. It should provide dedicated areas for taxis and buses. Curbside check-in facilities may be required in some airports.
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Planning
High speed rail systems should be considered for airport access. The increasing use of rail systems should be encouraged by making it as widely available and as attractive as possible in terms of relative speed, reliability, price, convenience, safety and comfort. The airport rail station should be above ground, if possible. If the airport is located close to the city centre and the city already has a subway system, then consideration should be given to extending it to connect the airport to the existing public transportation system.
B1.3.3 Basic Considerations of Terminal Design

The design of passenger terminals must be related to the runway/taxiway system, apron configuration and the airport access system. The extent and location of these areas are governed by the master plan of the airport. Certain basic criteria should be observed in the planning of passenger terminals and the selection of a terminal concept. All terminals should be interconnected to allow for horizontal passenger flows, and where walking distances may be too long for fast transfers then provision of powered walkways or other people mover systems should be considered. Provision for multi-alliance hubbing should be respected, allowing for different alliances to be located strategically under a one-roof terminal concept. As alliances are not a stable element in planning, an appropriate factor of flexibility will need to be incorporated into any terminal space planning. In situations where future growth or even the diminution of a terminal's size can be accommodated, tremendous advantages in operational continuity will be seen. Other terminal design criteria include:
Easy orientation for the travelling public approaching the terminal and within the buildings (selfexplanatory traffic flow and human dimensions). Shortest possible walking distances from car parks and rail station to the terminals and more importantly, from passenger/baggage processing facilities to the aircraft and vice versa. Minimum level changes for passengers within the terminal buildings. Avoidance of passenger cross-flows. Shortest possible distance for the transportation of passengers and their baggage between the terminals and the aircraft parking positions when walking is not possible. Compatibility of all facilities with existing aircraft characteristics and built-in flexibility to accept future generations of aircraft, as far as possible. Design should be modular to cope with future expansion of each subsystem, or to allow evolution in regulations and changes in the nature of passenger flows and alliance groupings. Terminal design must meet all regulations for handling disabled persons.
B1.3.4 Check-in Hall

The passenger terminal layout is largely influenced by the check-in concept, which is designed and installed by the airport authority. It is essential therefore that airlines and handling agents be consulted at an early stage in the planning process. The airlines' acceptance of passengers and their checked baggage takes place at the check-in facility, which consists of a number of check-in counters with appropriate outbound baggage conveyance facilities. Check-in counters may be either of the frontal type or of the island type. Within each of the two main types of counters, several variants exist.
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IATA
Frontal type counters may be arranged in an uninterrupted, linear layout or be spaced so as to allow passengers to pass between the counters after check-in (pass-through layout). Island type counters are suitable for centralised check-in. Each island, the axis of which is orientated parallel to the flow of passengers through the terminal concourse, may consist of up to 16-18 individual check-in counters. The number of check-in counters per island can be doubled if two main baggage conveyor belts are installed in parallel back to back. Normally 26m separation (face-to-face) between adjacent islands is recommended. The distance passengers kept to a minimum. must carry their baggage to the closest terminal check-in point should be
Baggage trolleys should be available on the curbside, in the car park and at the railway station. Departure flight information displays must be available within the check-in area as well as information kiosks. Consideration should be given to the latest automatic self-service check-in maximising security, using biometrics, and minimising passenger check-in wait times. kiosks with a view to
B1.3.5 CUTE (Common Use Terminal Equipment)

Common Use Terminal Equipment (CUTE) is an airline industry term for a facility, which allows individual users to access their host computer(s). The basic idea of the CUTE concept is to enable airlines at an airport to share passenger terminal handling facilities. This includes such areas as check-in and gate counters on a common use basis, enabling airlines to use their own host computer applications for departure control, reservations, ticketing, boarding pass and baggage tag issuance, etc., at such counters. CUTE may also be installed in airline offices (if cost justified). CUTE provides potential savings to the airlines and airport authorities by increased utilisation of check-in counters and gate space, thus lessening the need for airports to build additional counters and gates. It may also permit an airline to automate its check-in and departure control functions when costs of installing its own equipment would be either too high or precluded by another system or equipment already installed, or not permitted by the airport authority. The CUTE vendor should be selected in cooperation with the airlines. The system may be provided either by the airport authority or directly to the airlines. A Flight Information Display System (FIDS), connected to an Airport Operational Database (AODB) should be provided and should be connected to the airlines host computer in order to provide all the users at the airport with accurate real time information. A powerful Local Area Network (LAN) infrastructure should be provided to allow data, video and voice transmission in both public and administrative areas of the passenger terminal.
B1.3.6 Signage
A well-conceived signposting system will contribute considerably to the efficient flow of passengers and traffic at the airport. It is therefore essential to consider the signposting system in the early planning and concept evaluation stages. The signage system may be a combination of fixed (boards, panels) and dynamic (monitors) signage. The signage system should be clearly separate from advertising. Airline brand name and logos should be clearly visible, allowing passengers to easily find the airline check-in or ticketing facilities. Ideally, the passenger terminal building should incorporate self-evident passenger-flow the building, but where signs are required they must provide a continuous indication of direction. routes through
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Planning
The primary purpose of an airport signposting system is to move the travelling public through a myriad of roadways and corridors using a concise and comprehensible system of directional, informational, regulatory, and identification messages. Consistent use of standard terminology in airports (including pictograms) will simplify making the transition from the ground mode to the air mode (and vice versa) for the travelling public. It is important for signposting systems to adhere to a basic consistent terminology, recognisable and universally acceptable standard functions. Message content must be understandable by sophisticated traveller. Signposting should be in "mother tongue" and English. the process of
guideline of copy styles and sizes, symbols, and uniform colours for the unsophisticated as well as the
B1.3.7 Security
Security requirements must be taken into account in all new development, re-development and refurbishment of airports, as stated in ICAO Annex 17. To do this, it is necessary to have clear government security standards which can be used by airport planners in such a way as to maintain the integrity of the local security programme, yet allow sufficient flexibility for them to be matched to the circumstances of each airport and its operations. Security requirements must be realistic, economically viable and allow for a balance to be made between the needs of aviation security, safety, operational requirements and passenger facilitation. Airlines and airport authorities should take note of the latest information on this subject in the IATA Security Manual and should ensure that due allowance for the related requirements, including costs, is made in all airport terminal and apron development plans. A centralized or semi-centralized passenger and carry-on baggage favoured. They must be properly sized, and manned, in order to avoid long queues. security check point design is
The design of the outbound baggage handling system must account for 100% Hold Baggage Screening (HBS).
B1.3.8 Baggage Handling System

Baggage handling has become such a significant element of passenger processing that the baggage system is of major importance to a smooth airline operation at the airport. The baggage handling system must be able to sort large numbers of bags quickly and with a high degree of performance reliability. With larger capacity aircraft anticipated in the next few years, the automated baggage system will become the most critical system in the airport terminal. The baggage system to be installed must be considered early in the passenger terminal design process. Certain terminal concepts may require highly automated and costly systems, while others may need only simple conveyor belts. Where automated distribution and sorting systems are contemplated, it is generally desirable to select the baggage handling systems supplier early in the project. This will enable the baggage handling supplier to participate in the system and facility design process, thereby avoiding expensive redesign and time consuming delays during construction and commissioning. The following principles will contribute to an efficient baggage handling system:
Baggage flow should be rapid, simple and involve a minimum number of handling operations. Baggage handling arrangements within the building should be consistent with apron arrangements and with the type and volume of traffic expected. Baggage handling systems should incorporate the minimum number of turns and level changes as is practicable within the terminal design. Baggage flow should not conflict with the flow of passengers, cargo, crews or vehicles.
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Provision should be made for the forwarding of transfer baggage to the departure baggage sorting areas. Flow on the apron should not be impeded by any form of physical control or check. Space for 100% HBS should be provided. Facilities for oversized baggage must be provided. Check-in take away conveyors should be provided at each counter. Plans for fallback handling in case of failure should be provided with all baggage handling systems.
B1.3.9 Airline Offices

Airline passenger processing support offices are required in close proximity to the check-in counters. The amount of space required by each airline and/or handling agency will vary depending upon such factors as volume of traffic ortype of handling service performed. Airlines will also require administrative and additional offices located in other areas of the terminal with convenient access to the passenger processing areas. Airline support offices are also required in the airside concourses close to their aircraft operation areas. The individual airline space requirements may be obtained using the questionnaire and procedure shown in Figure B1.3 at the end of this section.
B1.3.10 Airline CIP Lounges

At many international as well as domestic airports, the airlines have a marketing requirement to provide special lounges to accommodate their Commercially Important Passengers (CIP). This airline requirement has grown significantly in recent years to become a major customer service element in the way airlines handle their CIP passengers and set themselves apart from their competitors. Most airlines will require generously sized spaces for their exclusive use lounges. These lounges should be located on the airside of the terminal building and preferably on the departures level, with convenient access to the airlines' departure gates. Larger airlines will tend to combine their exclusive requirements into multiple function rooms differentiated by passenger categories (First Class, Business Class and others). These larger spaces normally require their own exclusive toilets and showers, and access by elevators and/or escalators. Also it should be noted that with the growth of airline alliances many future CIP mega-lounges will be shared by several airlines. Details of the airline space requirements for such lounges at a specific airport may be obtained using the questionnaire and procedure shown in Figure B1.3.
B1.3.11 Terminal Retail Space

Recent surveys on airports show that passengers want, and expect to see, shopping facilities at airports where they can browse when they have sufficient time. At some larger airports up to 10-12% of the terminal area is now dedicated to airport shops. With passengers willing to spend large amounts of money on airport shopping, concession revenues can provide the airport with up to 50-60% of their total airport revenues. The airlines support the airport authorities in their plans to expand airport concessions provided:
The commercial revenue earned by the airport authority is used to reduce aeronautical charges. The accessibility and accommodation for these facilities must be arranged so that maximum exposure to the passenger and visitor can be accomplished without interfering with the flow of passenger traffic in the terminal. 70-80% of retail concessions should be located airside.
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Planning
B1.3.12 Departure Gate Lounges

The departure gate lounge area should be an open area, allowing passenger circulation. There should be seating in the area for 70% of passengers. This includes seating at F&B (food & beverage) concessions. It should be a quiet environment, with an apron view, where passengers can relax, work or enjoy themselves. It should include facilities such as working positions with modem/internet and power connections, TV sets, smoking areas, children's play areas and retail and food concessions.
B1.3.13 Baggage Claim Hall

The baggage claim hall is the area in the terminal where passengers reclaim their baggage off arriving flights. Claim units of a re-circulating type allow the passengers to remain stationary, while their bags are delivered to them. Separate claim units should be available for over-sized baggage. Passengers have high expectations that baggage delivery will be efficient and they will not have to wait an unreasonable amount of time to collect their bags. Once the first bag is delivered on the carousel or racetrack, passengers expect a steady flow of bags until the last bag is delivered on the claim unit. An 11-13m separation between baggage claim units is recommended to allow enough space for passengers, trolley storage and circulation. A sufficient number of baggage trolleys should be available at the entry to the baggage claim hall. When passengers off international flights leave the baggage claim hall, they will pass through customs inspection. Customs should use red/green channels to speed up the flow of exiting passengers.
B1.3.14 Meeter Greeter Hall

Once passengers have claimed their bags and passed through Customs formalities, they enter the Meeter/Greeter Hall where they can get organized before leaving the terminal. A well-designed entranceway or corridor out of Customs in to the Meeter/Greeter Hall is required to allow arriving passengers to avoid the congestion of greeters around the exit doors. Once in the hall, arriving passengers may purchase local currency before proceeding to the curbside, car park or the train station. Many arriving passengers are welcomed on arrival by friends or family and a meeting point should be part of the design for the meeter/greeter hall. Important features of the meeter/greeter hall include:
Meeting Point. Toilets. Currency Exchanges. Food and Beverage (F&B) facilities. Car Rental counters. Hotel and Tourist Information counters. Bus and Rail Information counters. Clear signage to taxis, buses, rail station and car parks.
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B1.3.15 Apron Layout

The key aspects of aircraft stand availability are:
The number of stands provided for different types/sizes of aircraft. The availability of these stands as influenced by occupancy times. The flexibility of stands to handle different types/sizes of aircraft throughout the day. The ease of aircraft circulation and manoeuvring, including push back.
Other important issues, relating to service standards, are: Which terminal(s) are served by the aircraft stands. Whether the aircraft stands are terminal contact or remote.
Increasing importance is placed by airlines upon terminal gate stands because they provide for more rapid and comfortable handling of passengers, avoid the need for buses, and enable faster turnarounds and shorter connection times. Service roadways should be clearly marked, with the width of each lane able to accommodate the widest piece of ground equipment. Areas such as equipment staging and parking must also be clearly marked.
B1.3.16 Aircraft Servicing Installations

Fixed aircraft servicing installations reduce apron congestion and permit shorter servicing periods. However, where the apron is used by a variety of aircraft, and with wide variations in aircraft servicing points, it is recommended that only the basic services catering to the majority of aircraft be provided. Initial installation cost and the difficulty in adapting to changes in aircraft design preclude more comprehensive installations, except possibly in the case of certain aircraft stands used exclusively by one airline. Hydrant fuelling systems are preferred over mobile tankers, as they permit faster turnarounds. However, a decision to install any fixed aircraft servicing system should take place only after a careful and comprehensive appraisal of the economic (return on investment) prospects has been made. The economic viability of such systems depends on a large variety of operational factors and should be assessed only in close co-operation and agreement with the headquarters specialists of the airlines serving the airport. The following is a list of fixed aircraft servicing installations:
Hydrant fuelling system. Electric power system (400 Hz). Electric power system (50/60 Hz).
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Planning
In the provision of fixed installations, the following should be borne in mind:
Cables/hoses between the aircraft and the installation should be as short as possible and should not cross one another. Operation of the fixed installations should in no way impede other aircraft servicing functions. Pits, hydrants and other facilities connected with the fixed installations should not impede the flow of apron traffic. Fixed service installations should, as far as possible, be located close to the corresponding outlets on the aircraft and there must be close liaison between the airlines, the airport authority, the fuelling companies and other suppliers concerning all aspects of design and installation.
B1.3.17 Location of Support Facilities

Cargo terminals, flight kitchens, and aircraft maintenance facilities should be located close to the terminal apron area so that service vehicles will travel relatively short distances. The location of support facilities must take into account future expansion plans of the airport as shown in the airport master plan.
B1.4
"World-Class" AIRPORTS
The IATA Global Airport Monitor (see section B1.6) and several other Passenger Surveys, which are published annually, show how passengers have rated major airports around the world. The top rated airports usually have airport layouts that allow for efficient airline operations and passenger terminal designs that are passenger-friendly. These airports are called "World-Class" Airports.
B1.4.1 Key Characteristics of a World-Class Airport

A world-class airport should meet the needs of its customers the passengers and the airlines. The following lists show the items that passengers and the airlines consider important when rating an airport.
B1.4.2 A Passenger Viewpoint:
1. Easy access to/from the airport by road and rail. 2.

Short walking distances from curbside to check-in and from check-in to aircraft gate, with no level changes. Similarly short walking distances from the aircraft to the baggage claim area and then from Customs to the curbside or the rail station.
3. Attractive architecture and landscaping to provide a pleasant, relaxing atmosphere. 4. Short queues at all check points such as check-in, security, passport control and boarding. 5. Good aircraft on-time departure performance. 6. Fast baggage delivery and ample baggage trolleys. 7. Clear and concise signage. 8. Good variety of retailers. 9. Attractive CIP lounges conveniently located near the aircraft gate. 10. Good selection of moderately priced eating establishments.
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B1.4.3 An Airline Viewpoint:
1. A master plan that optimises the location of key functions on the airport and allows for orderly
expansion.
2. A
runway layout terminal expansion.
that
maximises
runway
capacity
and
allows
adequate
space
for
apron
and
3. A runway and taxiway layout that minimises aircraft taxing distances. 4. An apron layout with energy efficient aircraft ground support equipment, sufficient and well-located
staging areas for baggage, cargo and ground equipment with handlers, and no cul de sacs (dead ends) that impede aircraft manoeuvring. ahead of an efficient airline operation and a terminal that airline accommodation space including the needs of alliance airlines. passenger terminal building with an efficient also supports short MCTs (minimum connecting times). enough space for several ground
5. An attractive work place for airline staff, but with a terminal that doesn't put architectural design
provides sufficient and suitably
located that
6. A
outbound/transfer
baggage
sortation
system
7. A passenger terminal that allows 90% of passengers to use passenger boarding bridges, with
aircraft parking on remote stands using buses to meet peak demand, and short walking for commuter aircraft. airport shopping for airline passengers between the check-in area and the aircraft gate, revenues that help reduce airline user charges. that doesn't interfere and yet provides the distances
8. Excellent
with passenger flows airport with commercial
9. An airport with reasonable user charges. 10. An airport authority that can see the mutual benefits of working with the airlines in planning major
facility changes.
B1.5
TYPICAL FEATURES OF WORLD-CLASS HUB AIRPORT

It should be noted that for an airport to become a world-class airport more than just good facilities are required. The airport staff should be friendly and the public areas of the passenger terminals, especially toilets, must be clean. Also, airline and government processes must allow passengers to move quickly through the terminal building, from the departures curbside to the aircraft door and from the aircraft door to the arrivals curbside. To guide airport authorities towards of generic criteria that must be met: becoming a world-class hub airport, the following is a checklist
B1.5.1 Geographic / Political Location

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A medium to large sized airport with international, regional and domestic traffic. Regionally competitive in terms of costs, facilities and convenience. Geographically world air route. situated along a major world air-route, or at the cross roads of more than one
Geographically located in a catchment area of substantial O&D traffic. Healthy regional and national economic growth. No political restraints to commercially acceptable bilateral agreements. No environmental constraints on aircraft operations.
IATA
Planning
No restrictions on airspace capacity. No conflict with other close airports or military traffic restrictions. No threat to schedule integrity or reliability from airspace or ATC issues.
B1.5.2 Airspace / ATC (Air Traffic Control)
Airfield and Infrastructure

Runways and other airfield facilities able to handle all traffic demands. Runway capacity routinely in excess of 75 movements per hour. No limiting curfews. All-weather operations. Regular and reliable transport links to closest major city; a rapid rail service is the preferred option, if economically viable. Adequate private car parking at reasonable cost including long-term parking with shuttle bus service. Capacity to handle large traffic peaks with high activity during the peaks. Reliable airport services/utilities such as power supply, water supply, fuel supply. Spacing of runways, taxiways, taxilanes to allow Code F aircraft operations. Dedicated locations for competing ground equipment parking and container storage racking.
Passenger Terminals
Sufficient airport and terminal facilities to allow airlines to meet their own airline service standards at a reasonable cost (see Figure B2.1 for airline service standards that need to be converted into physical airport facilities). IATA Level of Service C or better should be attained (subject to acceptable capital cost and resultant operational cost limitations) Refer to Section F9.1.2 Apron configuration and capacity to not inhibit scheduling and to allow airline alliance proximity parking for hubbing operations. Apron services available aircraft fuelling, ground power. Competitive MCTs (Minimum Connecting Times). MCTs must be competitive with competing regional airports. Adequate facilities to allow single airlines or alliance airlines to complex flights within published MCT. Sufficient aircraft stands to meet peak demands buses to remote stands. 90-95% of passengers (on an annual basis) should be served by a passenger boarding bridge. Terminal facilities to accommodate complex peak demand. Inter-terminal passenger and baggage transfer systems. Intra-terminal walking distances minimized.
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A choice of competing passenger, baggage, ramp and engineering handling agencies. Ability to allow airlines to self-handle if required. Government agency processing times to world standards. Automated baggage sortation systems with high peak hour reliability and flexibility to cope with high levels of transfer baggage. In-line HBS system is preferred option. FIDS systems throughout terminal. CUTE systems at check-in areas as well as at the boarding gates. Airside and landside retail outlets at High Street prices, or better. Sufficient terminal space to allow airline alliances to consolidate their space requirements. Logical flow and proximity between check-in counters, airline CIP lounges, and departure gates. Sufficient space for airlines to lease administrative offices, CIP lounges and staff amenities.
B1.5.5 Air Cargo & Air Express Terminals
A choice of competing freight and catering handling agencies. Direct access from the cargo and express terminals to the cargo apron. Sufficient freighter parking positions, with tether pits (nose wheel tie-down to maintain aircraft balance during loading and unloading).
B1.5.6 User Charges
Sufficient airport and terminal facilities to allow airlines to meet airline service standards at a reasonable cost. Transparent pricing mechanisms on "single till" basis (refer to Chapter D).
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Planning
B1.5.7 Conclusions
It is a challenge for an airport authority to meet all of the planning criteria required to become a 'worldclass' airport. Nevertheless, it is important that airport authorities and their airport planning consultants are aware of the airline industry's views on airport service/planning excellence. The following tables on Airport Passenger Terminal requirements for a 'world-class' passenger terminal: Planning Standards summarize airline
FIG. B1.1: AIRPORT PASSENGER TERMINAL PLANNING STANDARDS AIRPORT PASSENGER TERMINAL PLANNING STANDARDS
Planning Element
Planning Standard for Typical Busy Day 90% of passengers can access the airport within 30 - 45 minutes of the CBD. Business Class - Maximum Queuing Time of 3-5 min. Economy Class - Maximum Queuing Time of 15-20 min. Tourist (Charter/ No Frills) Class Maximum Queuing Time of 25-30 min. For additional information on minimum and maximum check-in waiting times, refer to Section F.9.8 Table 9.7. Space - for passengers waiting up to 30 minutes. 1.8 m2 per international passenger. 1.3 m2 for domestic passengers, Incl. Inter-queue space and baggage trolleys. Refer to Section F9.1.3. Seating for 5% of passengers.
Recommended Practice Express train service should be available every 15 - 20 minutes. Employee transportation plan is Island layout is preferred. 16-18 counters per side. Separation distance between islands of 2426m. T1 JFK counters - a "benchmark" design. CUTE (Common Use Terminal Equipment) system where a clear financial rationale for its implementation is apparent. Special counters for handling over size baggage. Automated baggage system using IATA 10 digit LP bar code tags or RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) tags. In-line HBS (Hold Baggage Screening) system. BRS (Baggage Reconciliation System) preferred. Ticket counters at head of each island, or located close-by, with space for back office & safe.
Airport Access
Check-in Hall
Security Screening
Maximum Queuing Time of 3-5 min. Space for passengers waiting up to 10 minutes. 1.0 m2 per passenger. Refer to Section F9.10.3 Maximum Queuing Time of 5 min. Space - for passengers waiting up to 10 minutes. 1.0 m2 per passenger. Refer to Section F9.10.2 4m2 per passenger
Outbound Passport Control
Introduction of biometrics will speed up processing.
CIP Lounges
Departures Lounge
Space - 1.2m2 per passenger standing & 1.7m2 per passenger seated. Seating for 10% of passengers where passengers do not have to wait; 60% where passengers do have to wait.
Preferred location for lounges is airside in normal passenger flow between check-in and aircraft gates. Size sufficient to be shared by Alliance partners
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FIG. B1.1 Continued: AIRPORT PASSENGER TERMINAL PLANNING STANDARDS AIRPORT PASSENGER TERMINAL PLANNING STANDARDS
Planning Element
Planning Standard for Typical Busy Day Space - 1.2m2 per passenger standing & 1.7 m2 per passenger seated Seating - 70% of passengers should have access to seating, including seating at F&B (food & beverage) concessions. Walking Distance Maximums of 250 300m unaided & 650m with moving walkways (of which not more than 200m unaided). APMs for travel over 500m. 90 - 95% of passengers (on an annual basis) will be served by a passenger boarding bridge. PBB justified with minimum of 4-6 aircraft operations/day.
Recommended Practice WB aircraft should be parked close to the main PTB to reduce the walking distances for largest numbers of passengers. Gate lounge should include podium counter close entrance to PBB & include CUTE system with 2 boarding pass readers for aircraft larger than type C, a document printer & boarding pass printer. Shared baggage facility (shutes/freight elevator to apron level) at the gate Apron drive bridges with 400 Hz fixed ground power, air conditioning & potable water attached. Glass-walled bridge preferred. Code 'E' aircraft - one or two bridges 'NLA' aircraft - one bridge to upper deck & one bridge to main deck. Aircraft docking guidance system. Ramps (with slope not exceeding 1:12) should be used to connect the PBB with the departures gate lounge (upper level) and Sufficient land for twin independent (1,8002,000m separation) staggered parallel runways (3500 - 4000m length x 60m width) with space for 2 additional close parallel runways. Introduction of biometrics will speed up processing.
Departure Gate Lounges
Passenger Boarding Bridges
Aircraft On-Time Performance
Inbound Passport Control
Maximum Queuing Time of 10 min. Space - for passengers waiting up to 30 minutes. 1.0 m2 per passenger. Refer to Section F9.10.2
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Planning
Planning Element
Planning Standard for Typical Busy Day
Recommended Practice Sufficient numbers to be provided to allocate at least one 85m baggage claim unit per B747 flight. Refer to Section U.5.3 Separate device(s) for handling over size baggage. An 11-13m separation between baggage claim units Sufficient baggage trolleys to be available on entry to the baggage claim hall. ATMs (Automated Teller Machines) located Recommended use of Red/Green Channels. Easy access to train station
Baggage Claim Hall
Wheel stop to Last Bag Business Class NB-15mln. WB-20 min. Economy Class NB - 25 min. WB - 40 min. Space -1.7m2 per passenger (excluding baggage claim unit) Refer to Section F9.10.6
Inbound Customs Meeter Greeter Hall
Space -1.7m2 per passenger & greeter. 20% of space for seating. Business Class - passenger on the curbside 20-25 minutes after aircraft arrival. Economy Class - passengers on the curbside 40-45 minutes after aircraft
Passenger Arrival- Wheel stop to Curbside ICAO recommended practice is 45 minutes
Wayfinding
Airline Offices
10m2 per staff member Rule of Thumb # check-in counters x 100 m2
The PTB should incorporate selfevident passenger flow routes through the building, but where signs are required they must provide a continuous indication of direction. Signposting system should use a concise & comprehensive system of directional, informational, regulatory & identification messages. It should adhere to a basic guideline of copy styles sizes, Sufficient space to lease& to airlines & Alliances. Located landside reasonably close to check-in. Clearly signposted.
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IATA

Planning Element
Planning Standard for Typical Busy Day Airport facilities must comply with national laws and regulations.
Recommended Practice
Passengers with Disabilities Retail/Concessions
MCT - (Minimum Connecting Time)
Domestic-Domestic - 35-45 min. Domestic-International - 35-45 min. International-Domestic - 45-60 min. International-International - 45-60 min. Refer to Section U1.2.6 for specific baggage connecting times. Transfer Counter - Maximum Queuing Time of 5-10 min. Space - for passengers waiting up to 30 minutes. 1.2 m2 per passenger, incl. interqueue space and baggage trolleys. Refer to Section F9.1.3. Seating for 5% of passengers.
Airport Authority should obtain 50 60% of total airport revenue from retail/concessions. 70-80% of retail concessions should be located airside. Retail/concession facilities should not interfere with passengers flows between check-in and the departure gate
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IATA
Planning
B1.6
IATA GLOBAL AIRPORT MONITOR

The Global Airport Monitor is a customer satisfaction benchmarking programme that analyses the perceptions of international, domestic and transborder travelers and provides an up-to-date marketing index to measure the service quality of participating airports. This benchmarking tool explores passengers' 'on-the-day' experience of an airport on a wide range of service elements on a worldwide basis. The questionnaire is distributed to passengers in the departure lounges (airside) 30-45 minutes prior to departure. Each airport receives approximately 350 questionnaires per quarter. If an airport needs a more robust sample by segment, e.g. Transborder/Domestic or per terminal for more detailed analysis, an increased sample size is constructed. The survey is carried out according to a precise sampling plan constructed with the airport management, ensuring the sample is representative of the airport's traffic mix. The questionnaire covers 24 airport service attributes and 4 airline service elements as well as demographic/ travel and connecting passenger profile. The 24 airport service attributes include:
1. Ease of finding your way through the airport/ signposting. 2. Flight information screens. 3. Availability of flights to other cities. 4. Ease of making connections with other flights. 5. Availability of baggage carts. 6. Courtesy, helpfulness of airport staff (excluding check-in). 7. Restaurant/ eating facilities. 8. Shopping facilities. 9. Business facilities (i.e. computers, internet). 10. Washrooms. 11. Passport and Visa inspection. 12. Security inspection. 13. Customs inspection. 14. Comfortable waiting/ gate areas. 15. Cleanliness of airport terminal. 16. Speed of baggage delivery service, (previous experience). 17. Ground transportation to/ from airport. 18. Parking facilities. 19. Sense of security. 20. Ambience of the airport. 21. Overall satisfaction with airport. 22. Value for money for restaurant/eating facilities. 23. Value for money for shopping facilities. 24. Value for money for parking facilities.
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Each year IATA publishes the results of the Global Airport Monitor surveys conducted at major airports around the world. Figure B1-2 shows the rankings of the Top 10 Airports from 1998-2002.
Figure B1-2: Rankings of Top 10 Airports from 1998-2002

Singapore Helsinki Manchester Melbourne Geneva Zurich Amsterdam Copenhagen Montreal Mirabel Orlando Copenhagen Singapore Helsinki Vancouver Manchester Kuala Lumpur Cincinnati Perth Amsterda m Hong Kong Singapore Sydney Helsinki Hong Kong Copenhagen Minneapolis Paul Manchester Vienna Birmingham Vancouver Dubai Singapore Copenhage n Seoul Incheon Helsinki Sydney Athens Hong Kong Bermuda Vancouver Dubai Singapore Hong Kong Copenhagen Kuala Lumpur Seoul Incheon Athens Vancouver Cincinnati
Sydney_________
St.
10
For information on the IATA Global Airport Monitor contact [email protected].
B1.7
IATA FACILITIES PLANNING QUESTIONNAIRE

At an early stage in an airport project, specific airline space and facility requirements must be determined. The recommended document for obtaining this required information is the IATA Facilities Planning Questionnaire. See FIG. B1.3 at the end of this chapter. It must be anticipated that the contents of the questionnaire may not be completely applicable at all airports, but it is expected that the basic document can be used at all locations, with suitable notes indicating items which should be ignored, deleted or possibly added. Therefore, before circulation, the airlines and the airport authority should agree both on the sections to be used, and any variation in their content. IATA will arrange the circulation of the questionnaire to all airlines operating at that airport, and to non-airline handling agencies (where applicable) requesting completion in as much detail as possible and return to IATA for consolidation and subsequent presentation to the airport authority. Responses from each airline are kept confidential. Estimates of rental rates for leasing space should be available to the airlines early in the planning process. The rental rates usually affect the amount of space that an airline will request. If rates are high, the airline may reduce its space requirements. At airports where more than one terminal building is involved, it may be necessary to complete separate questionnaire sections for each building. Requirements associated directly with staff numbers should be based on the maximum number of staff on duty on a particular shift. Care should be taken not to use cumulative figures of total staff employed, although provision must be included for shift changeover, when assessing car parking requirements, locker room areas, etc.
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Figure B1-3: IATA Facilities Planning Questionnaire

Estimates for planning purposes only not a commitment to rent the required space Airline:_________________________________ Planning Years_____________to ______________ Airport:_________________________________
1. 1.1
HANDLING ARRANGEMENTS Passenger Baggage Handling

Do you intend to perform your own passenger baggage handling function? YES / NO
If "NO" state name of handling agency/airline now used__________________________________ If "YES" indicate whether in full or part.
handling agency/airline: FULL / PART
If "PART' indicate which functions you intend to perform and which are to be performed by the
Function Ticket Sales Passenger Check-in Seat Allocation Load Control Passenger Boarding Control Baggage Sorting Flight Operations Crew Briefing
If Self Handling Tick ()
Function Peformed by Handling Agency If Yes Name of Agency/ Tick () Airline
1.2
Apron Handling
Do you intend to perform your own apron handling function? YES / NO
If "NO" state name of handling agency/airline now used If "YES" indicate whether in full or part.
Function FULL / PART
If "PART' indicate which functions you intend to perform and which are to be performed by the
If Self Handling Tick () Baggage/Cargo Loading/Unloading Aircraft Push-back Aircraft Catering Aircraft Cleaning Aircraft Toilet Service Function Peformed by Handling Agency Name of If Yes Agency/ Airline Tick ()
IATA

Cargo Handling
Do you intend to perform your own cargo handling function? YES / NO
1.3
If "NO" state name of handling agency/airline now used If "YES" indicate whether in full or part. FULL / PART If "PART' indicate which functions you intend to perform and which are to be performed by the handling agency/airline:
Function If SelfHandling Tick () Function Performed by Handling Agency Name of If YeTick K) Agency/ Airline
Export Goods acceptance/paperwork Cargo processing Container/Pallet build-up Aircraft loading Import Aircraft unloading Container/Pallet breakdown Cargo processing Customer contact/paperwork
IATA
Planning
SPACE/FACILITY REQUIREMENTS Passenger Terminal
State your existing facilities and requirements for the forecast years specified above. Airlines intending to be handled by third parties should only specify those requirements which would not be provided by the handling agent. Function Staff Desired Location Existing Facilities Requirements Year Requirements Year
2. 2.1
No. Check-in Counters No. Self-Service Counters No. CUSS Kiosks Check-in Support Offices No. Ticket/Sales Counters (not included above) Administrative Offices Operations Offices VIP/CIP Lounge Communications Facilities (specify) Line Maintenance Offices/Stores Ground Equipment Parking Other (specify) Joint Use of Facilities Indicate below whether your airline is prepared to share any of the facilities below with another airline or agency. Facilities Check-in Counters Ticket/Sales Counters Departure Baggage System VIP/CIP Lounge Tick K) if Prepared to Share Yes No
___ 7
m' nf m^ nrr* m< m'
m' nf nV m< m< m<
m* m' m< m* rtf
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Support Facilities
Function Staff Desired Location Existing Facilities m m m m Requirements Year m m m m Requirements Year m^
tvf
2.2
Aircraft Maintenance Ground Equipment Maintenance Offices/Workshops Aircraft Catering Other (specify)
2.3
Cargo Terminal (Exclusive Airline Space Only)

Function Staff Desired Location Existing Facilities
ITf
Requirements Year m* rrf m m m m rtf m< _^ m m
Requirements Year n? nf ttf m< mJ m/
Storage Area Processing Area ULD/Equipment Storage Area Office Space Bonded Area Other (specify)
B1.8
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
B1.IR1 Experience has shown that the most effective and mutually beneficial course of action for the airlines is to establish consultation with the aiiport authority and its consultants as early as possible to explore alternative airport plans and terminal concepts. An ACC (Airport Consultative Committee) is the forum to consolidate airline views and to provide a focal point for consultation between the airlines and the airport authority concerning the planning of a major airport expansion or a nf;w airport, in order to input airline functional requirements. A successful ACC has major benefits for both the airlines and the airport authority. Where formation of an ACC is not practical due to resource limitations, airports should still have a regular detailed dialogue with the relevant airlines and handling agents
B1.IR2 The Aiiport Passenger Terminal Planning Standards table summarizes airline requirements for a "world-class" passenger terminal. An airport authority should ensure that its consultants planning the airport terminal incorporate these planning standards and recommended practices into the design of the airport passenger terminal.
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Planning
SECTION B2: THE PLANNING PROCESS B2.1 NATIONAL PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

It is advisable for national governments to develop a strategic planning objective for the medium and long-term development of airports within their national jurisdiction. The strategic proposal should look at existing air traffic control as well as runway and terminal capacities and then should define strategic objectives for the phased expansion or development of new or existing airports. An example whereby this holistic strategic approach has been well adopted can be cited by the British government (Department for Transport), which created and developed The South East and East of England Regional Consultation Document. This specific paper was based on the results of the South East and East of England Regional Air Services (SERAS) Study. This document included proposals for different amounts of new runway capacity as well as options that limit development in the South East of England at a strategic level. While the SERAS document is specific to the region in question, it does demonstrate the necessary level of governmental strategic thinking that is required and represents an excellent benchmark in this regard for governments worldwide. Generally the formal planning sequence which is followed is denoted by the following stages. It should be noted that national government planning sequence variations are likely to occur: Stage 1. Review of Governmental National Planning Strategy for ATC/Runways/Airport Infrastructure. Stage 2. Preparation of Initial Master Plan for Proposed International/Regional Airport. Stage 3. Review of Local Community's Sensitivities. Stage 4. Refinement of Master Plan. Stage 5. Planning Application. Stage 6. Planning Appeal (as necessary). Stage 7. Planning Decision. The national plan should be developed in consultation with all airport operators, national and international commercial interests, airlines and IATA, and should address the following issues for the perceived 30 year development period:
National commercial and political objectives where government and financial institutions seek to expand regions within a nation for development or continued expansion. Existing airline routes and the viability of new routes. Ecological and environmental impact of airport and flight operations to new or expanded existing airports. Commercial impact studies on existing airports, airlines and handling agents, including those pertaining to cargo operations. Rail and road impact studies. Impact on existing and future aircraft traffic movements. Commercial impact on local businesses and employment rate variations. Social impact on residential areas surrounding the airport. Identification and impact on areas of natural beauty, historic sites and religious monuments.
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Methods that may be employed to access the national airport planning document should be published in appropriate press and government information sources. The document itself should be a realistic interpretation of the facts developed by a wide cross section of the airport and airline industry, as well as local community representatives. The document should include but should not be limited to the following detailed sections:

B2.2
Statement of airport development needs for the nation. National and regional business development needs. Social needs and relevant impact statement. ATM national development plan. Airport to rail and road national development position statement. National airport development plan. High level funding options for national airport development alternatives. List of contributors to the text.
REGIONAL PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

The regional planning paper should be a more regionally focused and detailed derivation of the national planning document. Typically, a regional area would contain no more than two large or medium sized airports within its boundary. The concepts presented need not be detailed construction solutions, although expert civil, structural and specialist engineering advice is still required so that any solutions proposed can be realistically developed when need be. These might include: Statement of airport development needs for the region. Regional business development needs. Regional social needs and impact statement. ATM regional plan and national overview. Rail and road infrastructure solutions to aid airport development plan. Regional airport development plan and study (concept options). Airport regional development plan objectives and option recommendations. Regional airport development funding options. List of contributors to the text.
B2.3
THE AIRPORT MASTER PLAN

The airport master plan is an airport-specific document which fulfills the objectives and requirements of the national and especially the regional airports plan. The concept option recommendations within the regional plan are produced for a specific airport, and should technically be more developed and expanded upon. Typically, the master plan document should be developed as a 30 year forecast of development options which would include the following topics:
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Airport development long term phased objectives. Concept variations (normally 3 or more sub options developed). Social and environmental impact statement and recommendations. Runway development plan and recommendations.
IATA
Planning

Cost plan restraint objectives. Construction programme constraints. Energy consumption targets.
The airport master plan should be used as a tool in the earlier stages of negotiations with the local planning authority to explain the level of impact the various options would have, and to help generate a forum for the authority's concerns as well as those of the local community. The document should support the subsequent formal planning application produced during the ensuing feasibility design stage.
B2.4
LOCAL COMMUNITY ISSUES

The local community will be concerned with a variety of issues and will include groups in favor of and less than amenable to future airport development. It is important that the developer addresses and listens to the concerns and issues raised by the community. The developer should endeavour to reduce uncertainty and misunderstanding by engendering regular and clear communication channels with local community groups. Often the local community can make valuable suggestions which, although simply a fine detail to the airport master planner, may be very important to the local community as a whole. Indeed, detailed suggestions can and often are put forward by community groups which might have little cost impact, but which can also dramatically improve living and working conditions in the area. The following issues should be addressed via regular discussion with local community groups:

B2.5
Confirmation of night flight movement schedules resulting from proposed development plans. Development of further runway plans. Development of terminal and infrastructure facilities. Noise reduction plans. Environmentally sensitive land issues. Construction period strategies to minimize disturbance.
B2.IR1 National and Regional Planning Documentation It is recommended that governments develop National and Regional planning documents in accordance with clause B2.1 and clause B2.2 respectively. Regional planning documents should be a natural progression from any National planning strategy documentation developed in consultation with all interested parties.
B2.IR2 Master Plan When developing and producing airport master plans it is recommended that airport developers follow the philosophy and approach defined within clause B2.3 and that economic and local community issuon are discussed and fully addressed
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B2.IR3 Local Communications The developer should endeavour to reduce uncertainty and misunderstanding by maintaining open, clear and courteous channels of communication with representatives from affected local communities
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IATA
Chapter C Master Planning

Section C1: Principles C1.1 Introduction........................................................................................... C1.2 The Master Plan Ten Step Sequence .................................................. C1.3 Step 1 Stakeholders and Objectives................................................... C1.4 Step 2 Site Evaluation ....................................................................... C1.5 Step 3 Airfield Configuration ............................................................... C1.6 Step 4 Runway Orientation ................................................................ C1.7 Step 5 Aprons....................................................................................... C1.8 Step 6 Taxiway Systems..................................................................... C1.9 Step 7 Passenger Terminal/Apron Complex Configurations ............... C1.10 Step 8 Alignment of Terminal Building and Piers to Service Stands .. 43 46 47 47 51 67 68 70 74 76 77 77 78 78 86
C1.11 Step 9 Alignment and Provision of Support Processes...................... C1.12 Step 10 Aircraft Maintenance.............................................................. C1.12 Step 10a Cargo ................................................................................... C1.13 Master Plan Deliverable Preliminary Land-Use Layouts ..................... C1.14 IATA Recommendations.......................................................................... Section C2: Forecasting C2.1 Introduction and Forecasting Definition ................................................ C2.2 Objectives of Forecasting....................................................................... C2.3 Forecast Data......................................................................................... C2.4 Segmentation ........................................................................................ C2.5 Demands and Trends.............................................................................. C2.6 Forecasting Methodology....................................................................... C2.7 IATA Recommendations ......................................................................... Section C3: Land Use Planning C3.1 General Introduction.............................................................................. C3.2 Long Term Vision ................................................................................... C3.3 Assessing Noise....................................................................................... C3.4 Land Use Within Noise Zones ................................................................
88 88 89 91 92 94 97
98 98 99 99
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C3.5 Land Use Management........................................................................... C3.6 Land Use Control ................................................................................... C3.7 Airport Land Use Planning ...................................................................... C3.8 IATA Recommendations ......................................................................... Section C4: Control Towers C4.1 Purpose Overview.................................................................................. C4.2 Design Characteristics ........................................................................... C4.3 Control Tower Position............................................................................ C4.4 IATA Recommendations .........................................................................
99 100 101 102
103 103 105 106
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CHAPTER C MASTER PLANNING SECTION CI: PRINCIPLES

C1.1 INTRODUCTION
The airport master plan is created to guide the future development expectations of airports and to establish their ability to expand and develop in a logical, sustainable and cost effective manner. Airline market forces are discernibly linked to the master plan development proposal; i.e. as airport traffic increases the facility's development and operations should be phased to provide the appropriate airport processes and sized infrastructure. Should an airline's operations fluctuate, then the master plan should also contain the flexibility to be able to respond accordingly. Master plans can be created for new or existing airport locations and should be considered as active, live documents which should be systematically reviewed at least every 5 years. This regular review and update process should address variations in market forces and the operational requirements of the facility's airline clients. Existing master plans can be revised to accommodate unforeseen commercial variations to the airport's or airline's operations. The master plan will provide a detailed and accurate assessment of how an airport should deliver its services to its airline and ground handling clients in an effective and controlled manner, with due consideration for safety, development costs and the resultant realistic cost and profit recovery mechanisms. In this section the major attributes and details of an airport master plan are discussed. The master plan ten point staged sequence is also provided for planners who may find themselves faced with 'blank canvas' airport development proposals. This sequence has been compiled to help airport planners systematically construct the master plan, giving due attention to the primary and secondary facilities being proposed and their subsequent placement on the airport site.
C1.1.1 Development Restrictions

There can be both natural and artificial restrictions which may limit the extent of future airport development. These need to be determined at the beginning of the planning process so that all parties are aware of any constraints that may impact on future capacity development. Restrictions may cover environmental boundaries on over-flight of neighboring countries or towns, political limitations on adjacent airport growth that may adversely distort or influence development, planning conditions that may limit airline and aircraft operations, restrictions that may determine aircraft type or time of operation, or limits on noise and quantity of emission levels that should not be exceeded. There may also be topographical or man-made features that restrict operations or impose payload limits on certain aircraft types. Such restrictions can be removed but this usually comes at a significant cost.
C1.1.2 Capacity Constraints and Developments

It is important for airport operators to know what currently constrains their airport capacity. If the constraint is an operational process deficiency or an infrastructure provision deficiency or both, it needs to be understood fully before the decision to expand or change the airport process or infrastructure is made. If no constraints currently exist then they must look to the future and predict when individual facilities or support infrastructure will fail to provide the required level of service. The reality is that improving and expanding facilities can often be very costly. As airport operational costs will ultimately be cascaded to the primary business partners of the facility, airport development expenditure should be justified with a detailed supporting business case defining the reasons why airport growth should be provided.
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C1.1.3 Planning Horizons

Traditionally, the long-term planning horizon for airports extended no further than 20 years. IATA now views this as being too short-sighted. Airport authorities should always endeavour to look to the ultimate development potential and capacity of their site. Ultimate development potential may be determined when the runway system is saturated, though in other instances stand availability or the capacity limits of passenger terminals, support facilities or land-side access systems may be the determining factor. Local considerations may confine development ambitions within the boundaries of the airport perimeter. Airport authorities and companies must determine the maximum or ultimate capacity possible that can be adequately served by the existing and potential future apron and terminal provision. This knowledge should be at the core of the airport master plan for each airport.
C1.1.4 Improving Operational Efficiency and Flexibility

Airport operators and airlines should in the fist instance look at the extension of existing facilities rather than the construction of separate new facilities that may duplicate all or part of their current operations. The design of new facilities should be as flexible as practically possible, with a building's layout and construction techniques promoting variations in the operational usage of the building at some point in the future. The design of building envelopes should aid the expansion of the facility, which is almost inevitable, through the use of modular design solutions where practical. Modular design solutions can allow airports to modify their operations with minimum impact on airport clients, and the benefits of this approach should be explored fully. All new airport facilities should be planned with future expansion in mind to support the ultimate development potential of the airport. Base carriers generally need to have a single point of operation in order for them to provide an efficient and effective hub. By operating from one base, the base carrier can increase its percentage of the transfer market by maximising the number of city pairs served. Any situation where they are coerced into operating from two airports will weaken their ability to compete, as two operational bases will result in unnecessarily duplicated costs. Airport authorities and companies should liase regularly with the relevant airlines to establish their operational and business objectives so as to align the design of their airport accordingly. Multi-airport systems may only exist where there is no possibility of operating from a multi-airport system needs to have sufficient traffic volume (20 to 30 mppa) to independent operations. Success will be heavily dependent on each facility securing a major network carrier or an alliance grouping, and many high-volume individual to both airports would be needed. single base. A support entirely the support of routes operating
C1.1.5 Political Considerations

It is often the case that local political interests will seek to manipulate market conditions by restricting or forcing airlines to fly certain types of traffic from particular airports. This is principally apparent in cities where a new airport project would likely cause the closure of an existing facility, and is generally practiced to appease a local populace fearful of losing the economic conditions and benefits that are associated with large airports. The serious operational and financial implications that this course of action can have on the airlines in question should be fully appreciated by airport authorities and companies, as these factors can ultimately impact on the basic viability of the region's air travel market.
IATA
Master Planning
C1.1.6 Financial Considerations

For all airport developments large or small, the eventual benefits to the various stakeholder groups must be positive and outweigh the cost of the development; e.g. a thorough cost benefit analysis should be undertaken to support all capital expenditure (CAPEX). A financial model should be established which shows the proposed method and time scales for cost recovery, which will in turn allow the airlines to determine what the proposed impact may be on their yields and operating costs. Where relocation of the entire airfield is being considered to a new 'green-field' or 'blue-sea' location, financial support will be required from governments to offset the political costs of re-establishing infrastructure at the new site. This is particularly true of large-scale developments that include surface access system provision, primary utility supply and distribution networks, and preliminary site preparation works that may be essential to support operations in the new location. It should also be noted that any proceeds accruing from the sale of land or facilities at the former site should be used to offset the cost of new facilities. For further information on financial matters pertaining to airport development, please refer to Chapter D, Sections D1 to D4 inclusive.
C1.1.7 Existing Airports

No two existing airports are identical. While there may be similarities in certain facilities created by particular runway configurations, each will possess several unique characteristics often created through compromise. The main problem with existing airports concerns how to expand facilities that have run out of room to develop in their present locations. A common operational dilemma may arise in these circumstances whereby the airlines using an existing airport will usually want to continue to operate from that location, and yet this in turn may prevent the facility from sufficiently limiting its operations to allow for the required expansion and redevelopment. Airport operators in this case tend to take the view that the existing operation should be expanded towards its limit, while in parallel a process is begun to develop a replacement facility. The existing airport is then capable of possibly being redeveloped at a later stage for a different aviation market, or indeed sold off as general real estate once decommissioned.
CI .1.8 New Airports

At 'green-field' or 'blue-sea' sites the planner essentially has a blank canvass upon which to compose their airport master plan, which should ideally follow the ten step sequence defined within clause C1.2 below. This sequence defines the primary and logical steps that all airport developers should follow when creating a master plan. As with existing airports, the travel distance and accessibility to the new airport site are primary requirements, and the apron area tends to be the central pivot point of a balanced design approach. Refer to the development zones identified within Figures C1-1 to C16 inclusive for further details in this regard. The primary business functions and markets of the airport will need to be clearly balanced so that the correct functional emphasis can be placed on their development. function of the airport should be ranked and this should in part dictate the positioning within the airfield. It sounds obvious, but passenger processing functions should be within passengers airports. Similarly, cargo and mail processing functions should be within predominantly cargo and mail airport operations. identified and Each proposed of the process highly ranked highly ranked
There are various permutations on how these functions can be aligned but the solution has to be operationally viable from day one through to the ultimate phase. This may result in some master plans, particularly in their early phases, looking somewhat generous in their approach to land use planning. All other non-essential activities can then be positioned so that they do not interfere with either the circulation routes or expansion zones of the primary facilities.
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IATA

THE MASTER PLAN TEN STEP SEQUENCE
The following sequence should be followed when developing a master plan for a typical international or domestic airport passenger terminal and apron airport operation. Step 7 and step 10 should be exchanged in sequence when a predominantly cargo and express processing facility is proposed, as the commercial and provisional bias switches accordingly. Step 1 Determine the peak aircraft movements and resulting peak passenger movements required in the final master plan design year (Refer to Section C2 for Forecasting Techniques). Step Step 2 3 Collect via survey: geographical, geological, pertaining to the proposed airport site location. meteorological and environmental data
C1.2
Select the runway configuration(s) which best matches the aircraft type and movement requirements, ATC capability, geological limitations and meteorological conditions, and which satisfies the environmental requirements as closely as possible. Align the proposed runway(s) to coincide with the prevailing wind directions.
Step 4
Step 5 Determine and locate the number of aircraft stands required and the stand type (remote or gate serviced) needed to meet the service standard. Step 6 Provide the correct configuration and quantity of taxiways, ensuring that the runway(s) and stands are serviced adequately, with due consideration to the dynamics of the aircraft on the apron. Step 7 Size and position the ultimate terminal building(s), pier(s) and control tower within the appropriate development zone(s) (refer to Figures C1-1 to C1-6 inclusive). The space requirement for the terminal building will be heavily dependent on the processes required as defined within Chapter T, and the functional space requirements defined within Chapter F Airport Capacity, Section F9 Passenger Terminal Facilities, and Chapter U Airport Baggage Handling.
Step 8 Align the ultimate terminal building and piers to service the aircraft stands accordingly. Position fire services within the apron complex appropriately. Step 9 Size and position airport support processes such as (but not limited to) rail, bus, coach and passenger car access and parking facilities. See Chapter T for potential processes to be considered and included. StepIO Position secondary Cargo and Separate Express Facilities Terminal and stands, aircraft maintenance hangars as required within the surplus development zone(s) (refer to Figures C1-1 to C1-6 inclusive).
Historically, few airports worried about running out of space. Airfields were often located in relatively isolated countryside positions and had multiple runways occupying vast tracks of land. The jet age placed a reduced need on crosswind runways and as a result runways made way for aprons, small finger piers and terminals. Development tended to be piecemeal and lacked co-ordination Terminal buildings and airport support facilities merely spread out as required, with little or no thought for the future. Expansion of existing facilities was not normally considered, so newer, multiple terminal solutions were added. This situation, rather surprisingly, lasted until the late eighties. It is for these reasons that the ten point master planning sequence described above should be adopted by airport developers, so that logical airport developments can be designed and implemented in the most appropriate and efficient manner.
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Master Planning
All airports, regardless of their size, can no longer ignore their impact on surrounding communities, who unfortunately in some instances may have been allowed (by the lack of land-use controls) to encroach upon the airport's boundary. Sustainability now needs to be considered and a greater emphasis needs to be placed on the airport as a junction for modal interchange. A master plan is required so that all air-side, land-side and airport support facilities can develop, expand and improve the operational flexibility and efficiency of their business in a structured, balanced and orderly fashion, without adversely impacting on the business of their neighbours on or adjacent to the airport. In so doing, the potential of the available land and the capacity of the airport's runway system can be maximized.
C1.3
STEP 1 STAKEHOLDERS AND OBJECTIVES
C1.3.1 STEP 1 a Stakeholder Consultation

Meaningful and effective consultation with all interested people, community groups, parties and organisations (airlines, major tenants, the travelling public, surrounding communities, Civil Aviation Authorities and support agencies) that may be impacted by the airport development is essential. For further details on what groups should be consulted and what staged please refer to Sections B1 and V1.
C1.3.2 STEP 1 b Background Statistical Data

All successful master plans are based on a combination of robust assumptions and facts. These must be assembled and recorded with great care in order that they can stand up to external scrutiny by those who may or may not wish that airport development should take place. Of particular importance will be the forecasted data pertaining to relevant airlines and the base carrier(s). This will serve as a sound base from which aviation market forecasts can then, at a later stage, be extrapolated.
C1.3.3 STEP 1 c Future Demand Aviation Market Forecast

A forecast of future aviation demand is required in order to determine if and when additional capacity should be developed. It should not be used to determine the overall scale of the airport required, as facility requirements should be closely matched against the chosen site's ultimate development potential so that all facility development is geared to reaching the ultimate level while maintaining balance within the overall operational system. For further details on forecasting please refer to Section C2 for Forecasting Techniques.
C1.4
STEP 2 SITE EVALUATION
C1.4.1 STEP 2a Data Collection and Analysis (site visit)

A thorough study should be made of either the existing or proposed sites to determine their suitability to accommodate future traffic. All relevant and available facts should be recorded. This should include & cover:
Utility Provisions primary supplies, the position of end nodes and transition point of supply responsibility. Retrieval Systems sewage, surface water and effluent retrieval systems. Adjacent primary and secondary surface access systems. Location, size, capacity, condition and age of all air-side, land-side and airport support facilities. Condition of runways, taxiways and aprons.
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IATA

Meteorological conditions. Geology and topography. Obstacles and terrain. Surrounding development & land use.
In this way, later stage evaluations can be carried out should existing facilities be considered for refurbishment, expansion or demolition to make way for development as foreseen in the master plan.
C1.4.2 STEP 2b Geology and Topography

Significant variations in site levels will need to be recorded as these will determine the amount of material that will be required to be excavated, transported or filled in order to produce a graded site capable of supporting aircraft operations. Soil conditions, particularly the ability of the site's various terrains and substrata to safely and adequately support the loads imposed by aircraft, vehicular traffic movements and building structures need to be determined. Some terrain may be of low bearing quality and may influence the planner's choice as to where best locate a major runway without incurring additional construction costs. Runways, if not constructed properly, risk early cracks due to structural damage and resulting high maintenance costs. Soil analysis and borings will be very important to determine which areas to map out for runway development. Soil composition quality plays an important cost factor in determining the type of construction materials required. The presence or absence of water on the site is also an important element to take into consideration.
C1.4.3 STEP 2c Surrounding Development & Land Use

It is important to determine what use is currently being made of the surrounding land, what development plans are proposed and what zoning procedures have been set in place to ensure that incompatible developments are not permitted adjacent to the site. Particular attention should be paid to noise sensitive developments, especially if these are located in close proximity to the airport and/or on the line of existing runways and their respective aircraft approach and departure paths. For further details please refer to Section C3 of this manual.
C1.4.4 STEP 2d Site Selection Criteria

The following site selection criteria should be considered by airport planners:
Financial considerations. Adjacent airports, ATC, airspace and routes. Environmental considerations. Operational & technical considerations. Social considerations.
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Master Planning
C1.4.5 STEP 2e Methodology

There are a number of basic steps that have to be taken in turn to determine which site offers the most potential to satisfy the growth requirements of both airlines and airport authorities alike. The following need to be determined:
1. The size of site required to satisfy forecast demand. 2. Which site(s) fulfil the basic area requirement. 3. Data collection and analysis from each possible site. 4. Review of site selection criteria that affect airport location. 5. Operational relationships. 6. Preliminary land use layouts. 7. Evaluation of criteria. 8. Recommendation of which site(s) should be considered in the second stage evaluation process.
C1.4.6 STEP 2f Site and Facility Sizing

For existing and proposed airports, the land available for development either between or adjacent to the runways, when coupled with the annual capacity of the runway system, will determine the ultimate capacity of the airport. If land availability is not an issue then runway capacity is the factor that determines ultimate capacity. The total area available for development is fixed by the site's existing or proposed boundary. In order for airport planners and airport authorities to understand the scale of the site required for airport infrastructure development, the following tables have been assembled. These cover the primary facilities exclusively and should be used for rough estimation purposes only.
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C1.4.7 STEP 2g Approximate Land Area Requirement

The following table highlights the land availability at 25 airports throughout Europe, North America and the Asia Pacific regions. LAND AREA REQUIREMENTS
port No. of Runways Total Annual Mvts. Total Annual Passenger (mppa) Total Annual Land Area (ha)
Caw
CDG LHR FRA AMS BRU ZRH MUC FCO ARN LGW ORY OSL MAN ATH North America ATL ORD DFW LAX YYZ JFK Asia & Pacific SYD HKG SIN NRT KIX
4 3 3 5 3 3 2 4 2 1 3 2 2 2
517,657 466,815 458,731 432,480 326,050 325,622 302,412 283,449 279,383 260,858 243,586 204,275 191,846 186,05B
48.1 64.2 49.3 39.2 21.5 22.4 22.9 26.2 18.2 31.9 25.3 14.2 18.4 (2000) 13.3
1,610,484 1,402,000 (2001) 1,613,292 1,222,594 687,384 545,423 148,018 202,400 120,535 338,246 120,638 82,383 122,143 123,397
3,238 1,117 1,900 2,678 1,245 783 1,500 1,600 3,100 683 1,530 1,300 883 1,700
4 6 5 4 4 4
915,454 908,989 837,779 783,433 426,506 345,094
80.1 71.6 60.4 65.5 28.9 32.8
655,983 1,468,553 904,994 2,038,784 344,463 1,864,423
1,518 2,833 7,658 1,443 1,810 1,995
3 2 2 2 1
307,058 193,895 184,533 133,396 122,916
25.7 32.7 28.6 27.3 19.4
573,880 2,240,585 1,680,000 1,932,694 999,692
887 1,255 1,300 1,084 510
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Master Planning
C1.4.8 STEP 2h Social Considerations

The placement of airports within populated areas will have a significant social impact which must be fully assessed by airport planners. Please refer to Sections E2 and S3 of this manual for further details in this regard.
C1.4.9 STEP 2i-Environmental Considerations

It is almost essential and certainly recommended for airport developers to create a detailed environmental impact study for a proposed new airport development site. The considerations which should be taken in account are detailed particularly within Sections E1, E3 and E4 of this manual.
CI .4.10 STEP 2j Economic Considerations

It will be essential for airport planners to consider the economic viability of the proposed site in terms of the constructions costs associated within the region and resultant payback period for the development. Additionally, the regional stability of the country where the airport is to reside will be important to understand. Inflation and cost of borrowing within the region may preclude certain desirable development options from being considered for the proposed airport. Some countries provide special economic zones where major developments may benefit from less governmental taxation. These factors need to be explored and considered fully.
C1.5
STEP 3 AIRFIELD CONFIGURATION
C1.5.1 STEP 3a Airfield Configuration Overview

The airport authority and the airport planning team must have a comprehensive understanding of the airfield configuration options that exist. There are essentially six airfield configurations for airport planners to choose from, all of which are defined within the following Clauses and Figures C1-1 through C1-6 inclusive. These all have various operational advantages and disadvantages, and it should be noted that while six airfield configurations exist to choose from, only four are deemed recommended by IATA for green-field or blue-sea situations. Please refer to the table within Clause C1.5.8 for further information. Airfield configurations are determined by the number, position and orientation of existing and proposed runways and their support taxiway networks. This factor will greatly influence the position of all other primary and secondary support facilities. When determining the position of new runways, several related factors need to be assessed in order that the new infrastructure can make best use of the existing or proposed new site's unique conditions.
C1.5.2 STEP 3b Adjacent Airports, ATC, Airspace & Routes

Each airport has to coexist and operate within much larger national or international air traffic systems. Individual airports utilise vast tracks of airspace in order to accommodate the procedures required to allow aircraft to approach, hold, land and take-off. As a result, any extensive growth plan should be discussed and carefully co-ordinated with the relevant air traffic control authority, such that feasible recommendations can be developed and impractical concepts eliminated. Other factors may also come into play, including coordination with military controlled airspace and aircraft movements.
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IATA
C1.5.1 STEP 3c Meteorological Conditions and RunwayWind Orientation

The main criteria for the orientation of runways are the prevailing winds. Historical data will have to be retrieved to determine their direction, frequency and strength. As a general rule, the principal traffic runway at an airport should be oriented as closely as practicable in the direction of the prevailing winds. ICAO specifies that runways should be oriented so aircraft may land with crosswind components of 20km/hr or less at least 95 percent of the time for runways of 1500m or more. Optimum runway directions are determined by using a wind-rose.
C1.5.2 STEP 3d Visual Conditions

Visibility and ceiling heights are very much affected by weather conditions and will influence the choice of runway operations; e.g. whether to select for operations under all weather or visual conditions only. Fog, turbulence and abnormal rainfall may at times also reduce the capacity of runways. In order for airlines to maintain regular schedules during adverse weather conditions, airports are equipped with approach aids. The category of these aids depends on both the sophistication of the equipment installed at the airport and on board the aircraft. This determines the minimum visibility required for an aircraft to be able to land. Type of Approach Non-precision Precision Cat I Cat II Cat IIIA Cat NIB Cat MIC Minimum Decision Height (300 ft) 200 ft 100 ft 50 ft <50ft <50 ft Visibility Runway Visual Range (RVR) >550m >350m >200m >50m <50m
800m
The minima herein are acceptable only when full facilities are installed and no objects penetrate obstacle clearance surfaces. Category III requires much more sophisticated equipment, which is not commonly installed at airports or in the aircraft using them. Given the small benefit that Category III gives compared to its costs, it is usually not installed at most airports. Cat III is most prevalent in Europe where it is a necessity for the airlines to maintain normal schedules in poor weather conditions.
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Master Planning
C1.5.4 STEP 3f-Average Temperature and Altitude Considerations

In general terms, high temperatures will impact on the length of runway required, the rapid exit taxiway positions and the distances that can be traversed by aircraft while taxiing. High temperatures result in lower air densities which in turn cause lower engine thrust. When determining runway length a correction factor needs to be applied on temperatures above 15 degrees C or 59 degrees F. Airports that experience excessively high temperatures during the day may find that their operations are restricted due to insufficient runway length being available to support maximum possible take-off weights. In these instances, cargo volumes and/or passenger numbers may be restricted or operations may only be cost effective during cooler early morning or late evening periods. Altitude, and its resulting effects upon air pressure and other temperature factors also plays an important role in determining the most effective runway configuration for a given facility.
C1.5.5 STEP 3g Obstacles/Terrain

Obstacles often represent serious constraints to an optimal layout of runways or may in some circumstances have a negative influence on the operation to/from a runway. ICAO Annex 14 specifies that airspace around airports should remain free of obstacles so as to permit the intended aircraft operations at the airport to be conducted safely and to prevent the airport from becoming unusable by the growth of the obstacles around the airport. Criteria for evaluating such obstacles are contained in the ICAO document Procedures for Air Navigation Services Aircraft Operations (PANS OPS). Features within the natural landscape may also influence the orientation or length of proposed runways. While small obstructions can be removed, cost and the subsequent additional benefits obtained will be the determining factors when considering removal.
C1.5.6 STEP 3h Obstacle Limitation Requirements

The requirements for obstacle limitation surfaces are specified by the intended use of a runway (i.e. takeoff or landing and type of approach) and are intended to be applied when such use is made of the runway. In many countries all approaches and departures are conducted under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) and limited straight-in approaches and defined departure routes.
C1.5.7 STEP 3i Runway Configuration Options

Where figures are stated in this chapter outlining possible aircraft movement rates per hour, it should be noted that the figure quoted is heavily dependent on the composition of the aircraft mix, meteorological conditions, the navigation aids available, and ATC separation standards of the country in question. For more information on runway capacity please refer to Section F5.
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IATA
C1.5.8 STEP 3j Runway Configuration and Movement/Capacity Assumptions

Runway capacity is fundamentally driven by three factors these are defined as follows:-
1. Aircraft type and mix This influences aircraft spacing on final approach or departure where
wake vortices occur, as well distances are important factors. as runway occupancy time, where aircraft weight and stopping
2. Runway design Includes the length available, access to taxiways for entry and exit from runways,
the availability of high speed exits and entrances, etc.
3. Aerodrome design Considers the support infrastructure, including terminal design and access
to gates, and taxiway design, which can influence the ability to get to or from a runway, or to change runways when weather or other conditions require. This factor also includes access to precision landing or departure guidance, runway and taxiway lighting, etc. that can be expected to occur on a particular runway, or set of runways, assuming that there are no physical or practical constraints to accessing the runway(s). This means that aircraft are able to vacate a runway at a stopping point, or roll directly onto a runway without stopping. It does, however, factor the predicted wake vortex spacing for a known or assumed traffic mix, and assumes known or assumed runway occupancy times for landing or departing aircraft. It is an ideal figure, and cannot generally be achieved or sustained. achieve and sustain in normal operating conditions. Note: "Mvts/Hr" denotes Aircraft Movements Per Hour.
4. Engineered Runway Capacity This is the number of movements (landings and/or departures)
5. Operational Runway Capacity This is the maximum number of movements that a runway can
Runway Configuration Assessment Table
Runway Configuration
Runway Layout Figure Fig C1-1
Configuration Advantages
Configuration Disadvantages
Configuration Operational Runway Capacity 36-55 Mvts/Hr
Single Runway
Open "V" to "L" Runways
Fig C1-2
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- Lesser impact on environment due to reduced apron area and reduced aircraft movements per hour. - Runway utilization often high. - Recommended choice of IATA (subject to capacity Increased runway Mvts/Hr yields increased airport ultimate capacity. Varied runway orientations can overcome seasonal prevailing cross wind problems. Runway emergencies and maintenance easier to manage (subject to case). Both runways can be used simultaneously (subject to ATC control limitations)
- Airport capacity restricted by single runway traffic movements capability. - Runway emergencies and maintenance more difficult to manage. - Cross wind take off and - Not a recommended choice of IATA. - Open "V" to "L" has larger impact on environment than a single runway and some parallel runway configurations. - Open "V" to "L" layout occupies larger apron plan area. - Open 'V" layout does not naturally lend itself to efficient apron expansion. - One runway will always be more compromised to prevailing
85-90 Mvts/Hr
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Master Planning
Runway Configuration Assessment Table (cont'd)
Runway Configuration Runway Layout Figure Fig C1-3 Configuration Advantages Configuration Disadvantages Configuration Operational Runway Capacity 70-75 Mvts/Hr Qualification: Movements per hour based on two intersecting runways
Intersectin g Runways
- Varied runway orientations can overcome seasonal prevailing cross wind problems. - Runway emergencies and maintenance easier to manage (subject to case).
Staggered Runways
Fig C1-4
Dual Parallel
Fig C1-5
Runway utilization can be high. Runway emergencies and maintenance easier to manage. Dedicated takeoff and dedicated landing runway operations promotes safer multiple runway operations. Runway layout naturally lends itself to efficient apron expansion. Recommended choice of IATA (subject to capacity requirements). Runway utilization can be high. Runway emergencies and maintenance easier to manage. Dedicated takeoff and dedicated landing runway operations promotes safer multiple runway operations. Runway layout naturally lends itself to efficient apron expansion. Recommended choice of IATA (subject to capacity requirements).
- Not a recommended choice of IATA. - Both runways cannot be used simultaneously. - Intersecting runway layout has larger impact on environment than parallel runway as apron area increased. - Intersecting runway layout occupies larger apron plan area than single runway or parallel runway configurations. - Intersecting runway layout does not naturally lend itself to efficient apron expansion. - One runway will always be more compromised to - Cross wind take off and landing can present problems.
60 Mvts/Hr
- Cross wind take off and landing can present problems
84-105 Mvts/Hr
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Runway Configuration Assessment Table (cont'd)

Runway Configuration Runway Layout Figure Fig C1-6 Configuration Advantages Configuration Disadvantages Configuration Operational Runway Capacity 120-168 Mvts/Hr
Multiple Parallel
- Runway utilization can be high. - Runway emergencies and maintenance easier to manage. - Dedicated takeoff and dedicated landing runway operations promotes safer multiple runway operations. - Runway layout naturally lends itself to efficient apron expansion. - Recommended choice of IATA (subject to capacity requirements).
- Cross wind take off and landing can present problems
C1.5.9 STEP 3k Runway Use

Runways and their supporting taxiway connections should observe the following characteristics:
Be linked to an efficient airspace system. Be supported by an air traffic control service provider that can maximize the potential of any given runway system. Reduce, to a safe working minimum, runway occupancy times through the provision of strategically positioned rapid exit taxiways. Provide for the shortest possible taxiing times between runways and aircraft parking positions for both arriving and departing aircraft. Avoid the need for aircraft to cross active runways.
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Cl5.10 STEP 3I Runway Elements
Master Planning
Runways are made up of seven elements, all of which perform a different function. The table below provides the formal ICAO definition of the stated apron elements.
Runway Elements Definition Table

Apron Element Runway Shoulder Taxiway strip ICAO Annex 1 4 Definition A defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing takeoff aircraft. An area and adjacent to of the end of the pavement so prepared so
Movement Area Manoeuvring Area Runway Holding Position
as to provide transition between the pavement and an theaircraft adjacent An area a including a taxiway intended to protect operating on the taxiway and to reduce the risk of damage to an aircraft accidentally The part of an aerodrome to be used for the take off, landing and taxiing ofof aircraft, consisting of the manoeuvring The part an aerodrome to be used for the take area. off,
Stopway
landing and taxiing of aircraft, excluding theto aprons. A designated position intended protect a runway, an obstacle limitation surface, or an ILS/MLS critically sensitive area at which taxiing aircraft and vehicles shall andat hold, A defined rectangular area on thestop ground the unless end of take run available prepared as suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an abandoned takeoff.
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CI5.11 Definition The Single Runway Figure C1-1: Typical Single Runway Zone Diagram
VSSSl
DENOTES PRIMARY DEVELOPMENT ZONE DENOTES TAXIWAY SYSTEM DENOTES SECONDARY DEVELOPMENT ZONE DENOTES TERMINAL OR CARGO INFRASTRUCTURE DENOTES LIKELY DEVELOPMENT EXPANSION DIRECTION
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Master Planning
CI5.12 Definition Two-Runway Configuration Open "V" To "L" Shape
Note: (i) Capacity changes downward when a mixed mode configuration is adopted. The main constraint is the need to protect the possible overshoot or missed approach area for a landing aircraft in relation to a departing aircraft on the second runway. (ii) With respect to the table within Clause C1.5.8, the capacity estimates for this runway configuration assume that the terminal facilities lie between the runways within the development zones defined within Figure C1-2 below.
Figure C1-2: Typical Open "V" To "L" Shape Runway Zone Diagram
V/SSX
DENOTES PRIMARY DEVELOPMENT ZONE
:::::: I DENOTES TAXIWAY SYSTEM
SSMSl
I
DENOTES SECONDARY DEVELOPMENT ZONE DENOTES TERMINAL OR CARGO INFRASTRUCTURE
DENOTES LIKELY DEVELOPMENT EXPANSION DIRECTION

CI.5.13 Definition Intersecting Runways
Note:
(i) Intersecting runways are necessary when relatively strong winds blow from more than one direction, resulting in excessive crosswinds if only one runway is provided. When the winds are strong, only one runway of a pair of intersecting runways can be used, reducing the capacity of the airfield substantially. If the winds are relatively light, both runways can be used simultaneously. (ii) The capacity of two intersecting runways depends a great deal on the location of the intersection (e.g. midway or near the ends) and on the way the runways are operated. The further the intersection is from the takeoff end of the runway and the landing threshold, the lower is the capacity.
Figure C1-3: Typical Intersecting Runway Zone Diagram
ps/si DENOTES PRIMARY DEVELOPMENT ZONE Eg51 DENOTES TAXIWAY SYSTEM DENOTES SECONDARY DEVELOPMENT ZONE I^MI DENOTES TERMINAL OR CARGO INFRASTRUCTURE | \ DENOTES LIKELY DEVELOPMENT EXPANSION DIRECTION
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C1.5.14 Definition Staggered Runways
Note: (i) In many circumstances it will be advantageous from an aircraft operational viewpoint to stagger the thresholds of parallel runways in line with the requirements defined within ICAO Annex 14. Airports that do not possess the capability to lay out widely-spaced parallels may opt for a close parallel alternative. In these situations the minimum amount of stagger is predetermined by recommendations as laid down by ICAO in Annex 14. The distance between the runways should, if possible, allow for aircraft to manoeuvre and hold prior to take off or to cross the other active runway. This type of staggering may be necessary because of the limited land available for runway construction. (ii) From an operational point of view, the staggering of runways is only required when the separation distance falls below 760m. For segregated parallel operations to continue ICAO recommends that the specified minimum distance may be decreased by 30m for each 150m that the arrival runway is staggered toward the arriving aircraft, to a minimum of 300m, and should be increased by 30m for each 150m that the arrival runway is staggered away from the arriving aircraft. For more detailed information please see ICAO Annex 14.
DENOTES PRIMARY DEVELOPMENT ZONE IM-v-va DENOTES TAXIWAY SYSTEM ESSSS DENOTES SECONDARY DEVELOPMENT ZONE DENOTES TERMINAL OR CARGO INFRASTRUCTURE I *S DENOTES LIKELY DEVELOPMENT EXPANSION DIRECTION
CI5.15 Definition Parallel Runways

Note: (i) Provided parallel runways are spaced by at least one nautical mile, they may be treated as two independent runways. Runways closer than 1NM apart become "dependent" i.e. the operation on one runway affects the operation on the adjacent parallel. Procedures and equipment [such as Precision Runway Monitoring] can allow the runways to operate semi-independently up to 1034 metres apart On the condition that runways are spaced by at least 1034 metres, and are not staged by more than approximately 1000 metres, they may be treated as independent or semi-independent. Runways closer than 1034 metres are effectively the same runway in IMC however, in VMC, may be used to achieved capacity higher than a single runway i.e., land on one runway, depart on the close spaced parallel. A displaced instrument approach procedure and landing threshold on a close spaced parallel runway can achieve a slight increase in arrival rates.
Figure C1-5: Typical Parallel Runway Zone Diagram
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WSSl DENOTES PRIMARY DEVELOPMENT ZONE Itassa DENOTES TAXIWAY SYSTEM iW-?-fll DENOTES SECONDARY DEVELOPMENT ZONE DENOTES TERMINAL OR CARGO INFRASTRUCTURE I DENOTES LIKELY DEVELOPMENT EXPANSION DIRECTION
IATA
C1.5.16 Definition Multiple Parallel Runways
Note:
Master Planning
(i) The capacity of multiple parallel runway configurations depends primarily on the number of runways and on the spacing between the runways. (ii) Airports with more than four parallel runways will represent the exception, as few locations can generate the demand to match the capacity of five or more parallel runways. Furthermore, the ability of the air traffic control systems to supply five or more runways at the same time becomes progressively more difficult, and the airspace requirement becomes very large.
Figure C1-6:Typical Multiple Parallel Runway Zone Diagram
mm
V//A DENOTES PRIMARY DEVELOPMENT ZONE 3 DENOTES DENOTES SECONDARY DEVELOPMENT ZONE TAXIWAY B^H DENOTES TERMINAL OR CARGO INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEM
I
DENOTES LIKELY DEVELOPMENT EXPANSION DIRECTION
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CI5.17 STEP 3m Runway Capacity

The following table can be used as a basis for comparing differing runway options. There are a number of factors that can impact on an airport's ability to reach its theoretical maximum potential. These can include operating restrictions (night curfews or environmental limits), infrastructure deficiencies (insufficient or poorly positioned Rapid Exit Taxiway (RET) and/or holding bays) and airport layout weaknesses (crossing of active runways). Hourly and Per Annum Movement Capacities of Runway Combinations Runway Configuration Single runway, segregated mode Single runway, mixed mode Dependant close parallel, segregated Dependant close parallel, mixed mode Independent parallel, segregated 3 runways 2 segregated, 1 mixed mode 3 runways: all independent, mixed mode 4 runways; 2 pairs of close parallels Realistic Mvts/Hr 48 55 84 97 105 (105+55)=160 (55x3)=165 (84x2)=168 Realistic 70% Mvts/Annum 202,000 232,000 354,000 409,000 442,000 675,000 696,000 708,000 Theoretical 100% Mvts/Annum 289,000 331,000 506,000 584,000 632,000 964,000 994,000 1,012,000
Mixed mode is assumed to add -15% to segregated mode capacity.
Actual achieved runway capacities vary with aircraft mix. A large proportion of large aircraft or a wide range of aircraft sizes will reduce total movement capacity. The inability to clear runways to allow following aircraft to land (insufficient or poorly positioned RETs), to reposition aircraft prior to take-off (inadequate holding bays) and the need to cross active runways will significantly reduced assumed movement maximums.
Mvts/Hr denotes aircraft movements per hour. Mvts/Annum denotes aircraft movements per annum. Annual movement figs, derived by taking realistic hourly movement assumptions. 16.5 hour operating day (06:00 to 10:30), 365 day operation assumed.
The theoretical annual maximum figures stated are based on a 100% take up of slots over each day and throughout the year. 100% take up of slots is not possible or desirable. A more realistic
C1.5.18 STEP 3n Spacing between Runways

The spacing between parallel runways dictates the mode of runway operation under IFR and VFR and hence the capacity that can be obtained. The following table summarises the separation distances of parallel runways: Separation of Parallel Runways Minimum Separation Distance (Between Centrelines) 1,035 915 760 760 Minimum Separation Distance (Between Centrelines) 210 150 120 All dimensions in metres Note: (i) As a design consideration, to sustain independent parallel approaches in all weather conditions the runways should be separated by at least 1.035m. If this cannot be achieved then dependent approaches or segregated operations have to be applied, thus offering lower runway capacities. (ii) Runways may be operated in mixed mode (e.g. arrivals and departures on the same runway) or segregated mode (e.g. arrivals on one runway and departures on the other runway). Segregated mode is a simpler operation with parallel runways, but because of wake vortices from heavy jets it achieves less capacity. Mixed mode has to be used on single runways. On widely spaced parallel runways it produces an increase in capacity providing independent approaches and departures can be established. (iii) Data sourced from ICAO Annex 14. Simultaneous Use Of Parallel Instrument Runways Independent parallel approaches Dependent parallel approaches Independent parallel departures Segregated parallel operations Simultaneous Use Of Parallel NonInstrument Runways Where the higher code is 3 or 4 Where the higher code is 2 Where the higher code is 1
CI.5.19 STEP 3o Runway and Taxiway Systems

The land area required to support the movement of aircraft on and around an airfield can often be in excess of 50% of the total area requirement for an airport. The following table outlines the approximate area required given twin parallel taxiways with associated clearance to object (with code F separation) for a single runway of varying lengths:
Note:
Runway Length Area Required (ha)
2000 104.9
2500 129.6
3000 154.4
3500 179.1
4000 203.9
(i) The above table excludes the areas required to support RESA, approach/departure & missed approach surfaces, glide slope area & airside roads.
Runway Length Requirements
AIRCRAFT A300-600 A310-300 A319 A320-200 A321 A330-200 A330-300 A340-200 A340-300 A380-800 A360-800F B717-200 B737-600 B737-700 B737-800 B737-900 B757-200 B757-300 B767B767-300ER B767-400ER B777-200 B777-200ER B777-300 B777-300ER B747-200 B747-400 B747-400ER DC-10-30
MD-11
ICA'OIER'OD'ROME REFERENCE CODE CODE

ELEMENT D 2
MAX TAKEOFF WEIGHT (KG)
LENGTH (M) AT ISA +
D C C C E E E E F F C C C C C D D D D D E E E E E E E D D
170,500 164,021 64,000 77,021 83,000 233,013 233,013 275,016 275,016 592,000 590,000 54,885 65,091 70,080 79,016 79,016 115,666 123,831 151,953(179,1 186,880 204,117 247,208 297,557 299,371 344,549 377,842 396,893 412,769 263,084 288,031
2,645 2,450 2,080 2,105 2,286 2,590 2,657 3,260 3,230 "3,600 " 3,050 1,840 1,960 2,160 2,640 ____2,860 2,660 2,820 2,200 (2,640) 2,920 3,580 2,620 3,480 3,500 3,160 3,720 3,220 3,560 3,820 3,560
Notes: (i) MTOW, ISA +20C/Sea Level, no wind & a dry runway, FAA add 15% for a wet runway. ** MTOW, ISA +15C/Sea level. When considering new runways at existing airports, it is important to consider the existing and projected traffic mix. In this way the proposed runway length can be tailored to suit the predominant traffic type so that planned capacity enhancements suit the largest percentage of forecast movements. (ii) Boeing aircraft data courtesy of Boeing Aircraft Company Inc. Airbus data courtesy of Airbus Industries website, via published Airplane Characteristics Manuals. (iii) The runway lengths listed do not consider the effects of aerodrome elevation, runway slope, wind or obstacles. Airport planners should refer to the document types listed below, which are provided by the relevant aircraft manufacturer(s), and which also details the recommended landing and departing runway length data:
1)
Airplane Characteristics for Airport Planning Document.
C1.6
STEP 4 RUNWAY ORIENTATION

Runways also need to be orientated (see figure C1-7) so that aircraft may land at least 95% of the time while experiencing varying crosswind strengths. Varying crosswind conditions can be accommodated but these are dependent on the Aerodrome reference field length available. A low visibility wind analysis should also be undertaken. The number of runways required is dependent on the peak hour number of aircraft movements to be accommodated, the mix of aircraft types and the anticipated annual volume of passenger to be handled. Wherever possible, land should be reserved and protected to allow airports to extend their runway systems so as to avoid imposition of aircraft operating restrictions (max. permissible take-off weight) and to accommodate changing fleet mix and traffic type, without having to impact on surrounding communities.
Figure C1-7: Generic Staggered Parallel Runway Configuration (rotated to prevailing wind direction)
The layout in figure C1 -7 also provides an indication of the large areas taken up by the primary infrastructure systems. Here the runway separation is 2,250m, the runway stagger is 1,500m and the total site area is 1,297.5 ha. The cross-over taxiways are separated by 195m. This dimension allows a further code F taxiway to be inserted between the two shown at some later date. In this example the area required to support the movement of aircraft represents approximately 53% of the total area available.
Cross-over Taxiways The area required for a twin parallel cross-over taxiway system with associated clearance to object (with code F separation) between parallel runways with varying separations is approximately:
Runway Separation Area Required (ha)
1500 17.2
1750 22.5
2000 27.8
2250 33.1
2500 38.4
C1.7
STEP 5 APRONS
An apron is an airside area intended to support an aircraft as it loads and unloads passengers and cargo or awaits entry into an aircraft maintenance facility. It also serves as a platform from which all ground support vehicles, including refuelling, catering, baggage conveyors, toilet service, ground power units, cargo loaders and transfer platforms can operate from.
C1.7.1 STEP 5a Apron Sizing

The size and extent of aircraft aprons is dependent on the forecast fleet mix. Examination of the fleetmix by type of traffic (charter, domestic, international, etc.) will provide guidance as to the number and type of aircraft to be accommodated in the peak hour, their principal dimensions and the clearances required. Gate occupancy times will also have to be factored in at this stage. Flexible-parking configurations or Multiple Aircraft Ramp System (MARS) aircraft stands should be used, as outlined in Sections G1 and L3. A degree of flexibility also needs to be built into the depth of the stand dimension to accommodate unforeseen expansion of the terminal/pier/satellite in later stages.
C1.7.2 STEP 5b Apron Positioning

In airport planning, apron areas and passenger terminal facilities go hand in hand, both heavily dependent on the other. As such, both must be planned together. When considering the location of aircraft aprons the following factors should be considered:
Aprons should be located as close to the runways as possible in order that taxiing distances and
the amount of time an aircraft spends on the ground is reduced to the absolute minimum.
The apron should allow for clearances and separation distances as indicated in ICAO Annex 14.
Aprons should provide maximum flexibility to accommodate varying aircraft types at differing
times of the same day.
Aprons should be sized to allow for differing aircraft types on individual routes as a result of
seasonal variations in demand that require increases or decreases in capacity. passenger processing complex as possible.
Aprons should be planned such that the largest aircraft are positioned as close to the main Aprons should be laid out such that aircraft always have one route in and one separate route
vehicles and forward staging areas for baggage and cargo. out, thereby reducing the need to stop and hold to allow aircraft to enter or exit parking positions.
Aprons should be capable of accommodating all associated ground equipment, aircraft servicing
Master Planning
C1.7.3 STEP 5c Apron Servicing
Aircraft, when parked on stands, require quick and efficient servicing by a wide variety of ground handling equipment, services and vehicle types (refer to Section L5 and Fig L5-1). All vehicles must be able to manoeuvre around aircraft on and off stand, between stands, and between stands and terminals. As such adequate service road provision is essential. In order to reduce delays and the potential for accidents between aircraft and vehicles traversing behind stands, IATA recommends that service road locations should be restricted to the head of stand.
C1.7.4 STEP 5d Aprons Areas

The area required for aircraft aprons, both contact and remote, with associated taxiway clearance to object for aircraft with varying wingspans is approximately: ICAO Ref. Code Area Required (ha) Contact ICAO Ref. Code Area Required (ha) Remote B 0.19 C 0.37 D 0.69 E 1.07 F 1.42 B 0.22 C 0.41 D 0.75 E 1.14 F 1.50
C1.7.5 STEP 5e Aircraft Stand Dimensions

The table below provides the generic space requirements which should be typically allowed on an apron to accommodate the indicated aircraft types.
Taxiway. Object Other Than Aircraft Stand TaxiLana, Centre Line To IerenceCode Aerodrome Jf Stand Access >ush Back Truck ice & Expansion e For Satellite y Centre Line To way Centreline if Stand Access 1 & Push Back ck Clearance
pan Criteria
tand Depth
&
S
if
II
Aircraft
m
|| CD g 3.00
S
B
to
I"
Type 15 m up to but not including 24 m 24 m up to but not including 36 m 36 m up to but not Including 52 m 52 m up to but not including 65m 65 m up to but not including 80 m CRJ Length 26.78 Span 21.21 a 20.00
a .c
S
c 21.50 d
IN
HI
e
1
f 25 -35
33.50
30.00 30.00
A319 A320-200 B737-800 A310-300 B757-200 B767-300ER A340-600 B777-200 B747-400 A380
33.84 37.57 39.50 46.66 47.33 54.94 75.30 63.73 70.67 73.00
34.10 34.10 34.30
20.00
44.00
26.00
45.00 30.00
25 -35
4.50
43.90 20.00 38,06 47.57 63.45 20.00 60.95 64.94 79.80 20.00
66.50
40.50
55.00 30.00
25 -35
7.50
80.00
47.50
80,00 30.00
25 -35
7.50
97.50
57.50
85.00 30.00
25 -35
7.50
All dimensions in metres form.
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IATA

Figure C1-8: Generic Apron Stand Reference Dimensions
These areas are based on the recommended separation distances for taxiways/aprons as outlined by ICAO, and head of stand dimensions as recommended by IATA. It should be noted that IATA does not recommend that a rear of stand service access road be provided for either contact or remote stands. This aids in avoiding the potential for collisions between ground support equipment and aircraft is removed.
C1.8
STEP 6 TAXIWAY SYSTEMS

The principal function of taxiways is to provide access for aircraft moving between runways and passenger terminal areas, cargo areas and maintenance hangars. Taxiways should be arranged so that arriving aircraft do not obstruct and delay departing aircraft. The extent of taxiway layouts is determined by the volume and frequency of traffic to be handled in the peak hour. Should peak hour movements not require a full parallel then a partial parallel layout can suffice. In so doing construction costs can be minimised. Taxiway layouts should not be unnecessarily complicated and should provide easy to follow, shortest possible routes between runway ends and aircraft parking positions. Simulation models will assist planners in determining exact taxiway system requirements. For more information on runway capacity please refer to Section F6.
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Master Planning
C1.8.1 STEP 6a Taxiway Minimum Separation Distances
The following diagram and tables highlight separation distances as recommended by ICAO Annex 14. Taxiway Minimum Separation Distances Table (All Dimensions in Metres)
Distance between taxiway centreline Taxiway Taxiway, other Aircraft stand & runway centreline centre line to than aircraft taxl-lane centre ln?:rument runways Non-instrument runways taxiway stand taxi-lane, line to object
Code letter (D A B C D E F
1 (2) 82 5 87.0
Code Number 2 3 (3) 825 87.0 168.0 176.0 -
4 (51
176.0 182.5 190.0 192.5
1 (6) 37.5 42.0
Code Number 2 3 (71 475 52.0 93.0 101.0 -
centreline 4 (9) 101.0 107.5 115.0 (10) 23 75 33.50 44.00 66.50 80.00 97.50 103.00
IS)
-
centre lin to object 111 16.25 21.50 26.00 40.50 47.50 57.50 60.00
t12) 1200 16.50 24.50 36.00 42.50 50.50 53.00
Ref. - ICAO Annex14 - Table
Notes: (i) The separation distances shown in columns (2) to (9) represent ordinary combinations of runways and taxiways. The basis for development of these distances is given in the ICAO's Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 2. (ii) The distances in columns (2) to (9) do not guarantee sufficient clearance behind a holding aircraft to permit the passing of another aircraft on a parallel taxiway. See the Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 2. (Hi) For further information pertaining to Code F aircraft taxiway clearances please refer to ICAO New Large Aircraft Circular (Published Dec 2003). Separation Distances Table
ICAO
i
Span Criteria
Aircraft
Aerodrome Reference
Cods?
Type B C 15 m up to but not including 24 m 24 m up to but not including 36 m 36 m up to but not Including 52 m 52 m up to but not including 65 m 65 m up to but not Including 80 m CRJ A319 A320-200 B737-800 A310-300 B757-200 B767-300ER A340-600 B777-200 B747-400 A380
Length 26.78 33.84 37.57 39.50 46.66 47.33 54.94 75.30 63.73 70.67 73.00
Spen 21.21 34.10 34.10 34.30 43.90 38.06 47.57 63.45 50.95 64.94 79.60
e ween Taxiway Centreline A Runway Centreline Instrument Runway. a 87.0 168.0
Taxiway, Other Taxiway Centre Line Than Aircraft To Taxfway Ces .reline Stand Taxilane, Centre Line To Object b 33.50 44.00 c 21.50 26.00
176.0
68.50
40.50
182.5
80.00
47.50
190.0
97.50
57.50
All dimensions in metres.
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ITA Airport Development Reference Manual

Figure C1-9: Separation Distance Reference Diagram
17 i e
&
a
n W
I " P
C1.8.2 STEP 6b Taxiway Capacity

The following table provides broad guidelines as to the range of hourly movements that can be achieved from taxiways. Taxiway Capacity Table
Number of taxiways 0 1 2 Landing only Take-off only Taxiway capacity (movements per hour) 015 16 20 Maximum capacity of the runway system would be the limiting factor. If runway 50 55was not limiting then capacity would be approximately 30
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C1.8.3 STEP 6c Exit Taxiways
Master Planning
Exit taxiways allow landing aircraft to leave a runway so that it is then clear for use by other arriving and departing aircraft. At airports with peak traffic periods and continuous flows of arriving and/or departing aircraft, the capacity of the runway is dependent to a large degree on how quickly landing aircraft can exit the runway. An aircraft that has landed delays succeeding aircraft until it has cleared the runway. Taxiways at right-angles are possible but this geometry restricts the speed of exit and hence increases runway occupancy time. A RET, with exit angles between 25 and 45 degrees, permits higher exit speeds. This in turn allows succeeding landing aircraft to be more closed spaced in terms of time, or it might allow a takeoff to be sandwiched in between two successive landings. The precise location of the Optimal Turn-off Segment (OTS) should be determined after considering:
For which operational conditions runway capacity should be enhanced; i.e. peak period, special
weather conditions, particular group of aircraft, mixed mode. than 5 or 10% of the total.
The representative fleet-mix that the exit is intended to serve after eliminating those with less The separation distance between runway and taxiway; i.e. on non-instrument runways the
separation distances may not allow for design of a satisfactory RET. differing wind conditions.
The characteristics of aircraft concerning threshold speed, braking ability and turn off speed for
Should the above highlight more than one OTS, it may be necessary to consider construction of two or more rapid exits. Note that a distance between exits of approximately 450m should be observed. The OTS position should be closely related to the position of link taxiways. Reference should be made to Annex 14 to determine the precise geometry required for radii of turnoff curves and fillets, straight distance after turn-off and the intersection angle of the rapid exit taxiway.
C1.8.4 STEP 6d Dual Parallel Taxiways

When planning new runways, sufficient space should always be allowed for a dual parallel taxiway system to be located adjacent and parallel to all runways. Where availability of land does not permit dual parallel taxiways, the airport planner should note that the capacity of the single taxiway could then be the factor that determines runway capacity. Dual parallel taxiways, unless constructed for replacement airports that will assume all existing movements, should be constructed in phases, as demand requires. The absence of full dual parallel taxiways would not prevent individual airports from functioning to their fullest potential. It would merely reduce the efficiency of aircraft movements on the ground. Dual parallel taxiways should also be incorporated into a master plan to cross between two widely spaced parallel runways. The number of crossover taxiways should be related to the ultimate development potential of the site and should be checked using a simulation model.
C1.8.5 STEP 6e Taxi-lanes

Taxi-lanes are routes, bounded on either one or two sides by aircraft parking positions, by which aircraft can only gain access to these parking positions. It should be noted that for taxi-lanes the separation distances as outlined in clause C1.8.1 are less than those for the equivalent taxiway separations. When planning new airports, aircraft stand layouts that allow for only a single entry/exit taxi-lane or cul-de-sac should be avoided. The resultant delays due to constriction of free movement would place unnecessary financial inefficiencies on airline operations.
81

C1.8.6 STEP 6f Holding Bays
Holding bays are designated positions intended to protect a runway, an obstacle limitation surface or an ILS/MLS critically sensitive area, where aircraft hold. At runway ends a holding position allows queuing aircraft awaiting take-off to be re-ordered as determined by ATC. This optimised re-sequencing of aircraft (with airline approval) can assist in relieving climb and en-route ATC constraints. The holding position should be designed to accommodate two to four aircraft and allow sufficient space for one aircraft to bypass another. The area allotted for a waiting aircraft will depend on its size and manoeuvrability. Holding aircraft should be placed outside the bypass route so that the blast from the holding aircraft will not be directed toward the bypass route. Whenever possible, runway end holding positions should be orientated to permit aircraft departing them to access the runway at an angle of less than 90. These runway access points can allow aircraft a rolling start to their take-off and thereby reduce runway occupancy time. For aircraft operating at or near maximum take-off weight, the entry point should be as close to the end of the runway as possible. Small and medium sized aircraft that do not require the full extent of the available runway's length may be permitted to access the runway at intermediate access points leading up to the runway end. This provides another means by which ATC can re-order departing aircraft. Such access points should also have intermediate holding positions with all the associated and required clearances. Peak traffic volumes at many airports may exceed the capacity of a holding position, resulting in aircraft queuing on the taxiway leading to the runway end.
C1.8.7 STEP 6g Holding Aprons

Holding aprons can be placed at a convenient location on the airport for the temporary storage of aircraft. These can be required at large airports where the number of gates is insufficient to handle demand during peak periods of the day. If this is the case, aircraft are routed by air traffic control to the holding apron and are held there until a gate becomes available. Holding aprons can also permit a departing flight to vacate a needed gate and to wait near the runway without obstructing either the arriving aircraft onto stand or the departure flow, pending receipt of ATC/ATFM (slot) en-route clearance. They can also be used for aircraft with long turnaround times, where staying on stand would unnecessarily tie up capacity. This is particularly true of airports where contact stands are limited. Holding aprons are not usually required if capacity slightly exceeds demand. However fluctuations in future demand are difficult to predict, and therefore a temporary holding facility may be necessary.
C1.9
STEP 7 PASSENGER TERMINAL/APRON COMPLEX CONFIGURATIONS

The area available for the passenger terminal/apron complex is heavily dependent on the runway configuration, the land available between or adjacent to the chosen runway configuration, and the ability to handle the forecast mix of aircraft anticipated to use the airport. At existing airports, terminal/ apron options may be restricted by the type of development that has gone before or be limited by the nature and extent of support infrastructure. The choice may be limited to a few basic concepts governed mainly by the ability to park as many aircraft as possible in a limited space and still allow for aircraft to manoeuvre on their own power to and from contact stands. At new airports this should not to be the case, with the chosen configuration having been determined by the requirements of preceding sub-sections in this chapter. To understand what has happened to later generation 'green-field' and 'blue-sea' airports requires a careful analysis of the genesis of these concepts. Some new airports have adopted generous and flexible concepts of various types, with scope for built-in changes.
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Master Planning
'Green-field' or 'blue-sea' airports have emerged in the past few years and most have the ability to become 'mega' airports. These new airports are sized in the 400,000 sq. m range and will generally open with an initial capacity of approximately 30 MPPA. Each airport has been designed to be a hub airport and to grow in a modular fashion, with some planned to eventually handle up to 100 MPPA. The size and extent of the terminal/apron complex will be determined by demand and, in the later stages, by the capacity of the airport's runway system. All facilities on site should be developed in balance so that the capacity in one facility is not disproportionate to others within the overall airport processing system. The airport will be capable of expansion until one of the primary facilities within the system fails to satisfy the demands imposed upon it. There are many differing types of passenger terminal/apron complex concepts. These are explained in detail within Section J2.
Figure C1-10: Hong Kong Master Plan Layout
83
IATA
C1.9.1 STEP 7a Passenger Terminal/Satellites

Experience has shown that, when designing facilities for purely domestic or charter passengers, the corresponding maximum sq. m/PHP figure should not exceed 25.0 sq. m and 30.0 sq. m respectively. To determine approximate building footprint requirements, the tabulated values below can be reduced by 50%; e.g. where two floors are required. Historical Airport Floor Area / Passenger Data
Asia & Pacific - Region . PHP as % of Annual Passenger 0.004 Brisbane ShenYang Taoxian Chongqing Jianbei (China) MNLT3 PHP as % of Annual SYD (Int.) NRTT2 TPET2 PVG N60 SINT3 PHP as % of Annual SINT1 SINT2 KIX PEKT2 ICN KUL BKK HKG PEK(2010) PEK(2013) PEK(2016) HKG (2020) 21.0 23.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 35.0 45.0 47.0 55.0 68.0 60.0 87.0 276,100 358,000 293,000 320,000 496,000 480,000 560,000 550,000 730,000 900,000 1,000,000 1,035,700 Average Figs: 13,148 15,565 10,852 11,852 18,370 13,714 12,444 11,702 13,273 13,235 12,500 11,905 13,462 7,000 7,667 9,000 9,000 9,000 11,667 15,000 15,667 18,333 22,667 26,667 29,000 245,000 268,333 315,000 315,000 315,000 408,333 525,000 548,333 641,667 793,333 933,333 1,015,000 39 47 33 36 55 41 37 35 40 40 38 36 45 MPPA 3.9 6.1 7.0 10.0 Floor Area 53,000 58,000 60,000 150,000 SQM/MPPA 13,590 9,508 8,571 15,000 ! .Assumed PHP 975 1,525 1,750 2,500 Assumed Floor Area 34,125 53,375 61,250 87,500 SQM/PHP 54 38 34 60
15.0 17.0 17.0 20.0 20.0 20.0
204,000 284,000 308,000 280,000 220,000 350,000
13,600 16,706 18,118 14,000 11,000 17,500
4,266 4,857 4,857 5,714 5,714 5,714
150,000 170,000 170,000 200,000 200,000 200,000
48 58 63 49 39 61
C1.10 STEP 8 ALIGNMENT OF TERMINAL BUILDING AND PIERS TO SERVICE STANDS

Once the desired runway configuration has been selected and the runway has been aligned and orientated correctly, the primary terminal and pier infrastructure should be located. The processes that are required which will influence the size and proximity of the terminal and pier buildings will typically included those defined within Chapter T. Section T1 deals with the terminal processes and section T2 deals with the apron processes. All of these activities need to be considered, applied and accommodated where appropriate within the correct zone as identified within figures C1-1 to C1-6 inclusive. The piers should be sized and positioned to facilitate efficient aircraft movements and passenger and baggage connection times. It will be important to 'timeline' parallel processes, which are inherently dependent upon one another. The objective should be to ensure the synchronisation of walking distances and connection times for passengers, passenger baggage movement connection times, as well as the movement times for aircraft to and from the stand.
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IATA
Master Planning
In practice the distances and the location of core terminal and pier functions can be 90% accurately located within a master plan proposal without the need to perform simulations. It is however far more effective to analyse the true dynamics and obtain the 100% confirmed best position of infrastructure elements by using simulation tools at the earliest possible stage. While simulation activity has a cost, the long term advantages of having the correct infrastructure placed in precisely the most effective position can be very significant. The multiple parallel processes that interact within one another should be dynamically understood and then the terminal buildings and piers should be aligned and sized to achieve the optimum configuration, giving due consideration to the service standards that should be observed. The control tower and fire services provisions should be positioned to align with the recommendations defined within ICAO Annex 14 and with Section C4 and Section X1 respectively. The ground transportation processes need to be very carefully assessed within the master plan and the facilities required will need to balanced against the requirements of locating the terminal building and stands. The cost to provide links from national rail and road infrastructure should be of prime concern to the airport planner, as these will have a dominant cost and environmental impact. With a sound business behind it and the rail and road processes correctly matched to an efficient terminal and apron layout, the result is likely to be an airport which is favoured by both passengers and airlines alike, which should be the primary objective.
C1.11
STEP 9 ALIGNMENT AND PROVISION OF SUPPORT PROCESSES

Airport planners should also take into account the numerous associated and inter-related facilities that support the operation of the passenger terminal building and the apron services. Section T3 of this manual defines some of the typical airport support processes. The location and provision of general services can have a significant impact on airport master plans. The ability to provide the correct quantity and location of electrical power, gas, water and telecommunication infrastructure can often steer airports planners to develop a terminal and piers in a particular manner. This is because of the very high costs associated within expansion of these fundamental services. The airport planner will need to understand if the existing services have the capability to provide the capacity which would be required for a new or significantly expanded airport. Major airports can be compared to small towns in their ability to consume power, water and to generate sewage and general waste. The airport planner will need to establish if the national supporting networks have the ability to meet the capacity and processing challenge. If the national supporting networks do not have the capacity, then the airport planner would need to assess the cost and practicality of installing the necessary support infrastructure. As another example, the security management systems used within airport complexes are vital to the support and effective operation and resultant planning of most airport terminals and pier facilities. The airport planner will need to account and plan for the inclusion of these systems within their designs both at a master planning level and during the detailed design stages which shall help locate and shape the final proposal.
C1.12
STEP 10 AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE

Airports and aircraft maintenance bases have a relationship of interdependency. The maintenance capabilities of an airport play an important part in determining it's attractiveness to aircraft operators. To build up these capabilities, airports depend on the services provided by airline maintenance divisions and independent engineering companies who in turn rely on the airport's infrastructure to gain access to the aircraft that need servicing. At large airports, with widely dispersed terminal locations and apron positions, there may be a need to strategically locate smaller line maintenance facilities in more central areas to reduce the time required for towing between operational stands and maintenance areas.
85

The scale of the required maintenance operation is dependent on several factors. These can include:
If the operation is restricted to a single carrier or open to others. The availability of certified engineering staff. Access to spare part holdings. If the facility is to offer a one-stop service including engine test and paint spraying.
Fleet composition in busy hour, percentage assumed to be maintained, number of aircraft

maintained per maintenance (A, B, C or D). bay, annual utilisation rate, level of maintenance check
performed
C1.12 STEP 10a CARGO

It is important that the need for a strategic link between cargo facilities and aircraft parking positions is established at an early stage in the planning process. While at larger hub airports dedicated cargo aircraft may be accommodated on a frequent, perhaps daily basis, it is normal to find a high percentage of cargo transported solely on routine passenger flights. As such there is a strong interdependency between cargo handling and passenger processing facilities, as well as a need for the two areas to be located adjacent to one another in order that transfer distances are reduced to a workable minimum. However this adjacency requirement creates a dilemma in so far as each requires significant land to expand and exploit their full potential. Therefore for smaller airports, with less than 1.0 MPPA or 50,000 tonnes of cargo throughput, the individual facilities should be positioned apart such that each can expand without restricting the growth potential of the other. In the short term this may result in separation distances between the two being somewhat greater than appears necessary. However airports should allow for unrestricted expansion to the ultimate stage wherever possible. The distance between cargo processing facilities and dedicated cargo stands should be less than 1 km. The distance between cargo processing facilities and passenger stands (where passenger aircraft will be used for the shipment of cargo) should be less than 2.5km. It is also important to note the differing types of cargo that may need to be accommodated. These can include general freight, express freight, airmail and freight forwarders. Please refer to Chapter O, Cargo, for further clarification.
C1.13
MASTER PLAN DELIVERABLE PRELIMINARY LAND-USE LAYOUTS

After the airport perimeter has been established, either for a new airport or for an existing airport (where the perimeter has been redefined), it is important to double check that all major components and airport support facilities can be properly located and accommodated within the overall airport boundary. Each facility should be able to expand through to the ultimate phase of the airport. The land use layout proposal should be balanced and the development strategy should be focused on optimising the land use in the most efficient and logical manner throughout the various expansion phases. Prior to assessing individual functional requirements within an airport master plan, it is necessary to subdivide the overall area into optimal sub areas, each capable of supporting an individual facility's growth towards the maximum capacity of the airport. It is important to note that detailed layout information pertaining to individual facilities is not required at this conceptual layout stage. All the individual pieces of the development jigsaw need to fit and be correctly assembled and have the right interdependencies within the operational area. However at this stage the detailed operational characteristics of each facility are not required. Airport characteristics, as shown on the Airport Land Use Plans, should be the guiding tool for local and regional authorities when determining the suitability of development on land surrounding the airport.
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Master Planning
C1.13.1 Master Plan Deliverable Weighting Factors And Points
IATA uses the following method when carrying out evaluations of either the Master Plan or Terminal Development Options on behalf of airport authorities or member airlines. The weighting factors and points are defined in a table entitled the "Master Plan Deliverable-Weighting Criteria Table". When this table is completed it shall reflect the airport planners assessment with regards to their optimum site. 1. Assign weighting factors to all of the evaluation criteria (column 4). Factors are assigned such that the total adds up to 100. Each factor can then be viewed as a percentage of the total. The size of the figure allocated reflects the importance of that criterion within the overall evaluation process. 2. A second subset of weighting points is then assigned to sub-criteria (column 5). IATA uses the following range of weighting points: Weighting or Importance (scores 1 to 10): 1 (minor); 5 (important); 10 (critical). All of the above figures are specific to the criteria and sub-criteria and should not be used in order to compare one set of criteria to another. As the importance and number of sub-criteria vary, the total score possible (column 6) for each criterion will also vary. From the example given columns 7, 10, 13, 16 & 19 reflect the basic score given to each site. If possible the score should reflect the ranking of each site as given by the evaluation team for each sub-criterion. Sites can be given equal scores. The scores given cannot exceed the maximum given in column 5. Using site A as an example, the weighted score is obtained by dividing the figure in column 7 by the sub-total in column 6 multiplied by the weighting factor for the criteria in column 4. This exercise is repeated for all scores and for all sub-criteria. Individual scores for each sub-criterion should be explained within the evaluation report. This is necessary as the evaluation process can:
Be time-consuming (2 to 4 weeks on average); i.e. the reasoning should be recorded immediately after the scoring has been determined. Involve multi-disciplined teams with individual members working in relative isolation. Be open to question and scrutiny by clients, site owners and competing airport planners.
CI.13.2 Master Plan Deliverable Land Use Report

This interim report should be submitted such that base assumptions with respect to facility sizing, surrounding land-use and operational relationships can be reviewed and tested. The report should be concise & give a clear indication of any outstanding strengths & weaknesses. Recommendations for future actions should also be given. It is important to stress that information at this conceptual stage need not contain high levels of detail. The information provided need only be sufficient to allow comparative analysis; i.e. to determine which option moves forward into the next stage. As such, hand drawn information is acceptable, providing the concept is easily recognised and understood by a broad, perhaps non-technical review team. In this way preparation time and costs can be minimised.
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C1.13.3 Master Plan Deliverable Land Use Concepts
Airport Land Use Plans drawn to scale should depict existing and phased development (including intended land uses) up to and including the ultimate development stage. These should include:
Airside infrastructure, including runways (all runway elements, taxiways, holding bays, aircraft
aprons (including de/anti-icing)), engine test enclosures, location & specification of navigational aids, vehicle parking areas, staging areas, access roads, runway lighting & markings, primary utility routes, segmented circle, wind indicators and beacon and associated buildings.
Landside infrastructure, including passenger and cargo terminals, ground transport interchanges,
hotels, primary and secondary access roads and parking structures (at grade and multi-storey), rail lines, vehicle fuelling stations.
Airport support infrastructure, including in-flight catering, aircraft maintenance, G.H. maintenance,
airport maintenance, police and security facilities, administration buildings, meteorological compounds, rescue and fire fighting facilities, general aviation, fixed base operations, helicopter operations, containment & treatment facilities and aircraft refuelling facilities.
Areas reserved for aviation related revenue producing development, such as industrial areas,
duty free zones, etc.
Non-aviation related property and land with the current status and use specified. Facilities that are to be demolished.
Airport site boundary or perimeter, facility and property boundaries, security fence lines and
control post positions.
Runway clear zones, associated approach surfaces. True azimuth of runways (measured from the true north). North point.
Pertinent
separation.
dimensional
data
such
as
runway
lengths,
parallel
runway
and
runway-taxiway
Prominent natural and man made features such as wooded areas, rivers, lakes, coastlines, rock
outcrops, protected areas, etc.
88
if
0)
w
fl>
72"1" I " I 4 J7 | 89 ' 10 [ 112ft j u11Airport CriteriaWeightingMax. Weighting .PojntSite AStteBStteCSite DSrteE1Financial Considerations152Adjacent airports, ATC, Airspace & Routes.5Approach a Departure Traffic Patterns871.5940.9130.6640.9140.91Contingency Departure Routes520.4530.S840.9120.4540.91Local Traffic Integration651.1420.4510.2371.5971.59223.182.061.822.963.413Meteorological Conditions54Obstacles & Terrain5Geology & Topography5Surrounding Development & Land Use56Surface Access Systems5RoadRailSea7Runway, Taxiway, Holding Bay S Apron15Capacity PotentialPercentage of Remote v Contact Stands8Passenger Terminal - Apron Complex Configurations15Capacity PotentialPassenger ConvenienceAlliance CompatibilityConnections (passenger & baggage)9Environmental Impact1010Operational Efficiency1011Social Considerations512Site Conditions5Availability of Primary UtilitiesAvailability of Drainage, surface water & effluent retrieval systems100
o> 3
a 2. <"
to (D (Q ?* ( D
5 "
H
0)
00
Criteria & figures are given as an example only

CI.13.4 Master Plan Deliverable Airport Layout
This stage sees the development of the preferred concept into a detailed, workable master plan. Here the optimal layout is established. All users and stakeholders will have been consulted at regular intervals as the plan developed from the initial pre-planning period to this final stage in line with the IATA Project process requirements defined within Section V1. The continuous process of reviewing and testing assumptions should continue after the plan is published. It is essential to do this, as no master plan should be viewed as the perfect solution. The changing nature of the airline business will ensure that the current solution will soon become outdated. As such, master planning must be viewed as a near continuous process, with fundamental reviews undertaken at regular intervals. The maximum assumed period between reviews should therefore be no more than 5 years, however it is hoped that the main backbone assumptions hold true and stand the test of time.
CI.135 Master Plan Deliverable Phase 1 Operational Cost

It is important that all users or air service providers of the airport are provided with estimated rental rates for the facilities that they may occupy or use in phase 1. In order to do this, the airport authority or the cost airport planner working on its behalf must possess a robust financial model that contains and defines:
How overall project financing is resolved.
All terminals and other primary and secondary revenue and cost centres, their breakdown revenue
targets and cost estimates for each cost centre. airlines and other user space requirements.
Final estimated airport capital, maintenance and operating costs and related pricing policies for
Income from non-aeronautical sources. their intended programme reassessed annually after resultant impact of the with lATA's User Charges
Existing airports should possess a 10-year CAPEX document that shows of works over two consecutive 5-year periods. The programme should be consultation with the airline/IATA airport development specialists. The development programme on user charges should be discussed and agreed Panel. In so doing the users can see that charges are:
Cost related, taking into consideration the operation of the 'single till'. Transparent and justified. Fairly and equitably applied, without discrimination or cross-subsidisation. Agreed after consultation.
Airlines, the principal users at airports, will be particularly interested in rental rates for land-side offices, ramp level accommodation, gate hold rooms, check-in positions, common user terminal equipment facilities, baggage handling systems, airline service desks and information counters. Security costs should be assessed and accounted for. In many instances airport security costs should be borne by the state.
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Particular attention needs to be paid when new or alternate methods of operation are proposed. As an example, when a new airport proposes to switch from a 100% remote stand operation to one where 100% contact is possible, airlines, particularly if they operate within the charter or low-frills markets, may have difficulty in accommodating the additional ground handling charges resulting from the need to push back and perhaps use air-bridges. Airport operators must therefore be subject to the discipline of assuring that user charges do not drive away carriers working on the margin of profitability. Should the review of proposed operating costs indicate that the proposed development has substantially reduced the ability for users to make an adequate return, then the preferred concept should be re-evaluated to determine if there is scope for CAPEX reductions and Operating Expenditure (OPEX) savings. In extreme cases, this may require base assumptions to be re-examined and alternative, more simple and less expensive facility solutions to be brought forward.
CI.13.6 Master Plan Deliverable Conceptual Layouts

Conceptual layouts should clearly demonstrate how:
All users can operate efficient, effective and profitable operations within the proposed plan. Long term sustainable development can be achieved.
Projected growth in all types of traffic can be accommodated throughout the entire life of the
project until saturation is achieved in the ultimate stage. maintained at acceptable levels. operations.
The environmental impact on surrounding communities and stakeholders will be minimised and Additional capacity can be brought into play without negatively impacting on current user Associated surface access infrastructure systems will be introduced in staged developments to
support forecast traffic levels and demand. and staff when accessing the airport.
Public transport systems can be introduced to increase the percentage of trips made by passengers
C1.13.7 Master Plan Deliverable Development Phasing
If we assume that basic planning principals have been observed, then facility phasing and construction should be determined by demand. Facilities should be expanded in a modular fashion and at intervals to keep slightly ahead of demand and to maintain pre-determined and required levels of service. Phased expansion should allow for periods where individual facilities can settle into routines such that operational efficiencies can be maximised. In general terms this period should extend for a minimum of 4 to 5 years after project completion. Longer periods of construction inactivity will be the result of the over provisioning of facilities, with associated cost penalties that would invariably be passed on through airport charges. As master plans are drawn up, they should show the existing airport layout and as a minimum the plans showing the first phase and/or development in years 5, 10, 20 as well as the ultimate stage. Short term plans covering a ten year period should be supported by a rolling development programme that is reviewed annually by the airlines and supported by a CAPEX document. IATA has developed specific guidelines in relation to CAPEX documentation. Such guidelines are available on request.
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C1.1&8 Master Plan Deliverable The Master Plan Report

A final master plan report should be submitted showing how the land-use option has been developed. The report should be concise and give a clear indication of any outstanding strengths and weaknesses. Recommendations for future actions should also be given. For this report, drawn information needs to be of a higher quality, with precise dimensions clearly noted such that the operational viability can be clearly demonstrated. The information must be capable of standing up to intense scrutiny and questioning. The report should identify how the phased implementation of the airport master plan will satisfy the strategic brief for the region. The main elements defined within Clause C1.2, The Master Plan Ten Step Sequence should be clearly explained within the report. The final master plan report should at least contain: Definition of the strategic objectives for the region. Executive summary. Statement on how the master plan shall meet strategic objectives. Financial Plan (development financing proposal & cost recovery and payback periods). Environmental impact. Economic impact. ATC impact. Qualifications of master planning team. Explanation of how The Master Plan Ten Step Sequence was observed. Provision of master plan phasing diagrams to ultimate airport development (in 5 year increments). Conclusions and recommendations statements. Supporting forecasting/environmental/financial data. Prospective Airline User statements. Further Information. Final reports may be subject to comparative analysis; i.e. to determine which airport planner's master plan option is ultimately successful and moves forward into the final stage. Again the master plan must be easily recognised and understood by a broad, perhaps non-technical review team. It is for this reason that airport master plans should adopt a consistent format so that comparison of master plans can be done on a like for like assessment basis.
C1.13.9 Master Plan Deliverable Location Map

This is a map drawn to a suitable scale (e.g. approximately 1:50,000) sufficient to depict the airport, city or cities near the airport, rail lines, major roads, major obstructions, terrain and geographical boundaries within 15-20km of the airport. It is also important for environmental and political considerations. A sectional aeronautical chart may be used. This may be shown on the title page in lieu of the ALP.
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IATA
C1.13.10 Master Plan Deliverable Basic Data Tables
Master Planning
These tables contain data on airport conditions and information on existing and proposed runways where applicable. The following table is an illustrative example.
Master Plan Deliverable Basic Data Tables
Runway Data Runway 12 - 30 Existing Ultimate 0.19 Same 91.4 Same 3,600 605, 80D. 145DT 50:1 HIRL All Weather ILS, ALS, VASI
Effective runway gradient (in %) % Wind Coverage Designated Instrument Runway(s) Runway length (metres) Pavement Strength (see note 1) Pavement type (sod, asphalt, concrete). Approach Slopes & Clear Zones Lighting Marking Navigation & Visual Aids RETs (rapid exit taxiways) & RATs (rapid access taxiways).
3,900 Same Same Same Same Same
Notes:
1. Values given are gross aircraft weight in 1,000' and type of main gear Single (S) Dual (D) &
Dual Tandem (DT) Gear aircraft using the CAN-PCN system as appropriate.
Master Plan Deliverable Basic Data Tables
Airport Data Airport magnetic variation Airport Elevation (highest point of the useable landing area) Airport Reference Point (ARP) Co-ordinates (WGS-84) Airport & Terminal NAV aids SMR/SMGCS (surface movement radar/surface movement guidance & control system) Mean Max. Temperature of Hottest Month
850.0' 30* 40* 31' 111*20'3ff 80 F
Same Same Same Same
Notes : Miscellaneous Facilities taxiway edge: lighting, centreline and sign system. Remarks: Trees to Northwest of runway 12 to be removed when runway is extended.
C1.13.11 Master Plan Deliverable Building List

All buildings should be described and numbered.
C1.13.12 Master Plan Deliverable Meteorological Information.

A wind rose should be presented, with the runway orientations superimposed. This should indicate the data source and for what period the records cover.
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C1.13.13 Master Plan Deliverable Main Title Block
A title block should show:

C1.14
Drawing Description. Who was responsible for creating the plan. Who prepared, checked and approved the plan. The drawing reference number, the date drawn, scale and number of associated sheets. Revision details including number, description, who revised, who approved change and date.
C1 .IR1 Master Plan Development Airport planners should observe and follow The Master Plan Ten Step Sequence, defined within Clause C1.2.of this section. The master plan report deliverable should observe the document mm&htation requirements defined within Clause C1-14 of this section.
C1 IR2 Land Use Concepts All airports should develop land use concepts that allow all airport users to develop and expand their business in a structured, orderly fashion, without adversely impacting on the business of their neighbours on or adjacent to the airport.
C1.IR3 Master Plan All airports should possess a thoroughly vetted master plan that indicates how additional capacity can be provided in a sustainable, cost efficient, modular and flexible manner when demand is shown. A master plan is required so that all air-side, land-side and airport support facilities can develop, expand and improve the operational flexibility and efficiency of their business in a structured, balanced and orderly fashion without adversely impacting on the business of their on or adjacent to the airport. In so doing the potential of the available land and the capacity of the airport's runway system can be maximised: V_________________________________________________J
C1 .IR4 Master Plan Phased Development Strategy Master plans should include a phased development strategy that allows for expansion of all facilities in a way that does not impact on the operational viability of neighbouring facilities. As such, layouts at 5, 10 and 20-year intervals leading up-to an ultimate long-term strategic view should be provided.
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C1.IR5 Master Plan Assumptions
Master Planning
All master plan assumptions should be thorougnly reviewed and tested every five years.
C1 .IR6 Stakeholder Consultation

Adequate and meaningful consultation with stakeholders should be undertaken prior to and during the master plan review period.
C1.IR7 CAPEX Plan Documentation Existing airports should possess a 10-year CAPEX document that shows their intended programme of works over two consecutive 5-year periods. The programme should be reassessed annually after consultation with the airline/I ATA airport development specialists. The resultant impact of the development programme on user charges should be discussed and agreed with lATA's User Charges Panel. ________________;__________________......................_______________i_____________J
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SECTION C2: C2.1
FORECASTING
INTRODUCTION AND FORECASTING DEFINITION

Airport traffic forecast studies use a combination of trend analysis, data extrapolation, expectation surveys and professional statistical judgement. Extensive operational knowledge and a comprehensive understanding of how the local environment in which the airport is situated is required. A close working relationship with planning and forecasting experts of all major airlines operating at the subject airport will also be necessary. Particular attention is also given to comments and forecast inputs from other sectors of the travel industry (e.g. tourist boards, tour operators, financial institutions, etc.) whenever possible to ensure that the forecasts incorporate a wide range and broad base of views. As a result, any forecast produced should reflect the views of the travel industry concerning future traffic development and likely changes in operating patterns. Air transport activity generates typical volume for a normal busy period. recommended projection periods: peak period demand that reflects user's characteristics and Traffic forecasts often are presented using the following
Short Term (> 1 Year < 5 Year Projection). Long Term (> 5 Years < 30 Year Projection). Annual (12 Month Projection).
Peak Period (Selected Months Within An Operational Year).
C2.2
OBJECTIVES OF FORECASTING
C2.2.1 Capacity Planning

An important input to the capacity planning process is the airport traffic forecast. An accurate forecast is essential since the sizing and the phasing of the airport project is dependant on its data. If the forecast understates demand, the facilities will be built too small and the airport will experience a capacity problem. If the forecast overstates the demand, the facilities will be over-sized and the airlines will needlessly pay for under-utilised facilities. It is therefore critical to capture the correct data from the airlines and trie IATA user groups at the earliest opportunity. Please refer to clause C2.6.2 Data Availability, which confirms some credible sources for this data.
C2.2.2 Financial and Cost Benefit Studies

Forecasts can also provide inputs for financial planning. At most airports, landing fees are determined on the basis of a unit charge that is multiplied by the aircraft maximum take-off weight (MTOW) tonnage of the aircraft. With an understanding of the likely aircraft movements it will be necessary to compile a comprehensive financial and cost benefit study to support the forecast material.
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The financial plan should include but should not be limited to the following data/factors:
Landing Fee Projection. Local Community Benefits. Likely Airport Operational Costs. Alternative Transport Provision Costs.
IATA
C2.3 FORECAST DATA
Master Planning
There are essentially three parameters that need to be covered in the annual traffic forecast: (a) passengers and baggage volumes; (b) cargo; and (c) aircraft movements. To obtain this data will require a clear understanding of the airline user requirements and calculated usage of the facility.
C2.3.1 Passenger and Baggage

The originating, requirements of collectively within which collectively time. domestic and transfer passenger volumes will be used to determine the planning airport terminal facilities and support infrastructure. The number of passengers the building will be derived from the flight schedules and corresponding load factors shall provide the volumes of the passengers within the building at any instance in
Since various categories of passenger traffic will use different facilities in the airport, it will be necessary to forecast each passenger category separately in order to determine future requirements for passenger facilities. Accordingly, IATA forecasts three types of passenger traffic:
Embarking. Disembarking. Direct Transit. scheduled and non-scheduled passenger traffic,
These categories are further subdivided between for which separate forecasts should be produced.
Following the implementation of 24-hour landside shopping, the terminal retail complex will also see growth from the local community and casual visitors to the airport. This volume of the general public should be added to the volume attributed to the traveling passenger. The baggage forecast data will be derived by multiplying the passenger processing rates by the passenger bag ratios for the various categories of passengers within the terminal. In practice the following steps are used in this regards: Step 1 Flight Schedule Determined for Design Year. Step 2 Flight Loadings Determined. Step 3 Number of Passengers Witnessed Determined as Passenger Rate/Hr. Step 4 Passenger Bag Ratio(s) Applied to Passenger Rate(s) to determine Total Bag Rate/Hr. For existing airports, airport planners should use passenger to bag ratios determined through surveys at the relevant airport. In the absence of this data the following bag to passenger design ratios should be adopted. It should be noted that this is only useful as a first cut forecast for the master plans where the data is not readily available. Planners are advised to carefully review this data at subsequent and more detailed design levels.
Table C2-1: Typical Bag to Passenger Ratios for High Level Forecasting Purposes
Type of Pax. Traffic International Pax. Domestic Pax. Transfer Pax.
Europe 1.0-1.5 Bags/Pax 0.5-1.0 Bags/Pax 1-1.5 Bags/Pax
Asia/Africa 2 Bags/Pax 1.0-2.0 Bags/Pax 1-2 Bags/Pax
USA 2 Bags/Pax 1.0 Bags/Pax 1-2 Bags/Pax
Rest of the World 1.5 Bags/Pax 1.0 Bags/Pax 1-1.5 Bags/Pax
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C2.3.2 Commercial Aircraft Movement

The forecast of aircraft movements (i.e., planning requirements of airport airside facilities. aircraft landing and take-off movements) determines the
Aircraft movements include all commercial scheduled operations. Non-scheduled, general aviation and military aircraft movements usually have little influence on the planning of runway and apron capacity. These are generally excluded from forecasts unless their impact is deemed appropriately significant.
C2.3.3 Cargo
When forecasting the perceived cargo tonnage it will be important to distinguish between the categories of cargo goods. Cargo is the combination of freight and mail and these in turn are comprised as follows: Freight Includes express and diplomatic bags but not a passenger's checked baggage. Mail Refers to correspondence and other objects tendered by and intended for delivery to postal administrations. In the forecast, the combined number of tonnes of freight and mail handled at the airport are taken into consideration. Also, in general, scheduled and non-scheduled cargo traffic are considered together, as both are handled in the same cargo terminal area. The forecast should differentiate between passenger and all-cargo operations, as each will have a specific influence in respect of apron use. Express freight, for example, will have a dedicated facility and apron area just as will perishable goods, and so it will be necessary to understand the split between these categories of cargo volume. Some of the key factors that influence the demand in cargo traffic are economic growth (both on a regional and global level) as well as the costs associated with air cargo. The GDP indicator has demonstrated a strong link to demand for aviation services, in cargo as well as passenger transport. On a regional analysis there must be an assessment of the catchment area, and what type of market segment can be captured if there is competition for the same service. As the global marketplace expands, there is also a need to assess factors on the movement of goods on a broader base, such as domestic trade policies, elimination of tariffs, etc., on a worldwide level. Other factors, such as the 'Just in time' philosophy, increase the demand for a faster air cargo service. The growth in e-commerce has also produced a new demand segment for the movement of products and the dynamic tracking of goods. Forecasters should seek data from freight forwarding and freight processing companies to understand market trends and cargo type distinctions. For airport planning purposes, cargo forecasts must be broken down into sectors differentiating the means by which the cargo is transported:
Passenger and Combi Aircraft. All-Cargo Aircraft.
It is essential to make this split in the forecast as each sector has different operating requirements, such as: apron requirements; type of terminal facility; type of aircraft stand; etc. This type of information is crucial to the planning of cargo facilities where an understanding of client's usage is required. The combined tonnage of freight and mail handled at the airport should also be taken into consideration in a cargo forecast. Scheduled and non-scheduled cargo traffic are generally considered together, as both are handled in the same cargo terminal area. It's generally not recommended to produce a cargo forecast by origin-destination or by route area, but rather by inbound and outbound cargo traffic. Because the distinction between freight carried on aircraft and freight carried on trucks is not always clear, any analysis of cargo traffic must be made with great caution. There are cases when freight
IATA
Master Planning
tonnes carried on trucks are included in air freight statistics due to this freight being covered by the same airwaybill as pure air freight.
C2.3.5 Aircraft movements

There are two ways of projecting passenger aircraft movements. One way is to project an average number of passengers per flight and apply this parameter to the projection of passenger traffic to derive the resulting movements. The second way is to project the passenger load factor and the average aircraft size as two separate steps. This approach provides a more solid projection of aircraft movements than the first one, but it requires the construction of passenger load factors for the base year for each route area. These are then projected for the whole forecast period and must reflect the potential room for improvements in airline productivity. The next step is to apply the projections of the load factors to passenger traffic projections in order to derive the projection of total seats. Following this, forecasters will need to project the average aircraft size to reflect as much as possible the expected evolution of airline fleet mix as well as airlines' strategy to either intensify frequencies, to the detriment of aircraft size, or utilise bigger aircraft if the level of frequencies is found to be suitable. In applying the average aircraft size to the projection of total seats, we obtain a projection of aircraft movements. It becomes important that, within each route area to be forecast, the projected evolution of aircraft mix by size category remains compatible with the projected evolution of the average aircraft size which is expected to take place. For example, if one projects the average aircraft size to decline during a five-year period, the projection of the mix during that period should not reflect an increased share of aircraft of the higher size categories. In regard to cargo aircraft movements, the forecast needs a different approach. It should be based on the projection of the share of total cargo likely to be carried on these cargo aircraft, and determining an assumed average number of tonnes per flight, this would lead to the construction of cargo aircraft movements. This however requires that the statistics are made available by the airport authorities in question. A distinction in cargo tonnage carried on the passenger aircraft versus cargo carried on cargo aircraft is required.
C2.4
SEGMENTATION
C2.4.1 Traffic Sectors

It is also important to distinguish between the different traffic sectors. Each individual airport will have different traffic sectorisation comprised from the list below:
Long Haul International. Short Haul International. Domestic. Schengen. Transborder.
C2.4.2 Passenger Characteristics

Originating, terminating and transfer passengers should be further subdivided between scheduled and non-scheduled passenger traffic, especially with the growing market of the low cost carriers. Given that air travel is a derived demand, it is essential to identify the different passenger characteristics to have a better appreciation of the impact on the future development of the different terminal facilities such as check-in, passport control, baggage handling system, business lounge, etc.
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C2.5 DEMANDS AND TRENDS
C2.5.1 Annual to Peak Period Demand

For the purpose of facilities planning it is essential to know the likely requirements on an hour-byhour basis. Annual or even weekly forecast figures can be almost meaningless in this respect. The relationship of annual traffic to peak period will depend on seasonal variations and passenger characteristics. This relationship is projected separately for domestic and international traffic and within each category for each route area.
C2.5.2 Seasonal Trends

Seasonal variation affects the relationship of peak month to annual traffic. Common influencing factors in this regard include:
Effect of economic growth on business or holiday market sectors (leisure traffic usually creates
peaks at certain periods of the year different from the peak created by business traffic).
Whether airlines increase capacity during peak periods.
C2.5.3 Special Events

Peaks associated with special occurrences such as national holidays, religious festivals, and sporting events should be excluded from forecasts. Plan to accommodate this above planning peak demand at a lower level of service, by means of contingency plans, schedule coordination and other sound demand/capacity management practices.
C2.5.4 Assessment Methods

Having established the magnitude and frequency of the forecasted data, it will be necessary to assess it using proven assessment rules which will be used for the sizing of airport facilities. One approach is to use a proportion (85th percentile) of the forecast profile as the basis to plan airport infrastructure. Another approach is to select frequently occurring peak days or busy hour periods which are chosen as the basis on which to plan airport facilities. These approaches can be summarised as follows:
85th percentile. 40th busy hour or day of the year (see CDG example of this method in Table C2-2 below). 30th busy hour or day of the year. The second busiest day in an average week during the peak month an average weekly pattern of traffic is then calculated for that month.
It is important that one the above techniques is used as it is inappropriate to plan the design of airport infrastructure on the occurrence of either an isolated peak day forecast or an isolated peak hour rate. Busy Day Schedule: Determining airport capacity largely depends on predicting the impact of projected airline schedules on the various airport facilities. Capacity and level of service are based on operating conditions and rules, but also upon the particular demand profiles created by the mix of flights and flight sector for a typical busy day. The amalgamated airline schedules for a typical busy day reflects the airlines strategy for an airport and how an airport is connected to the world. The production of a single day forecast requires a detailed assessment of all the operational parameters that underlie airline schedules: the operational suitability of aircraft types for given route structures; reasonable aircraft roistering compatible with a high level of aircraft utilisation; and use of commercially feasible arrival and departure timings throughout a route structure. This assessment is then incorporated to form the amalgamated airline forecast schedule. Selection of a 'Busy' Day: A typical 'busy' day is the second busiest day in an average week during the peak month. An average weekly pattern of passenger traffic is calculated for that month, and
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peaks associated with special events such as religious festivals, trade fairs, conventions and sport events are excluded. This single day analysis should assess:
Operational suitability of an aircraft type for a given route structure. Aircraft rotations compatible with a high level of utilisation. Use of commercially feasible arrival and departure timings throughout the route structure. Airport curfews and other limitations.
The 'busy day' data for the base year is 'actual' and should come from the airport control tower (ATC) log. It should cover each aircraft movement during the 'busy' day with indication of the following attributes:
Airline Name. Flight Number. Aircraft Type. Aircraft Registration. Seating Capacity. Origin Of Flight. Arrival Time. Terminal Used. Passengers Disembarked. Direct Transit Passengers (If Applicable). Departure Time. Destination Of Flight. Embarking Passengers.
The busy day should be more than just a single witnessed statistical hour or a day within an operational calendar. The busy day should be representative of a frequently occurring 'model' busy period, representative of a realistic day within a weekly schedule.
Table C2-2: CDG Peak Passenger Traffic Analysis

CDG Airport Passenger Traffic Analysis
Punngin Par Year Per Peak Month Peek Month to Year Per Peek Day*
2000 48,246,137 4,887,000
1999 43.597,194 4.258
1998 38,628,916 3,877,000 0.10 151,461 0.04 12.927 0.09 10,980 0.07
1897 35,327,039 3,487,000 0.10 137,809 0.04 12,699 0.09 10,697 0.08
199t 31.724,035 3.057.000 0.10 128.951 0.04 12.085 0.09 10,146 0,08
1995 28,356.470 2,798.000 0.10 114,283 0.04 8,915 0.08 7,760 0.07
1994 28,880,214 2,778.807 0.10 108274 0.04 9,148 0.08 7,874 0.07
TTL 254,559,006 24,940,807 0.10 988,545 0.04 89,039 0.09 75,548 0.08
0.
.04;
179,519 .10 0.04 16.791
168,248 .10 0.04 16,474 0.10 13,492 0.08
,00 0
Peak Day to Peak Month Per Peak Hour Peak Hour to Peak Day Per 40th Peak Hour
101
M
.08
0.09 14,599 0.08
Peak Month to Yeat Peak Day to Peak Month Peak Hour to Peak Day 40th Peak Hour to Peak Day
10% 4%
9% 8%
0.00038 0.00032
Table C2-3: Estimate of Peak Passenger Traffic Based on MPPA Forecast
Passengers/Year Passengers/Peak Month Passengers/Peak Day Passengsrs/Peak Hour Passengers/Year Passengers/Peak Month Passengers/Peak Day Passengers/Peak Hour
1,000,000 100,000 4,000 3S0 20,000,000 2,000,000 80,000 7,200
2,500,000 250,000 10,000 900 25,000,000 2,500,000 100,000 9,000
5,000,000 500,000 20,000 1,800 30,000,000 3,000,000 120,000 10,800
10,000,000 1,000,000 40,000 3,600 35,000,000 3,500,000 140,000 12,600
12,500,000 1,250,000 50,000 4,500 40,000,000 4,000,000 160,000 14,400
15,000,000 1,500,000 60,000 5,400 50,000,000 5,000,000 200,000 18,000
C2.6
FORECASTING METHODOLOGY
C2.6.1 Study Objectives

The objectives of the forecast study should be clearly identified prior to the collation of data. Informed decisions should be made and forecasters should be focused on having the correct representative statistics rather than a convenient series of numbers which perhaps do not convey the true behavioural patterns of the airport and its traffic in the foreseeable future. Forecasters should aim to satisfy the following high level study objectives:
There should be three sets of statistics provided by the airport facility forecaster, which should represent the low, medium and high magnitude data obtained and assessed. The forecaster must specify which influencing factors have the largest level of uncertainty in regard to their future evolution, in order to justify having both low and high projections. Operational and business assumptions should be clarified in every regard on forecasted information with qualifications as regard their impact on the forecasted data. Data should be auditable whereby the forecaster should be able to trace the history of the manipulation of data and to confirm the logic for the decisions made in every regard. Consultation groups should be identified along with their terms of reference. All of which should be clarified in the record and the presented data produced by forecasters.
C2.6.2 Data Availability

There are three main credible sources of data for forecasters to access. This includes but it is not exclusively limited to: 1. Historical Site Data Historical Site data may originate from various sources within the airport organisation and or the airlines. Care should be observed with historical data because as the name suggests it is based on past trends and may not be representative of how the existing airport or airline may function based on a changing fleet or changes in business processes. Historical data is useful in the assessment of process times and historical processing trends. 2. IATA World Wide Survey This data is sourced by IATA following extensive world wide surveys of key airline and airport infrastructures/organisations (see clause C2.6.3 Method 2 for further details).
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3. User Forecasted New Data
Master Planning
This data is created by the airline or airport from first principles and may reflect a combination of historical data and new operational objectives on the use of newer aircraft or new airport processes.
C2.6.3 Methods Of Forecasting Passenger Traffic And Aircraft Movements

A combination of several methods forms the core of the traffic forecasting approach, these are defined as follows: Method 1: Computerised Regression This analysis pertains to the relationship between traffic (to/from an airport) and the major indicators of socio-economic activity in the airport's country (e.g. IATA has a comprehensive database of projections of the major economic indicators of world countries). The forecasts should draw on the wealth of experience and local knowledge available within airlines serving or likely to serve an airport. A forecast based on an econometric model should generally be revised to reflect carriers' views and the team's experience in dealing with the forecasting process. The contribution of airline yields is becoming increasingly although GDP remains usually the most important factor. on a per country basis are generally hard to obtain. important in Unfortunately, determining traffic growth, statistics on yield trends
Econometric models do not take into account non-quantifiable importance in conditioning future traffic development, therefore it entirely on a purely model-driven forecast.
factors which are of prime is recommended not to rely
The use of models implies some continuity in the level of influence of the factors considered throughout the forecast period. Forecasting experience demonstrates that this is not always the case. Method 2: The IATA World-Wide Traffic Forecast Survey This global survey is undertaken every year in August-September and covers all traffic flows around the world (nearly 2,000 unduplicated country-pairs). This survey reflects the opinions of all IATA member airlines serving these country-pairs concerning the future development of passenger and cargo traffic during the next 15 years. It takes into account the influence of the major economic variables as well as airline strategies that are intended to respond to future demand. Airlines are asked to provide their opinion on total market growth trends and not simply their own traffic. Method 3: Special Survey-Based Forecasts These are customised for specific airport traffic forecast projects. This consists of approaching each of the key airlines and tour operators to obtain their forecasts of growth trends for a particular destination compared with other similar destinations. It is important that their survey is not only restricted to the travel markets where direct services now exist, or to airlines or tour operators, but also includes other experts in the travel industry (e.g. tourist authorities and hotel chains).
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Method 4: Judgmental Forecast This method permits a wide range of information to be brought to the forefront of the forecast (national trends, political situations, etc.). It is useful in conjunction with the other methods, where there are a large number of variables for which little information is available, or where nonquantifiable factors are expected to play a major role. The judgmental element is a particularly high-value component to the traffic forecast since the team member will have gained substantial experience in dealing with airport traffic forecasts for small as well as large airports all around the world. Extrapolations of Past Trends Extrapolations of historical data can be used typically where long-term trends are likely to continue. Care should be observed with this principle as changes in operational processes, improvements due to new technology and changes in legislation can seriously undermine the projection of data into what can be realistically the 'unforeseeable' future. Extrapolated data:
Fits a mathematical line to the historical data and then a projection of this line is given to trend the data into the future. Growth patterns are fitted to smooth out data. Assumes there is an underlying pattern in historical data. Assumes that all factors influencing air traffic in the past will continue to operate in the same way in the future. Causal Methods (econometric models, regressions, gravity models) This approach relies on the assessment of socio-economic growth or decline. With this approach it will be necessary to: variables that can cause air traffic
Identify the socio-economic variable(s) cause(s) changes and ensure that historical trends for these variables are available. Determine how the variable(s) is (are) related to air traffic demand (model, equation) assuming no capacity constraints and structural changes?econometric models, equations, gravity models.
Forecast/predict socio-economic changes. Adjust forecasts when underlying assumptions. Do NOT directly correlate two long term trends.
causal
factors
develop
differently
from
the
original
Qualitative Techniques (market and industry surveys) This technique uses predominantly surveyed or historic data which is then subjectively assessed. The subjective assessment may take into account a wide range of real process changes, technology changes and logical factors which might affect the forecast. In summary:
Human judgment and ratings are turned into quantitative estimates. Market research, industry surveys and historical analogy is used.
When data is scarce or when there are data philosophy changes it is difficult to predict their impact. Delphi Technique: bring together data in a logical, unbiased and systematic way such that all information and judgements related to growth/decline can be calculated and assessed.
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C2.7
C2.IR1 Forecasting Periods ipata forecasts should be presented using any one or more of the forecasting period durations defined within clause C2.1. %____________________________________________________________________________J
C2.IR2 Forecasting Data When designing terminal building infrastructure, forecasting data should be presented which relates to passengers and baggage volumes and ui; craft movement data, as defined within clause C2.3.1 Similarly cargo forecast data should in most cases be produced where terminals are going to process any form of cargo, whether it be freight or mail subdivisions. Aircraft movement data forecasts must be provided prior to the planning of apron and runway infrastructure. Data should be obtained from any of the recommended data sources as defined within clause
C2.IR3 Data Assessment Techniques
Forecasters should evaluate the merits of each of the assessment techniques defined within clauses C2.5 and C2.6 and select the philosophy and approaa ich best fits the needs of the project forecast brief and then should present forecasting data accordingly.
C2.IR4 Freight Analysis Precautions
Because the distinction between freight carried on aircraft and freight carried on trucks is not always clear, any analysis of cargo traffic must be made with great caution. There are cases when freight tonnes earned on trucks are included in air freight statistics due to this freight being covered by the same airwaybill as pure air freight.
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SECTION C3: C3.1 LAND USE PLANNING
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The need for control of development in the vicinity of airports has been recognised from the very beginning of commercial aviation. Initially, concerns concentrated on controlling the height of potential hazards or obstacles. These centred on incompatible activities that could cause:
Electrical interference with radio communications and navigational aids. Confusion of pilots by lights on approach. Reduced visibility due to the production of smoke or vapour clouds. Birds to accumulate in critical operational areas.
All of the above are still pertinent today. Noise did not enter into the equation until the introduction of turbo-jet operations in the early 1960s, and there are various measures available to alleviate noise around airports, including: reduction in aircraft noise at source; land-use planning; development control or management; operational noise abatement procedures (when permitted by air traffic control authorities); and local noise related operating restrictions. Land-use planning is central to the overall process. Properly managed, it will effectively protect public health and safety by minimising exposure to emissions and excessive noise. These management principles need to be coupled with supportive legislation. Legislative frameworks regulating surrounding land-use outside of the airfield boundary should be provided by National Governments, as they are ultimately responsible for ensuring that the airport is interwoven into the regional and national socio-economic fabric. These should set the broad policy context within which local authorities can work, and ideally there should also be a consultation process by which the various stakeholder groups (surrounding community, airport operators, and airline representatives) can comment on and suggest changes to draft policies. The airport operator should also be consulted on monitoring the effective application of the legislation. The sustainability of air transport is heavily dependent on controlling environmental impact, with a/c being noise the largest factor to be considered when undertaking land-use planning within and around
C3.2
LONG TERM VISION

Many of the available solutions to mitigate against noise in the vicinity of airports, including those obtainable from land-use planning, can often only be realised in the longer term. However this should not be seen as a reason by those responsible for seeking reductions in noise levels to apply minimal effort. This particularly holds true for existing airports where the ability to make immediate changes in land-use is limited. For existing airports it is also important that a/c source noise reductions and the resultant contraction of noise contours and population numbers impacted do not allow local authorities to relax their guard against encroachment upon the airport boundary. It should also be noted that in this regard airlines have made significant contributions by requesting efficiency gains from a/c manufacturers. Jet aircraft are now significantly quieter than when they first entered into service over 40 years ago.
Master Planning
C3.3 ASSESSING NOISE
Many factors influence noise level exposure. These include sound pressure levels, broadband frequency distribution, spectral irregularities, duration, SIDS and STARS, frequency of operations, application of operational noise abatement procedures, a/c mix, mode of runway operation, and prevalent meteorological conditions. Sensitivity to a/c noise will vary from one country or location to the next, and be dependent on many factors. These can include land-use, building use, type of construction, distance from source, background noise levels, sociological factors, the amount of diffraction/refraction/reflection due to buildings and topography encountered on site, and the meteorological conditions prevalent at the time of exposure. All of the above can be modelled to determine anticipated noise exposure and community response.
C3.4
LAND USE WITHIN NOISE ZONES

The establishment of noise zones surrounding an airport is an important step when determining future land-use. The number of zones, noise descriptors and noise exposure calculation methods used vary from one country to the next. As a result the approach used is dependent on the individual country concerned. Whatever approach is applied it is important that local authorities apply strict controls over proposed development in the zones around the airport. It is important to stress that the zones should be calculated and based on the ultimate achievable throughput of the airport, i.e. when the runway is saturated, such that long term development flexibility is ensured. As an example, three zones could be established as follows:
Zone 1 Where most land uses and developments are not permitted. Zone 2 Where some restrictions apply. Zone 3 Where no restrictions apply.
Noise zoning serves two purposes: to protect the airport from encroachment and to protect residents. A single authority should have overall responsibility for developing land-use criteria. Zoning plans should be created as a first step when establishing an airport, as retrospective steps are difficult if not impossible to achieve. In general terms noise sensitive development such as housing, schools, hospitals, offices and banks should not be permitted in the first zone. It should be noted that building construction can be utilised as a means to reduce noise exposure.
C3.5
LAND USE MANAGEMENT

There are many methods for regulating development or for modifying existing land uses in order to achieve compatibility between the airport and surrounding communities. Building or land acquisition can be employed, but this tends to be an expensive solution exercised in extreme cases only. As noted above, zoning and building controls should be applied in the first instance. 107 Uncontrolled development within established airport noise zones will debase local authority control and may impact on the long term development potential of individual airports. Short-term gains resulting from the either the owner or developer's desire to increase the rate of return from property and land or by increased taxes to the Government should be avoided.

C3.6 LAND USE CONTROL
Numerous strategies can be applied to control the use of land surrounding airports. Development restrictions within pre-defined zones can secure the longer-term vision for new airports. Retrospective noise insulation measures may go some way to redressing the balance for commercial and residential properties of long standing at existing airports. However the means of control, regulation and finance will vary from country to country and be dependent on national and local characteristics. There are three differing forms of control, as outlined below.
C3.6.1 Planning
A comprehensive development or layout plan should be provided to local authorities and should be used as a guide by authorities when establishing development restrictions and controls. For existing airports this will assist in determining the compatibility of development proposals with Government policy.
C3.6.2 Mitigation
Measures can be employed that will help construction, building regulations can ensure adequate level of sound insulation. to alleviate the problems of aircraft noise. For new that building type, structure and materials provide an impacted insulation increased operating
Noise insulation programmes can also assist properties of long standing that are adversely by the development of existing or new airports. However the cost of applying adequate sound packages to housing can in some instances exceed the resale value or possible benefit from rent. Also, additional sound insulation measures produce increases in construction and costs and reduce flexibility of use to within the controlled building environment.
In extreme cases, land acquisition and relocation is a policy that can be explored by airport authorities. However it is expensive and used primarily when no alternative will provide a satisfactory solution. It may also in some instances have negative social implications. Barriers can also be used to mitigate noise generated by manoeuvring aircraft or by ground handling equipment. Barriers can be in the form of earth mounds located adjacent to runway thresholds and holding aprons. Alternatively building structures, particularly those of main terminal buildings and finger piers or satellites can be used, and sound attenuation barriers can also be employed. A particularly good example is the reinforced concrete panels bordering the apron area to the western side of T4 at London Heathrow. These have been attractively landscaped and in parts are now totally enveloped by climbing plants and shrubbery. Such barriers can also contribute by doubling as security barriers, particularly as these often occur in critical operational areas.
C3.6.3 Financial 108

Construction of new development in the immediate surrounds to the airport can be encouraged by the existence of support infrastructure such as roads, utilities and community based facilities and services. Similarly the absence of such capital improvement programmes can have the reverse effect. Government tax incentives or reduction programmes can also direct development towards areas where these are welcomed and away from those areas where it is not. Noise related airport-charging systems could also be employed. For more information in this area see section D.
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C3.7
AIRPORT LAND USE PLANNING

After the airport perimeter has been established, either for a new airport or for an existing airport (were the perimeter has been redefined), it is important to double check that all major components and airport support facilities can be properly located and accommodated within the overall airport boundary. Each facility should be able to expand up to the ultimate phase of the airport. Balanced optimised development, throughout the various expansion phases, is essential. Prior to assessing individual functional requirements within an airport master plan, it is necessary to subdivide the overall area into optimal sub areas, each capable of supporting growth towards the maximum capacity of the airport. Airport facilities, in terms of building area, footprint and land area required to support development, should be sized from an analysis of the maximum number of aircraft movements and associated daily and peak hour passenger flows that the proposed runway system can generate. It is important to note that detailed layout information pertaining to individual facilities is not required at this conceptual layout stage. All the individual pieces of the development jigsaw need to fit and be correctly assembled and have the right interdependencies within the operational area. However at this stage detailed operational characteristics of each facility are not required. Airport characteristics, as shown on the Airport Land Use Plans, should represent the guiding tool for local authorities when determining the suitability of development on land surrounding the airport.
Master Planning
C3.7.1 Airfield Configuration

The extent of this key operational area depends on the chosen runway configuration. See Section C1.3 for specific details.
C3.7.2 Facility Location Strategy
Once specific facility and functional areas have been identified they must be positioned on and around the airport. The optimum location of these facilities must take into account the operational relationships of the different facilities. One of the primary aims when positioning airport facilities should be to minimise aircraft, passenger, baggage and vehicular movements. For specific operational relationships see Section C1.4.5.
C3.7.3 Airport Land Use Plans

Airport Land Use Plans drawn to scale should depict existing and phased development (including intended land uses) up to and including the ultimate development stage; i.e. when the runway is saturated. The plans should include:
Airside infrastructure including runways (including all runway elements see section C1.3.7.2), taxiways, holding bays, aircraft aprons (including de-icing), engine test enclosures, location & specification of navigational aids, vehicle parking areas, staging areas, access roads, runway lighting & markings. Landside infrastructure including passenger and cargo terminals, ground transport interchanges, hotels, primary and secondary access roads and parking structures (at grade and multi-storey), rail lines, vehicle fuelling stations. Airport support infrastructure including in-flight catering, aircraft maintenance, G.H. maintenance, airport maintenance, police and security facilities, administration buildings, meteorological compounds, rescue and fire fighting facilities, general aviation, fixed base operations, helicopter operations, containment & treatment facilities and aircraft refuelling facilities. Areas reserved for aviation related revenue producing development such as industrial areas, duty-free zones, etc.
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Control tower placement within the airfield (line of sight requirements). IT systems provision and infrastructure. ATC access control provision. ATC staff car parking (if different to general staff car parks). Systems commissioning requirements.
ATC radar and airborne aircraft communications buildings are often provided away from the airport and in dedicated facilities. Where this facility is to be integral to the control tower facility, airport building and apron designers should consult national ATC legislative bodies for precise size and facility performance requirements FIG. C4-1 shows the internal detail of a modern control tower with views overlooking the apron.
Figure C4-1: Control Tower Facility Internal View
Photo Courtesy ofAlenia Marconi Systems Limited (UK)
I ATA
Master Planning
CONTROL TOWER POSITION
The position of the control tower on the apron is vital to the safe operation of the aircraft. Ground aircraft controllers need to be able to see all stand perimeters, taxiways and runways and final approaches. One of the more challenging aspects of control tower design is the operational requirement to permit controllers to see the stand areas and taxiways so that they can control and coordinate push back operations where pilots are effectively blind in this regard. The control tower staff must be able to provide clear guidance to pilots by being able to know the clearance status of the stand and taxiways visually and through communications. Apron areas are often vast and can be interlaced within intricate building infrastructure. Apron, runway and taxiway control rooms should, wherever possible, be consolidated into a single elevated apron control room, with 360 unobstructed panoramic vision of the areas mentioned (subject to the requirements of the national ATC provider and local operator). Dual elevated apron control rooms maybe used (subject to the requirements of the national ATC provider and local operator) where any one of more of the following situations have been met:
C4.3
Taxiways and runways are placed extra long distances away from the terminal apron stand
areas, which results in the need to raise the control tower for this purpose only.
More controllers will have a better vision of specific areas of the apron.
Typical Control Considerations Angle of Vision Dependent on National ATC Provider Requirements
Tower
Notts (i) H1 - Denotes Primary Full Apron Control Room Height Dimension Is dependent on Terminal Building Design visual (II) H2 - Denotes Secondary ApronATC Control Room Height requirements
Dimension Is dependent on Terminal Building Design ATC visual requirements (III) All stand perimeters, runways and taxiways to be visible from apron control room(s) pv) A single Apron Control Room solution is genertcally a preferred solution tnougn this ATC dependent (Designer should consultnational ATC provider/operator)
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C4.4 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
C4.IR1 Control Tower resign Consultation: Terminal building and apron designers must liase with national ATC providers and operators at the earliest opportunity to understand the precise operational specifications of the control tower. Designers should also consult ICAO Annex 14. \ ___________. ___________J C4.IR2 Control Tower Desigl Considerations Terminal building and apron designers must observe the design characteristics stipulated within C4.2 and the control tower positioning requirements defined within clause C4.3
C4.IR3 Visual and Non-Visual Aids Reference Material Designers embarking on the development of control towers should refer to sections G2 Visual Aids and section G3 Non Visual Aids of this manual.
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IAT A
Chapter D Airport Economics

Section D1: Airport Management D1.1 General Airport Management Economics ........................................... D1.2 Meeting the Capacity Demand................................................................. D1.3 Financing Airport Capacity Expansion ..................................................... D1.4 The Privatization Trend ............................................................................ D1.5 The Need for Economic Regulation .......................................................... D1.6 Airport Performance and Efficiency .......................................................... D1.7 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... Section D2: Airport Cost Structures and Revenue Sources D2.1 Airport Cost Structures............................................................................ D2.2 Airport Revenue Sources ......................................................................... D2.3 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... Section D3: Airport Investment Decisions and Financing D3.1 Airport Investment Decision-Making ....................................................... D3.2 Airport Financing Options Debt vs. Equity ........................................... D3.3 Airport Financing Options Pre-Funding Through Charges .................... D3.4 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... Section D4: Aeronautical Charge Policies D4.1 Aeronautical Charges.............................................................................. D4.2 Determining the Cost Base for Aeronautical Charges.............................. D4.3 Aeronautical Charging Policies ................................................................ D4.4 Market-Based Options.............................................................................. D4.5 Consultation with Users ........................................................................... D4.6 IATA Recommendations ......................................................................... Section D5: International Cost Variations D5.1 Airport Benchmarking Data .................................................................... D5.2 IATA Recommendations ......................................................................... 130 133 120 120 124 125 128 128 116 116 118 119 114 114 115 109 109 109 110 111 112 113
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CHAPTER D AIRPORT ECONOMICS SECTION D1: AIRPORT MANAGEMENT D1.1 GENERAL AIRPORT MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS
Up until the late 1970s, airports were seen as nothing more than an extension of government. Since then, however, the links with government have progressively loosened and the pressure for airports to become commercially viable enterprises has grown. This viability included running the airport as a business, able not only to cover its costs (including capital costs) through revenues, but also to arrange for the necessary financing of airport development programmes. Invariably, this challenge has been met with much success. Airports have generally been able to generate substantial profits and secure private sector financing for airport development programmes, usually at a low cost of capital. Further, airports have been able to do this despite the fact that the demand for airport capacity, facilities and services is derived indirectly from airline scheduling plans. While an airline's operating plan is more tactical, with scheduling decisions being made based on short-term traffic forecasts covering the next 6-18 months, the airport planning cycle is more strategic and long-term where the time frame from initial conception to completion may take 5-10 years. This then is the primary challenge for airport management matching capacity provision with demand while maintaining financial viability or profitability and an acceptable level of service.
D1.1.1 Issues Relating to Airport Management

In recent years government policy-makers and airport planners alike have generally been contending with two main issues:
1. How to meet the long-term growth in traffic demand with the necessary runway capacity and
terminal facilities.
2. How best to finance airport expansion in view of limited government budgets.

With respect to this latter point there has been an increased focus on developing the commercial side of an airport and improving airport financial performance, while encouraging the involvement of the private sector in both the management and financing of airport infrastructure.
D1.2
MEETING THE CAPACITY DEMAND

Apart from the short-term influences of the economic cycle, growth in air travel demand has generally been outstripping the supply of infrastructure and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future. However, passenger growth can be accommodated through higher load factors, increased aircraft size, or increased frequencies. The primary capacity concern to airport managers therefore is the composition of traffic in terms of aircraft operations; this will have an impact both in terms of the infrastructure needed and the cost recovery of related expenditures. As already discussed in the chapter on forecasting, how an airline will meet the demand through its operational plan is of significant importance to airport planners.
D1.3
FINANCING AIRPORT CAPACITY EXPANSION

Traditionally, the vast majority of airports around the world were directly owned and operated by national, regional or local governments. In most cases the civil aviation authority or department, being part of the transport ministry, operated the airport(s), and in some cases the CAA would also be , responsible for providing air traffic control and aeronautical meteorological services. ICAO has, for a long time, promoted the concept of an autonomous authority that has managerial and financial autonomy from government, yet is wholly owned by government. Aside from reducing
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the financial burden on governments, autonomous authorities have the advantage of creating a business culture improving financial performance and quality of service. With professional management in place that is both financially accountable and able to undertake and implement long-term development plans, the government-owned autonomous airport authority has in a number of cases been a precursor to the privatized airport. Such was the case with the British Airport Authority, established in 1966, which later became a limited company (BAA Pic) with the Airports Act of 1986, owning seven airports. Shares in BAA Pic were subsequently floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1987.
IATA POLICY POSITION The airline industry generally favours the trend what is commonly referred to as the privatisation of airport and air navigation entities in that the facilities and services may be provided in a more cost efficient and effective manner. It is concerned, however, that the process often leads to increases in the cost base for charges, and thus, higher user charges. The requisites for industry support for privatisation are: meaningful consultation with the user community prior to and during the privatisation process; appropriate legislation obligating observance by the commercialised/privatised entity of the ICAO Policies on Charges; and the designation of an effective and independent economic regulatory mechanism providing oversight of charging practices.
D1.4
THE PRIVATIZATION TREND

Privatization1 of, or private participation in airport management has usually taken the form of a longterm lease of all or part of the airport facilities and services, with the responsibility for their expansion and development resting with the concessionaire. Such leasing arrangements can take the form of build-operate-transfer (BOT), build-own-operate-transfer (BOOT), build-transfer-operate (BTO), and other variants thereof. Lease payments can take the form of an annual royalty payment or down payment toward an eventual privatization. Examples of these airport leasing arrangements are most prevalent in Latin America, although we also find examples in Africa, Australia and Canada. The problem with such leasing arrangements is that government is in a position of strength vis--vis the concessionaire when it comes to negotiating rights to operate facilities that have no alternative use and charge monopoly rents. With the concessionaire in most cases being given the right to set aeronautical charges, in the absence of effective price regulation, he can recover this cost from the users of the airports facilities and services. The incentive for the concessionaire to negotiate the best deal possible with the government is therefore low. Commercialisation factors Ownership: Accounting Methodology: Capital Financing Options: Employee Status: Legal Status: Entrepreneurialism: Management Reports to: Taxation: Management Focus: 0% <-----100% State owned Cash accounts State budget Civil servants Government Little Political Low Government policies 100% 100% Public Shares Commercial practices All options Corporate Private Considerable Board of Directors As private companies Profits/Share Value
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Airport Economics
Private participation can also take the form of a transfer of minority ownership through the sale of shares to a strategic partner or through a public issue. This has typically been the European model, although we also find examples in Asia and South Africa. With the notable exception of BAA pic and a few others, a fully privatized airport is a rarity. Governments have generally demonstrated apprehension toward giving up full control of their airports to the private sector. In summary, faced with budgetary constraints and the increasing financial resources required to fund airport operations and development plans, governments have felt that airports could be better operated and managed as commercially autonomous entities, having access to private sector capital. Moreover, private participation and privatization in the provision of airport services has been seen as a source of revenue. Although the large majority of airports still remain under government or public ownership, either in entirety or through a majority holding, indications are that private involvement in the ownership and management will continue to increase. As the need for airport development funding continues to grow, with governments being increasingly reluctant to contribute funds, the pressures to privatize airports will continue. These pressures will not only come from governments, but also from the airport management that desires full managerial and financial autonomy from government interference. Typically, those airports already operating profitably as private companies are seen as mature candidates for full privatization.
IATA POLICY POSITION Economic regulation is essential to improving airport efficiency and countering the potential abuse in the setting of charges. In order to gain support from the user community for the privatization of airports, it is imperative that States institute an effective and independent economic regulatory mechanism.
D1.5
THE NEED FOR ECONOMIC REGULATION

Due to the non-competitive nature of airports, it has long been argued and recognized that regulation of airport charges is essential, especially when the airport is privately owned and motivated by the profit imperative. Economic regulation can range from hard and administratively burdensome (for both the airport and users alike), to soft regulationwhere the authorities rely on industry approaches based on consultation and contractual arrangements (most prevalent in North America). In the case of BAA, tight controls were imposed:
It has to produce more detailed accounts consistent with the Companies Act.
The CAA, working in conjunction with the Monopolies and Mergers Commission (MMC), can
investigate complaints of discrimination or abuse of monopoly position.
Aeronautical charges, in terms of revenue per passenger, could increase by no more than the
retail price index (RPI) less an estimate of the expected increase in productivity, a negotiated X per cent. The significance of this latter condition the "RPI minus X" formula that would be revised every five years is that it would force BAA to become more efficient and diversify into other revenue generating activities that are not subject to price controls. Thus, through the 'single till' rate-setting methodology, 117 aeronautical charges could be kept within a targeted range. However, this so-called 'single till' regulatory mechanism has come under increased criticism and is not seen as shareholder friendly as airport charges at Heathrow one of the world's most congested facilities were expected to fall 30% in real terms by March 2003 (the end of the regulatory review period).

efficiently in the first place). Other regulatory schemes are contractual, whereby the airport comes to an agreement with the user community to cap charges at a certain level for a fixed term. Such is the case at Copenhagen. In other States a regulator may have been appointed to monitor the behavior of the concessionaire of an autonomous airport authority, but is largely ineffective in carrying out its mandate. The main reason for this is that the regulatory authority may not be sufficiently independent and entrusted with the necessary enforcement powers. In many such situations the concessionaire has the lobbying power to sway government officials and politicians, rendering the CAA virtually powerless. However in the vast majority of cases of private participation or privatization of airports, examples of effective and truly independent regulatory mechanisms do not really exist.
D1.6
AIRPORT PERFORMANCE AND EFFICIENCY

As airports are increasingly operated on a commercial basis, and the trend toward airport privatization continues, the need for and interest in information on financial performance will grow. Since airports enjoy a quasi-monopolistic position, demand for airport services is relatively inelastic and the potential exists for abuse in extracting high revenues from airport customers. Airport profitability, therefore, does not necessarily equate to airport efficiency. Aside from measuring airport quality of service standards, airport managers will therefore have to measure an airport's economic efficiency by assessing the relationship between inputs (labour, capital, etc.) and outputs (passengers, aircraft movements, work-load units, etc.) Not only are airport performance indicators useful to airport managers for making decisions on the best use of resources, users will insist on them and regulatory authorities may well impose them as a means to gauge whether the commercialization process is delivering on the efficiency promise. While performance indicators can be used to analyze and monitor past and current performance, they can also be used to give an indication of the overall quality of performance when compared to a standard that reflects industry best practice. However data comparability problems make interairport comparisons difficult to calculate and interpret. Every airport has its own method for charging for its facilities and services, making it difficult to assess the relevant charge and its underlying cost base. Aside from currency differences, accounting practices differ from airport to airport; some airports are recipients of government subsidies, while others have to arrange for their own financing. Nevertheless, knowledge about performance benchmarks and information on relative levels of efficiency between airports will continue to grow, and appropriate analytical techniques need to be developed. At present there exists no industry standard for measuring airport performance, although the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) of the UK is currently the only firm doing work in the area of Airport Performance Indicators and Airport Charges comparisons. Some examples of indicators for measuring airport performance are:

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Total revenue per air traffic movement (ATM), passenger, or employee. Aeronautical revenue per ATM, passenger, or employee. Aeronautical revenue as a percentage to total revenue, or total cost. Non-aeronautical revenue per ATM, passenger, or employee. Non-aeronautical revenue as a percentage to total revenue, or total cost. Total cost per ATM, passenger, or employee.
IATA
D1.7 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
D1.IR1 Privatisation Policy Statement
Airport Economics
The airline industry generally favours the commercialisation and/or privatisation of airport and air navigation entities in that the facilities and services may be provided in a more cost efficient and effective manner. It is concerned, however, that the process often leads to increases in the cost base for charges, and thus, higher user charges. The requisites for industry support for privatisation are: meaningful consultation with the user community prior to and during the commercialisation/privatisation process; appropriate legislation obligating observance by the commercialised/privatised entity of the ICAO Policies on Charges; and the designation of an effective and independent economic regulatory mechanism providing oversight of charging practices. V _ _ __________________________________. ____________________________________________ _ J
D1.IR2 Economic Regulation Statement

Economic regulation is essential to improving airport efficiency and countering the potential abuse in the setting of charges. In order to gain support from the user community for airport commercialization/privatization, it is imperative that States that will or have already commercialized or privatized their airports institute an effective and independent economic regulatory mechanism.
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SECTION D2: AIRPORT COST STRUCTURES AND REVENUE SOURCES D2.1 AIRPORT COST STRUCTURES
Capital charges (interest expense, depreciation and amortization) relating to investments in the infrastructure represent a large portion of an airport's total costs. For established airports with continuous expansion plans, capital charges account for about 25-50% of total costs. For new "green field" airports, investment-related costs are significant, with capital charges accounting for as much as 90% of total costs. In the earlier years of civil aviation, suitable land was more readily available, and the capital costs related to the construction of basic infrastructure runways, taxiways, and terminal and support facilities were more affordable compared to today's standards. Airports were simply built where it was cheapest to construct. Today, after decades of continued urbanization and environmental restriction, there is a lack of suitable land close to the city center. New airport sites are further from the cities they serve, requiring new road and mass transit infrastructure to be built for easy access. These sites are usually of poor quality, such that the pre-construction or site preparation phase has become a major component of the investment. This phase could, for example, involve leveling surrounding hills or creating a man-made island. The most extreme example of such an airport is Kansai (Osaka), in Japan. Together with the complex nature of today's airport facilities, these considerations make construction of new airports prohibitively expensive and almost always in need of some form of government financial support. Operations and maintenance costs the costs to operate and maintain the investments in infrastructure in good shape to prevent so-called capital deterioration typically make up a third of the total cost structure. Staff costs can make up as much as 40% or as little as 20% of total airport costs, depending on the region and the airport in question. Staff costs as a proportion of total costs tend to be low for US airports because they do not get involved in air traffic control or handling activities, and because the airlines are much more involved in the operational activities of US airports. Thus the unique economic, operational and financial characteristics of US airports sets them apart from their peers in other parts of the world. As pointed out in the chapter dealing with airport planning, an efficient, well-planned airport can save the airlines money. The goal of reducing capital costs in order to be more cost-effective is too restrictive an approach. The goal should be to minimize the sum of airport user charges and airline operational costs. Optimizing a master plan by organizing the runway and terminal area layout whereby taxi distances and times are minimized is recognized as good airport planning. Airline operating costs also need to be considered when determining the terminal design a sound approach to which permits optimum airline staffing and quicker aircraft turnaround times. Proper timing and phasing of an airport development programme is just as critical due to the effect this has on airport unit costs. Investments in airport infrastructure, by their very nature, are lumpy and have the tendency to produce a 'step climb' in capacity. Unit costs increase sharply and decrease again over time as traffic builds up and the facilities are better utilized. To keep unit costs low or at reasonable levels, airports may be inclined to hold off on development plans until such time that increased congestion results in an increase in related costs; e.g. the cost of busing to remote aircraft boarding sites. Furthermore, due to economies of scale, high utilization of limited capacity will also make an airport more profitable. A rather extreme example of this effect is Heathrow.
D2.2
AIRPORT REVENUE SOURCES

The two main sources of airport revenue come from aeronautical or traffic-related activities (i.e. landing fees, passenger service charges, etc.) and non-aeronautical or commercial activities (i.e. office-space rent, car parking, duty-free shopping concessions, handling agent concession fees, etc.). Airports have traditionally relied more heavily on aeronautical revenue sources as their main form of income typically about 50-70%, while 30-50% comes from commercial activities such as leases, duty free, car parking, airport ground handling services, etc. The smaller the airport and the more an airport relies on domestic passenger traffic, the more dependent it will likely be on aeronautical
I ATA
Airport Economics
revenues as its main source of revenue. However, if such an airport is to attract, retain and develop traffic, it will have to set charges at reasonable levels. It is likely that these domestically-oriented airports will not achieve full cost recovery and typically will rely on some form of subsidization. However, as discussed in the section dealing with privatization, government subsidies are running dry and airports have been pressured to become financially viable through the development of other revenue sources. ICAO has therefore recommended for some time that airports fully develop their non-aeronautical revenue sources. Lesser reliance on aeronautical revenues is also one of the reasons why IATA has supported airport commercialization. However the development of additional revenue sources through concessions that are directly associated with the operation of air transport services; e.g. fuel throughput fees, catering concession fees, aircraft handling concession fees, etc., should not be considered as opportunities for revenue enhancement since this only increases the cost to operate at an airport and is therefore considered no different from increasing aeronautical charges.
IATA POLICY POSITION Airports should refrain from imposing non-cost-related levies on aeronautical activities directly associated with the operation of air transport services. Such levies only increase the cost of airline operations at an airport and could have discriminatory effects.
The development of commercial activities has proven to be particularly profitable for certain airports, leading some to take on more risky ventures or to get involved in non-airport-related activities. Aside from offering consulting services, some airports have been making investments in other airports or airport development projects, or getting involved in the provision of discotheques, casinos, or other real estate projects. The concern here is the potential for management distraction away from the core business of running efficient and cost effective airport facilities and services. An equally significant concern is the potential that users of the airport are exposed to the financial risk related to such ventures. Nevertheless, the development of revenues from non-aeronautical activities has become the principle means by which a growing number of airports have been able to recover their total costs in the case where losses are made on the aeronautical side of the business. Under a 'single-till' rate-setting methodology, charges can therefore be moderated and kept at reasonable levels. Further discussion on this topic is included in the sections dealing with airport cost allocation and rate-setting methodologies.
D2.3
D2.IR1 Airport Revenue Policy Statement Airports should refrain from imposing non-cost-related levies on aeronautical activities directly associated with the operation of air transport services. Such levies only increase the cost of airline operations at an airport and could have discriminatory effects
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SECTION D3: AIRPORT INVESTMENT DECISIONS AND FINANCING D3.1 AIRPORT INVESTMENT DECISION-MAKING
A detailed business plan has to be drawn up as part of any airport development programme. It should contain financial projections and forecasts of future activity at the airport. The basic elements that should be included in this type of business plan are:
Forecast and composition of air traffic demand. Scope of and business case for the airport development programme.
Feasibility analysis; i.e.: will the airport's overall financial performance be acceptable; can the
airport manage the additional cash flow requirements; will the proposed programme produce an acceptable return on investment; etc.
Financial analysis of costs and revenues, including: an operating budget; a financing plan; a cash
flow forecast; a debt servicing schedule; pro forma balance sheets and income statements; financial ratio analysis; etc.
Risk mitigation assessment, the primary areas being: technical risk relating to construction
completion; commercial risk relating to changes in traffic demand; cost risk relating to changes in construction or capital and operational costs; financial risk relating to currency exchange, inflation and interests rate changes.
For investment purposes, the next step is to draw up a financing plan. Critical to this plan is an analysis of the airport's ability to generate sufficient revenues to make the required payments for operating & maintenance expenses, debt service, and other funding requirements that may be required by bondholders or other creditors. In most cases, airport management would do well by contracting with a reputable consultant with expertise in project feasibility studies and airport financing programmes. Once a detailed business and investment plan has been drawn up, an evaluation of the investment financing options can begin.
D3.2
AIRPORT FINANCING OPTIONS DEBT vs. EQUITY

In order for airports to gain access to private finance, certain institutional and legal changes will first have to take place, usually by way of an airports act. Once these changes have occurred, an airport will have the same choices to make about capital structure as any other private firm would. The optimal or target capital structure is the desired mix of debt, preferred shares, and common equity that will cause a firm's share price to be maximized and its weighted average cost of capital (WACC) 1 to be minimized. This optimal balance between debt and equity financing has been the central question in corporate finance for some time. All-debt financing typically provides a lower average cost of capital and, in any case, for most airports the choice may be limited solely to debt. This is the case in the US where airports have access to tax-free revenue bonds.
The Weighted Average Cost of Capital is defined as the weighted average of the cost of debt, r B, and the cost of equity, rs. Taking corporate taxes into account, the appropriate cost of debt is the after-tax cost of debt since interest is tax deductible. The formula for determining the WACC is: 122
S Twacc-
g^g- rs + g-Tfg- rB U
,.
-s Ic)
where rB (1 - T0) is the after-tax cost of debt. For regulated industries like gas, power, telephone, or railways, the cost of capital has been used to set prices so that the utility earns this rate of return. If the cost of capital is set too low, then the company will not be able to attract sufficient capital to
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Nevertheless, there appear to be some compelling reasons for airports to take on more debt vs. equity. Profitable enterprises with stable, predictable cash flows and safe, tangible assets can afford to take on more debt; unprofitable, risky firms with intangible assets less so. Utilities, such as airports, typically can afford much greater leverage. There is also a certain order in which firms go about seeking financing. New capital will first come from retained earnings. Only after this option is exhausted or becomes difficult due to imposed limitations on the build up of reserves, will a firm turn to lenders whether the banks for loans or lines of credit and/or the bond market. Only as a last resort does the firm turn to the equity market. This being said, it has been observed that airports have surprisingly low levels of financial leverage and, more importantly, they have significantly less debt than their peers; i.e. utility companies. Bonds issued by airports can come in a variety of forms: General obligation bonds General obligation bonds are backed by the issuing government and secured and serviced out of general tax receipts. They are sold at relatively low interest rates. Total general obligation indebtedness of the relevant government may be a limiting factor in the use of general obligation bonds. Self-liquidating general obligation bonds A variation liquidating general obligation bonds, which are secured by government, but are serviced from airport revenues. They cost, but are not subjected to debt restrictions and do not for capital funding. of general obligation bonds are selfthe good faith and credit of the issuing have the advantage of the low interest compete with other public works projects
Airport revenue bonds Airport revenue bonds, for which debt service is paid out of airport revenue, have been the major financing mechanism at large and medium size airports in the US. They are sold at slightly higher rates of interest due to greater perceived risk. Essentially, the airport pledges that its future income will be sufficient to cover the interest and capital repayment over the period of the bond issue. The coverage ratio typically ranges between 1.2-1.5 and level of risk will be dependent on this coverage ratio. Lease or special facility bonds These bonds are guaranteed by the future rental or lease payments of the airline or group of airlines that are going to use the facility, and are secured by way of long-term lease/use agreements. Bond Rating Agencies Since bond rating agencies determine how bonds are priced, it is important to understand how airport bonds are perceived. In general, bond rating agencies have historically rated airport revenue bonds quite highly. A 1990 ACI survey of 31 airports found that 8 of the airports surveyed had the best possible rating (Aaa on Moody's Credit Rating Scale), and 12 had high ratings (Aa). It is an airport's status as a critical public utility generally lacking significant competition for local traffic, as well as its ability to recover its costs, that have lifted airport ratings up to investment-grade levels. Growth of the airport sector in the bond and bank debt markets will depend heavily on the extent to which borrowers and lenders can identify and control credit risk. Credit analysis is important and will be a key element in the long-term growth of airport debt. An evaluation of an airport's credit position involves a fundamental analysis of its business and competitive position and its operations. As such, the perceived credit quality of an airport is the product of its performance in a number of analytical areas:
Competitive position O&D airports tend to carry less risk than do hub airports that rely heavily on transfer traffic. Finances operational comparables, benchmarks and financial ratios are used to assess an airport's strengths and weaknesses.
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Rate-setting methodology employed a key consideration since it fundamentally determines who assumes the risk for the airport's financial operations and who has control over airport capital decisions. Debt profile the amount, type and structure of the debt being issued are reviewed when assessing an airport's credit position. Ownership structure generally speaking, direct government ownership that provides for a guarantee against default improves an airport's ability to access capital markets. Management aside from an assessment of the strength and quality of the airport management, the nature of its relations with the airlines is also considered. Environmental issues noise restrictions on runway usage have become a significant issue, particularly for western European airports, as this can hamper growth and expansion. From a credit perspective, the extent to which operational restrictions and opposition to expansion will affect an airport's position and impact its financial and strategic position needs to be assessed.
IATA POLICY POSITION Pre-funding or forward financing vehicles are becoming more prominent, increasing the cost of air transportation. In essence, the airlines and/or the passenger are made to pay for facilities that are not yet in use. It is acknowledged that major capital investments will require external financing, the cost of which should only be included in the cost base for charging purposes when the facilities
D3.3
AIRPORT FINANCING OPTIONS PRE-FUNDING THROUGH CHARGES

When the forementioned financing options are limited or unavailable, airports may turn to prefunding through charges as a means of financing capital investment projects. Pre-funding through charges such as the US passenger facility charge (PFC) goes against the fundamental principles of cost recovery, as does the build up of reserves from an excess of revenues over expenses. This was recognized during the ICAO Conference on the Economics of Airports and Air Navigation Services (ANSConf 2000). However, during the Conference discussion there was general support for pre-funding under specific circumstances where it is determined that it is the most appropriate or only source of funding provided that strict safeguards are in place for users who will be paying for facilities they do not use. Such safeguards should include effective and independent economic regulation, substantive consultation and general agreement with users, limited time of application of the pre-funding charge, and transparency of accounts to ensure the funds are used toward the agreed upon project. For accounting purposes, care should be taken that once the facilities become operational the related
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D3.4
D3.IR1 Airport Financing Policy Statement

Pre-funding or forward financing vehicles are becoming more prominent, increasing the cost of air transportation. In essence, the airlines and/a the passenger are made to pay for facilities that are not yet in use. It is acknowledged that major capital investments will require external financing, the cost of which should only be included in the cost base for charging purposes when the facilities in question are operational
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SECTION D4: AERONAUTICAL CHARGE POLICIES D4.1 AERONAUTICAL CHARGES
For most airports, aeronautical charges continue to generate well over half of their total revenues. On the part of the airlines, airport charges are critical because they have a direct impact on operating costs. However, due to a variety of factors, airport charges impact different airlines differently. For a short-haul carrier with a high frequency hub feeder operation, airport charges can be significant as much as 20-25% as a proportion of total operating costs. For a long-haul carrier operating large aircraft, airport charges can account for about 5% of total operating costs. Depending on the region of the world, this figure can increase to 10-12% or be as little as 2-3%. In absolute terms airport charges have more than doubled, and as new airport facilities and services become operational in some regions of the world higher user charges can be expected. In summary, since airport charges are an uncontrollable cost as compared to other costs, and have been escalating faster than any other airline cost over the last decade, they will continue to be a major cause of concern for airline management. It is for this reason that the topic of User Charges has been among the top three priorities for IATA in recent time.
Figure D4-1: Cost Breakdown Schedule
ÂTA Operating Cost IATA International Scheduled services Cockpit Crew
11 US cents 3.3 6.1 4.9 4.8 2.1 1.4 5.6 6.0 8.9 2.7 45.8
per % of
Fuel & Oil SAircraft Airport
8.4% 15.4%
per
2JD US cents 2.8 6.1 4.9 4.0 2.0 1.9 4.4 5.5 5.9 2.0 39.5
2001 vs. 1991
% of % change 7.1% -15.2% 15.4% 0.0% 12.4% 10.1% 5.1% 4.8% 11.1% 13.9% 14.9% 5.1% 100.0% 0.0% -16.7% -4.8% 35.7% -21.4% -8.3% -33.7% -25.9% -13.8% 85.7% 164.3% 117.1%
Insurance, Depreciation & Maintenance & Overhaul Leases Landing & Related Charges Air Navigation Charges Station & Ground costs Cabin Crew & Passenger Service Ticketing, Sales & Promotion General and Administrative Total
12.4% 12.2% 5.3%
Airport Air
Landing & Related Charges
nsc"
3.5% 14.2% 15.2% 22.5% 6.8% 115.9% Mln 4.2 2.8 7.0
7.8 7.4 15.2
Navigation Charges
D4.2 126
DETERMINING THE COST BASE FOR AERONAUTICAL CHARGES

Paragraph 22(i) of ICAO's Policies on Charges (Doc 9082/6) states that: 'The cost to be shared is the full cost of providing the airport and its essential ancillary services, including appropriate amounts for cost of capital and depreciation of assets, as well as the cost of maintenance and operation, and management and administration expenses, but allowing for all aeronautical revenues plus contributions from non-aeronautical revenues accruing from the operation of the airport to its operators."
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The paragraph captures two important concepts for determining the cost base for airport charges. First, the meaning ascribed to the terms 'full cost' emanates from the 1991 ICAO Conference on Airport and Route Facility Management (CARFM) during which it was agreed to delete the word 'economic' between the words full' and 'cost' from previous version Doc 9082/4, '...to emphasize the principle that only the costs actually incurred by the providers of airport and air traffic control facilities and services should be charged...' This recommendation was meantto reflect the growing trend toward airport autonomy and privatization, and to indicate that the ICAO Statements by the Council on Airport Charges (Doc 9082/4) was only to provide guidance on the cost recovery of the facilities and services provided to air traffic. Rate-setting methodologies The second concept is the application of the 'single-till' principle, in that the cost base for charges should be based on the cost of the airport facilities and services provided, net of contributions from non-aeronautical revenue sources. How much of a contribution should be considered has been the subject of much debate and contention between airports and airlines. The airline industry has historically been of the opinion that airports exist to facilitate air transportation services and that revenue from all commercial activities within the airport perimeter should therefore contribute to the 'single-till' in the determination of the cost base for charging purposes. Further, considering that airports are increasingly developing their commercial potential through involvement in non-core activities, it is also felt that the airline community should be consulted prior to such initiatives in regards to what extent users should be exposed to the risk involved under a 'single-till' rate-setting methodology. In the US, this trade-off between risk exposure and user-say has been captured in airline airport use agreements. The residual approach1 to setting airport charges guarantees the airport will breakeven, although some airports will ensure that an adequate surplus is made. In this case, the airlines take the financial risk, but usually have veto power over airport investment decisions by way of a 'majority-in-interest' (MM) clause, which gives airlines veto power over airport-development plans. The other rate-setting methodology is the compensatory approach 2, which on a total airport basis is not set to necessarily break-even. A profit or loss can be made depending on the level of traffic and commercial activity that is generated. In this case, the airport assumes the financial risk, but receives the benefits of the concession revenues, usually during periods of traffic growth. Airports employing this methodology have tended to produce larger surpluses and would also be in a better position to use retained earnings for investment purposes. However, US legislation limits the level of profit allowed and there have been cases when airlines have sued airports for the accumulated surpluses. Nevertheless there has been a tendency for airports to move away from the residual approach to adopt the compensatory or hybrid approach, which employs a mix of the two methodologies, usually airside residual and landside compensatory. Under the 'single till' or 'global residual' approach to rate setting, which IATA favours, big income streams from areas like parking and retail have,the effect of lowering airport charges to airlines, while the airlines, in turn, assume the financial risk and ensure the airport is kept whole. However, the 'single till' has become a topic of heated debate, with the airports arguing that it is an economic perversity since it subsidizes the airlines, especially so during times of capacity constraint, and creates a disincentive to develop new sources of non-aeronautical revenue.
Residual Methodology under this approach, which can be applied on a cost centre or total airport basis, non-airline 127 revenues are credited against costs to determine the net revenue required, which is then apportioned back to the airlines. Compensatory Methodology under this approach, rates and charges are calculated to fully recover the airlines' share of operating and capital costs without any credit for non-airline revenues. The airlines' share of costs exclude concession and public areas,

Another paragraph of importance is 22(vii) which states that: "Airports may produce sufficient revenues to exceed all direct and indirect operating costs (including general administration, etc.) and so provide for a reasonable return on assets at a sufficient level to secure financing on favorable terms in capital markets for the purpose of investing in new or expanded airport infrastructure and, where relevant, to remunerate adequately holders of airport equity." In the context of airport privatization, airlines are of the opinion that they should not be made to pay for the (at times) speculative returns sought by equity holders. Airport management will be tempted to take on more risky ventures (e.g. international expansion through equity holdings) in order to attract and retain investors. Further, the temptation would be to reduce the contributions of non-aeronautical revenues to the cost base for aeronautical charges or abandon the 'single till' concept altogether. This is therefore yet another reason for the need of an independent and effective economic regulatory mechanism to help mitigate user exposure to such risk. Given the debate surrounding the 'single till' principle to rate-setting and its link to the regulated return an airport can generate, ACI and IATA developed a joint interpretation of sub-paragraphs 22(i) and 22(vii) which is reproduced below: ACI/IATA JOINT INTERPRETATION OF SUB-PARAGRAPHS 22(i) AND 22(vii) IN ICAO'S POLICIES ON CHARGES FOR AIRPORTS AND AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES (DOC 9082/6) In interpreting these two sub-paragraphs, the following should apply:
1. The existence of air traffic activity is a necessary precondition for the generation of airport non-
aeronautical revenues. Such revenues are then generated through management initiatives in offering suitable products and prices. All aeronautical and non-aeronautical revenues from the operation of an airport accrue, in the first instance, to the airport. Reaching a common understanding on the contributions of non-aeronautical revenues to defray the cost base for charges is an acknowledgement of the partnership between airports and users.
2. The non-aeronautical revenues in question do not normally include revenues earned by airport
operators from activities undertaken competition with other suppliers. off-airport, or those undertaken by the airport in
full
3. Given the different local circumstances and fast changing conditions, with respect to airport
ownership and management, as well as regulatory regimes, there are likely to be a range of different appropriate treatments of non-aeronautical income by airports. to the investment needs of airports, taking into account paragraph 24 of Doc 9082/6, which addresses pre-funding of projects, while recognizing that there may be many alternatives to finance infrastructure development.
4. When determining the contributions from non-aeronautical revenues, high priority should be given
5. The appropriate return on aeronautical activities should reflect differences in the level of risk from
non-aeronautical activities. Further, iniorder to provide incentives to the airport operator, high levels of service and efficiency in aeronautical activities may be rewarded with higher returns and vice versa. be in place to identify the relationship between costs and revenues of non-aeronautical and aeronautical activities (Doc 9082/6, sub-paragraph 17(vi) refers).
6. When defining the contributions from non-aeronautical revenues, an accounting system should 7. As stated in point 4 above, it may he appropriate for airports to retain non-aeronautical revenues
rather than use such revenues to defray charges. However, there is no requirement for airports to do so and, in appropriate circumstances, there may be solid grounds for charges to be lower, consistent with Doc 9082/6, sub-paragraph 22(viii).
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8. None of the foregoing should be interpreted as encouragement to airports to exploit unreasonably their market position relative to users. Agreed to February, 2001 As a final point, in the event that aeronautical charges are determined without any contributions from non-aeronautical revenue sources, then the cost allocation between aeronautical and non-aeronautical functions and among landing (runways and taxi ways), parking/apron and terminal facilities should be based on an accurate and appropriate methodology that is deemed to be reasonable and equitable to users. Cost accounting It should be evident from the foregoing that a proper cost accounting system is an essential tool, both in providing the basis for determining the cost base for charges, but also for providing information to airport management in its assessment of operating performance from a financial perspective. The cost accounting system should help achieve the following objectives:
Determine the costs of specific services, programmes, and activities. Understand the composition of these costs and what the cost drivers are.
Determine the efforts and accomplishments associated with programmes and delivery of services and their changes over time in relation to costs. Measure the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization's management of services, programmes, and assets. In the determination of the cost base for charges, special attention needs to be given to the issue of cost allocation, because so many of an airport's costs are joint costs. First, the total costs by major cost item (operating & maintenance, marketing, administrative, capital charges, etc.) have to be determined. The second step involves allocating these functional costs to the various airport areas or services and this will involve allocating certain costs that are attributable to two or more areas or services by employing a sound cost allocation methodology such as activity based costing (ABC). For example, there are many areas and facilities that are used both for passenger handling and commercial purposes, and care must be taken to allocate costs fairly and equitably between aeronautical and non-aeronautical activities. Likewise, in the case of airport networks, appropriate amounts of overhead costs need to be allocated among the relevant airports. The principles of costrelated and site-specific charges must be maintained.
IATA POLICY POSITION IATA has no objection to airport networks and airport cross-ownership or alliances charging practices as long as airport charges are cost-related and sitespecific. IATA considers that there should be no cross-subsidization between airports and finances should be strictly separated.
Finally, arriving at an equitable cost base for charges will require an allocation of costs among different user groups or categories, i.e. general aviation, military, and international and domestic civil traffic. Once the costs attributable to civil air traffic have been established, the cost base for individual charges can be estimated by determining the costs of the facilities and/or services the charge is to cover. The relevant rate for a given charge (landing fee, parking fee, passenger service charge, etc.) is then determined by dividing the relevant cost base by the estimated number of charging units. The 129 number of charging units in the case of a landing fee is generally the aggregate aircraft MTOW that is estimated to take-off from the airport in the relevant year, or the number of departing passengers in the case of a passenger service charge.
D4.3
AERONAUTICAL CHARGING POLICIES

The User Charges Panel (UCP) is the group that leads the IATA approach to user charges issues. Its objective is to ensure charges are reasonable, cost-related, non-discriminatory and equitably applied, and the panel enters into consultations with government and their designated charging authorities for this purpose. The UCP operates within the framework of a terms of reference set by the IATA Financial Committee, to which it reports, and consists of 10 airline experts who are geographically representative of the IATA Membership. ICAO Policies on Charges While the UCP has developed IATA policies on User Charges issues ranging from privatization to market-based options to counter congestion and delays, much of its work is based on ICAO's Policies on Charges for Airports and Air Navigation Services (Doc 9082/6). These Policies on Charges are updated from time-to-time and contain the recommendations and conclusions of the ICAO Council on charges issues. They are intended for guidance to ICAO contracting States, however, IATA considers that States and their designated charging authorities have a moral obligation to observe the Policies on Charges. To assist States in the implementation of the Policies on Charges, ICAO has also developed and maintains two manuals: the Airport Economics Manual (Doc 9562) and the Manual on Air Navigation Services Economics (Doc 9161/3), which are updated from time-to-time by the Airport Economics Panel (AEP) and the ANS Economics Panel (ANSEP) to which IATA is an active member. The principles for the setting of aeronautical charges as contained in the Policies on Charges have their origin in Article 15 Airport and Similar Charges of the Convention on International Civil Aviation (a.k.a. the 'Chicago' Convention). Article 15 of the Convention requires of a contracting State that: uniform conditions shall apply to the use of airports and air navigation facilities by aircraft of other contracting States; and charges imposed for use of such facilities shall not be higher for aircraft of other contracting States than those paid by its national aircraft engaged in similar international operations. Average cost pricing The requirements that airports be open to users under uniform conditions and that charges be nondiscriminatory form the basic underlying philosophy to airport charging policies. These basic principles can also be found in bilateral air services agreements between States. It has also been widely accepted that airports are public utilities and that air transport is a service of national importance. Thus, traditional charging policies have also been based on recouping solely the costs of the facilities and services provided. These principles have lead to an average cost pricing approach to charging. However it was clear that larger, heavier aircraft needed longer and stronger runways and larger handling facilities and thus imposed a higher cost on an airport. Further, larger aircraft with their higher payloads were found to be better able to bear higher charges the ability to pay principle. Thus, many airports introduced specific charges for facilities and services such as aerobridges and security and apron services. In the case of landing fees, an aircraft weight element (usually MTOW) was included in the formula as a proxy for the cost it imposed on the airport. However, in the case of terminal navaid (approach control) and other air navigation services charges, it was recognized that larger aircraft are more efficient, able to transport more people in a single movement and requiring no more air traffic management effort than was required for a small aircraft. In the case of such charges, the practice has been to employ the square root of the weight factor as a trade-off between the ability to pay and aircraft efficiency. Rebates, discounts and incentives Of late, a number of airports have offered discounts on charges, or rebates, as a marketing tool to increase traffic volume or attract new air routes. Some such incentives are officially published, while others are not. The argument in favor of such discounts is that they are aimed at increasing the total business, thereby benefiting all users, especially where the 'single-till' principle to rate-setting is
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applied. Airline start-up costs for a new route can be significant, and therefore airport assistance through incentives for a limited time is acceptable and appreciated by the airline industry. IATA, however, only supports rebates or discounts that are non-discriminatory and do not contravene Article 15 of the Chicago Convention. The non-discriminatory element should include the requirement for such incentives to be published.
IATA POLICY POSITION A number of airports offer discounts or rebates, mainly as incentives to stimulate new or increased traffic. lATA's view is that discounts or rebates are acceptable only if they comply with the following principles:
Non-discriminatory any discount or rebate offered must be available to all operators under the same conditions. Do not distort competition. Are time-limited. Are not funded through increases in existing user charges. Should be published.
IATA publishes the Airport & Air Navigation Charges Manual, which is a complete compilation of upto-date information on airport and air navigation charges world-wide and is available for sale in print and CD-ROM format.
D4.4
MARKET-BASED OPTIONS
In light of the more commercially oriented environment in which airports now operate, there has been some debate in recent years as to whether the traditional airport charging schemes result in the efficient allocation of resources, and generate sufficient revenues to provide for an adequate return on investment. The traditional airport charging systems, that have developed under the auspices of ICAO guidance, aim solely to recover the cost of providing the facilities or services through a combination of average cost pricing and ability to pay, and do not provide adequate signaling mechanisms about the costs airlines impose on an airport. This debate has become particularly acute in the case of congested airports and environmental mitigation. It is argued that average cost pricing offers little inducement to operators of new aircraft types to minimize the cost they impose on the airport in terms of new facilities that are required. All users end up contributing to the cost for accommodating the new aircraft type. It has been further argued that average cost pricing offers no incentive for operators to move from peak to off-peak periods. Finally, under an average cost pricing regime, the more congested an airport gets, the cheaper it gets to operate. These arguments have lead airport managers and economic pricing principles and marginal cost pricing one additional unit of output. Economists have long most efficient allocation of resources is one where the cost of providing that good or service. regulators alike to explore the introduction of the cost that would be incurred to produce argued that the pricing policy that leads to the price of a good or service is set to the marginal
However, can such pricing policies be implemented in the airport environment and will they have the desired effect? So called market-based options have been promoted as having a possible role to 131 play in relieving airline flight delays and congestion at busy airports, thereby improving airport capacity management, enhancing competition and promoting the efficiency of the overall aviation system.

Market-based options would therefore include all market pricing regimes that could encourage air carriers to use limited capacity in a more efficient manner, potentially bringing into balance current supply (airport capacity) and demand (number of flight operations) while longer-term capacity expansion is pursued. Such market-based options could include:
Auctions, which would allocate a fixed number of operations for some particular period of time. Congestion pricing, which contemplates charging air carriers not only for the costs they impose on an airport, but also the delay costs they impose on other airport users. Peak period pricing, which contemplates imposing fees based on the higher costs an airport incurs to accommodate demand during peak hours, or the cost an airport does not incur because flights are shifted from busy periods of the day to less busy periods. Flat fees, which would restructure existing weight-based landing fees so that total airfield costs are recovered through a higher average fee, thereby affecting the mix of aircraft that operate at an airport.
IATA has held the view that in order to relieve airport congestion and delay, the primary objective should be to improve the utilization of existing capacity and make available additional capacity, rather than ration demand through market-based options that have not proven to be effective. In regards to the specific options mentioned, lATA's views are as follows: Auctions Auctions, which would allocate a fixed number of operations for some particular period of time, would result in significantly higher costs for airlines and would not be practicable in an international context, due to issues relating to reciprocity. The current process of allocating limited capacity is done by way of slot allocation programmes in place at certain congested airports. The processes to deal with congestion problems at airports need to be fair and equitable for all air operators. Therefore, the current process of applying for and assigning international slots is being done on similar terms at all airports. Slot applications are typically assigned as requested. Auctions, on the other hand, entail a degree of uncertainty as to whether or not a slot will become available, aside from the inflated price that will have to be paid. However, neither a system of auctions or a slot allocation programme would do anything to reduce congestion, unless the number of operations are effectively capped. Congestion pricing Congestion pricing, which contemplates charging air carriers not only for the costs they impose on an airport, but also the delay costs they impose on other airport users, relies on the correct and accurate identification of externalities. These are difficult if not impossible to assess with any degree of accuracy, or to impose based on general agreement among stakeholders. It would be difficult to demonstrate that congestion prices are cost-based, a fundamental principle any airport charging scheme should adhere to as per ICAO guidance (refer to Doc 9082/6). Further, what this concept appears to assume is that air carriers do not incur delay costs. The fact is that air carriers incur significant delay costs, including the cost of extra fuel burn, catering, hotel accommodation for inconvenienced passengers, etc. Peak period pricing Peak period pricing schemes contemplate imposing fees based on the higher costs an airport incurs to accommodate peak hour demand, and lower fees based on the cost an airport does not incur during less busy periods. Such a charging scheme should inherently be revenue-neutral, however this has not been demonstrated where such schemes have been in place. Due to difficulties associated with cost identification and allocation, airports have not been able to identify with any great level of accuracy what their costs are at different times of the day. These supposed 'demand-altering' pricing schemes could only have an effect if operators had full control over their demand patterns. This is not the case. An airline's scheduling and fleet allocation decisions are based in large part on the demand for air travel at particular times of the day. An airline has therefore limited ability to adjust, in an efficient way, to a system of peak/off-peak charging due to the complex task of scheduling its operations. Scheduling is one of the most difficult tasks an airline has trying to optimize aircraft utilization within the constraints of airport curfews, increasing environmental restrictions, crew availability, and many other factors.
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Peak charges have therefore only increased the cost for those air carriers operating during the peak periods and raises concerns of equity and discrimination. Furthermore, at most (congested) airports it has become impossible to differentiate between peak and off-peak hours of the day peak hours could well constitute the entire operating day making it impossible to implement a peak period pricing scheme. Experience has shown that where peak/off-peak charges have existed, it has not had a significant effect on the distribution of traffic from peak periods to off-peak periods. The result has been that, while a few airports around the world have introduced peak/off-peak charging schemes, others have abandoned them. ICAO has similarly concluded, on the basis of a survey it conducted in preparation for the Conference on the Economics of Airports and Air Navigation Services (ANSConf 2000), that "...peak pricing has proved to be of limited effectiveness for capacity management." It is for these reasons that IATA has strongly opposed any such system of peak/off-peak charging.
IATA POLICY POSITION IATA objects to any system of peak period pricing, a scheme that arbitrarily redistributes costs between different users. An airline faced with peak period charges has no real opportunity to adjust to such a pricing scheme in an efficient way due mainly to the limited flexibility it has in the scheduling of its operations.
It is clear that the three previously mentioned market-based options will have the effect of increasing air carrier operating costs. Since air carrier demand for airport capacity is in fact derived demand, the question is whether air carriers operating in a competitive market can effectively pass on the increased operating cost to the ultimate consumer of air transportation services, and thus, influence his/her behavior. While the demand profile of a business passenger is relatively inelastic to that of a leisure passenger, the air travel market has also demonstrated that it has a voracious appetite for cheaper fares. This has been the basis for success of the low cost carrier and any attempt by certain carriers to raise fares is not met with similar fare increases by other carriers. It is a known fact that airfares reflect what an individual passenger is willing to pay and not a certain margin over an airline's costs effective market segmentation and the law of supply and demand dictates airfares. Thus, what these market-based approaches would accomplish is an increase in airline operating cost, with little opportunity of recovering this cost through the fare structure. Flat fees A flat fee that would recover total airfield costs through a higher average fee, or alternatively, a high minimum charge, has proven to be more effective in moving aircraft of a certain lower weightclass from congested airports to secondary, reliever airports. This was confirmed as a result of the same ICAO survey noted above. However, such a pricing scheme obviously results in limiting airport access to a certain group of users and raises concerns of equal access. Attempts to alter current average cost charging schemes with the introduction of market-based options should consider capacity costs as joint costs to all airport users. All airport users benefit jointly from the availability of an airport it has not been developed for any single user group. All users contribute their fair share of the joint costs. An average cost pricing regime, as employed in general practice, is therefore considered to be the most fair, transparent and equitable charging regime. Market-based options and any other demand-management mechanisms will distort the equity principle, inevitably treating airport users differently, while not really addressing what is essentially a supply-side capacity problem. Strategic, long-term airport development planning is therefore key to solving the capacity problem.
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CONSULTATION WITH USERS

Consultation is the cornerstone to a meaningful relationship between an airport and its user community. The ICAO Council, in its Policies on Charges for Airports and Air Navigation Services, has recognized this. The underlying philosophy of the consultative process is transparency of information and the rational of decisions. The goal of consultation should be to reach consensus between the participants, and this requires a spirit of openness and understanding from both sides. The timely provision by the airport of financial information, including projections, and forecasts of future traffic activity, together with other relevant supplementary data or information should serve as a prerequisite for a meaningful consultative process. On their part, airlines should provide medium-to-long-term scheduling information to an airport. The ICAO Policies on Charges do state that failing agreement on charges issues, an airport would be free to impose new or revised charges. While it is recognized that agreement cannot always be achieved, decisions made by an airport on the imposition of charges should take into account airline views and concerns. In the case where airline views are not acted on, the reasons for this should be explained. In case of disagreement, and failing reasonable explanation, users should have the right of referral to the competent regulatory authority. Where significant new or revised charges are being contemplated, consultation should take place well in advance, i.e. 4-6 months prior to implementation, and may require several meetings before a final decision is made. It is important to note that consultation is a process and not an event where a decision already made is merely announced and subsequently implemented. The airport should seek comments on a proposal, take these comments into consideration and eventually come to an informed decision. Ideally, a proposal should be framed as a number of possible options or scenarios.
Mon Mont I60-day consttation period th 1 h2

Initial proposal and notice of meeting (30day lead-time)
Mont h3 Final notice of new or revised charges (30day leadtime)
Month 4
First consult ation meetin g
Possible other meetings to be held and exchange of correspondence during this 60-day period
Implementation of new or revised charges
The benefit to the airlines of a meaningful consultation process is that they get to know what they are paying for and have their opinions heard. The benefit to the airport is that it will implement changes to their charging scheme based on a well-informed decision.
D4.6
D4.IR1 Airport Charges Policy Statement IATA has no objection to airport networks and airport cross-ownership or alliances charging practices as long as airport charges are cost-related and site-specific. IATA considers that there should be no cross-subsidization between airports, and that finances should be strictly separated.
V___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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D4.IR2 Discount and Rebite Policy Statement A number of airports offer discounts or rebates, mainly as incentives to stimulate new or increased traffic. lATA's view is that discounts or rebates are acceptable only if they comply with the following principles: ;6 Non-discriminatoryany discount or rebate offered must be available to all operators under the same conditions. Do not distort competition.
Are time-limited,
Are not funded through increases in existing user charges. Should be published.
D4.IR3 Pricing Policy IATA objects to any^tem of peak period pricing, a scheme that arbitrarily redistributes costs between different users. An airline faced with peak period charges has no real opportunity to adjust to such a pricing scheme in an efficient way due mainly to the limited flexibility it has in the scheduling of its operatiWs. V. ______________________^_____________________........................_________________.

SECTION D5: D5.1 INTERNATIONAL COST VARIATIONS
AIRPORT BENCHMARKING DATA

The purpose and objective of this section is to provide a series of broad, indicative construction costs for the primary facility components of an airport campus. The given costs are drawn from historic data compiled from major aviation projects, undertaken in both the UK and internationally. All costs have been reconciled to 4th quarter 2003 rates for the UK construction market. The given costs relate to new build construction work in an environment that is not excessively affected by operational restrictions and logistical constraints. Such constraints can generate significant additional costs typically issues such as imposed phasing of the works, abnormal working hours, operational safety and security requirements and working in an airside environment. The main driver of construction cost levels for passenger buildings tends to be relate to prescribed passenger service levels and the envisaged passenger experience. A 'budget style' regional airport can easily cost less than 50% of the /m2 rate of a high profile international facility. There is a massive difference in the cost of constructing 'identical' facilities across the globe. We have provided a conversion schedule for global adjustment from the given UK construction cost levels. The adjusting factors take cognisance of labour costs, material costs, specifications and industry standards.
Fourth Quarter 2003
Facility DescriptionUnitRangeTerminal BuildingsRegional Airports/m2 GFA13002000International Airports/m2 GFA2200-3000Cargo Handling Bases/m2 GFA570850Distribution Centres/m2 GFA350-500Visual Control Towersk/m stalk75200Hangars (Types C and D)/m2 GFA1050-1350Car ParkingSurface/space12001500Multi-storey/space6700-8100Taxiways and Runways/m2170-205Stands/m2150180HotelsBudget/m2 GFA900-1100Mid Market/m2 GFA1500-1750Air Conditioned Offices/m2 GFA1100-1500
Data provided courtesy of Davis Langdon Everest (UK)

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These cost ranges relate to construction work in the South East of England in 4th Quarter 2003;
The costs relate to new-build construction work in an environment which is not excessively
affected by operational restrictions and logistical constraints;
GFA denotes Gross Floor Area.
For international comparison, these costs (which represent 100%) should be adjusted in
accordance with the attached International Cost Factors identified within clause D5.1.1.
D5.1.1 International Construction Cost Factors Fourth Quarter 2003

The table of construction cost factors listed within this clause have been broken down into major continents and then subdivided into the various countries within those continents. Select the factor for the correct region of the world and then multiple that factor by the cost description identified Continent Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Country Algeria Cameroon Chad Cote d'lvoire Gabon Gambia Ghana Nigeria Senegal South Africa Zambia Brunei China Hong Kong India Indonesia Japan Malaysia Philippines Singapore South Korea Sri Lanka Taiwan Thailand Vietnam Factor (UK = 100) 55 67 66 71 67 74 80 65 67 26 45 40 56 72 19 47 110 29 37 59 66 21 62 43 47
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International Construction Cost Factors Fourth Quarter 2003 (cont'd) Continent C America C America Caribbean Caribbean Caribbean Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Middle East Middle East Middle East Middle East Middle East Middle East Middle East Middle East Middle East N America N America Oceania Oceania Country Costa Rica Mexico Bahamas Jamaica Puerto Rico Austria Belgium Cyprus Czech Rep Finland France Germany Greece Ireland Italy Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovak Rep Spain Switzerland Bahrain Egypt Israel Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Oman Qatar Saudi Arabia Canada USA Australia New Zealand Factor (UK = 100) 59 70 84 65 78 80 84 46 51 80 80 72 51 96 73 79 56 52 30 33 60 89 68 57 45 60 66 66 62 66 57 56 65 54 51
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International Construction Cost Factors Fourth Quarter 2003 (cont'd) Continent S America S America S America S America S America S America S America S America Country Argentina Brazil Chile Colombia French Guiana Guyana Peru Venezuela Factor (UK = 100) 20 49 43 57 84 65 53 37
Data provided courtesy of Davis Langdon Everest (UK) Notes:

D5.2
The factors relate to the materials, specifications and standards that are normal in the country and this should be fully understood and appreciated when comparing costs; Factors relate to national averages and regional variations will apply. Construction costs in primary
D5.IR1 Cost Evaluations And Comparisons Airport cost consultants should refer to the tables listed within this section when evaluating and comparing the cost of providing airport infrastructure facilities.
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Chapter E Environmental Issues
Section E1: Main Issues E1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ E1.2 Environmental Management Plan ............................................................ E1.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section E2: Social and Political Considerations E2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ E2.2 The Importance of Partnerships................................................................. E2.3 Sustainable Development......................................................................... E2.4 Airport Stakeholder Partnerships and Initiatives ....................................... E2.5 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section E3: Noise E3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ E3.2 Aircraft Noise ........................................................................................... E3.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section E4: Emissions E4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ E4.2 Airport Emissions from Aircraft.................................................................. E4.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section E5: Waste Management E5.1 General ................................................................................................... E5.2 Waste Treatment ..................................................................................... E5.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 155 156 156 152 152 154 146 146 151 141 141 142 143 144 137 138 140
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CHAPTER E ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES SECTION E1: E1.1 MAIN ISSUES
INTRODUCTION
Since the second World War, air transport has grown into one of the world's most important and innovative industries, driving economic and social progress. It has brought employment and prosperity to millions of people while expanding world trade and increasing opportunities for travel and tourism. The air transport industry is committed to meeting its customers' growing demands in a sustainable manner, thereby maintaining an optimal balance between economic progress, social development and environmental responsibility. This means balancing the needs of passengers, society, the economy and the environment, as well as making the best use of existing facilities while addressing the challenge of new developments. In delivering these benefits, air transport has had less of an impact on the world's environment than most people realise. Indeed, by continually improving its fuel efficiency, reducing noise and introducing new, more sustainable technologies, airtransport has been able to reduce or contain its environmental impact:
Carbon dioxide (C02) emissions: Continuous improvements in aircraft engine technology have reduced C02 emissions per passenger-kilometre (pkm) by 70% since the advent of the first jets in the 1960s, to the extent that the fuel consumption of most modern aircraft does not exceed 3.5 litres per 100 pkm. Industry research efforts are aiming to achieve a further 50% reduction in C02 emissions for equipment entering service in 2020. Nitrogen oxide (NOx) and other emissions: Improved fuel efficiency has also meant that other emissions (such as carbon monoxide, hydro-carbons and smoke) have come down by some 90% or more. The higher temperatures required to achieve these improvements have, however, prevented similar progress from being achieved in the reduction of NO x emissions, which have implications for both local air quality and climate change. Ambitious research goals in the European Union and elsewhere are targeting a reduction of NO x emissions of future aircraft by 70% within 10 years, and by 80% within 25 years. Noise: Today's aircraft are typically 75% quieter at take-off or landing than the first jets in the 1960s. Research efforts are targeting a further 30% reduction within 10 years and a 50% reduction by 2020. Land use: Air transport generally uses less land than other transport modes. For example, per passenger-kilometre, air transport uses less than 1 % of the land required for the entire transport network in the European Union.
In spite of these achievements, and the technological progress that lays ahead, the continuous and growing demand for air travel tends to increase air transport's absolute contribution to climate change. Aviation emissions presently account for some 3.5% of man's contribution to global warming and could grow to 5% in 2050, according to the most probable scenario as identified by the IPCC 1.
United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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E1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
Airports are increasingly being held to account for their energy use, emissions and effects on the environment, and many are introducing efficiency measures in the context of planning. An environmental management plan is the first step for airports seeking to implement environmental improvements, as it provides the framework for an airport's environmental management activities. The purpose of such a plan is to ensure that activities undertaken at the airport are carried out in an environmentally-responsible manner; ensuring compliance with applicable laws, regulations and best management practices, as well as with respect for community and public concerns. The following are environmental considerations to be taken into account when developing a new airport or an environmental management plan: Airport design: The design of an airport is important, since each airport and its corresponding infrastructure is designed for specific passenger or aircraft movement capacities. Legislation and airport slot allocation subsequently control that capacity. The scope for environmental improvement at an airport is determined by its physical layout in terms of the terminal and airport buildings, facilities, taxiways, runways and their associated infrastructure. For example, the provision of high-speed aircraft exits shortens aircraft taxiing time, and thereby helps to prevent ground congestion while the provision of fixed electrical ground power (FEGP) and ground power units (GPUs) at gates and maintenance areas helps to reduce noise and emissions. Rail access to airports can help take cars off the road, thereby reducing local emissions and improving the environmental balance. Ecology and natural habitat: Airports are often located in greenbelt areas. They therefore have a role to play in the preservation and enhancement of the biodiversity of their surrounding areas by maintaining and restoring these habitats and creating new ones where they have been damaged. This could include, for example, involving local schools in a tree-planting scheme, or complementing local authorities' work in the local community. Emissions: Managing local emissions involves both technical and operational changes relating mainly to road vehicles and to aircraft operations at, and close to, the airport. Solutions can include:
Modifying road access to the airport to minimise congestion, or to provide dedicated public transport routes. Discouraging private vehicle use through the construction of remote or centralised car parks.
Encouraging greater use of public transport, providing electric charging stations for vehicles, etc. Energy consumption: Energy reductions within airports can be achieved in a variety of ways, including technical improvements and raising staff and business partner awareness through environmental campaigns. The former can include:
The removal of older, outdated equipment in buildings and its replacement with new energyefficient technology.
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Monitoring electricity consumption of baggage handling systems, passenger conveyor belts, escalators, air conditioning systems and lighting, etc. Global climate change: Airports can work to reduce energy and ground fleet fuel consumption that has a beneficial effect on C02 and other emissions affecting climate change. Airports can also influence the sources and types of energy and fuel, design for lower consumption, and manage their use and storage of ozone depleting substances. For example, all CFC equipment at airports can be removed and replaced by more modern equipment. Noise: Managing and finding solutions to aircraft and ground noise is an important priority for airports. Addressing aircraft noise requires working in partnership with airlines, air traffic control, aircraft and engine manufacturers, national governments, international organisations and the local community. Voluntary agreements with partners can be successful, as can developing technical and operational measures to improve the noise environment (such as installing effective noise measuring instruments). Managing ground noise involves technical improvements to equipment. This can include: the provision of fixed servicing equipment, which avoids the use of aircraft auxiliary power units and ground power units, and; management instructions and controls to ensure that correct use is made of equipment and that construction activities do not produce excessive noise. It can also include the construction of special 'noise suppression facilities' used for engine ground running and engine testing; and the construction of 'sound walls' to reduce noise disturbance for neighbouring communities. Land-use planning and zoning, land acquisition, noise protection or insulation programmes also help to optimise the benefits from quieter aircraft, and to prevent the unnecessary encroachment of residential development into noise sensitive airport areas. Land use planning and management: Noise nuisance from overflight, take-off or landing is primarily due to the absence of adequate land-use planning and management in and around airports. In many countries, land-use planning and zoning is the responsibility of national, regional and local municipalities. Each airport has its own geographical, political, economic and historical characteristics and there is no single land-use planning and management approach. Compatible land-use planning and management helps to minimise noise impact around airports and to safeguard traffic growth. Landscaping: Landscaping can improve the quality of the environment for people who work at, travel to, or live near an airport. It can also play a role in integrating the airport into the surrounding community if partnerships are developed with local communities, local authorities, environmental charities and land owners. Materials: Particular care must be taken over the management and treatment of hazardous waste and chemicals. Environmentally hazardous materials like toxic chemicals, heavy metals, etc. should, where possible, be replaced by more responsible alternatives. Water consumption: The reduction of water consumption at an airport can be achieved by installing equipment that is water efficient (e.g. replacing old sanitary equipment) and finding ways to influence or provide incentives to airport tenants and other airport users to lower their consumption of water. Another option is to make use of rainwater or to re-circulate/recycle water. Water quality: Water quality management and the avoidance of water contamination can be achieved in a number of ways. Large infrastructure projects can be developed that protect local watercourses from flood and pollution. Staff awareness and training programmes are important to prevent careless behaviour and accidents, and clear instructions and controls can ensure that potential contaminants are properly disposed of and that drainage systems are used correctly.
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Waste management: Solutions to waste management must generally involve the airport's business partners, since many airports handle waste on behalf of airlines, retailers and tenants. These partners need to be encouraged to reduce waste generation and to recycle where it is operationally practical. Other measures for consideration are how the recycled material and waste is disposed of after collection as well as specialised training and awareness programmes to minimise the risk of air, ground and water contamination from fuel, chemical waste, dangerous materials and oil spills.
E1.3
E1.IR1
Environmental Policy
1 ATA fully recognises society's expectations towards furthei environmental progress an
committed to achieving such progress through all possible means such as technological advances, more stringent standards, and operational improvements. Good practices and voluntary measures are also encouraged, as well as assessing the role of emissions trading schemes in the longer term. The industry is, however, strongly opposed to the use of environmental taxes and charges that are considered both economically and environmentally inefficient and may even be contrary to international law.
El.
icient Apron Design Characteristics
In an effort 0 reduce fuel consumption and emissions from aircraft, the length and geographical position of runways should be optimised wherever possible. The objective should be to maximise aircraft efficiency during take-off and landing procedures. Particular attention should be given to the design of rapid exit taxiways, which should be designed in accordance with ICAO Annex 14 clause 3.8. Particular attention should be observed to the requirements of Figure 3-2, Rapid Exit Taxiway.
E1.IR3 Business Partner Environmental Strategy

Airport operators should actively work with their business partners, such as the airlines, the ground handlers, the aircraft fuel suppliers, as well as the water companies and the building electricity and gas suppliers etc, to ensure that all hazardous materials are properly used and disposed of while at the airport The airport operator and alt its business partners should collectively work together to ensure o-'dl efficiency of the airport by developing specific energy efficiency targets.
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SECTION E2: SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS E2.1 INTRODUCTION

Airports worldwide must be ready to handle current and future demand. However, many are increasingly operating at full capacity. As a result, traffic must be transferred to neighbouring secondary airports to free up capacity, new runways and terminals must be built, or brand new airport sites must be found. When a new airport is planned or a major expansion envisaged, it is important to consider not only what effect the change will have on the airport within its boundaries, but also to consider what the impact will be on the surrounding community. Airports can satisfactorily be integrated into the local community fabric if due care is taken. For example, studies into private and public road traffic generated by airport activities (e.g. passengers, cargo, staff, etc.) must be undertaken and the surrounding road network designed to minimise negative effects on residential areas. Indeed, it is recognised that the negative effects (noise and pollution) of airport road traffic are often worse than the more known adverse effects of aircraft traffic. The implementation of new airport projects is becoming more and more difficult despite the fact that the lack of airport capacity is now identified as the main obstacle to future air transport growth. This is mainly because of growing opposition from local residents surrounding airports, as well as pressure groups that force governments to introduce complex approval procedures. As a result, air transport capacity lags behind demand, thereby increasing congestion and delays, energy use, costs and emissions, as well as undermining consumer satisfaction. Conflicting situations when developing an airport are quite often the consequence of a lack of proper land-use planning and management. Governments and local municipalities have the responsibility to prevent residential areas from being built around airports to avoid future problem despite the attraction to new residents of good communications and other facilities. A delicate balance must therefore be found between the interests of those affected by increased air traffic, the related effects on the environment, and the recognised and quantifiable benefits that an airport brings to a region in terms of economic wealth and employment. Long-term planning, management and careful advocacy are required by airports to ensure that they are able to secure capacity and meet demand through safe and sustainable growth. Furthermore,
E2.2
THE IMPORTANCE OF PARTNERSHIPS

Given that air transport is one of the fastest growing sectors of the economy, the challenge for the entire industry, and for airports in particular, is to ensure that aviation grows in a sustainable manner with a proper balance between economic, environmental and social considerations (see E2.3 Sustainable Development). Environmental issues arising from air transport growth are multi-faceted and complex. For this reason, joint participation in decision-making is essential, as it helps to resolve local, regional and global trade-off situations. Solutions are most likely to be found through coordinated action and partnerships between as many relevant stakeholders as possible. Stakeholders in the air transport sector are diverse and include manufacturers, airlines, airport operators, air navigation services providers, governments, civil society (neighbouring associations and NGOs), architects, planners and research organisations. A variety of partnerships can be formed between these stakeholders to address different issues at different levels. The following are some examples: Local partnerships with communities around airports in order to further reduce environmental impacts and to better distribute air transport's socio-economic benefits (in terms of employment, creation of commercial activities, cultural sponsorships, etc.).
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Regional partnerships with other transport modes in order to develop seamless

intermodal solutions, in particular between rail and air. Dedicated rail links can greatly facilitate ground access to airports and also reduce road traffic emissions, while the complementary and coordinated operations of short haul flights and high speed trains leads to the most rational use of existing facilities. a global scale. Open emissions trading schemes among industries have been identified by ICAO as a potential long-term solution for aviation, subject to further assessment.
Global partnerships with other industries in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions on
Universal partnerships for development in order to improve transport accessibility and

mobility in the developing world. Air transport is indispensable for the development of tourism and trade, which play a fundamental role in eradicating poverty.
By combining the complementary skills of different stakeholders and eliminating duplication of effort through partnerships, substantial results can be achieved that will enable aviation to grow in a sustainable manner.
E2.3
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The issue of sustainable development is gathering growing social and political importance amongst airports, airlines and governments that are conscious of the need to respond to this major public issue. In modern society we all face the sustainability challenge that requires maintaining a proper balance between economic growth, social progress and environmental responsibility the three pillars of sustainability. The air transport industry is a good example of an industry that provides a valuable and unique contribution to the sustainable development of our global society. It includes efficient and affordable - access to markets thereby improving living standards and fostering economic growth which, in turn, alleviates poverty and results in less environmental degradation and a more sustainable world. Sustainable development policies require that airports conduct their operations and undertake development in ways that "...meet the need of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs1". This means that, for example, airport capacity cannot be defined solely in technical terms, and must take into account the need for environmental and social acceptance of airport infrastructure and operating decisions. Airports today, therefore, must plan for the future and take account of their sustainable development opportunities and challenges rather than proceeding with unchecked capacity expansion. The 'three pillars of sustainability' apply to airports in different ways, as outlined below. Airports should make sustainable development a high priority and assume a leadership role in its promotion and integration into airport policies, programmes and operations.
E2.3.1 Social Sustainability

Social sustainability:
Recognises direct impacts on daily quality of life: Air transport is a key ingredient in the
quality of life of many people accordingly, air transport policies have a direct effect on people and must take into account the characteristics of different communities and regions.
Definition of sustainable development according to the World Commission on Environment and Development, Brundtland Report, 1987.
Promotes greater access and choice: Air transport should provide people with a reasonable means of access to other places, goods and services which implies the promotion of improved and diversified air services, including additional frequencies and routes, improved services, more diversified air carriers, etc.
E2.3.2 Economic Sustainability

Economic Sustainability:
Recognises the need for an air transport Industry that is as efficient as possible to
support the national economy which implies that airport policies, programmes and practices should be innovative to support the economy and industry's efficiency and competitiveness.
Recognises the need for an air transport Industry that is affordable for the movement of
people and goods which implies that airport policies, programmes and practices should seek innovative financing and implement cost-effective solutions that will ensure that airport facilities and services are affordable.
Recognises the need for an air transport Industry that is priced to reflect the full costs
and benefits of facilities and services provided to users and society.
E2.3.3 Environmental Sustainability

Environmental Sustainability: Recognises the importance of protecting and conserving natural resources which implies that airports must apply sound environmental and conservation practices, and that airport development must make efficient use of land, water, energy and other natural resources, and preserve vital natural habitats, maintain biodiversity and repair damage. Recognises the importance of preventing noise, emissions and pollution before it occurs which implies that airports should work to ensure that the industry's needs are met in a way that avoids or minimises pollutants and waste; and reduces the overall risk to human health, global warming and the environment. Recognises the importance for airport management that is led by example and environmental stewardship which implies that airports should continually refine their environmental management systems so that internal operational practices support sustainable development. Furthermore, airports should consider the potential environmental impacts of new undertakings, and apply risk management and due diligence practices to their real property assets.
E2.4
AIRPORT STAKEHOLDER PARTNERSHIPS AND INITIATIVES

The sustainability debate at the local level is the most important one for airports, since preserving good relations with the local resident population in order to maintain their acceptance directly impacts upon airport and airline development. Airports produce positive effects to the surrounding community in terms of increased employment and increased economic activity. If well integrated, airports can contribute to the healthy growth of their surrounding communities. It is very important for the very survival of an airport within an area that the positive aspects be highlighted and made publicly known; e.g. advantages that would otherwise not exist without the presence of the airport.
The partnerships that are of most importance to airports, therefore, are those addressing local level concerns; e.g. partnerships between airports, local communities, NGOs and other interest groups. Local level concerns can include, for example, public concerns regarding the environment (local air emissions and noise), a desire to further reduce environmental impacts, or a better distribution of air transport's socio-economic benefits to surrounding communities (in terms of employment, creation of commercial activities, cultural sponsorships, etc.). In order to improve the local communities acceptance, several airports have launched specific initiatives to address this issue, especially in Europe where in recent years sensitivity to noise and emissions has increased. The following are some examples of typical local-level solutions to locallevel concerns:

E2.5
Innovative participation procedures: these involve relevant local stakeholders, in order to overcome the trade-off between capacity improvements and noise protection measures. Discussions, mediation procedures and compensation are the main instruments used. Compensation schemes: these involve generating jobs and implementing new fund-raising mechanisms (for example via airport and related air transport revenues) to provide compensation to neighbouring communities around airports. Land use management and planning: the airport operator should be given the means to "neutralise" enough land in order to protect the airport from new residents who would be likely to complain about noise. Improving rail connections to airports: access to airports by road increases local pollution. Airport operators should explore improving their rail connections. Developing community initiatives: airports can provide support to local cultural and sporting events, facilitate sponsorship opportunities, provide scholarships for local children, provide
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS E2.IR1 Business Partnering Programs Shared Airport Capacity and Resources
By combining complemented skills and services and eliminating duplication of effort through partnerships, substantial results can be achieved that will enable aviation to grow in a sustainable manner. Airport operators arid their direct business partners should work together to share airport services in an effort to ensure that airport equipment usage, space and efficiency is maximised. A good example is the use of airport ground transport vehicies These vehicles can often be shared, and initiatives and business relationships should be developed to allow airiines and ground handling agents to do so.
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E2.IR2 Sustainable Development

Airports must plan for their future using a sustainable development strategy. Airports should not just be expanded to meet year-on-year growth forecasts. Before airports embark on increasing the size and ultimate complexity of their operation they should be looking to rationalise processes and common tasks. Efficiencies in the undertaking of airport processes tasks should be refined and streamlined on an ongoing basis before the last option (to build more infrastructure) is chosen. Airports and their primary business partners should be looking to work in partnership to optimise the airport operation, in order that when true capacity expansion is required it can be provided. It should be noted that this course of action is also good commercial sense for the airport and v.. all of its users.
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SECTION E3: E3.1 NOISE
INTRODUCTION
Noise annoyance is a subjective matter and can be considered to have only a local impact on the community surrounding an airport. Aircraft movements such as landings, takeoffs and taxiing, as well as ground handling activities, contribute to the airport's environmental noise impact. Efforts to reduce and mitigate the airport's overall noise impact should be managed and implemented in a balanced way by considering and evaluating all available measures.
E3.2
AIRCRAFT NOISE
The development of suitable ICAO standards and recommended practices (SARPS) is important to the aviation industry as it assures and maintains consistency in manufacturers' and carriers' requirements around the world. International noise standards for the certification of subsonic jet aeroplanes were first introduced by ICAO in 1969 and published as Volume I of Annex 16 to the Chicago Convention. The Chapter 2 standard was complemented in 1976 by the introduction of a more severe Chapter 3 standard. A new Chapter 4 standard was adopted in 2001 for application to new aircraft types as from 2006. Moreover, the ICAO Assembly agreed to give individual States the right to introduce the progressive phase out of Chapter 2 aircraft between 1995 and 2002. As with emissions, ICAO's international certification regime for aircraft noise has brought about significant improvements in the noise performance of aircraft through the progressive tightening of standards. Since the 1970s, noise from aircraft has come down by at least 75% and industry continues to look for further reduction. It is internationally recognised that for noise management purposes, the noise surrounding an airport should be assessed based on "objective, measurable criteria and other relevant factors 1." The results of this assessment should be handled in a manner that takes into account the methodology of the Balanced Approach for noise management at airports. Airports experiencing noise problems may levy noise related airport charges. Such charges should be based upon the aircraft certificated noise performance and should not recover more than the costs for noise mitigation and prevention measures. The application of noise-related charges should follow the specific principles developed by ICAO and contained in the ICAO's Policies on Charges for Airports and Air Navigation Services (Doc 9082), paragraph 30.
E3.2.1 Noise Management

The ICAO Balanced Approach concept provides airports with an agreed methodology to be used to address and manage aircraft noise problems at individual airports in an environmentally responsive and economically responsible way. The Balanced Approach to noise management encompasses four principal elements:
ICAO Assembly Resolution A33-7, Appendix C, Paragraph
2(b)
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It consists of an assessment of an individual airport noise situation, identification of potential measures available to reduce the noise impact, a comparative economic and environmental assessment to establish the most cost-effective solution among those measures, full consultation with stakeholders, adequate public notification of intended actions, oversight by national authorities, and a mechanism for dispute resolution involving all interested parties. Specifically, the goal is to address noise problems on an individual airport basis, by choosing the most cost-effective measure or measures under the four elements, using objective criteria. Reduction of Noise at the source is recommended to be regulated in accordance with the standards and recommended practices provided in ICAO Annex 8, Airworthiness of Aircraft, and Annex 16, Environmental Protection Volume 1 Aircraft Noise, to the Convention on International Civil Aviation. The ICAO environmental standards look to incorporate available technology on the aircraft and are stated in terms of aircraft performance that is to say whether an aircraft's measured noise reaches a stated level for a defined aircraft mass1. Reduction of noise at the source is not limited to the development of new standards, or new, quieter aircraft types. It can also be achieved as a result of technological improvement during the life cycle of an aircraft type. Furthermore, by taking into account the pace of fleet modernisation and its integration by the operators at an airport, it will result in improving the overall noise performance of the fleet at that airport. The noise performance trend and fleet mix operating at an airport need therefore to be considered in any noise assessment. Land use planning and management aims to direct incompatible land use such as housing, schools and hospitals away from the airport environs, and to encourage compatible land use such as industrial and commercial development. The problem of noise in the vicinity of airports can only be solved by pursuing all possible means for its alleviation, and the benefits which can be derived from proper land use planning can contribute materially to the solution. Efforts to correct situations detrimental to proper land use around airports cannot be ignored simply because of the time required for such measures to be effective. This is particularly appropriate to applications of land use planning to existing airports, where it is recognized that the ability to make immediate land-use changes is limited, but where it is also important to prevent additional encroachment of incompatible land uses as aircraft source noise decreases and noise contours retreat closer to the airport boundary. There are substantial benefits to be gained from the correct application of land use planning techniques to the development of new airports. The value to be derived from proper land use planning and management should not be underestimated and it is believed that more attention should be paid to this useful tool. Proper zoning of the airport environs is essential if encroachment is to be minimised and environmental 153 benefits maintained. Close coordination is required with local and regional authorities, as zoning does not normally fall under the competence of the airport. Zoning will be subject to the noise index selected by the airport, the noise contours developed and projected, and the number of people affected by noise. Available land use planning and management measures can be categorized as:
Aircraft mass is normally the maximum take-off weight (MTOW) for the aircraft however there are occasions where the maximum landing weight (MLW) could be used
Noise abatement operational procedures, both in-flight and on the ground, authorities should aim to minimise the number of people affected by noise by reducing the level of perceived noise at particular locations around an airport. These procedures can be used to optimize the noise contour (according to the population distribution around the airport) by changing the shape and size of the contours. Safety remains the highest priority in aviation, and besides the use of approved noise abatement operational procedures, airports must ensure that the necessary safety of flight is maintained by considering all factors that might affect a particular operation. These include, but are not limited to, weather, topography, runway conditions, available navigation aids, etc. Where a noise problem has been confirmed, the available noise abatement operational procedures can include, but are not limited to, the use of the following, provided it is consistent with the advice provided in ICAO PANS OPS1:
IATA Airport Development (b) Displaced thresholds. Reference Manual

(c) Noise preferential routes. (d) Noise abatement take-off and approach procedures. (e) Descent profiles such as Continuous Descent Approach (CDA). (f) Minimising the use of reverse thrust on landing.
When selecting procedures it should be noted that environmental benefits may vary due to the potential variation in noise distribution as a result of the type of procedure used. This may result in generating new problems elsewhere, especially if complementary measures are not taken to safeguard environmental gains. It is essential therefore that the stakeholders airports, airlines, air navigation service providers and local communities are in agreement with the noise objectives and resulting procedures. Operating restrictions are defined as any noise-related action that limits or reduces an aircraft's access to an airport. On assessing the identified noise problem at the airport, operating restrictions may be part of a set of measures to be implemented to mitigate the noise problem. However, before implementing or updating operating restrictions, the possible benefits to be gained from other measures should be fully considered. The competent authority should ensure that any operating restrictions be adopted only where such action is supported by a prior assessment of anticipated benefits and of possible adverse impacts. It is recognised that operating restrictions can improve the noise climate in the short term as they lead to the limitation or prohibition of movements of the noisiest aircraft at an airport. However, in order not to offset the benefits gained through operating restrictions, additional preventive measures, such as land-use management measures, should be taken at the same time. This combination of measures is the condition to durably improve the noise climate around an airport. Indeed, these measures will be ineffective if lack of land-use planning and management measures enable urban encroachment to continue as operating restrictions improve the noise climate. As for other measures, operating restrictions should be assessed in a coherent and objective manner with respect to the basic principles of transparency, cost-effectiveness, non-discrimination, and avoidance of competitive distortion. Particular attention should be given to the potential impact on current and future airline fleets. International policies and guidelines must be respected; i.e. ICAO Assembly Resolution A33-7, which contains the unanimous agreement by States not to introduce any operating restrictions aimed at the withdrawal of aircraft that comply with the noise standards in Volume I, Chapter 4 of Annex 16.
1
(a) Preferential runways.
See ICAO document titled, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Aircraft Operations, Volume 1, Part V (ICAO Doc 8168)
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Operating restrictions can be partial, global or progressive and may be classified in two categories:
(a) Restrictions of traffic such as night curfews, or a cap on movements or noise energy. (b) Restrictions on the use of aircraft with a particular noise, technical, or performance
characteristic. Ground Measures, although covered under the principal elements of the Balanced Approach, are generally considered and implemented separately. They can include, but are not limited to, the following measures:
(a) Limitation of engine ground running. (b) Designated areas for engine ground running. (c) Minimised APU operation. (d) Minimised taxi times and routing. (e) Noise barriers.
E3.2.2 Noise Assessment
The noise assessment should identify the level of noise from the airport to which the nearby community is exposed. Whether a noise 'problem' exists depends on whether noise is worsening based on the particular standard that the airport and/or the competent authority in which it resides currently employ. The noise-related standard, or noise objective that is meant to be achieved, should be identified and defined before the assessment is to begin. The baseline is the noise situation currently experienced by the community surrounding the airport and projected into defined points in the future, taking into account existing plans without revising current mitigation measures or providing additional measures. If the baseline noise situation does not meet the noise objective that has been identified, a noise problem may be determined to exist. Under the balanced approach program, in such a case, possible new or revised noise mitigation measures under the elements of the balanced approach sometimes referred to as 'action scenarios' would be considered. To determine whether any such measure under an 'action scenario' might improve the noise situation, the competent authority or airport undertaking the assessment would compare the baseline noise situation with the noise situation that would occur were the new or revised measures adopted. In light of the many factors contributing to the noise situation at a particular airport, methods to measure the noise from single aircraft events or single points in time are not considered to describe the noise situation at an airport. Instead, a noise index or equivalent parameter, comprised of aggregated noise information, often is recommended. Although a calculated noise index 155 for a particular airport is a means of reflecting noise information, by itself it is not considered sufficient to describe the noise situation at the airport. Usually one would want to place the information from the calculated noise index into a larger context, so that the exposure of people to significant levels of noise may be assessed over a given time period (preferably at least one year). One way of determining the
! ICAO Circular 2054, "Recommended Method for Computing Noise Contours Around Airports," other useful documents for reference on contours are ECAC Document 29 and SAE A21 Document AIR1845
BRIATA
Manual
Airport Development Reference
Noise Monitoring: Although noise annoyance generally is a subjective matter, it is recognized that the noise surrounding an airport should be assessed based on objective, measurable criteria and other relevant factors. The noise at points on the ground, caused by aircraft flying into and out of a nearby airport, depends on a number of factors. These include the types of aircraft using the airport, the overall number of takeoffs and landings, the time of day the aircraft operations occur, the runways that are used, weather conditions, and airport-specific flight procedures that affect the noise produced. Single, point-in-time noise measurements cannot be expected to represent the overall noise situation at an airport. Instead, noise monitoring and/or noise modelling may be necessary. To the extent noise monitoring is used, it should be undertaken over time to reflect noise at the airport under different conditions. A one-year monitoring period would be expected to provide noise data that is representative of the periodicity of the traffic schedule, operational characteristics such as payload changes, and meteorological data. The noise monitoring equipment should be capable of capturing noise from aircraft alone, or a method should be employed for screening out non-aircraft noise. Placement of noise monitors at different distances can identify noise energy in different areas around the airport. However their placement should not be nearer to the airport than as defined for noise certification in order to ensure at least proper measurement at the three-certification points. Identification and Assessment of Measures: When identifying the noise problem at an airport and analyzing the various measures available to reduce noise through the exploration of the four principal elements of the Balanced Approach (noise reduction at source, land-use planning and management, noise abatement operational procedures and operating restrictions), the goal is to address the noise problem using objective criteria in the most cost-effective manner. On implementing the concept of the balanced approach to noise management, particular attention shall be given to the principal elements and the analytical and methodological tools that might be needed to assess and compare those elements. Steps taken by airports to address local noise issues should be consistent with the principal elements and ensure that the relationship between them in particular in the area of noise and emission trade-offs, the impact of short term versus long term solutions, as well as local versus regional solutions are fully addressed. Environmental benefits (in terms of reduction of numbers of inhabitants severely affected by noise) associated to the measures considered should then be compared to their respective cost of implementation through the use of the cost-effectiveness analysis methodology. The measures will be ranked both by potential environmental benefits and cost of implementation. For each measure this will enable the definition of a unit cost per inhabitant that will not be further affected by noise in the future. This process will provide stakeholders with an assessment of benefits and costs associated with each of the measures being considered. The appropriate measure, or a combination of appropriate measures, should then be chosen from among the measures assessed, in consideration of the objectives set forth at the beginning of the process. Transparent Process: When developing or updating a noise mitigation program there is a need for a transparent process which will include, but is not necessarily limited to, the following:
(a) Assessment of the noise situation including the evolution of the problem and expected
improvements resulting from current measures and fleet renewal.
(b) Definition of the noise objectives. (c) Identification of available measures.

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(e) Cost effectiveness analysis of the available measures.
(f) Selection of measures with the goal to achieve maximum environmental benefits most cost
effectively.
(g) Notification and coordination in the implementation of measures.

(h) Dispute resolution for stakeholders.
E3.3
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS E3.IR1 Noise Abatement Policy

Although noise annoyance is a subjective matter and noise mitigation programs are well established at many international airports, IATA recommends that airports, when assessing tbait noise climate for either updating existing measures or for the introduction of new measures, take into account the methodology for the Balanced Approach. In addition, IATA re-emphasises the ICAO policy in Resolution A33-7 where States have agreed not to permit the introduction of any operating restrictions aimed at the withdrawal of aircraft that comply with the noise standards in Volume I, Chapter 4 of Annex 16.
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SECTION E4: E4.1 EMISSIONS
INTRODUCTION
Airport emissions affect the environment in a variety of ways, most of them on a local scale. Aircraft landings and takeoffs, taxiing, ground handling, maintenance, power generation, office buildings and road traffic at and around the airport all contribute to the airport's environmental footprint. Efforts to reduce the airport's overall impact should, therefore, ideally address all sources in a balanced way.
E4.2
AIRPORT EMISSIONS FROM AIRCRAFT

In the immediate vicinity of airports, aircraft emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO x) unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM, including visible smoke) contribute to local air quality concerns. The effects on local air quality of other minor trace species such as sulphur dioxide (S02), hydroxyl radicals (OH), nitrous and nitric acids, and chemi-ions are negligible and mostly poorly understood. In spite of the relatively low levels, airport emissions are increasingly linked to respiratory health problems among the local population. As with noise, ICAO's international certification regime for aircraft emissions has brought about significant improvements in the emissions performance of aircraft through the progressive tightening of standards. Since the 1960s, emissions of HC, CO and smoke from aircraft have come down by at least 90%, to the extent that further mitigating efforts are no longer seen as a priority by regulators. The combustion conditions required to achieve these reductions as well as noise reductions have, however, led to a simultaneous increase in NOx emissions. International emission standards for the certification of turbo-jet and turbo-fan engines were first introduced by ICAO in June 1981, and published as Volume II of Annex 16 to the Chicago Convention. The ICAO standard-setting process is important to the industry because it maintains consistency in manufacturers' and carriers' requirements around the world. In 1993 ICAO subsequently increased the NO, stringency limit by 20% (effective 1995) and by another 16% in 1999 (effective 2004). ICAO's Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP) is currently evaluating the potential for a further increase in NOx stringency for new engines. Additional reductions in aircraft NO x emissions require careful development and deployment of more complex and more expensive combustor designs. Major industry research programmes focus on NOx reductions of 70% for future aircraft within 10 years, and 80% within 25 years. These efforts will help to meet new NOx standards in the future, such as the European Union limits regarding NO x emissions around Community airports, expected to come into force in 2010. Besides the continuous introduction of new engine technologies in their fleets (like, for example, the DAC engine), airlines further minimise ground level emissions through a variety of operational techniques, such as one-engine taxiing, being towed instead of taxiing, minimal APU-use, pilot shutdown of engines during ground delays, and delayed engine start. As a consequence of the steadily growing number of aircraft movements at airports around the world, authorities are, however, increasingly obliged to respond to local public and political pressures to curb airport activities. For this reason, local NO x emissions are quickly emerging as a potential constraint for airport capacity expansion.
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E4.2.1 Airport Emissions from Other Sources
Contrary to what is often assumed, it is not only aircraft that are responsible for NO x and other gas emissions around airports. Other important emission sources can be found within and outside the airport perimeter, such as airside vehicles, Ground Support Equipment (GSE), landside vehicles (cars, taxis, busses, trains, etc.), and stationary power generation plants. Minor sources include regular maintenance and handling activities. Ongoing monitoring and research suggests that the proportion of aircraft-related NOx emissions is relatively small compared to the total amount generated by other airport activities and road traffic around airports. The contribution from aircraft also decreases rapidly moving away from the runway. Given the multi-source contribution to local air quality around airports, and the fact that aircraft are not the major contributors, it would seem appropriate that a balanced approach is used to improve local air quality around airports, using a range of measures and involving all sources. Sourcespecific contributions to local emission levels must be accurately measured and monitored in order to separate aircraft emissions from other sources and to identify the appropriate basis for mitigation goals and measures in a balanced way.
E4.2.2 Reducing Emissions Around Airports

Airports can themselves contribute to the reduction of NO x and other emissions by taking a variety of measures, such as:
Lighting and heating/cooling of terminals, hangars, parkings, and offices. Ground transportation of staff, passengers and cargo to and from terminals and aircraft. Powering of ground service equipment and aircraft at the gate.
Action in the following areas would help to reduce airport emissions, either through energy savings or the use of cleaner energy sources:
Optimised airport design to reduce taxi times, unnecessary idling of aircraft and waiting at the gate. Cleaner and more efficient GSE operations through enhanced maintenance of equipment, optimising logistics, installation of catalytic converters, introduction of electrically powered vehicles and fuel cell technology, and conversion to fixed electrical ground power at gates. Clean airport access for passengers, visitors and staff by promoting use of public transport, trains and other electric vehicles (buses), and even bicycles; encourage employee car-pooling. Monitoring electricity consumption of baggage handling systems, passenger conveyer belts, escalators, air conditioning systems and lighting. Alternative heating methods such as the use of geothermal energy, incineration of nonrecyclable
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E4.3 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
E4.IR1 Air Quality Taxation Local air quality is determined by a variety of sources a? and around the airport, including aircraft. Efforts to reduce the airports overall iftipact should therefore address all sources in a balanced way, using a range of measures aimed at encouraging improvements in environmental performance in the most cost-effective way. IATA considers inappropriate the levying of taxes or charges aimed at reducing aircraft emissions.
IATA
SECTION E5: WASTE MANAGEMENT E5.1 GENERAL
The volume of waste in many industrialised countries has considerably increased in recent years, accompanied by an increase in the volume of materials harmful to the environment. In light of these developments, airlines and airports regard better waste management as a major concern. Waste can be classified into 2 categories, namely: Category 1 Toxins Toxins cannot be degraded by the environment naturally and should be treated before release to ensure that no harmful particulates are retained. Treatment of toxins should be in accordance with national regulations. Examples of a category 1 waste are aircraft fuel spills which must be chemically treated before controlled release into the environment, so complying with national and best practice legislation. Category 2 Biodegradable Biodegradable chemicals and produces can be naturally broken down by the environment and do not represent a hazard to the environment upon their controlled release. Again, national regulations on the volume and rate of release should be observed. Major sources of Category 1 airline and airport waste at an airport include but are not limited to the following: Aircraft spent fuels and lubricants.
Fuel farm and apron fuel dispensing equipment. Maintenance hangers and workshops. Apron vehicles. Air-bridge lubricants. Refrigeration plants. Flight kitchens. Airport power plants. Aircraft lubricant dispensing vehicles. Airport development materials.
Major sources of Category 2 airline and airport waste at an airport include but are not limited to the following:
Waste water and sewage. Food waste.
E5.1.1 Prevention of Waste

A detailed understanding of the component parts of the waste cycle is critical to the successful prevention of waste. Having a total understanding of the composite parts mapped to mechanisms for reducing the use of first generation materials and the use of recycling initiatives will be essential. All organisations operating within the airport environment should seek to actively utilise recycled materials
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Staff and organisations should be made aware of how their individual contributions will aid the plan to reduce waste, and should be given the necessary tools to achieve the reduction targets. In the context of staff within the office, paper recycling initiatives should be carried out. Drivers of apron vehicles should plan their routes to ensure that travel distances and dwell periods on the apron with engines or electric motors running will be minimised. Designers should seek in the preliminary stages to produce energy efficient facility designs which are less dependant on fossil fuel sources for seasonal heating and cooling. Buildings should be commissioned with thermal imaging cameras to confirm areas of undesirable heat loss giving rise to excessive consumption of heating fuels or electricity. Airport operators should seek to reduce energy consumption by employing smart systems on devices such as escalators, conveyor motors and lighting systems, where power down cycles should be employed in times of low or non usage. E5.2 WASTE TREATMENT Waste is by definition any material which cannot be further used or recycled. Usually waste can be categorized in the following main divisions:
Disposed waste (incineration). Recycling material (paper, wood, organic waste, polymers, metals). Hazardous waste.
The separation of waste is essential to reduce it. Therefore a whole network of collecting points across the airport with different bins for separation is necessary. A management of these collecting points will be necessary to achieve sustainable results. Cabin waste originating from international flights must be removed and destroyed in conformity with local health codes and airport authority regulations. Usually this involves incineration of the cabin waste in a properly designed facility. Local environmental rules and regulations must be adhered to with respect to emissions and proper disposal of the residue. E5.3 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS E5.IR1 Energy Efficient System Airport operators should employ energy efficient and monitored electrical systetns to ensure that power management strategies are employed. r E5.IR2 Collection of Reusable Waste Airport operators and airlines should train staff and employ initiatives to collect waste materials that can be reused. A target figure of at least 20% of office waste should be collected, sorted, managed and declared suitable for recycling. This waste should then be subsequently reprocessed.
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Chapter F Airport Capacity
Section F1: Capacity and Level of Service F1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... F1.2 IATA Recommendations.......................................................................... Section F2: Capacity Definitions F2.1 Capacity Measurement Overview.......................................................... Section F3: Airport Systems F3.1 Airport Systems Overview ..................................................................... F3.2 IATA Recommendations.......................................................................... Section F4: Planning Schedule F4.1 Planning Schedule Overview.................................................................. F4.2 Schedule Input Requirements ................................................................ F4.3 IATA Recommendations.......................................................................... Section F5: Runway Systems F5.1 Runway Systems Overview.................................................................... F5.2 Runway Capacity.................................................................................... F5.3 Capacity Calculations ............................................................................. F5.4 Runway Movement Simulation ............................................................... F5.5 Rules of Thumb ...................................................................................... F5.6 IATA Recommendations.......................................................................... Section F6: Taxiway F6.1 Taxiway Overview.................................................................................. F6.2 Taxiway Functionality ............................................................................. F6.3 Simulation .............................................................................................. F6.4 IATA Recommendations.......................................................................... Section F7: Apron F7.1 Apron Overview .................................................................................... F7.2 IATA Recommendations.......................................................................... 173 173 171 171 172 172 166 166 167 169 170 170 165 165 165 162 164 161 159 160
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Section F8: Aircraft Stand F8.1 Aircraft Stand Overview.......................................................................... F8.2 Aircraft Stand Capacity........................................................................... F8.3 Improved Stand Capacity ...................................................................... F8.4 Gate and Stand Assesments................................................................... F8.5 IATA Recommendations.......................................................................... Section F9: Passenger Terminal Facilities F9.1 Passenger Terminal Design: Introduction .............................................. F9.2 Passenger Behaviour ............................................................................. F9.3 Passport Control .................................................................................... F9.4 Hold Room ............................................................................................. F9.5 The Loading Area ................................................................................... F9.6 Baggage Claim Unit................................................................................ F9.7 Level of Service Balance......................................................................... F9.8 Maximum Queuing Time ........................................................................ F9.9 Capacity and Level of Service Assessment............................................. F9.10 Rules of Thumb....................................................................................... F9.11 IATA Recommendations.......................................................................... Section F10: The Airport Scheduling Process F10.1 Airport Capacity and Traffic Congestion ................................................ F10.2 Levels of Airport Activity ........................................................................ F10.3 IATA Recommendations.......................................................................... Section F11: Computational Fluid Dynamics F11.1 Computational Fluid Dynamics: Overview .............................................. F11.2 When to Use CFD Software Effectively ................................................... F11.3 IATA Recommendations.......................................................................... 216 216 218 213 214 215 178 181 185 186 186 187 188 189 189 193 212 174 174 175 176 177
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CHAPTER F AIRPORT CAPACITY
SECTION F1: F1.1 CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE
INTRODUCTION
The problem of traffic peaking at airports has been the subject of increasing concern by airlines and airport operators around the world. This problem is a complex one and has tended to defy easy or widespread solution. Extreme traffic peaking at airports generates congestion and severe economic penalties, or delays to aircraft and passengers. These problems may become even more acute if the timely expansion of airport facilities to accommodate increasing levels of traffic cannot be undertaken, for whatever reason, but especially due to environmentally imposed runway/airport curfews. Curfews do not directly affect hourly capacity computations, but they do affect the total airport capacity. While a principal objective should be to increase airport capacity to meet increasing demand, in the interim the need to maximize the utilization of existing airport and airline resources is becoming more critical than ever before. Effectively managing available airport capacity/demand in such an environment presents a major challenge to airport operators and airlines alike. Every reasonable effort should be made by the airlines, airport operators, and involved government agencies to identify airport capacity limitations and potential congestion problems well before these problems actually occur. Co-ordinated efforts can then be undertaken to avoid such problems to the benefit of all concerned, and will require continuing and open communications and cooperation between all parties involved. Demand/capacity and level-of-service investigations at airports where congestion exists or is anticipated can be arranged in this type of co-operative climate in order to:
(a) Establish the time, degree and cause of congestion. (a)

Seek to agree on a methodology for determining the capacity of the airport, taking into account the levels of service to be provided, and compare this with typical peak demand to identify capacity limitations.
(b)
Consider means of removing such limitations in the short term, at a relatively small cost, taking account of the effect of any related delay factor. It is often possible to increase capacities significantly through relatively inexpensive changes in procedures or personnel deployment.
(c)
Where larger expansion is not possible, consider other temporary expedients, such as minor construction or lower service levels, pending improvements in capacity in the longer term or a significant infrastructure expenditure.
(d)
Where capacity can only be increased in the longer term or at significant cost, produce estimates of those measures required to increase appropriate capacity, and consider whether the capacity should be increased either to a higher level, or to a lower level involving either increased delays or the adjustment of schedules. Although various alternative methods of managing demand to match capacity limitations have been considered in the past, the most satisfactory one is that of schedule co-ordination. Such schedule
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F1.2 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS F1.IR1 Use of schedule co-ordination to manage capacity demand
In general, schedule co-ordination represents the most effective means of managing capacity demand issues. Schedule adjustments should be made in an international forum where pertinet industry representatives can discuss the changes required at any airport concurrently with their varying repercussive effects at other airports.
IATA
SECTION F2: CAPACITY DEFINITIONS F2.1 CAPACITY MEASUREMENT OVERVIEW
Airport Capacity
Capacity measurements vary from one subsystem to another. The term capacity has many definitions, but it generally makes reference to a limit, when reached or exceeded, which affects an airport's operations and level of service. Capacity is often use to describe the variable measurement of a specific airport system or subsystem's throughput, or the system's capability to accommodate a designated level of demand. Comprehensive capacity assessments are based on five fundamental measurements, noted in the following subheadings.
F2.1.1 Dynamic Capacity

Dynamic Capacity refers to the maximum processing or flow rate of persons (i.e. occupants)
F2.1.2 Static Capacity

Static Capacity is used to describe the storage potential of a facility or area, and is usually expressed as the number of occupants that a given area will accommodate at any one moment. It is a function of the total useable space available and the level of service to be provided; i.e., the amount of space each occupant may occupy. Static capacity standards are stated as square meters per occupant (m2/occ.) for each level of service.
F2.1.3 Sustained Capacity

Sustained Capacity is used to describe the overall capacity of a subsystem to accommodate traffic demand, over a sustained period within the space and time standards of a particular level of service. It is thus a measure of the combined dynamic and static capacities of the processors, reservoirs and links. IATA recommends using level of service C to determine the sustainable capacity. The definition for level of service C is shown in section F9.1.2.
F2.1.4 Maximum Capacity

Maximum Capacity refers to the maximum traffic flow which can be achieved for the chosen time unit only, but not sustained for a longer period, in accordance with safety requirements and regardless of delay or level of service.
F2.1.5 Declared Capacity

Declared Capacity refers to site specific limiting capacities, in numeric terms, of individual facilities and resources. These capacities are forwarded to the appropriate bodies to be used in the preparation of flight schedules.
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SECTION F3: AIRPORT SYSTEMS F3.1 AIRPORT SYSTEMS OVERVIEW
An airport is more than a large paved area, a set of plans or an architectural concept. An airport should be seen and planned as a dynamic system that handles the flow of pedestrians, vehicles, aircraft, baggage, cargo and mail. The passengers, baggage, greeters & well-wishers, vehicles and aircraft must pass through inter-related systems to be queued, processed and circulated on various links such as taxiways, corridors, escalators, etc.
F3.1.1 Airport Facilities/Systems

Airport facilities should be planned according to the following principles:
Airports should be developed to operate in an efficient manner, taking into account the safety
of the users and clients.
Aircraft flows should be designed to operate with maximum efficiency across the airside sub
systems; i.e. the gate, apron, taxiways, runways, and airspace. proceed through the network of terminal subsystems.
Passenger flows should be designed to minimize inconvenience and confusion as passengers Baggage systems should be designed to provide an efficient, fast, reliable and cost-effective
flow of hold baggage from check-in to aircraft, from aircraft to aircraft, and from aircraft to baggage reclamation. See chapter U for information on Baggage Handling Systems (BHS).
Vehicular flows should be designed to provide an efficient and reliable access/egress to the
terminal facilities.
The passenger terminal building should be designed to provide an efficient and seamless flow
between the landside and airside elements.
Airports should be designed to offer a balanced flow through the interface points of the system.
Each system should be flexible enough to accommodate future requirements in order to

maintain the balance of the overall airport system. An airport can be subdivided into several main, interrelated systems. The airside network has a larger space requirement, while the terminal building represents the transfer portion of the overall system through which passengers move from their ground access modes to the apron, vice versa, or alternately between flights. The ground access/terminal building transition point is at the curb, while the apron/terminal building transition point occurs at the bridge/gate. These transition or interface points between the systems mark the points where the nature of the flow changes. In the deplaning process, for example,
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This relationship is shown in the following schematic diagram: I
Arriving Vehicles Occupants
Airport Capacity
Aircraft Deplaning
I _L
Departing Vehicles
Occupants
Aircraft Deplaning
F3.1.2 Capacity Balance

A primary objective of the planning process is to find the correct, balanced capacity and level of service between facilities, operations, rules & procedures and airline schedules. Balancing capacity is primarily required to avoid displacing a bottleneck to another critical facility. It often means ensuring the terminal, gate and apron systems do not limit the runway throughput. Six major system studies are considered when balancing capacity and determining the reliable throughput of the airport. These being: Terminal Airspace Terminal airspace studies are undertaken to determine when existing capacity and limiting factors require improvement prior to considering investment in new facilities. The maximum reliable terminal airspace throughput for landings and departures is determined separately. Runway/Taxiway A runway capacity study is undertaken to determine the exiting and maximum reliable runway capacity. The runway system is a critical component to the overall system, and runway capacity ultimately determines a given airport's maximum capacity. Every effort should be made to ensure that other airport facilities are not limiting runway throughput and performance. Apron Simulation is often required to ensure that the apron acts as an effective link between the gate and the runway systems and does not become a bottleneck. Gate The number of stands and aircraft parking positions for different types/sizes of aircraft is calculated to meet the current and future year requirements up to the ultimate runway capacity. This, information is essential to develop realistic and cost-effective airport concepts. Passenger Terminal The number of counters/processors, a building's reservoir (holding) potential, levels of service, and requirements by facility or area are calculated for the passenger and greeter/well-wisher flows for the passenger terminal. Enplaning passengers must pass through some or all of a series of subsystems, while deplaning passengers must pass through some or all of a separate series. In some cases, the same subsystems are used by both flows. Additionally transfer passengers must be considered since they utilize some of the subsystems of both passenger flows. In the case of 'hub' airports, the volume of transfer passengers may be very significant. Passenger terminals also process baggage flows. See chapter U for information on baggage handling systems.
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Passenger Flow Routes A general aircraft baggage and passenger flow chart should be established. It is usually essential to show originating, terminating, transfer and transit passengers, split by domestic and international passenger flow, in order to properly analyse passenger terminals. The passenger flow routes should be flexible and should: Be as short and straight as possible, unimpeded by obstructions from cross-flows or Be capable of use by all airlines and not restricted to individual aircraft loads. Govern control positions in order to avoid bottlenecks. Be sufficiently flexible to permit the establishment of temporary channels which can be used as by-pass routes by other passengers (e.g., for individual health control processing of a particular arriving aircraft passenger load) or to permit regulation evolution. Permit processing of passengers individually or in groups. Introduce a minimum number of level changes. Allow flow separations for government regulations or security reasons. Provide one flow route for departing domestic passengers and one for international passengers. One flow route for arriving domestic passengers and one for international passengers. Separate departing passengers from those arriving after security check-points.
F3.2
F3.2 IR1 Airport as a Dynamic System An airport should be seen and planned as a dynamic system that handles flow of pedestrians, vehicles, aircraft and baggage going through inter-related systems.
F3.2 IR2 Airport Facilities Airports in general should be planned in accordance with the principles defined within Clause
F3.1.1. ~
F3.2 IR3 Balancing Capacity Balancing capacity is required to avoid displacing a bottleneck to another critical facility considering runway capacity ultimately determines the maximum capacity of an airport.
F3.2 IR4 Passenger Flow Passenger flow should be planned in accordance with the principles in clause F3.1.2.
IATA
SECTION F4: F4.1 PLANNING SCHEDULE
Airport Capacity
PLANNING SCHEDULE OVERVIEW

Determining airport capacity and requirements largely depends on predicting the impact of projected airline schedules on the various airport facilities. Requirements, capacity and level of service are based not only on operating conditions and rules, but also upon the particular demand profiles created by the mix of flights and flight sectors for a typical busy day. Typical peak period or peak hour demand should be used wherever possible for planning purposes, rather than annual figures. The typical peak is the maximum level of traffic, lower than the absolute peak, reached in busy periods of a typical busy day. The second busiest day in the busiest or second busiest week of normal airport traffic is a good example of a typical 'peak day', specifically excluding peaks associated with, for example, religious or other holiday festivals. De-seasonalized time series can thus be used to segregate monthly passenger and aircraft movement data into their major cycle, trend, seasonal and random constituents. It is useful to identify repeatable peak passenger and aircraft days of the week, distinguishing hard trends from random fluctuations. Historical peak period statistics such as the 30th busiest hour in the year, the 90th percentile of
F4.2
SCHEDULE INPUT REQUIREMENTS

Detailed planning, concept validation, level of service assessment, facility optimization and design studies should be conducted with site-specific planning schedules as a key input. Baseline planning schedule(s) by cargo and passenger traffic sector should be developed and adapted from actual schedules to reflect the existing and future fleet mix and route structure. Planning schedules should reflect the basic traffic characteristics of the users of the systems being studied. A passenger flow study would typically require more information than a runway capacity study, including: Airline flown. Aircraft type. Aircraft ID. Departure and arrival time. Origin/Destination passenger volumes, transfer passenger volumes, transit volumes. Traffic sector (International, Domestic, Schengen, etc.). Gate assignment (gating).
F4.3
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS F4.IR1 Site-specific Planning Schedules

Detailed planning, concept validation, level of service assessment, facility optimization and design should be based on site-specific planning schedules reflecting the basic traffic characteristics as a key input.
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F5.3.3 ATC Procedures and Equipment
The performance of radar equipment and ATC limitations sometimes impose a separation greater than the minima shown in Table F5.1. These limitations should be dealt with prior to considering investing in new runways.
F5.3.4 The Mix of Aircraft

As shown in Table F5.1, separation between aircraft depends on the aircraft category. Therefore, the mix of successive aircraft operating will have an impact on the overall separation and the runway capacity. For example, an airport operating with a majority of medium size aircraft will have an average arrival separation of 3NM. The same airport serving a mix of small, medium and heavy aircraft will have a separation of 3 to 6NM, depending on the sequence of arrivals, and will have a significantly reduced runway capacity.
F5.3.5 The Mix of Arrivals and Departures

An airport is part of a network and has a mix of arrivals and departures during the day. Aircraft that land at an airport will eventually take-off. The distribution of arrivals and departures has an impact on runway capacity. ATC not only needs to consider separation between successive arrivals and successive departures, but also gaps between arrivals preceded or followed by departures.
F5.3.6 The Mixed or Segregated Mode

Airports with two or more runways sometimes dedicate runways to departures and runways to arrivals. However, the arrival and departure peaks rarely coincide, and the separation between successive arrivals and successive departures are different. This results in gaps on one runway when another is at capacity; in these situations mixing arrivals and departures as if operating with a single runway can increase capacity.
F5.3.7 Runway Configuration

Parallel runways with adequate spacing (1035 m or more) can process independent arrivals. Interaction between runways is a constraint that limits capacity when the distance between runways does not meet the minimum distance requirement or runways intersect. Independent parallel runways are recommended for that reason. The layout of an airport and the runway configuration is another factor having an impact on aircraft
F5.3.8 Precision Runway Monitor (FAA)

The PRM is a surveillance radar that updates essential aircraft target information 4 to 5 times more often than conventional radar equipment. PRM also predicts the aircraft track and provides alarms when an aircraft is within ten seconds of penetrating the non-transgression zone. Use of the PRM allows air traffic controllers to ensure safe separation of aircraft on the parallel approach courses and maintain an efficient rate of aircraft landings during adverse weather conditions. In December 2001, the FAA determined that the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) may be operated in the resolution advisory (RA) mode when conducting a PRM approach. The FAA has commissioned PRMs at Minneapolis and St. Louis, and at Philadelphia International Airport in September 2001. PRM's were scheduled for commissioning at San Francisco and John F. Kennedy in late-2002, Cleveland in late-2004, and Atlanta in 2006, coincident with the completion of the fifth parallel runway. The FAA has also approved procedures using a PRM to allow simultaneous instrument approaches in adverse weather.
172
IATA
F5.3.9 Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approaches (FAA)
Airport Capacity
The SOIA procedure would allow simultaneous approaches to parallel runways spaced from 230 m (750 feet) to 910 m (3,000 feet) apart. It requires the use of a PRM, a straight-in ILS approach to one runway, and an offset Localizer Directional Aid (LDA) with glide slope approach to the other runway. The SOIA concept involves the pairing of aircraft along adjacent approach courses separated by at least 910 m (3,000 feet) with a designated missed approach point approximately 3.5 nautical miles from the runway threshold. The pilot on the offset approach would fly a straight-but-angled approach until descending below the cloud cover. At that point, the pilot would have a period of time to visually acquire the traffic on the other approach before continuing to the runway. If the pilot does not see the other aircraft before reaching the missed approach point, the approach would be discontinued. San Francisco International Airport (SFO) and Lambert-St. Louis International Airport (STL) are the first candidate airports for SOIA. At SFO the arrival rate is 60 aircraft per hour in clear weather using both parallel runways, which are 230 m (750 feet) apart. In times of heavy fog and low-ceiling conditions, aircraft are placed in-trail to one runway, reducing the airport arrival rate by half. The SOIA procedure will enable SFO to maintain an arrival rate of up to 40 aircraft per hour with a cloud base as low as 490 m (1,600 feet) and four miles of visibility.
F5.4
RUNWAY MOVEMENT SIMULATION

Simulations are strongly recommended to determine the runway capacity before and after proposed improvements, procedures and rules are implemented. Delays (including where and why they occur) are a primary indicator of level of service and that capacity is being reached or exceeded. Simulation models, such as Total AirportSim developed by IATA, are effective to predict the impact of projected airline schedules on the various airport facilities. They can be used to identify the nature, location and degree of congestion and to measure delays. Care must be exercised in the provision of accurate data and it must be recognized that operation of such software should be entrusted to highly skilled and experienced operators who fully understand airport operations. The sustainable runway throughput at airports not currently at capacity is calculated by increasing the daily demand until the runway system is saturated, and by assuming the same hourly distribution of traffic and fleet mix. Unlimited gate supply should be assumed. Figure F5.1 shows an example where departure delays are greater than the arrival delays. Departure is therefore the limiting factor.
3 0
Landings Departures
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

173
ATA Airport Development Reference Manual

Figure F5.2 shows the excessive queuing associated with peak departure demand exceeding departure capacity. The number of aircraft queuing increases rapidly when runway capacity is reached and typically takes a long time to dissipate.
Figure F5.2 Example of Departure Bottleneck (Location and Degree of Congestion)
F5.5
RULES OF THUMB
IATA proposes the following rules of thumb based on the ICAO departure and landing wake vortex separation and assuming a runway occupancy time of 50 seconds or less.
Table F5.2 Typical Maximum Hourly Runway Throughput Segregated Mode

% Heavy 25 50 75 % Medium 75 50 25 Departures 48 40 34 Landings(1> 39 37 36 Landings<2> +5 +3 +2
(1) based on the wake vortex separation shown in table 1 (2) additional capacity assuming a 2.5 NM separation for medium size
aircraft
Fr
ER1 Runway Simulation
The simulation of runway movements is recommended as defined within the ADRiV C' use F5.4 ^SEilCîl
174
IATA
SECTION F6: TAXIWAY F6.1 TAXIWAY OVERVIEW
Airport Capacity
Taxiways provide the necessary link between various parts of the airport, including to the gate/apron and the runway system. As such, the individual elements constitute a network serving access and aircraft movement functions. Figure F6.1 shows schematically the basic functions served. The taxiways should be designed (dimensions) according ICAO Annex 14 requirements for the future critical aircraft to operate at the airport.
Figure F6.1 Functional Design of a Taxiway System Access to Cargo Main Parallel Taxiways
and G.A., etc. Area \ \
/I
Passenger Terminal Area
R.E.T.s (Heavy, Medium and Light) for Aircraft Sequencing at Departure
Multiple Queuing
F6.2
TAXIWAY FUNCTIONALITY
The taxiway system should be designed so as to optimise runway throughput. Implementation of taxiway functionality such as Rapid Exit Taxiways (RETs), parallel taxiways and departing multiple queuing taxiways improve the system capacity. RET vacate landing aircraft from the runway. They are designed to minimize runway occupancy time and therefore create the necessary conditions to optimise runway utilization, since a succeeding aircraft can't touch down until the preceding aircraft clears the runway. They can provide the necessary conditions for High Intensity Runway Operation (HIRO), minimizing the occurrence of 'go-around' and enabling departures in-between continuous in-coming traffic in mixed mode operation. The number and location of RETs depends on the aircraft fleet mix, the distance from the threshold to touchdown, the aircraft speed at touchdown, the initial exit speed and the rate of deceleration. De-icing pads are an integral part of taxiway systems at many airports. It is important to design and locate de-icing pads to accommodate the peak demand and to match the maximum runway throughput in bad weather conditions.
175

F6.3 SIMULATION
Runways and taxiways are inter-related systems. The runway simulations described in section F5 should include the taxiways to get from/to the gate or aircraft stand in the model. Figure F6.2 shows an example of 'where' departing taxiing aircraft are delayed from an aircraft flow simulation. Taxiing distance and delays should be carefully studied considering their significant impact on operation costs and performance.
Figure F6.2 Example of Identification of Potential Bottlenecks from Simulation
F6.2
F6.IR.1 Taxiway System The taxiway system should be designed to maximize runway throughput, minimize taxiing distance and delays and improve aircraft flow and operations.
F6.IR.2 Runway Simulations Runway simulations should include the taxiway network.
176
IATA F7: APRON SECTION

F7.1 APRON OVERVIEW
Airport Capacity
The apron provides direct access to aircraft stands for purposes of loading and unloading passengers, mail or cargo, or for fuelling, parking or maintenance. An apron's taxilanes serve two main functions:
(I) The aircraft stand taxilane, intended to provide access to the aircraft stand only. (II) Apron taxiways, intended to provide a through route across the apron.
Apron and gate design should reflect the various characteristics and volume of traffic to be handled. Significant ground delays can be experienced on aprons as they are an aircraft flow merging point and provide an entry/exit point to aircraft for pushing back and powering up engines. The traffic volume and characteristics can also change over time. Single aircraft stand taxilanes giving access to more than 6-8 high-turnover cul-de-sac gates should be avoided. Apron taxiways providing through taxi routes should be included in the ground aircraft flow simulation for runway capacity studies in order to avoid displacing a bottleneck to the next link. An apron aircraft flow simulation, including realistic gate assignment and push-back procedures, is
F7.2
F7.IR.1 Apron and Gate Design Apron and gate design should reflect the various charactenstics and volume of traffic to be handled.
F7.IR
.2
Single TAXILANES
A single taxilane giving access to more than & to 8 cul-de-sac gatvs should be avoided F7.IR.3 Aircraft Fiow Simulation An aircraft flow simulation should be considered to verify the functionality of apron layouts.
F7.IR.4 Apron Location The apron should be located in such a way as to minimize or eliminate the need for crossing runways.
177

SECTION F8: AIRCRAFT STAND F8.1 AIRCRAFT STAND OVERVIEW
An aircraft stand is a designated area intended for parking an aircraft where passengers can be loaded/unloaded with a bridge or by bus. The aircraft stand system is effectively an interface between passenger and aircraft flow; i.e. where passenger/baggage flow become aircraft flow and vice versa. This system should be carefully planned so as not to become a limiting factor of runways. Gate supply should be calculated to match the runway throughput, and ultimately the runway saturation schedule plus the overnight parking requirements. Stands should not be used as a buffer for late arrivals/ departures due to ATC delays. At some airports, aircraft subject to an ATC departure delay will actually vacate their stands at their scheduled departure time and absorb the delay on specially designed remote stands near the runway. Gate (contact) stands have a significant impact on the quality of service to users because they provide for more rapid and comfortable handling of passengers, avoid the need for buses, and enable better turnaround times. Contact gates are often essential to improve the quality of service and reliable MCTs, in support of airlines commercial objectives especially at hub airports. Contact gates are required at airports with frequent adverse weather conditions, and designers should keep in mind that an airport is part of airline network and therefore linked to operational commercial objectives.
F8.2
AIRCRAFT STAND CAPACITY

The capacity of the runway, taxiway and apron systems is dynamic, as it relates to the ability to process flows. The capacity of the aircraft stand system is related to the ability to accumulate aircraft, which is a static capacity. The number of stands and aircraft parking positions by different types/ sizes of aircraft is calculated to meet the current and future year requirements. This information is essential to develop realistic and cost-effective airport concepts and to ensure capacity balance. Some schedules, particularly long-haul flights, require that aircraft remain for several hours. Homebased aircraft are likely to remain at their stands overnight, however the majority of flights seek a rapid turnaround. There could be a shortage of gates either (i) because of demand exceeds capacity (ii) because there is a higher than expected large aircraft demand or (iii) because aircraft remain in occupancy for an extended number of hours or because of the current operations and rules applied. This highlights that the key aspects of stand availability are:
The number of stands provided for different types/sizes of aircraft.
The availability of these stands as influenced by occupancy times (possibly ranging from less
than an hour to in excess of 6 hours).
Availability of multiple aircraft ramp stands. Which terminal(s) are served by the stands.
178
IATA
Airport Capacity
Table F8-1: Typical Aircraft Processing and Servicing Time (In minutes) at Gate
Aircraft Type B C D E 1 DOOR 2 DOORS F 1 DOOR O 2 DOORS n 470 470 55 30 30 20 80 80 60 60 165 130 350 350 40 25 25 15 45 45 45 45 110 85 Pax Load 40 130 250 Load Passenger 10 20 30 Unload Passengers 5 10 15 Aircraft Servicing 10 15 30 Through Flight 25 45 Turnaround Flight 25 45 75
(*) IATA Recommends two doors wherever possible for Code F aircraft. (**) A third door reduces the turnaround time by only 10-15 minutes to a total of approximately 115 minutes. The boarding and deboarding processing times are no longer in the critical path. The catering process is on the critical path because of the high number of trolleys to be loaded and off-loaded.
F8.3
IMPROVED STAND CAPACITY

Possibilities for flexible use of aircraft operational stands (e.g. two small aircraft on one large aircraft stand) should be kept in mind when assessing the maximum capability of a layout. The parking configuration adopted, for example nose-in versus self manoeuvring, may not impact on stand capacity but could have a significant impact upon the apron capacity. Availability of facilities such as hydrant refuelling, loading bridges etc., which help to reduce congestion, should also be considered. Gate (contact) stands have a significant impact on the quality of service to users because they provide for more rapid and comfortable handling of passengers, avoiding the need for buses and enabling better turnaround times.
179
F8.4

GATE AND STAND ASSESMENTS
While there is a physical limit on the number of aircraft which can be simultaneously accommodated at the airport, operational factors such as gate assignment policy, exclusive/preferential use, sectorization, and operational parameters impact the practical capacity of the system. The inputs required to conduct a gate assignment study include:
Busy day flight schedule. An apron plan indicating all contact gates and remote stands.
List of all contact gates and stands by range of aircraft accommodated and sectors accepted/
preferred.
Policy regarding exclusive and/or preferential use.
Operational parameters, such as the buffer time between flights using the same gate (either
on a gate by gate basis or globally), minimum tow-on and tow-off time by aircraft, and minimum ground time before an aircraft is considered a candidate for towing. Gate assignment study results (i.e. the number of gates by class of aircraft and by sector) and gate
Figure F8-2: Example of Gate Assignment Chart

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_________ '_, Gate F1 Concourse A GateF2 Concourse A GateF3 Concourse A GateF4 Concourse A Gate F5 Concourse A GateF6 Concourse A Gate 12 Concourse C Gate 13 Concourse C Gate 14 Concourse C Gate 15 Concourse C Gate 16 Concourse C Gate 17 Concourse C Gate 24 Concourse E -TkmOlfsatjO _
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180
F8.5
F8.IR.1 Gate Supply Gate supply should be calculated to match the runway throughput and ultimately the runway saturation schedule plus the overnight parking requirements. f
s-------rr^------------------------
Contact Gates F8.IR.2 Gafes (contact) should be considered to improve the quality of service to users and to provide for more rapid and comfortable handling of passengers, avoiding the need for buses.
F8.IR.3 Gate/stand Planning When planning gate/stands, they should be designed with full consideration of the instructions stipulated in Clause F8.2. r F8.IR.4 Gate Percentage A high percentage of contact gates is required when an airline's strategy requiresWtumaround times, good quality of service, short and reliable MCTs and dealing with frequent adverse weather conditions. Designers should keep in mind an airport is part of airline network and therefore is

SECTION F9: F9.1 PASSENGER TERMINAL FACILITIES
PASSENGER TERMINAL DESIGN: INTRODUCTION

Terminal design and level of service should reflect the various characteristics and volume of passengers and baggage to be handled. Managing terminal capacity and designing with level of service in mind are key requirements in the development of competitive airports, and have longterm financial and operational implications for passenger facilities. Once a terminal is built, its size and features tend to be effectively permanent unless major additional investments are made with commensurate financial commitments. Planners and decision-makers must keep in mind that passengers visit an airport for one primary reason: to catch a flight. Passengers' expectations and needs should be at the very heart of the planning process. The mark of a successful airport is its natural and unobstructed passenger flow between objectives, easy navigation through the terminal, simplicity and cost-effectiveness. Unfortunately, terminals are not always designed to take passenger attitudes and user needs into consideration. This is partly related to how decisions are made. Too often, a maquette or elaborate 3-D drawings presenting the basic aesthetic approach or 'look' are presented to the selection committee, and a given design will be chosen before airport specialists and operations consultants can properly appraise it for effectiveness and efficiency. Changes to the chosen concept then tend to be resisted and compromises only reluctantly considered. The result is often new terminals without the required capacity and with an expensive juxtaposition of subsystems that leave users with a disappointing passenger experience.
F9.1.1 Passenger Characteristics

Different flight segments have different characteristics and needs. The amount of individual passenger space required for comfort and adequate level of service is examined from the point of view of changing passenger behaviours and perceptions. The space standards developed in the 1970's, for example, are currently being expanded to reflect newer segmented passenger behaviour and characteristics. Changes like these affect design attributes such as how much more queuing space might be required for passengers who use luggage carts and tend to carry a certain amount of luggage (this varies depending on their passenger segment). Demand always exceeds capacity at some point, and providing space for the formation of a queue is part of terminal design. A fundamental question is: How much space is required to offer an economical level of comfort? The answer should go beyond the study of operations research specialists and should be done with passengers behaviour and expectations in mind. Passengers are one source of uncertainty and thus of fluctuation not only in demand but in capacity as well. Queuing phenomena at check-in counters is a good example of this. The arrival pattern may change from flight to flight and from day to day. The time to process passengers also fluctuates and is not entirely under the control of the agent. Different passenger segments have different characteristics and needs. Space standards for a
IATA
Airport Capacity
Figure F9.3: Pedestrian Dimensions
Source: Davis and Braaksma (1987)
F9.1.2 Level of Service

Level of service can be considered as a range of values, or as assessments of the ability of supply to meet demand. To allow comparison among the various systems and subsystems of the airport and to reflect the dynamic nature of demand upon a facility, a range of level of service measures from A through to F may be used, similar to the standard employed in highway traffic engineering. The evaluation criteria and actual standards for each subsystem are developed separately.
Table F9.1 Level of Service Framework

A An Excellent level of service. Conditions of free flow, no delays and excellent levels of comfort. B High level of service. Conditions of stable flow, very few delays and high levels of comfort. C Good level of service. Conditions of stable flow, acceptable delays and good levels of comfort. D Adequate level of service. Conditions of unstable flow, acceptable delays for short periods of time and adequate levels of comfort. E Inadequate level of service. Conditions of unstable flow, unacceptable delays and inadequate levels of comfort. F Unacceptable level of service. Conditions of cross-flows, system breakdowns and unacceptable delays; an unacceptable level of comfort.
183

Since the traffic demand at each airport is dynamic and varies according to such factors as schedule, flight sector, and aircraft size and load factor, the level of service measures must reflect these dynamic aspects. In this sense, the nature of the traffic demand plays an important role in affecting the level of service experienced by a passenger. On the supply side there are various systems and services which comprise the airport complex. Level of service space can be considered as a range of values, or as an assessment of the ability of supply to meet demand, and combines both qualitative and quantitative measures of relative comfort and convenience. The framework of level of service measures permits comparison between often unrelated subsystems within the airport complex. This aids management in the evaluation of airport components through the use of common terminology. It is much easier to describe level of service in this manner and to achieve capacity balance. Level of Service C is recommended as the minimum design objective, as it denotes good service at a reasonable cost. Level of service A is seen as having no upper bound. The total number of passengers in an area provided for queuing tends to be fairly constant for any given flight. The space per occupant when the queue overflows is seen by IATA as the frontier between level of service C and D. Passengers manage to avoid experiencing a level of service lower than C unless forced to. Passengers queuing in corridors that are sharing space with passengers walking through can however experience a lower level of service.
F9.1.3 Check-In Queue Area Table F9.2: Level of Service Space Standards (sq. Meter/Occupant) at Check-In for Single Queue
A 1. Few carts and few passengers with check-in luggage (row width 1.2m). 2. Few carts and 1 or 2 pieces of luggage per passenger (row width 1.2m). 3. High percentage of passengers using carts (row width 1.4m). 4. 'Heavy' flights with 2 or more items per passenger and a high percentage of passengers using carts (row width 1.4m). 1,7 1.8 2,3 2,6 B 1,4 1,5 1,9 2,3 C 1,2 1.3 1,7 2,0 D 1,1 1,2 1,6 1,9 E 0,9 1,1 1,5 1,8
F9.2
PASSENGER BEHAVIOUR
Many factors, such as passenger behaviour patterns, cultural backgrounds, psychological requirements and passenger comfort can affect the space required in relation to the occupancy Airport Capacity time. Passengers don't necessarily use all the space available to them at certain key points in the terminal process, and they manage to secure a good level of space comfort even under congested conditions, unless they are prevented to do so by a physical constraint or the threat to lose their priority in the queue. Figure F9.1 and F9.2 illustrate that point for 8 economy-class counters served by a single
IATA
Figure F9.1: A Queuing System not at Capacity
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In their attempt to maintain a comfort zone, passengers do not use all the space available for queuing. The number of passengers divided by the total area for queuing may represent a level of service better than C but in reality passengers occupy the space for a good level of comfort and experience a space level of service C.
185

Figure F9.2 (below) shows the situation when the system is congested. The passengers waiting in the queuing space area do not squeeze in, thereby lowering their level of service, to make space for the passengers waiting behind in the corridor. Instead, the queue tends to overflow. This behaviour is consistent with research showing that humans tend to maintain a buffer zone to prevent the chance of intimate contact.
Figure F9.2: Queuing System Exceeding Capacity
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This observation regarding unconstrained environments has a practical application on determining performance, capacity, level of service and requirements.
Figure. F9.4: Queuing at Check-In Based on Physical Characteristics of Passengers and a Maximum Queuing Time of 30 Minutes
Case 2
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186
The peak demand load and the level of service C standards are translated into recommended planning dimensions. As shown in figure F9.5, IATA recommends a 24 to 26 meter separation between adjacent islands (32 34 meters per module) to provide 2.5 meters for processing and circulating in front of the desk, 7.5 to 8.5 meters for queuing and 4 meters for circulation and passenger queue overflow. Twenty-four (24) meters provides enough space for a maximum queuing time of roughly 30 to 35 minutes for the case 1,2 and 3 of table F9.2. Twenty-six (26) meters provides the flexibility to process heavy flights, or is required when the maximum queuing time exceeds 30 35 minutes on a regular basis. More than 26 meters may be considered after a comprehensive demand/capacity study is conducted to reflect site-specific particularities. Twenty-two (22) meters is sufficient at airports with maximum queuing time of 30 minutes or less and for case 1 and 2 (see Table F9.2).
Figure F9.5: Recommended Dimensions for Check-In Island with Single

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F9.2.1 Frontal Type Check-in Counters Figure F9.6: Recommended Dimensions for Frontal Type CheckIn Maximum Queuing Time of 30-35 Minutes
2.5 m 8.5
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F9.2.2 Wait/Circulation Area

Walking distances for passengers should be as short as possible. In determining the distance between major functions in the terminal, the planner must consider whether baggage is to be carried or not, the availability of baggage trolleys, changes in levels, and the accessibility of the aircraft without resorting to ground transport. The suggested maximum walking distance between the major functions (i.e., car park to check-in/ baggage claim; check-in/baggage claim to gate lounge) is 300m. Greater distances can be accepted provided a form of mechanical assistance is made readily available to passengers. Such systems are costly and therefore a full cost/benefit analysis is necessary before installation. In all terminals where progressive expansion must incorporate a people-mover system, due provision for the necessary right-of-way and other related factors must be included in the original planning. If passengers are required to change levels when walking, escalators or moving ramps should be provided, at least in the upward direction. Passengers should not be required to move baggage other than hand baggage between levels. Experience has shown that the use of elevators to enable passengers, other than disabled passengers, to change levels is not satisfactory from a capacity point of view. Pedestrians adapt their walking speed to the environment based on the following variables:
The occupancy or flow in the corridor. The proportion of passengers with baggage and carts.
Table F9.3: Space and Speed for Level of Service C

Space (mVpax) Airside no carts Public area after check-in few carts Departure before check-in carts 1,5 1,8 2,3 Speed (m/s) 1,3 1,1 0,9
IATA
F9.3 PASSPORT CONTROL
Airport Capacity
Passport control systems are similar to check-in systems. The generic comments for the check-in system apply to passport control inbound and outbound traffic.
Figure F9.7: Passport Control Desks and Queuing Space Requirements
Multiple Queues (Lines)
Single (Bank) Queue
0
I IBIBIBI B
0 0
-w-
BIB
BIBIBIBIB
L = Max#Q x LOS Standard / W Where: MAX#Q is the maximum number of pax queuing LOS Standard: see table F9.4 (see sections F9.9.2 and F9.9.5 for details)
L=MAX*Qx0.9/#PCD Where: MAX#Q is the maximum number of pax queuing #PCD is the number of passport control desks staffed
The main criterion for determining the queue length for multiple queue systems is the average distance between two individuals waiting in the same line (inter-person spacing). The comfort distance varies from person to person and from culture to culture. IATA recommends using 0.8 to 0.9 metres if sitespecific standards are not available. Less than 0.8 metres is possible, but could conflict with other passengers or carry-on luggage.
189

Space requirements for a single queue at passport control is based on the space standards shown in table F9.4.
Table F9.4: Level of Service (A to E) for a Single (Bank) Queue at Passport Control
A Passport Control (sqm) 1.4 B 1.2 C 1.0 D 0.8 E 0.6
F9.4
HOLD ROOM
A distinction should be made between space requirements for standing or seated passengers. 1.7 m2 is assumed for seated passengers and 1.2 m 2 for standing passengers. The occupancy rate is used to measure the level of service.
Table F9.5: Level of Service A to E in Hold Rooms

A Maximum Occupancy rate Note: 100% = maximum capacity 40% B 50% C 65% D 80% E 95%
F9.5
THE LOADING AREA

The flow of passengers between the terminal building and the aircraft should be smooth and uncomplicated, with clearly defined flow routes which are safe and operationally acceptable. Passengers should be able to enter and leave the aircraft without steep changes in floor level and under protection from weather, blast and noise. Use of loading bridges is favoured by the airlines where they can be justified by traffic requirements, commercial strategies and weather conditions. Bridges foster smooth, undirected, embarkation and disembarkation of passengers. They have proven particularly advantageous with high capacity aircraft. At airports where loading bridges are not installed, and the aircraft is not parked in front of the exit from the terminal building, transporters (buses, mobile lounges) should be used to convey passengers directly between the aircraft and the terminal. Having groups of passengers conducted across the apron is not encouraged by the airlines, as passengers are exposed to the effects of weather and aircraft blast or noise. However in the case of small commuter aircraft which are unable to use loading bridges, or where the latter are unavailable, to minimise danger it is essential that passenger movement on the apron be constrained to clearly marked walkways with a minimum number of access points onto the apron, and that such movement
190
IATA
F9.6 BAGGAGE CLAIM UNIT
Airport Capacity
The space around a baggage claim unit serves distinct functions. Figure F9.8 shows a typical layout. The baggage claim unit frontage provides the required positions or channels for the passenger to wait and collect their luggage. The retrieval area is effectively the space required for the motion of retrieving a suitcase. The peripheral area is used: to wait for an opening in the retrieval area; for a passenger waiting for a spouse or friend to collect their luggage; to park the cart; and to circulate in/ out of the retrieval area.
The retrieval and peripheral area is a roughly 3.5 meter wide band around the unit. This area is used to measure the level of service for the passengers waiting around the carrousel and the static capacity (accumulation) of the unit. The capacity is determined by dividing the total area by the level of service C space standard shown in table F9.6. An 11 to 13 meter separation is recommended to process passengers, to circulate, and to store carts.
Table F9.6: Level of Service (A to E) for Baggage Claim Unit

A Space standard (nf/occupant) 2.6 B 2.0 C 1.7 D 1.3 E 1.0
Note 1: Sustainable capacity is at level of service C. Note 2: Assuming 40% use of trolleys.
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F9.7

LEVEL OF SERVICE BALANCE
Passenger departure and arrival facilities are often on different levels of the same building. The building grid/structural design may become a constraint when selecting the module's dimensions to achieve level of service C at check-in counters and baggage claim. It is recommended to select the module's width or grid to achieve level of service balance with the objective of providing level of service C at the critical sub-systems. The impact of the building grid on a module's width is shown in figure F9.9.
Figure F9.9: Building Grid and Module Dimensions

Check-in
1 I"
H I
.1
I*'
h -
) m
h
Baggage Claim
11.0 m i- 17.0 m
12.0 m - 18.0 m
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F9.8
MAXIMUM QUEUING TIME

The occupancy patterns in various subsystems change rapidly and thereby affect the space available to occupants. In addition, the occupancy time for a subsystem can vary, resulting in a change in comfort. For this reason, time is a significant factor in determining the quality of service and must be considered as a primary variable in level of service measures. It is very difficult to establish a precise, quantified relationship between available space, time, and level of service. This may explain why time is often neglected as a factor of level of service and standards are sometimes set purely to space requirements. ICAO has set a goal of 45 minutes for the clearance of arriving passengers, from disembarkation to exit from the airport, for all passengers requiring not more than normal inspection at international airports (ICAO Annex 9, ninth edition, recommended practice 6.28). Although this includes time taken by government inspection services, it provides an indication of an acceptable time framework. Table F9.7 shows maximum queuing time guidelines. It is however recommended to use site- and airline-specific standards when available. Short to acceptable Check-in Economy Check-in Business Class Passport Control Inbound Passport Control Outbound Baggage Claim Security 0 12 03 07 05 0 12 03 Acceptable to long 12 30 35 7 15 5 10 12 18 37
F9.9
CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE ASSESSMENT

Capacity is a measure of throughput or system capability. Since a terminal system is capable of operating at varying degrees of congestion and delay, capacity must be related to the level of service being provided. Capacity and level of service calculation is a key step in the following airport development processes:
1. Airline strategy, traffic assignments and forecasts. 2. Planning peak period demand and planning schedules. 3. Facility requirements and level of service assessments. 4. Balance capacity and evaluate concepts. 5. Design, land use plan, masterplan. 6. Programming. 7. Construction.
Unlike the runway, where the laws of physics are used to calculate the capacity, the capacity of a passenger terminal relates directly to the extent of congestion that will be tolerated. The sustainable capacity should be based on the level of service C standard for each subsystem for the busiest 10minute period of a typical busy day. Pedestrian flows in the terminal building are comprised of both passengers in the enplaning or deplaning process, and greeters/well-wishers. Enplaning passengers must pass through some or all of a series of subsystems, while deplaning passengers must pass through some or all of a separate series. In some cases the same subsystems are used by both flows. Additionally, transfer passengers must be considered since they utilize some of the subsystems of both passenger flows. In the case of hub airports, the volume of transfer passengers may be very significant. It should be noted that these surges tend to be sector-specific for both enplaning and deplaning activity. Studies have shown that sector-specific behaviour patterns are generally stable and can therefore be predicted. In this way, it is possible to calculate the maximum load before causing saturation.
F9.9.1 Terminal Sub-systems and Demand/Capacity Characteristics

Terminal design should reflect the various characteristics and volume of passengers to be handled. Managing terminal capacity and designing with level of service in mind are key issues in optimising terminal capacity with long-term financial and operational implications. A passenger terminal capacity and level of service study normally includes the following systems: Departure facilities, including check-in, passport control, security, departure/bus lounges and hold rooms.
Arrival facilities, including immigration, customs, baggage reclaim, and a wellwishers/greeters hall. Transfer facilities which typically include security. People movers and bus operations. Baggage handling in the areas, which directly relates to passenger processing.
Performance and level of service are based on operating conditions and rules, but also upon user characteristics. Passengers and other users are a source of uncertainty and thus of fluctuation not only in demand but in capacity as well. Demand/capacity characteristics form the basis of the analytical work needed to get a realistic evaluation of the requirements, performance and level of service. The basic characteristics by segment include:
Passenger arrival patterns. Processing class type. Processing rates. Passenger/bag ratio. Time of delivery of the first baggage. Transfer passenger ratios. Passenger path by class or type of passenger. Gate assignment. Personnel deployment schedule.
Individual subsystems can either be designed against a given level of service, or evaluated to
Airport Capacity
F9.9.2 Simulation
When a flight arrives or departs at the terminal building, there is a surge of occupants into the subsystems. As long as the arrival rate of passengers does not exceed the dynamic capacity of the various components, there will be minimal delay and queuing. However congestion will occur when demand is systematically greater than the sustainable capacity, and only simulation can properly reflect the complex dynamic overflow/saturation interaction. Airport capacity and level of service problems are usually simple to comprehend but may be difficult to solve because of the inter-related systems and flows considered. Many tools are available, including lATA's Total AirportSim aircraft and passenger flow model, to predict the impact of an airline schedule on the various airport facilities. The model was developed to reflect lATA's worldwide experience and expertise. Simulation is used to analyse passenger flow throughout the selected planning period to determine the performance, bottlenecks, level of service, Mean Connection Time (MCTs), total time in the terminal, etc. Flights are assigned to facilities and the passenger demand pushed or pulled through the inbound and outbound steps in the terminal according to the planning schedules. Information regarding passenger arrival patterns, processing rates, discretionary time use, passenger/bag ratio, rules for system operation such as the level of common check-in, rules for allocation of flights to chutes/make up belts, and information regarding terminal area allocations are considered. The first and often the most valuable benefit of conducting a simulation study is that it forces specialists and management to closely look into the functional and physical passenger flows, into the rules and procedures to define the causal problems, and to assess the impact on both upstream and downstream processes to avoid displacing the problem. The maximum reliable throughput, level of service, limiting factors and requirements of the major processors, reservoirs and links in the passenger paths can thus be identified. The terminal arrival and departure systems should be reviewed qualitatively to identify any areas in which the layout could be negatively impacted by the configuration of facilities, and through simulation to quantify the capacity of the various elements as well as the system as a whole. Where necessary, the base year busy schedule can be augmented to represent future demand volumes to push a concept or design to its limit and to optimise existing facilities. It is natural to make the basic assumption in the calculations that flow between individual elements is natural and unobstructed. However, the integrity of the capacity assessment can be compromised and result usefulness diminished if the assumption is not realistic. Good simulation models, unlike rules of thumb, do not require the making of such assumptions. Simulation should be able to consider if the pattern is disrupted by the introduction of any obstruction in the flow, such as ill-conceived concession locations and passenger cross-flows. The information usually required to conduct a passenger flow simulation study is:
Typical busy day schedule including arriving, departing and transfer passenger volumes per
sector of flights.
Floor plans in electronic format. Passenger flow chart (path).
Information regarding passenger arrival patterns, processing rates, discretionary time use,
passenger/bag ratio, passenger/visitor ratio, greeter arrival patterns, and transfer passenger
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IATA

A graphic interface providing real time editing, simulation, and animation (including speed control) is an asset. Reports and graphs on time, accumulation, flow, etc., should be built into the model to provide instant results and an easy way to identify problems and bottlenecks, as well as reducing the time to develop new 'what if scenarios. Using simulation tools to design or improve facilities requires expertise knowledge. A multidisciplinary team including demand/capacity experts, operations personnel and users is recommended.
IATA
F9.10 RULES OF THUMB
Airport Capacity
The methodologies used to conduct capacity and level of service assessments can be more or less elaborate, depending on the complexity of the system and the problem studied. Mathematical capacity assessment methods can be employed to determine relevant facility requirements if actual or forecast throughput figures are known. The capacity assessment of the elements of a terminal building is a highly complex exercise involving elements such as queuing theory, simulation and statistical analysis, together with detailed studies of people movement patterns to, within, and between these elements. Those responsible for initiating a capacity analysis, or for sizing facilities, should carry out the exercise in as much detail as possible in order to eliminate likely sources of error and bias that can result from neglecting interaction from and to upstream and downstream systems. However in some instances it may be necessary to obtain fairly quickly some idea of either the capacity of an existing facility or the size that a facility needs to be in order to handle a given throughput. A variety of simplified formulae have been developed for this purpose. The equilibrium between supply, demand and level of service is expressed in these formulae. It must be emphasized that such formulae employ many simplifications and approximations and are not intended as a substitute for the detailed evaluation referred to above. Not all formulae will be applicable to all airports since not all local factors are included.
2.
Passport control departures. Centralised security check. Gate hold room. Passport control arrivals. Baggage claim units. Arrival hall.
3. 4. 5.
6.
7.
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F9.10.1 Check-in Counter Requirement

The departure flight schedule generates originating passengers arriving at the terminal from several minutes to several hours before departure time. The originating passengers are first processed at the check-in counters or at electronic check-in servers. The passenger outflow from the check-in subsystem regulates the demand on the subsequent sub-system (i.e. the maximum throughput from check-in is 10 pax/min, therefore the 10pax/min is the peak demand at the next sub-system). Check-in counters are key facilities with huge footprints and significant impact on level of service, terminal development costs and operations. The following rule of thumb determines the requirements for common use check-in counters. Step A Calculate the peak 30 minute demand at check-in. Step B Step C Step D Step E Determine the intermediate result using the chart provided. Calculate the number of economy class (common use) check-in counters. Calculate the total number of check-in counters (including business class). Make adjustment for dedicated facilities.
Step A: Calculate the peak 30-minute demand at check-in. The peak 30-minute demand is a good predictor of the performance and requirements at check-in. It should be based on the site-specific planning schedule and hourly distribution of passengers arriving at check-in. The following procedure is recommended if the site-specific demand/capacity characteristics required to determine the peak 30-minute load are not available:
Peak 30-minute at check-in = PHP economy class x F1 x F2 Where:
PHP = Peak hour originating passengers economy class. F1 = % of the PHP in the peak 30-minute from table 1. F2 = Additional demand generated by the flights departing before and after the peak hour period from table 2.
Table 1 F1: Peak 30-Minute at Check-In as a Percentage of the Peak Hour Period Number of flights duringDomestic/Schengen/Long-Haulthe peak hour periodShorthaul InternationalInternational139%29%236%28%333%26%4 or more30%25%
Table 2 F2: Additional Demand Generated by the Flights Departing Before and After the Peak Hour Period Average passenger load in the hour before and after the peak hour period in % of the PHPDomesticSchengen/Short-haul InternationalLong-haul International90%1.371.431.6280%1.311.401.5470%1.261.351.4760%1.221.301.4 050%1.181.251.3340%1.141.201.2630%1.111.151.1920%1.071.101.1210%1.03 1.061.06
Step B: Determine intermediate result, S, which takes into account the MQT using the following charts: Where: X
S
= Peak-30 minute at check-in. = Intermediate result.
MQT = Maximum Queuing Time (minutes).
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o T- icoN m Do i^ ncoo-C N c o -scc Do r^ ^ -o oco Ta- a cc M ^r io X T-i-T-T-^-^-T-T-^-T-CNCNtNCNCNtN
Step C: Calculate the number of check-in servers: economy class, common use during peak period.
Where: #CIY = Number of economy class check-in servers assuming common use. PTci = Average processing time at check-in in seconds.
iata
Airport Capacity
Step D: Calculate the number of check-in servers including desks dedicated to business class passengers.
#CIJ = #CIYx20%
#CI = #CIY + #CIJ Where: #CI = Number of check-in servers including business class counters assuming common use. #CIY = Number of economy class check-in servers assuming common use. #CIJ = Number of business class check-in servers.
Step E: Dedicated facilities Due to the widely varying applications of dedicated facilities from airport to airport, it is difficult to develop a general rule to account for the impact of dedicated facilities on supply. Experience shows the total number of check-in positions should be increased by 30 to 40% for dedicated facilities. Alternatively, planners may calculate and add up the number of check-in servers per alliance or user group if the individual peak loads are known. Example Determine the number of check-in counters for a group of airlines processing 2500 peak hour originating passengers on 10 international flights and a maximum queuing time of 30 minutes. The hour before the peak hour has 1900 passengers (80% of PHP). The demand in the hour after the peak period is 1500 passengers (60% of PHP). Most flights have business class passengers representing about 15% of all passengers. The average processing time is 150 seconds. All checkin facilities are common use.
Step A: Peak 30-minute economy class demand at check-in. No site-specific information is available for the peak 30-minute at check-in. lATA's rules formulae should be used. The average passenger load in the hour before and after the peak hour period is:
Peak 30-minute demand = 2500 (PHP) x 85% (Y class pax) x 25% (from table 1) x 1.47 (from table 2) Peak 30-minute demand = 781 passengers
201

Step B: Determine intermediate result S, using the chart. MOT = 30 min
S = 31
150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
c
^
I
MQT10
^MQT 20 ^MQT 30 ^MQT 40

r
_ ----1----
L
Step C: Number of check-in servers: economy class and common use.
#c,v = s x ( ^ )
#C
,Y = 31 x (150^C0ndS)
#CIY = 38.7 = 39 39 economy class counters
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100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
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IATA
Airport Capacity
Step D: Number of check-in servers including the desks for business class passengers. #CIJ = #CIY x 0.2 #CIJ = 7.6 = 8 business class counters #CI = 39 + 8 = 47 47 total counters including business class
203
F9.10.2 Passport Control Departures

The peak 10-minute number of passengers exiting check-in is used to estimate the peak inbound demand at passport control departure. The following rule to thumb is used to determine the number of passport control desks required for departing passengers: Step A: Calculate the peak 10-minute check-in throughput. Step B: Calculate the number of passport control desks required. Step C: Calculate the number of maximum number of passengers in queue assuming a single (bank) queue.
Step A: Calculate the peak 10-minute check-in throughput.
Where: #CIY = Number of economy class check-in servers assuming common use. PTci = Average processing time at check-in in seconds. %J = % of business class passengers.
Step B: Calculate the number of passport control desks.
#PCD = Peak 10-minute demand from A x
Where: #PCD = Number of passport control desks. PTpcd = Average processing time at passport control in seconds.
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Step C: Calculate the maximum number of passenger queuing (Max # Q) assuming a single (bank) queue:
..
MaX#Q = i
(MQT x #PCD x 60) -------------Pfjicd--------1
Where: MQT = Maximum queuing time in minutes. #PCD = Number of passport control desks. PTpcd = Average processing time at passport control in seconds. Example Step A: Peak 10-minute check-in throughput. We know from the previous example that passengers travel business class. Peak 10-minute demand = #CIY x Peak 10-minute demand = 39 x
39
economy class desks are required and 15% of the
x (1+%J) x (1.15)
Peak 10-minute demand = 180 passengers
Step B: Number of passport control desks. The average processing time (PTpcd) is 15 seconds #PCD = Peak 10-minute demand from A x ^QQQ^ #PCD = 175 x
(e ol) #PCD = 4.5 = 5 desks

Step C: Maximum number of passengers queuing (Max # Q) assuming a single queue and for a maximum queuing time of 5 minutes. Ma x# Q = MQTx#PCDxA0) PTpc Max # Q = d
15
(5 x 5 x 60) Max # Q = 100 passengers
F9.10.3 Centralized security check

The centralized security check system is also designed to process the check-in maximum throughput to ensure overall capacity balance. The rule of thumb is used to determine the number of security servers required. The following procedure is used: Step A: Calculate the peak 10-minute check-in counters throughput. Step B: Calculate the number of security check servers. Step C: Calculate the maximum number of passengers queuing (Max # Q) assuming a single (bank)
Step A: Calculate the peak 10-minute check-in counters throughput.
Where: #CIY = Number of economy class check-in servers assuming common use. PTci = Average processing time at check-in in seconds. %J = % of business class passengers.
Step B: Calculate the number of security check servers.
#SC = Peak 10-minute demand from Step A) x
Where: #SC = Number of security servers. PTsc = Average processing time at security check in seconds.
Step C: Calculate the maximum number of passenger queuing (Max # Q) assuming a single queue:
Where:
MQT = Maximum queuing time in minutes. #SC = Number of security servers. PTsc = Average processing time at security check in seconds. Example Step A: Peak 10-minute check-in throughput. As calculated in the previous example, the 39 economy class desks plus the business class desks generate a peak 10-minute demand of 175 originating passengers. The average processing time is 12 seconds. Peak 10-minute demand = #CIY x Peak 10-minute demand = 39 x x (1 + %J)
(^^j x (1.15)
Peak 10-minute demand = 180 passengers
Step B: Number of security check servers /PTsc\ #SC = Peak 10-minute demand from A) x l"~) #SC = 180 x
\600)
#SC = 3.6 = 4 servers
Step C: Maximum number of passenger queuing (Max # Q) assuming a single queue a maximum queuing time of 3 minutes. _ (MQT x# S Cx 60) Max # Q =----------==-----------PTsc .. u r s (3 x 4 x 60) Max # Q =-------Y
2-
Max # Q = 60 passengers
F9.10.4 Gate Hold Room

The Gate hold room space requirement is based on passenger load, the percentage of passengers seated, and the percentage of passengers standing. The rule of thumb calculates the area required based on aircraft capacity.
Gate hold room space required in m2 = (80% aircraft capacity x 80% seated pax x 1.7) + (80% aircraft capacity x 20% standing pax x 1.2)
Example Assuming an aircraft capacity of 420 passengers, 80% of the passengers seated and 20% standing. Gate hold room space required in m2 = (80% x aircraft capacity x % passengers seated x 1.7) + (80% x aircraft capacity x % passengers standing x 1.2) Gate hold room space required in m2 = (80% x 420 x 80% x 1.7) + (80% x 420 x 20% x 1.2) Gate hold room space required = 538 m2 Note: IATA does not recommend enclosed single flight holdrooms. IATA recommends open spaces allowing shared space between multiple gates. The 80% aircraft capacity expressed within the equation above should be replaced by the peak accumulation for an open hold room.
IATA
F9.10.5 Passport control arrivals
Airport Capacity
Arrival flights generate a sudden flow of terminating and transfer passengers at the opening of the aircraft door, while transfer passengers are processed at transfer desks or go directly to a lounge or their connecting flights. The terminating passengers demand arriving at passport control is concentrated over a short period of time; i.e. the time required to exit the aircraft and to walk to passport control. The number of terminating passengers and the sum of the number of exit doors from all the flights during the peak hour are the key demand inputs. The methodology to determine the number of passport control desks is: Step A: Determine intermediate result S using chart provided. Step B: Calculate the number of passport control desks required. Step C: Calculate the maximum number of passengers queuing (Max#Q).
Step A: Determine intermediate result, S, using the following chart.
(PHP x # doors used to exit the aircrafts) 100 Where: S = Intermediate result. PHP = Terminating peak hour passengers. MQT = Maximum queuing time.
-f^
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
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IATA
Step B: Calculate the number of passport control desks required.
#PCD = S x
Where: #PCD = Number of passport control desks. Ptpca = Average processing time at passport control in seconds.
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IATA
Step C: Calculate the maximum number of passenger queuing (Max#Q) assuming a single (bank) queue is: Max#Q = < M Q T x * P C D x 6 0 > PTpca
Airport Capacity
Where: MQT #PCD PTpca Example Determine the number of passport control desks for 2400 terminating passengers (PHP) on 12 flights for a maximum queuing time of 10 minutes. The average processing time (PTpca) is 30 seconds. One flight is a wide-body aircraft with two exiting doors. The total number of exiting door is thereforel 3. Step A: Determine S.
Y X _
Maximum queuing time in minutes. Number of passport control desks. Average processing time at passport control arrival in seconds.
_ (2400 terminating passengers x 13) 100
X = 312 S = 13 (see chart)
200 400 2000
600
800
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
211

Step B: Number of passport control desks. .PCD = Sx(^)
#PCD = 13 x #PCD = 19.5 = 20 desks
Step C: Maximum number of passenger queuing (Max#Q) assuming a single queue. _ (MQT x #PCD x 60) Max#Q = J--------==------------PTpca _ (1 0 x2 0 x60 )
- ^----30- - - -
Max#Q = 400 passengers
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F9.10.6 Number of Baggage Claim Units
The number of baggage claim units is determined as follows: Wide-body aircraft
Airport Capacity
(PHP x PWB x CDW) (60 X NWB) Narrow-body aircraft
(PHP x PNB x CDN) (60 x NNB) Where: PHP = Peak hour number of terminating passengers, international/domestic transfer passengers, where applicable.
PWB = Proportion of passengers arriving by wide-body aircraft. PNB = Proportion of passengers arriving by narrow-body aircraft. CDW = Average claim device occupancy time per wide-body aircraft (minutes) or assume 45 minutes. CDN = Average claim device occupancy time per narrow-body aircraft (minutes) or assume 20 minutes. NWB = Number of passengers per wide-body aircraft at 80% load factor or assume 320 passengers. NNB = Number of passengers per narrow-body aircraft at 80% load factor or assume 100 passengers. "Please refer to Chapter U Baggage Handling Systems Clause U5.3 for confirmation of baggage reclaim sizes for wide body and narrow body aircraft."
213
Example Assume 2375 terminating passengers, 80% of these passengers on wide-body aircraft and 20% on narrow body aircraft. Wide-body aircraft BC = BC (PHP x PWB x CDW) (60 x NWB) (2400 x 80% x 45) = 4.5 = 5 devices (60 x 320)
Narrow-body aircraft BC =
D BC
(PHP x PNB x CDN) (60 x NNB)
(2400 x 20% x 20) . _ _ . . = (60 x 100) = 1 6 = 2 deV,CeS
F9.10.7 Arrival Hall

The rule of thumb to determine the arrival hall space requirement for greeters and passengers, excluding concessions, is:
A = SPP x
AOV x PHP x VPP 60
Where: PHP AOP AOV SPP VPP Example Assume 2400 terminating passengers and 0.7 greeters per passenger. = = = = = Peak hour number of terminating passengers. Average occupancy time per passenger (minutes) or assume 5 minutes. Average occupancy time per visitor (minutes) or assume 30 minutes. Space required per person (m2) for level of service C or assume 2.0 m2. Number of visitors per passenger.
A = 2080 m2

F9.11 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
\
F9.IR.
Due consideration for passenger expectations, needs, characteristics and behaviour should be taken into account when planning facilities and determining level of service.
F9.IR.2
L :-:< of sen/ica C should be used as the lower limit to design facilities and to determine the sustainable capacity for the end of the design year.
F9.I.3
The level of service A to E framework should be used to balance capacity between unrelated sub-systems.
F9.R.4
IATA s space and time standards should be used when site-specific standards are not available.
F9.IR.5
Facilities should be designed with full copsideration of the dimensions stipulated in clauses 9.2 to 9.5, unless a site-specific comprehensive study shows they can be modified to provide the required level of service.
F .IR.6
Passei' ffow simulation as stipulated in clause 9.8.2 should be used to optimise existing
facilities, to validate concepts, '0, when saturation or interaction between subsystems and overflow conditions are expected.
F9.IR.7
The passenger formulae defined in Clause F9.10 should be used as preliminary calculation reference.
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SECTION F10: THE AIRPORT SCHEDULING PROCESS F10.1 AIRPORT CAPACITY AND TRAFFIC CONGESTION
Airport Capacity
The capacity of an airport is dependent on the demand for one or more of its limiting components, such as the runway system, aircraft parking positions, gates, passenger terminal throughput (e.g. check-in and baggage delivery) and surface access. Good management of these components will determine the extent to which the airport can reach its full capacity potential. The increasing demand for under constant pressure to the fact that services must be requires them. This causes demand at certain hours of the day. air transport services implies that all facilities at an airport will remain expand. The problems associated with expansion are complicated by provided to the maximum possible extent at times when the public peaks in certain seasons of the year, on certain days of the week and
Without an expansion in capacity or resolution of the problem by other means, an airport becomes congested at certain times. This occurs when the demand for one or more of its limiting components exceeds capacity in a certain time period. To resolve the situation, airports, ATC authorities, governments and the airlines must continually find the means to develop the capacity of their own elements of the system to satisfy public demand. Increases in capacity should be undertaken to the point where the cost of doing so becomes unreasonable, or where political, sociological or environmental factors form insurmountable barriers. Additionally, all appropriate measures to mitigate congestion by making more efficient use of facilities should be taken. Overall, there are relatively few airports where all components of the facility infrastructure are fully utilised over extended periods of the day. While these airports can generally meet the needs of their customers, there are others that do not have the facilities or infrastructure to meet demand. Before embarking on costly ventures to expand capacity, airports need to regularly assess the actual capacity
217
F10.2
LEVELS OF AIRPORT ACTIVITY

industry must deal with the realities of airport congestion and find ways to minimise its impact. Depending on the level of activity at airports, certain procedures to ensure acceptance of airline schedules have been developed to cover various situations. For the purposes of schedule clearance, there are three broad categories of airports: Level 1 Those airports whose capacities are adequate enough to meet the demands of users. Such airports are recognised from a schedule clearance viewpoint as non-coordinated. Level 2 Airports where the demand is approaching capacity and a more formal level of co-operation is required to avoid reaching, if at all possible, an over-capacity situation. These airports are referred to as schedules facilitated. Level 3 Those airports where demand exceeds capacity during the relevant period and it is impossible to resolve the problem through voluntary co-operation between airlines, and where after consultation with all the parties involved there are no possibilities of resolving the serious problems in the short term. In this scenario, formal procedures need to be implemented at the airport to allocate available capacity and coordinate schedules. Airports with such high levels of congestion are referred to as fully coordinated.
While airports will continue to come under pressure to maximise their capacity potential, the aviation IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
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IATA
Airport Capacity
F10.3
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS F10.IR1 Change of Level Status Level 1 to Level 2

Having Level 1 status at an airport is the ideal situation for airlines and in the event of facilities coming under pressure from increased demand, any move to change to Level 2 must be discouraged until all practical opportunities for facilities expansion have been exhausted} When after a thorough capacity analysis and full consultation, it is necessary to change the status from Level 1 to Level 2, the relevant authority should notify all interested parties (airlines, airport managing body, government, IATA Manager of Scheduling Services) as soon as a decision is reached to change the status. In any event, that notification in the change of status should be made no later than April 1 for the next Northern Hemisphere Winter Season and September 1 for the next Northern Hemisphere Summer Season. A change in status from Level 1 to Level 2 should only be made after a thorough capacity analysis has been completed by the relevant authority and there has been full consultation with the airlines, ground handling agents, immigration, customs and the airport authority.
Level 2 to Level 3
if elements of the airport infrastructure come under pressure from increase 'affic ievels. or if airlines to adjust their schedules in order to the schedules facilitator is unable to persuade t jf/ng the activity level of the airport to Level 3 cope with capacity limitations, the question ofch may arise. In such a situation, the following will apply:
(a) when incumbem airlines representing more than half of the operations at an airport,
and/or the airport managing body, consider that the capacity is insufficient for actual or planned operations at certain opriods or
(b) when airlines wishing to operate through the airport for the first time encounter serious
problems in securing acceptable timings at the airport in question or
(c) when the government responsible for the airport considers it necessary, then the government concerned should ure that a thorough capacity analysis is carried em out as soon as possible, organised by the airp\ methods for capacity assessment.
The analysis should examine the critical sub-systems and consider the practicalities of removing capacity constraints through infrastructure or operational changes, with estimates of time and cost required to resolve the problems. In the process of this analysis, the government concerned should ensure that z Mines, ground handling agents, immigration, customs and the airport authority are consulted on the 219 capacity situation. If there is no possibility of resolving the problems in the short-term, either through removal of capacity constraints or by voluntary adjustment of airline schedules, then the airport concerned should be designated as a fully co-ordinated airport. It is imperative that every opportunity is explored to avoid this situation. However, once the decision has been made to change the status of the airport, the government concerned should notify the airport authority, the Co-ordination Committee, the airlines using the airport and the IATA Manager Scheduling Services. In any event, thai notification shouldJ
SECTION F11: COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS F11.1 COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS: OVERVIEW
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis can add tremendous value to the design of airport terminal buildings, where the internal and external environments can be predicted well before the airport building ever gets built. This can allow the designer to refine designs to optimize the building performance, safety and energy characteristics. CFD is extensively used to predict the behavior of fires in or around a building. Fire prediction and fire spread scenarios can be evaluated to determine the time it takes a fire to reach a critical point in a building and how long people have to escape a building before heat and smoke takes total control. It is possible to model the effects of sprinkler systems and their effectiveness using CFD software. It is also possible to model the effectiveness of fire escape signage and lighting systems using CFD where it can predict the time it takes for such items to be obscured by smoke. CFD has been extensively used to model the behavior of CO 2 from heating and cooling plants and the affects of airborne emissions from aircraft engines, in an attempt to fine tune airports to have the minimal impact on the local community and the environment. Where advantageous the environmental performance of airport buildings should be evaluated using CFD software, as it gives an approximation of running costs and extreme condition performance characteristics of airport terminal buildings.
F11.2
WHEN TO USE CFD SOFTWARE EFFECTIVELY

Figure F11-1 shows a typical medium sized departures hall and the resultant CFD study graphical output (3D visualization is available) where a fire source has been placed in the airside lounge. CFD software is used to statistically and graphically represent the behavior of the fire and the 3D spread of smoke within the terminal. The results have been frozen at a specific time interval sometime after the start of the fire. As well, a people movement evacuation simulation has been produced and frozen at the same time interval, and both sets of data have been overlaid. The combined diagram explains where the smoke would be, its intensity, and what the effectiveness of the size and location of the emergency exits would be. It is likely these terminal exit variables would be changed to assess the best evacuation sequence for the terminal. This use of CFD software is recommended for terminal design. CFD software can also be used in the following areas of terminal and support infrastructure design. Please refer to the table below for areas where CFD software can be utilized effectively.
Table F11-1: Analysis of CFD Effectiveness on Infrastructure

Study Area Fire Strategy Study Objective of Study To determine the effectiveness of the fire strategy for the building. To understand what could happen within the building in a fire situation. To understand the effectiveness of the position of the heating and ventilation vents and the mass flow rates of the air and the resultant temperature and water saturation content. The C02 emissions from heating, ventilation and general power plants can be assessed. Useful to understand the effect of de-icing agents on the environment and in particular local rivers. The thermal performance of the building envelop can be assessed, taking account of the internal and external air conditions surrounding the building. Comments Highly recommended. Useful to use with a people movement simulation developed in parallel. Optional. Useful to airport wishing to minimise long term operational costs.
Heating and Ventilation System Design Study
Environmental Impact Study
Recommended. Useful where environmental issues are highly sensitive.
Building Fabric Performance Study
Optional Can produce useful energy saving design modification options.
Figure F11-1: Example of CFD Fire and Smoke Propagation Study
AIRSIDE
FIRE SOUR CE
SMOKE PROPAGATI ON PROFILE
VE PASSENGER MOVEMENT NT DATA OVERLAY FROM SEPARATE CFD TYPICAL SIMULATION AT STATISTICS SAME OBTAINABLE TIME INTERVAL SPOT TEMPERATUES T1 ,T2,T3 ETC TIME SET AT 4 MINUTES POST FIRE START VOLUME OF GASES AT POINTS V1.V2 V3 ETC GAS TYPE AND DENSITY
F11.3
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS F11 .IR1 Use of CFD Software

Fire prediction and fire evacuation scenarios should be evaluated using CFD software to determine safer terminal operation of existing terminals and better design of new terminal buildings. Where it can be demonstrated that CFD studies will provide useful data, which might ultimately improve the design and operation of the airport facility, then environmental performance of airport buildings should be evaluated using CFD software.
IAT A
Chapter G Airport Flight Operations Issues Section G1: Aircraft Characteristics G1.1 Planning Parameters............................................................................... G1.2 Ground Servicing Equipment ................................................................... G1.3 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... Section G2: Visual Aids G2.1 Visual Aids: Introduction ......................................................................... G2.2 Facilities and Requirements for Non-Precision Approach and Landing Operations.............................................................................................. G2.3 Facitities and Requirements for Precision Approach and Landing Operations (Cat I) .................................................................................. Operations (Cat I l/l 11) .......................................................................... G2.5 Visual Docking Guidance Systems........................................................... G2.6 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... Section G3: Non-Visual Aids G3.1 General Non-Visual Aids...................................................................... G3.2 Facilities and Requirements for Non-Precision Approach and Landing Operations.............................................................................................. 239 239 234 234 235 236 237 238 221 232 233
G2.4 Additional Facilities and Requirements for Precision Approach and Landing
G3.3 Facilities and Requirements for Precision Approach and Landing Operations (Cat I) ..................................................................................................... 239 G3.4 Additional Facilities and Requirements for Precision Approach and Landing Operations (Cat I l/l 11) .......................................................................... 241 G3.5 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... 242
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CHAPTER G AIRPORT FLIGHT OPERATIONS ISSUES SECTION G1: AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS G1.1 PLANNING PARAMETERS
The layout of the apron and aircraft stands is dependent on many factors, both technical and financial. With respect to the financial objective of an aircraft stand, it is essential for an airport to be as flexible as possible so that the stand layout can accommodate the optimum number of foreseeable parked aircraft combinations. The planning of the aircraft stand may allow for either dedicated narrow or wide body aircraft. Alternatively, certain modes of operation may require the stands to be configured to permit the mixing of wide body and narrow body aircraft on a single Multi Aircraft Ramping 1 Stand (MARS) layout. All layouts must be technically in accordance with ICAO stand and taxiway layout directives as defined
Figure G1-1: Typical MARS Arrangement
Figure G1-2: Comparable Single Stand
It is essential that the airport can provide the necessary number of stand centerlines, and of the correct type, to accommodate the perceived business forecast and need. To this extent the use of future flight schedules to assess the 'on ground, within stand' times and aircraft types is a necessity. The mix of parked aircraft on the ground and the perceived forecasted growth all then attribute to layout requirements. These requirements are then mapped to the technical limitations of the location, both from an availability of stand area, and to the more technically demanding assessment of soil mechanics. Community environmental issues will need to be addressed and the impact envelope of exhaust and noise emissions from aircraft approaching and parking on the stands will all need to accounted for. Only when all of this information has been analysed can the decision to accommodate a specific stand geometry be concluded.
Ramping refers to the centerline of the stand where the nose wheels are driven and ultimately parked.
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The aircraft apron is part of the terminal complex and is greatly influenced by the choice of terminal concept. However it must also be considered in relation to the taxiway and runway system. The apron can be divided into the following aircraft movement areas:
Aircraft Contact Stands (Terminal gate or remote positions) The area on the apron designated for parking of aircraft. Apron Taxiways A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to provide a through taxi route across the apron. Aircraft Stand Taxilanes A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to provide access to aircraft stands only. Apron Service Roads Routes designated for the movement of service vehicles within the apron area.
The apron must be planned in relation to the taxiway and runway system, as well as the terminal buildings, to ensure maximum efficiency, operational safety and allow operational users to provide cost effective standards of service.
G1.1.1 General
The airport apron and airside concourse designer should review the following items and factor them in when embarking on the design of future stand layouts:
Required aircraft stand combinations. Available stand area. Aircraft clearance criteria. Aircraft manoeuvring capabilities. Airports future master plan development strategy. The requirement to serve aircraft via airbridges. Capital costs. Airline operating schedules. Airport geology/soil mechanics. 226 Control tower line of sight requirements. Pilots line of sight for all aircraft considered. Design standards recommended by ICAO Annex 14, Part 1. Position of runway, taxiway and service road locations. Type of push back equipment available. Position of sub soil ground fuel pipelines and hydrants. Local community environmental issues (impact, planning and noise considerations). International and state safety regulations governing airline and airport operations (e.g. FAA, DfT and ACI publications). Aircraft dimensions plus resultant static and dynamic aircraft weights. The architectural concept design of airside concourse and terminal buildings.
IATA

Aircraft ground servicing equipment. Fixed servicing installations. Jet blast screening requirements.
Airport Flight Operations Issues
G1.1.2 Aircraft Characteristics

For every aircraft type manufactured in the world, the aircraft manufacturer publishes a document entitled Aircraft Characteristics for Airport Planning. This document, which may be obtained directly from the respective aircraft manufacturers, contains the minimum aircraft data required for general airport planning. The data presented by manufacturers on aircraft manoeuvring represent the maximum capability in terms of the geometry of each aircraft type. Since airline operational practices vary, it is always necessary for this information to be modified in consultation with user airlines, in order to determine values which are appropriate to the planned function of the apron prior to commencement of detailed design. The following figures listed within this section show the type of planning material that is readily available from the Aircraft Characteristics for Airport Planning documents from most aircraft manufacturers:
Aircraft Characteristics (FIG. G1-3a). Aircraft Servicing Arrangement Typical Turnaround (FIG. G1-4. & FIG G1-5). Aircraft Servicing Points (FIG. G1-6). Theoretical Aircraft Turning Radii (FIG. G1-8).
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Figure G1-3a: Airbus and Boeing Commercial Aircraft Key Characteristics
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Figure G1-4: Example of Terminal Operations Turnaround Station for B777 200LR
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Figure G1-5: Example of Aircraft Servicing Arrangement Typical Turnaround for B777 200LR
. NOTE: : IF THE APU IS USED, ELECTRICAL....................... -. -. ----.......-.. I PNUEMATIC AND AIR CONDITIONING SCALE TRUCKS ARE NOT REQUIRED 0 10 20 30 40
IATA

Figure G1-6: Table of Aircraft Ground Handling Equipment
Type of Equipment IATA AHM Number 932 931 969 Length (m) 12.0 8.5 6.5 9.0 5.5 966 966 967 965 963 925 920 927 6.5 971 970 960 968 4.5 3.8 8.0 4.0 3.5 7.5 10.0 9.0 2.5 6.5 6.5 16.0 2.5 Width (m) 4.5 3.5 3.5 2.8 2.5 2.6 3.4 2.6 1.8 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.5 16.3 2.5 2.5 2.5 1.3 Area (m) 54.0 29.7 22.8 25.2 13.7 11.7 14.4 20.8 7.2 5.3 15.0 25.0 22.5 2.5 16.3 16.3 40.0 6.5 Height (m) 3.0 2.9 1.5 2.0 2.3 3.0 3.0 3.5 2.2 2.0 1.0 4.0 4.0 6.5 2.2 2.2 4.0 1.7 Turning Radius (m) 20.0 12.0 5.5 7.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 8.0 4.5 6.0 7.6 12.2 12.2 6.5 8.0 9.0 2.5
Main Deck Loader Lower Deck Loader Transporter Aircraft Tow Tractor (Wide Body) Aircraft Tow Tractor (Narrow Body) Pallet Dolley Side Loading (End Towing) Pallet Dolley End Loading (Side Towing) 6m ULD Dolly Container Dolly Baggage Cart Belt Conveyor Passenger Stairs (Wide Body) Catering Truck (Wide Body) Air Conditioning Unit Lavatory Vehicle Potable Water Vehicle ULD Transport Semi-Trailer (4 Pallet) Tugs (Ramp Tractors)
The IATA Ramp Services and Equipment Group has developed the above table of dimensions of typical aircraft ground handling equipment for use in producing the layout of airport terminal aprons. Numerous models of each type of ground handling equipment are produced by many manufacturers in at least a dozen countries. The dimensions provided should be considered as typical of each type of equipment and should be used as a 'rule of thumb' for general airport planning purposes. Airport Planning Documents published by the aircraft manufacturers give for each model typical servicing arrangements (in composite drawings) identifying each service vehicle. See FIG. G1-5
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Figure G1-7: Example of Aircraft Servicing Points B777 200LR
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Figure G1-8: Example of Turning Radii, No Slip, and Line of Sight B777 200LR
NOTES: DATA SHOWN FOR AIRPLANE WITH AFT AXLE STEERING ACTUAL OPERATING TURNING RADI MAY BE GREATER THAN SHOWN CONSULT WITH AIRLINE FOR SPECIFIC OPERATING PROCEDURE DIMENSIONS ROUNDED TO NEAREST 0.1 FOOT AND 0.1 METER STEERING ANGLE (DEG) 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 (MAX) R1 INNER GEAR FT M 122.4 37.3 97.2 29.6 77.6 23.7 61.7 18.8 48.4 14.7 36.8 11.2 26.7 8.1 17.5 5.3 9.0 2.7 R2 OUTER GEAR FT M 164.8 50.2 139.6 42.5 120.0 36.6 104.1 31.7 90.8 27.7 79.2 24.2 69.1 21.0 59.9 18.2 51.4 15.7 R3 NOSE GEAR FT M 168.8 51.5 147.7 45.0 132.3 40.3 120.7 36.8 111.8 34.1 104.8 32.0 99.5 30.3 95.3 29.0 92.1 28.1 R4 WING TIP FT M 253.0 77.1 228.1 69.5 208.8 63.7 193.3 58.9 180.2 54.9 169.0 51.5 169.1 48.5 150.2 45.8 142.0 43.3 R5 NOSE FT 177.4 157.7 143.6 133.2 125.3 119.3 114.7 111.1 108.5 M 54.1 48.1 43.8 40.6 38.2 36.4 35.0 33.9 33.1 R6 TAIL FT 207.4 186.1 170.3 158.0 148.3 140.4 133.9 128.3 123.7 M 63.2 56.7 51.9 48.2 45.2 42.8 40.8 39.1 37.7
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G1.1.3 Future Aircraft Development Data
The introduction of new aircraft types can have a significant effect on apron and stand design and operations at airports. Please refer to Section L1, Current and Future Aircraft Types, of this document for further details. For comprehensive details on aircraft manoeuvring and aircraft parking capabilities please refer to the aircraft manufacturers directly. The implementation of full length of fuselage dual deck aircraft, such as the ICAO code F rated A380, will have a large impact on the planning requirements of aprons and of stands layouts. The following table details some of the differences in Aircraft Characteristic Aircraft Length (m) B747 (400) 70.7 (Part Double Deck) 64.4 19.4 421 B777 (300) 73.9 (Single Deck) 60.9 18.5 386 A340 (600) 75.3 (Single Deck) 63.45 17.3 380 A380 (800) 72.7 (Full Double Deck) 79.6m 24.1m 555 A380 (900) 79m (Full Double Deck) 79.8m 24.1m 656
Wingspan (m) Height (m) Passenger Capacity (3 class Configuration) Ramp/Stand Weight (Mass Kg) Maximum Ramp
385,400
340,194
365,009
562,000
602,000
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The following table is replicated from ICAO Annex 14, Table 3.1, and defines the taxiway minimum separation distances for the various code letters.
Distance between taxiway and runway center line (metres) Non-instrument runways Instrument runways Code number Code number 2 (1) A B C D E F (2) 82.5 87 3 (3) 82.5 87 4 (4) 168 176 (5) 1 4 (6) 37.5 42 (7) 47.5 52 93 101 101 107.5 115 2 (8) (9) 3 center line other than Taxiway center line aircraft to taxiway stand center line taxilane, (metres) center line to object (metres) (10) (11) 23.75 33.5 44 66.5 80 97.5 16.25 21.5 26 40.5 47.5 57.5
Aircraft stand taxilane center line to object (metres) (12) 12 16.5 24.5 36 42.5 50.5
Code Letter
176 182.5 190
Note /. - The separation distances shown in columns (2) to (9) represent ordinary combinations of runways and taxiways. The basis for development of these distances is given in the Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 2. Note 2. - The distances in columns (2) to (9) do not guarantee sufficient clearance behind a holding aeroplane to permit the
G1.2
GROUND SERVICING EQUIPMENT

The apron must also provide for the manoeuvring and parking requirements of the various units of ground equipment employed in connection with aircraft handling and servicing. Please refer to FIG. G1-6 for a summary listing of the more common ground equipment types and sizes. For more comprehensive details in this regard please refer to the IATA Airport Handling Manual. Aircraft ground servicing equipment varies considerably according to the types of aircraft and airline methods of operations. Ground servicing equipment includes the following:
Passenger boarding All the devices used to transfer passengers between the terminal and aircraft; e.g. airbridges, stairs and transporters. Baggage, cargo and mail processing All equipment used to transport baggage, cargo and mail between the terminals and aircraft or for loading or unloading at the aircraft. Among the most widely used are tugs and baggage carts, container and pallet dollies, belt conveyors, transporters, loaders and trucks. Aircraft catering and cleaning All equipment used to provision the aircraft for passenger inflight service; e.g. hi-lift catering trucks, lavatory service trucks, water trucks, cabin service vehicles. Aircraft towing Tow tractors used for aircraft towing and push-out operations. The size and weight of this equipment is related to the size of the aircraft handled. Aircraft fuelling Including mobile tankers as well as hydrant dispensers. Other equipment Including fixed facilities and mobile equipment such as ground power units, air starters, air conditioners, de-icing vehicles, etc.
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G1.3
G1.IR1 Reference Material The tables and diagrams provided within this section pertaining to the B777 200LR aircraft is typical of the comprehensive data that is made available by the various aircraft manufacturers across the world, and observe the factors defined within clause G1.1.1.
Airport Flight Operations Issues IA TA recommends that airport planners review the airport planning data provided by the specific aircraft manufacturers of interest. The designer should in all instances refer to the manufacturer's latest infomiation.
Useful typical aircraft manufacturer's information can be obtained by viewing the following web sites: V www.boeing.com
G1.IR2 Apron Design Considerations

Items such as ground handling equipment types} e.g. catering vehicles employed at airports, should be discussed with the operators of this equipment. Items such as the power and potable water provision equipment should also be specifically accounted |pf:by make, model and usage.
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SECTION G2: VISUAL AIDS G2.1 VISUAL AIDS: INTRODUCTION

Visual aids are designed to increase the conspicuity of the runway, provide visual reference in the final stages of the approach and landing, and to expedite ground movement. Their importance increases as visibility becomes limited. There are three basic groupings of visual aids used by pilots for specific types of positional reference:
Approach lighting, runway centre line, and runway edge lighting and markings allow pilots to
assess lateral position and cross track velocity.
Approach lighting and threshold lighting and markings provide a roll reference.
Touchdown zone (TDZ) lighting and markings indicate the plane of the runway surface and
show the touchdown area providing vertical and longitudinal reference. The visual guidance derived from runway lights and/or markings should be sufficient to ensure adequate take-off alignment and directional control for take-off and stopping, whether after landing or in an emergency. Although additional instruments, such as head-up displays, may enhance the safety of the operation, reference to visual aids is a primary requirement even when some form of ground run monitor and displays based on the use of external non-visual guidance are being used. The criteria for approach lighting, runway lighting and runway markings are contained in Annex 14, Volume I. Visual aids are also important for the safe and expeditious guidance and control of taxiing aeroplanes. Special attention is required for taxiway lighting, stop bars and signs. Annex 14, Volume I, contains specifications for markings, lights, mandatory- and information- signs (see Annex 14 Figure 5-6 Taxiway marking, Figure 5-7 Runway Hold Position Markings) and markers. Requirements may vary, but they consist of markings and signs supplemented by taxi holding position lights to denote holding positions, taxiing guidance signs and markings on the centre lines and edges of taxiways.
G2.2
FACILITIES AND REQUIREMENTS FOR NON-PRECISION APPROACH AND LANDING OPERATIONS

For non-precision approach and landing operations the visual aids for paved instrument runways required by Annex 14, Volume I are: (a) Markings:
Runway designation. Runway centre line. Threshold. Fixed distance. Runway side stripe, where there is a lack of contrast. Taxiway centre line markings, from the runway centre line.
IATA
(b) Lights:

G2.3
Approach slope indicator system (PAPI, VASIS). Simple approach lighting system. Runway edge lights, where the runway is intended for use at night. Stopway lights, where a stopway is provided.
FACILITIES AND REQUIREMENTS FOR PRECISION APPROACH AND LANDING OPERATIONS (CAT I)
For Category I precision approach and landing operations the visual aids for paved instrument runways required by Annex 14, Volume I, are: (a) Markings:
Runway designation. Runway centre line. Threshold. Fixed distance. Touchdown zone. Runway side stripe, where there is a lack of contrast. Taxiway centre line markings, from the runway centre line. Taxi-holding position marking.
(b) Lights: Approach slope indicator system (PAPI, VASIS). Precision approach Category I lighting system. Runway edge, threshold and end lights.
For Category I precision approach and landing operations the following visual aids are also recommended by Annex 14, Volume I: (a) Markings: Runway side stripe.
(b) Lights:
Runway centre line lights, under specified conditions.
Taxi-holding position lights, where there is a need to improve the conspicuity of the lighting of the holding position.
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G2.4 ADDITIONAL FACILITIES AND REQUIREMENTS FOR PRECISION APPROACH AND LANDING OPERATIONS (CAT ll/lll)
Approach, threshold, touchdown zone, runway edge, centre line, runway end and other aerodrome lights are required in compliance with Annex 14, Volume I, appropriate to the category of operation for which a runway is intended. Where the runway may in future be upgraded so as to be suitable for Category II and III operations, it is advantageous to provide the necessary improved lighting during the initial construction or resurfacing of precision approach runways. This would eliminate the need for extensive future modifications. For daylight operations, experience has shown that surface markings are an effective means of indicating the centre lines of taxiways and holding positions. A holding position sign is required at all Category II and III holding positions. Signs may also be needed to identify taxiways. Taxiway centre line lights or taxiway edge lights and centre line markings providing adequate guidance are required for Category II and III operations. The conspicuity of runway markings and taxiway markings deteriorates rapidly, particularly at airports with higher movement rates. Frequent inspection and maintenance of markings cannot be overemphasised, especially for Category II and III operations. Stop bars can also make a valuable contribution to safety and ground traffic flow control in low visibility operations. The primary safety function of the stop bar is the prevention of inadvertent penetrations of active runways and Obstacle Free Zones by aircraft and vehicles in such conditions. Stop bars when provided should be used at least in visibility conditions corresponding to RVRs to less than 350 metres (CAT III). They also may contribute, in conjunction with other elements of the SMGCS, to effective traffic flow when low visibility prevents ATC from effecting optimum flow and ground separation by visual reference. It may also be advantageous to partly automate the operation of selected stop bars so that the air traffic controller will not be required to operate them manually every time, thus avoiding possible human errors. For example, manual switch-off of a stop bar after issuance of a movement clearance would be followed by an automatic re-illumination by the crossing aeroplane. Or a 'limited visibility' setting on the control panel would automatically illuminate stop bars across taxiways which are not to be used in limited visibilities. It will be possible that some lights in a particular system may fail, but if such failures are distributed in a manner that does not confuse the lighting pattern, the system may be regarded as serviceable. It is both difficult and expensive to provide monitoring of individual lights, except by regular inspection of all sections of the lighting system, and consideration may, therefore, be given to monitoring only the lighting circuits. To help safeguard recognisable patterns in the event of failure of a single circuit, circuits should be interleaved so that the failure of adjacent lights or clusters of lights will be avoided.
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G2.5

VISUAL DOCKING GUIDANCE SYSTEMS
With the adoption of nose-in parking and use of aircraft loading bridges, it is necessary to provide a guidance system to assist the pilot in positioning his aircraft accurately. The Civil Aviation Publication (CAP) 637 entitled Visual Aids Handbook, produced by the Civil Aviation Authority in the United Kingdom, should be referred to as current best industry practice on AGNIS/PAPA installations and their subsequent usefulness. The following are topics which must be addressed during the planning and development of visual docking guidance systems: Pilot Responsibility The pilot should be provided with a system which guides him accurately to the final parking position for his aircraft without ambiguity, and indicates to him his rate of closure with the desired stopping position. Accuracy The system must provide the accuracy of parking which is required on the particular airport or apron, and this should be established by airport authorities and airlines jointly. Points to be considered include:
The clearances involved. For some aircraft this includes distances between the pitot tube probes and the forward edge of the passenger door when open (i.e. B737). The performance of the loading bridges. The positions of fuelling hydrants and dispenser hose lengths available. The space required for all apron servicing activities including ULD loading/unloading.
When fixed loading bridges are installed, the docking guidance system must be particularly reliable as the accuracy of this system must match the tolerance of the proposed fixed bridge. On aprons serviced by apron-drive loading bridges, parking accuracy requirements may be less stringent. Multi-Aircraft Type Capability The system must accommodate as many different aircraft types as are likely to operate and this factor should be established by airport authorities and airlines in joint consultation. In a multiaircraft system the problem of providing stopping guidance is more difficult and it is important that the correct stopping position for the specific aircraft type using the stand should be clearly identifiable by the pilot, irrespective of his height above apron level.
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G2.6 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
G2.IR1 ICAO Annex 14 Parts 1 and 2 IATA recommends the application of the ICAO Annex 14 Standards and Recommended Practices, pertaining to the design of runways, taxiways and parked aircraft stands.
V
G2.IR2 Precision Approach Path Indicators Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) installations should supersede or replace other visual approach sPg indicator systems as soon as practically possible. Where a visual approach slope indicator system is installed on an ILS runway, it is recognised that the signals received from the (non-precision) visual system may conflict with the ILS signals in such a manner as to cast doubt on the safety or validity of the precision approach guidance being provided by the ILS . IATA endorses the visual approach slope indicator systems specified in Annex 14, as follows: Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) As the ICAO International Standard, replacing the present VASIS Standard after January 1, 1995. VASIS and 3-bar VASIS January 1, 1995.
Specified in Annex 14 as the International Standard until
Regardless of the protection date of January 1, 1995, for VASIS and 3-bar VASIS, IATA advocates the immediate installation of PAPI. V___________________________________ . ___________________________>
IATA
SECTION G3: G3.1 NON-VISUAL AIDS
GENERAL NON-VISUAL AIDS

The term 'non-visual aids' refers to the approved radio and radar aids used to assist the pilot in carrying out approach and landing under cloud or other visibility-impairing conditions. In conditions of moderate cloud base and visibility, the purpose of the aid is to establish the aircraft in a position from which the pilot can safely complete the approach and landing by visual means, and in such conditions a relatively simple aid may well suffice. In very low cloud base and/or visibility conditions, visual contact may not be available to the pilot and a much more accurate and reliable system will be required to effectively locate the aircraft. Specifications for radio and radar aids are given in ICAO Annex 10, Volume I. The criteria for terminal area fixes and information on the construction of instrument approach procedures are given in PANSOPS (Doc 8168), Volume II. The non-visual aids for which standards have been defined range from non-precision aids such as VDF, NDB, VOR, surveillance radar, ILS localizer only and MLS azimuth only, to the precision approach aids PAR and complete ILS/MLS. In general terms the non-visual aids can support operations in decreasing cloud base and visibility conditions in the order listed.
G3.2
FACILITIES AND REQUIREMENTS FOR NON-PRECISION APPROACH AND LANDING OPERATIONS

Non-precision approach aids provide azimuth and/or distance information only. When using a single non-precision aid for an instrument approach, the position of the aircraft can only be fixed by overflying the facility. Position fixes may also be obtained by an intersection of bearings or radiais from more than one navigational facility, or by the use of DME or marker beacons in association with azimuth guidance. En-route surveillance radar generally may be used to provide fixes prior to the final approach fix. Terminal area radar may be used to identify any terminal area fix including step down fixes after the final approach fix. It is essential that all non-precision aids be ground- and flight-checked at the time of commissioning, and at regular intervals thereafter.
G3.3
FACILITIES AND REQUIREMENTS FOR PRECISION APPROACH AND LANDING OPERATIONS (CAT I)
Precision approach aids provide vertical (i.e. glide path) information in addition to azimuth guidance and, possibly, distance information. The ICAO standard non-visual precision approach aids are ILS and MLS. ILS is the aid in common use while MLS is in the process of evaluation/introduction. PAR is also recognised as a precision approach aid. ILS ground equipment comprises a localizer, a glide path and at least two marker beacons, or, where the siting of marker beacons is impracticable, a suitably sited DME, provided that the distance information so obtained is operationally equivalent to that furnished by marker beacons. ILS may be used for ail categories of operations, but the beam structure specifications, monitoring requirements and continuity of service requirements are more stringent for Category II and III operations (see clause G3.4). MLS ground equipment comprises azimuth and elevation transmitters, DME and for some
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It is essential that all ILS/MLS installations be ground- and flight-checked at the time of commissioning and at regular intervals in accordance with the requirements of Annex 10, Volume I, Part I, to ensure an adequate and uniform standard of non-visual guidance. In the event that a facility fails to meet the requirements for which it was commissioned, or if a routine flight test cannot be completed within the appropriate time interval, its status must be reviewed and the facility downgraded as necessary. Users should be advised of changes in ILS/MLS status through the AIS. Guidance material on flight testing is contained in the Manual on Testing of Radio Navigation Aids. To ensure that the integrity of the guidance signal radiated by the ILS/MLS is maintained during aircraft approaches, all vehicles and aircraft on the ground must remain outside the ILS/MLS critical areas as described in Annex 10, Volume I, Attachment C to Part I. If a vehicle or aircraft is within the critical area it will cause reflection and/or diffraction of the ILS/MLS signals which may result in significant disturbances to the guidance signals on the approach path. Diffraction and/or reflection may also be caused by one or more large aircraft or vehicles in the vicinity of the runway. This may affect both the glide path elevation and localizer azimuth signals. This additional area, outside the critical area, is called the sensitive area\ The extent of the sensitive areas will vary with the characteristics of the ILS/MLS and the category of operations. It is essential to establish the level of interference caused by aircraft and vehicles at various positions on the airport so that the boundaries of the sensitive areas may be determined. Critical areas must be protected if the weather conditions are less than 800 ft (250 m) cloud base or 3000 m visibility when instrument approach operations are being carried out. Various ILS ground installations of suitable quality are routinely used to gain automatic approach and landing experience in visibility conditions permitting visual monitoring of the operation by the pilot. They should therefore be protected by interlocks from interference due to the simultaneous radiation of opposite direction localizer beams (Annex 10, Volume I, Part I). Where this is impracticable for technical or operational reasons, and both localizers radiate simultaneously, pilots should be notified by the appropriate ATS unit, by ATIS broadcast, by NOTAM, or in the relevant part of the AIP. Similar harmful interference can occur if aircraft in the final phase of approach or roll-out pass closely in front of the ILS localizer antenna serving another runway. The provisions listed above should therefore be applied to any such installations where experience shows this to be necessary. The interim policy for MLS protection should be the same as that outlined for ILS mentioned above, until such time as more definite information is available and has been operationally validated. It is possible for ILS signals in space to be affected by the presence of signals from radio and television transmitters, citizen band radios, industrial plasma welders, spark erosion equipment, etc. The MLS system design and signal spectrum protection have been selected to protect against interference. Periodic measurements should be made, the level of any signals detected, and then these can be compared with an accepted maximum. Such measurements can be made by positioning a wide frequency band receiver in the vicinity of the middle marker. Complaints by flight crews of signal disturbances should be investigated, and special flight checks
Terminology and protection criteria for ILS/MLS critical and sensitive areas may vary between States. For example, some States use the term 'critical area' to refer to both ICAO critical and sensitive areas as specified in Annex 10. Thus, when terms used or protection provided
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G3.4
ADDITIONAL FACILITIES AND REQUIREMENTS FOR PRECISION APPROACH AND LANDING OPERATIONS (CAT ll/lll)
The ILS ground equipment must meet the facility performance requirements specified in Annex 10, Volume I, Part I. The guidance material in Attachment C to Part I of that document also provides information for the planning and implementation of the ILS. The Manual of Testing of Radio Navigation Aids (Doc 8071) provides guidance on ground and flight testing of radio navigation aids; Volume II of the manual is concerned with ILS facilities. The quality of the ILS signals in space is not determined solely by the quality of the ground equipment; the suitability of the site, including the influence of reflection from objects illuminated by the ILS signals and the manner in which the ground equipment is adjusted and maintained, also has significant effect on the quality of the signal received at the aircraft. It is essential that the ILS signal in space is flightchecked in order to confirm that is meets in all respects the appropriate standards of Annex 10, Volume I, Part I. All facilities associated with the ILS ground equipment must be monitored in accordance with the requirement of Annex 10, Volume I, Part I. Guidance material on monitoring is contained in Attachment C to Part I of Annex 10, Volume I. ILS critical and sensitive areas must always be protected if the weather conditions are lower than 60 m (200 ft) cloud base or 600 m RVR (i.e. CAT ll/lll conditions) when instrument approach operations are being carried out. In the latter case, aircraft which will overfly the localizer transmitter antenna after take-off should be past the antenna before an aircraft making an approach has descended to a height of 60 m (200 ft) above the runway. Similarly, an aircraft manoeuvring on the ground, for example when clearing the runway after landing, should be clear of the critical and sensitive areas before an aircraft approaching to land has descended to a height of 60 m (200 ft) above the runway. The protection of these areas when the weather conditions are better than the minimum specified above will facilitate the use of automatic approach and landing systems, and will provide a safeguard in deteriorating weather conditions and when actual weather conditions are lower than is reported. To ensure that the integrity of the guidance signal radiated by the ILS is maintained during aircraft approaches, all vehicles and aircraft on the ground must remain outside the ILS critical and sensitive areas as described in Annex 10, Volume I, Attachment C to Part I, when the aircraft on final approach has passed the outer marker. If a vehicle or aircraft is within the critical area it will cause reflection and/or diffraction of the ILS signals which may result in significant disturbances to the guidance signals on the approach path. Additional longitudinal separation between successively landing aircraft contributes to the integrity of ILS guidance signals. Diffraction and/or reflection may also be caused by large aircraft in the vicinity of the runway which may affect both the glide path and the localizer signals. This additional area, outside the critical
Some States do not distinguish between critical and sensitive areas as defined in Annex 10. These States define instead an area, larger than that defined in Annex 10, but still called the critical area. In addition, this area is protected when an arriving aircraft is within the middle marker, or when cloud and visibility conditions are below specified values. This affords protection equivalent to that described above.
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The reliability of the ILS ground equipment is a measure of the frequency of unscheduled outages which may be experienced. Reliability will be increased by providing on-line standby equipment and by duplication or triplication of key functions, including power supplies. The lowest value of operating minima can only be achieved with ILS that have high standards of reliability. The specifications in Annex 10, Volume I, Part I, indicate the total maximum periods of time allowed outside the specified performance limits for each ILS facility performance requirement. For Category III operations it is requested to publish the classification of the ILS ground equipment in the Aeronautical Information Publication
G3.5
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS G3.IR1 ICAO Annex 10

Specifications for radio and radar aids are given in ICAO Annex 10, Volume I. The criteria for terminal area fixes and information on the construction of instrument approach procedures are given in PANS-OPS (Doc 8168), Volume II.
G3.IR2 Specification Between ILS Critical and Sensitive Areas

Certain States fail to distinguish between critical areas and sensitive areas, or else employ these terms not fully in accordance with the definitions specified in, ICAO Annex 10. When terms used or protection provided require clarification, information should be made precisely clear between relevant operators or States.
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IAT A
Chapter H Section H1: Airport Security General Principles 245 245
H1.1 Airport Security: Introduction................................................................ H1.2 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ Section H2: Passenger Operations
H2.1 Introduction and General Principles...................................................... H2.2 Site Evaluation and Layout of Facilities.................................................. H2.3 Isolated Aircraft Parking Positions ......................................................... H2.4 Support Operations ............................................................................... H2.5 General Aviation .................................................................................... H2.6 Minimising the Effects of an Explosion .................................................. H2.7 Minimising the Effect of an Attack Upon People .................................... H2.8 Passenger Terminal Building ................................................................. H2.9 Access Control ....................................................................................... H2.10 Passenger Security Screening Areas ..................................................... H2.11 VIP Facilities.......................................................................................... H2.12 Perimeter Security................................................................................. H2.13 Vulnerable Points ................................................................................... H2.14 Security Lighting.................................................................................... H2.15 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) ........................................................... H2.16 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ Section H3: Cargo Operations H3.1 Cargo Security Overview ...................................................................... H3.2 Regulated Agent Status ........................................................................ H3.3 Known Shipper/Consignor ..................................................................... H3.4 Valuable Cargo........................................................................................ H3.5 Post Office Mail ...................................................................................... H3.6 Courier and Express Parcel Consignments.............................................
246 246 247 248 248 248 251 251 254 255 255 256 257 257 257 258
260 260 261 262 262 263
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H3.7 Unknown Cargo...................................................................................... H3.8 Unknown Shippers ................................................................................ H3.9 Unaccompanied Baggage ..................................................................... H3.10 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ 263 263 265 265
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CHAPTER H AIRPORT SECURITY
SECTION H1: GENERAL PRINCIPLES H1.1 AIRPORT SECURITY: INTRODUCTION
ICAO Annex 17 to the Chicago Convention requires that the architectural and infrastructure requirements necessary for the optimum implementation of civil aviation security measures are integrated into the design and construction of new facilities, as well as into any alterations that might be undertook to existing facilities. . .: To take adequate account of aviation security requirements in all new facilities, redevelopment of existing facilities and redevelopment of airports, it is recommended that the appropriate authority establish national criteria which should be used in planning and design so as to maintain the integrity of the nation's civil aviation security programme. The criteria should allow the architects and designers sufficient flexibility to respond to the circumstances of each airport and its operations (accomplished by allowing a range of options for achieving the desired objective), and by encouraging architects and designers to identify innovative approaches. There is also need to consider and judge the degree of exposure or risk to which a building or facility may be subjected if the threat level increases, and the steps that may become necessary to upgrade buildings or facilities and their operation to meet the increased threat. In establishing any criteria, it is essential that the security requirements be kept realistic and economically viable, and that they be able to allow for the appropriate balance between the needs of aviation security, safety, operational requirements and facilitation. The criteria should also include provisions to ensure that the airport design facilitates the implementation of contingency measures. Once the criteria are established it is essential that they be made available to designers, who will need to understand the security problem and the manner in which the criteria meet the requirements. While the designers may not be fully informed about the basis of the threat analysis, they do need
H1.2
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS H1.IR1 Airport Security Programme

Each airport should develop a security development rolling master programme. This working document is intended to reflect the changes in national and international threat levels on a quarterly basis. The programme should include any field trials of new technology in the operational environment, and also propose the strategically placed updating of newer security technology and protocols within the airport. This could include but may not be limited to Hold Baggage Screening development plans and the integration of biometric technologies.
H1.IR2 Security Programme and Trial Results

Each airport is required to establish and implement a written airport security programme in accordance with the ICAO Annex 17 Standard, and should issue a report of the technical conclusions of any field trials. Field trial results of security equipment should be e-mailed to: [email protected]
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SECTION H2: PASSENGER OPERATIONS H2.1 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES

As discussed in section H1.1, an effective airport security plan should be the extension of nationally conceived and adopted aviation security criteria, and will benefit from designers and planners being able to integrate the principles of a nation's aviation security programme into the structural as well as operational parameters guiding the development of an airport's passenger systems and other infrastructure. Key security concerns that need to be considered in the planning, design and enhancement of overall airport security should include the following: (a) Preventing the introduction of weapons, explosive or dangerous devices by any means into the airport or aircraft by:
(b) (c)
Detection. Ensuring the security of channels by which passengers, baggage, personnel, cargo, mail and other goods and vehicles access aircraft. Ensuring the segregation of passengers who have been screened from those who have not. Controlling access to and movement within the airside and security restricted areas.
Facilitating implementation of the airport emergency plan during a crisis such as a bomb alert, act of unlawful seizure or an aircraft disaster. Minimising the effect of an explosion or incendiary device on persons or facilities by incorporating design features to limit casualties and damage.
H2.2
SITE EVALUATION AND LAYOUT OF FACILITIES

When designing or redesigning airport facilities, there are many factors which could influence site evaluation and the layout of facilities. When designing or redesigning airport facilities the security considerations and implications should take into account:
The airport location. The size and topography of the airport site. The location of adjacent transport and support facilities.
250 H2.2.1 Terminal Building (Landside Area)

In deciding the layout of the terminal building landside area, special security consideration should be given to the following: Road layout. Access control posts. Car parks. Landscaping and boundaries. Terminal forecourts. Lighting and signage. Emergency services access.
Airport Security
H2.2.2 Airside Development
Airside development should provide for the following security measures:
Physical security measures for the airport perimeter and restricted security areas. Perimeter roadways and other access roads for patrol purposes. Security and apron lighting.
Perimeter and security area vehicle and pedestrian access points, including automatic access
control systems.
Electronic intruder detection systems.
Isolated aircraft parking positions for searching aircraft subject to a specific threat or an act of
unlawful seizure.
A blast containment area for suspect explosive devices. Explosive detection equipment for cargo containers and pallets. Facilities for the kenneling and training of explosive detecting patrol dogs. A simulation chamber.
If the installation of an automatic access control system is envisaged at a later stage of airport development, provision should be made at the earliest stages of runway and taxiway construction for an automatic access control system power supply, as well as data transmission trenches and conduits. Similar provisions for the future installation of intrusion detection systems, electronic alarms, and video and data transmission networks should also be made in terminal buildings and at vulnerable point locations.
H2.3
ISOLATED AIRCRAFT PARKING POSITIONS

An isolated aircraft parking position should be located at the maximum distance possible from other aircraft parking positions, buildings or public areas, and the airport perimeter. Planners should keep in mind that the isolated aircraft parking position can also be used in the event of an aircraft hijacking or bomb threat. If taxiways or runways pass within this area, they may have to be closed to normal operations when a 'suspect' aircraft is in the area. Planners should seek input on ideal locations for these positions from the security or law enforcement agencies which would respond to such incidents. The isolated aircraft parking position may also serve as a 'security parking area', where an aircraft threatened with unlawful interference may be parked as long as necessary, or else positioned for the loading or unloading of passengers. It may also be necessary to remove and examine cargo, mail and stores from an aircraft during bomb threat conditions. Care should be taken to ensure that the position is not located over underground utilities such as gasoline or aviation fuel networks, water mains, or electrical or communications cables. Such parking areas would ideally be located so as to eliminate the possibility of unauthorized persons physically
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H2.4 SUPPORT OPERATIONS
A precise inventory of support operations and other non-aviation activities should be drawn up at the initial planning stage so that a decision can be made concerning the location of each of these activities. The following basic principles should govern this decision:
(a) Except for those which have a direct and permanent link with air transport operations, the
number of non- and para-aviation activities located on the airside should be restricted as much as possible. Hotels and freight forwarders' buildings and facilities should not be located on the airside.
(b) When facilities for support operations and other non-aviation activities do have to be located
on the airside (for example to enable them to have access to the runways), they should:

H2.5
Be located away from the airport's passenger and cargo buildings and vulnerable points. Whenever possible, be isolated within the airside area.
(c) Private airside access points through those buildings or facilities should:
GENERAL AVIATION
Here the security principle to be followed is that of segregation; the purpose of which is to keep movement of persons and vehicles between the general aviation area and the main terminal areas to the strict minimum. These movements relate mainly to fuelling operations, meteorological services and the airport control reporting office.
H2.6
MINIMISING THE EFFECTS OF AN EXPLOSION

An explosive or incendiary device brought into the vicinity of a terminal or infiltrated onto an aircraft is likely to contain up to 5 kilograms of high-performance military explosive. Such a device can be concealed in a wide variety of containers. Explosive devices produce two types of fragments: primary and secondary. Primary fragments are created from the device and its containers (timing mechanisms, buckles and zips of bags, locks and hinges of briefcases, waste bins and their contents, etc.). The primary fragmentation effect can be enhanced by the inclusion in the device of metal objects (bolts, screws, nails, etc.). Secondary fragments are created by the blast wave destroying friable materials (glazing, masonry, false ceilings, lightweight partitions, etc.) as it travels out from the explosion's source. Typically, the distance over which primary fragments can cause casualties is approximately twice that of secondary fragments. Therefore, to be reasonably certain of preventing casualties from the fragmentation effect of a device introduced by hand into a public area, a clear zone greater than 60 metres in radius would have to be formed around the suspect object. While prevention is the ideal, it is for practical operational purposes almost impossible to achieve in a normal airport environment. The most practical position is to accept the possibility that, despite surveillance, patrolling, security awareness of all staff and the public, an explosive or incendiary device may still be brought into a public area of a terminal and a detonation can still occur. It is, however, possible to minimize the effects of, and reduce the casualties resulting from, the consequential explosion or fire by: Designing the terminal areas accessible to passengers and the public to facilitate patrols and surveillance, concealed and to reduce or eliminate places where explosive or incendiary devices may be Using the appropriate glazing securely fixed into robust frames or mullions and transoms with sufficient rebate depth. The frames or glazing support systems to be securely fixed to the structure.
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Ensuring that roofing, cladding, false ceilings, etc., are securely fixed, as large panels or items which become detached can cause considerable injury and damage.
Employing materials used in the internal fitting-out of the public and retail areas of the terminal that will minimise casualties and damage following an explosion, or fail in such a way which will minimise the formation of secondary fragments.
Ensuring that items such as waste receptacles are portable, so that they can be removed in the event of an increase in threat, or be of a type which will facilitate inspection to ensure that nothing dangerous has been concealed inside. Alternatively, litter receptacles may be constructed into walls in a manner which would allow garbage to be deposited into an external container.
Ensuring that materials used within terminal buildings, for example as upholstery on seating and for false ceilings, are fire resistant and do not give off toxic fumes or smoke. A vehicle bomb is likely to contain large amounts of explosive. It is difficult to prescribe practical measures to strengthen a structure to withstand totally the force of such an explosive device. Some Distance of explosive device from building up to 5 Effect on a building using modern framed construction Severe damage to facade, Effect on loadbearing masonry Total collapse
possible local collapse in some buildings Severe damage to facade, in some buildings local to bomb Moderate damage to facade Minor damage to facade Superficial damage
5 10 10 15 15 20 20 30
Major collapse Damaged beyond repair Serious damage (but repairable) Moderate damage
It is apparent that a building of modern framed construction will experience less damage. The key elements of modern frame construction are:
(a) The building is of frame construction, having reinforced concrete or structural steel and
concrete floor slabs (precast concrete frames and floor slabs should be avoided).
(b) The frame is designed to be sufficiently robust whatever the building height. The horizontal
shear forces at a given floor level should be calculated as an equivalent of a minimum of five storeys above.
(c) In the case of steel frame construction, beam/column connections should be designed for
load reversals).
(d) Additional robustness for steel frame construction can be achieved by encasing the
perimeter beams and columns in concrete. Architectural
(e) Generally, the construction of the roof should be similar to that of the floor slabs.
Windows may be broken at distances of up to 120 metres, although glass may fall from a building at a distance of 60 metres. Unprotected normal annealed glass can break at a distance of up to 50 metres from ground zero. This distance can be reduced to 30 metres by the application of antishatter film, which has the further advantage of reducing the time required to clean up, since large quantities of the glass remain glued to the film. While some terminal designs minimize the use of glazing on their outer skin, most normally incorporate the maximum use of such materials and so it is essential to understand the failure mechanism of glass types. While it is not practical to undertake substantial re-glazing of existing facilities, there are a variety of steps which can be taken to reduce the risk of injury caused by flying glass. It is preferable that the external landside aspect of the terminal building be as low as possible and have as little glazing and cladding as possible. This may be achieved by having offices or similar facilities backing onto this aspect. It is recognized that such an arrangement is unlikely to be practical for many locations, and that many such aspects will continue to contain a great deal of cladding and glazing. Where forecourt areas are covered by canopies it is recommended that they be so constructed that structural components will remain in place in the event of an explosion, but that the All vehicles should be kept at least 50 metres away from the frontage of the terminal. Ideally, the forecourt roads should be at a lower level, creating a sloping ramp which would act as a blast deflector should a car bomb be detonated. However, this solution usually conflicts with facilitation and design and is therefore unlikely to be adopted in most locations. An alternative is to ensure that no shortor long-term vehicle parking is allowed within 50 metres of the terminal and that the forecourt roads are sufficiently policed to ensure that no unattended or unauthorized vehicle is allowed to be left on them. Efficient response and rapid vehicle removal are required, especially when short-term vehicle parking is permitted at the passenger terminal curbs. The pavement area of the forecourt should have solid posts placed at intervals or some form of barrier system to prevent any vehicle from mounting the pavement or entering the terminal.
H2.6.1 Materials
When fitting out the public areas of the terminal, materials should be used that will fail following an explosion in such a way as to minimise the formation of secondary fragments and thus casualties and damage. The following actions should be taken:
Avoid brittle materials such as glass or rigid plastics which can break into sharp fragments. Use materials which are flexible and strong (e.g. polycarbonate, metal sheet and possibly toughened glass), ductile (metal sheet, laminated glass), or weak and soft (plasterboard, hardboard wood wool, foam-filled sandwiches). Provide appropriately strong fixings, ideally with the same resistance capacity as the material being secured. This may mean recommending that inner sheets (away from a blast) be screwed rather than nailed or screwed through additional surface plates or battens to prevent screws being torn out. Minimise opportunity for collapse of light structures. This may mean that booths, concessionary accommodation, etc., should be designed to resist blast loads even though they will be within the sheltered concourse.
H2.7
MINIMISING THE EFFECT OF AN ATTACK UPON PEOPLE

The concern addressed here is that of an attack against a specific group of passengers or staff, either because of their nationality or the nationality of the carrier with which they intend travelling. Such an attack would probably use automatic weapons and grenades. It is also possible for such an attack to be indiscriminate. Within multi-storey terminal buildings, the likelihood of having landside balconies overlooking checkin areas is high. It is equally likely that the public has access to them and that commercial exploitation demands that the facilities available on the first floor or balcony area be readily seen from the ground floor or check-in area. Unrestricted access to areas overlooking a check-in zone should therefore not provide a line of fire or the ability to throw grenades. As it is an unrestricted public area, the considerations already discussed in relation to glazing and building materials also apply. To allow natural light to enter the building, and so as not to diminish unnecessarily the visual impact of the balcony facilities, screening should normally be of glass, the choice being between toughened or laminated toughened. Ideally, the glazing should reach from floor to ceiling but, where this is not possible, the minimum height of such screening should be 2.3 metres. The space between the top of the screen and ceiling should be filled so as to prevent the lobbing of explosives. The manner in which this can be achieved will depend upon environmental and ventilation needs, weight constraints, aesthetics and cost. Access to the first floor or balcony from the ground floor or check-in area should be similarly protected from the balcony level down to a height above the lower floor at which line of sight and fire is no longer possible. A suitably designed 'glazed cage' can achieve the required results if the glazing is of the necessary standard. At major airports and those handling certain high-risk flights, there is a need to protect designated check-in operations against attack, by means of either a permanent, protected facility or temporary/ portable screening which can be moved into place. The screening of high-risk flights should have protective qualities capable of minimizing the effects of an attack which may involve the use of firearms and grenades as well as suitcase bombs. A normal check-in area can be converted into a protected check-in area by means of ceiling-hung bullet/blast resistant screens, which can be pulled into place when needed. The check-in screening should be opaque, lightweight, durable and easy to store, and should where possible be of specifications that would limit the possible use of lobbed explosives (at least 2.3 metres high with netting suspended from the ceiling down to the top of the screens). With advances in materials, it may be that adequate protection can be afforded by ballistic screens or curtains made
H2.8
PASSENGER TERMINAL BUILDING

To attain the general objectives of security planning, as well as those of over-all airport planning, the key to success is the simplicity resulting from the following principles:
Passenger and baggage flow routes should be simple and self-evident.
Transit and transfer passenger and cargo flows, preferably in both domestic and international
operations, should be physically separated.
The number of security checkpoints should be minimized (this can be achieved by centralizing
the screening points at a spot where the passenger and baggage flow routes converge).
The number of points where pedestrians can have access to the airside area and, particularly, the security restricted areas should be minimized (this can be done after a rigorous analysis of ground personnel flow routes and by applying the basic principle of developing the over-all plan for the permit system). All passenger departure areas between the screening checkpoint and the aircraft are to be considered a security restricted area into which access must be controlled.
The following considerations should be given to any landside public spectator terraces or areas which overlook aircraft parked on the apron or passenger handling operations:
Access must be controlled or the area supervised by guards. The areas should be enclosed, or contain barriers to prevent unauthorized access or the throwing of objects at parked aircraft or into security restricted areas.
Access control features should enable them to be secured and closed to the public when required. Each baggage storage facility to which passengers and the public have access should be constructed in such a way as to minimize the effects of an explosion occurring in an item being handled or stored, and should be capable of being secured when not manned. Provision should be made for the hand search or screening of all items by X-ray by trained staff before they are accepted for storage. The airside and security restricted areas should be designed and constructed to prevent the passage of articles from non-sterile areas. For example, links or connections between plumbing, air vents, drains, utility tunnels or other fixtures in restricted security area restrooms and restrooms in nonsterile areas should be avoided to limit the possibility of articles being passed from one area to the other. When planning the construction of non-restricted or public access suspended walkways or balconies over or adjacent to sterile areas, it is critical to ensure that they not facilitate the passing of items into those areas. The maintenance of the security integrity of passenger areas can be enhanced by designing built-in fixtures such as railings, pillars, benches, ashtrays, etc., to prevent concealment of weapons or dangerous devices. This could help reduce the difficulties and costs associated with monitoring such areas, which also includes closets, utility rooms, restrooms, lockers, storage areas, stairwells, recesses housing fire extinguishers, and fire hose storage cabinets. Closets and utility rooms should be capable of being locked when not in use. The objectives of fire safety and crowd control provisions and those of security provisions may appear contradictory. Optimum safety aims at enabling people to be evacuated in the event of danger, while security aims at controlling people's movements and limiting their access to certain areas. Reconciliation of these objectives should be based on a search for a preferred airside to landside evacuation direction. Each airport area should be the subject of specific evacuation planning to ensure security is not compromised. In evacuating the landside area, including those areas not freely accessible to the public, evacuation should be done towards the landside curb. If architectural constraints require evacuation in the opposite direction, the emergency exits to the airside should be secured when not in use. Evacuation from the airside area to the landside area is preferred, but an effort should be made to keep the number of emergency exits and points of passage to the minimum required for safety reasons. Evacuation should only be done towards the airside area if architectural constraints or the
Signs should be installed along the curb indicating that parking is limited to the time needed to offload passengers. It is recommended that the positions reserved for private vehicles be separated from those reserved for buses and taxis. Bus and taxi parking positions should be placed away from the manoeuvring lanes to permit them to load and offload their passengers along the curb. If the airport is served by rail, outdoor or underground stations should preferably be located away from the passenger building and be connected with it by pedestrian walkways. In planning and designing passenger buildings, provision should be made for the installation of the following airport security features:
Hold baggage screening points. Passenger and cabin baggage screening points. Flight crew screening points. Staff screening points. Central security control centre. Emergency operations centre (EOC) and isolated aircraft parking position. Hold baggage control system centralized control room(s). Space required to question passengers before they reach the check-in counters. Hold baggage search room(s). The security service's offices and premises.
All security posts, offices or premises should be located so as to minimize response time to an incident and thus ensure maximum security service efficiency.
H2.8.1 Secured Passenger Routes

Secured passenger flow routes extend from the screening point to the aircraft door. Depending on the circumstances, they may cross the following areas and points:
(a) Immigration control point. (b) Departures concourse, which may include:
Rest lounges. Food and beverage facilities. Airline service counters. Duty-free shops and other retail establishments. Washroom facilities. VIP lounges.
(c) Departure lounges. (d) Connections between the passenger building and the aircraft.
In planning and designing the flow route described above, the following elements should be taken into account: (a) All doors giving access to the different areas of the departures concourse should be considered security doors and should be capable of being locked when these areas are not in use.
(b) When an automatic access control system is provided for, the following doors and exits should be secured and controlled:
(d) (e)
Departures concourse landside and airside entrance and exit doors. Access doors to the offices of the policing authorities and security service. Departure lounge access doors and exits. Passenger loading bridge access doors and exits.
(c) Emergency exits to the airside and/or landside should be secured.

Departure lounge partitions should reach the ceiling to prevent objects from being thrown over them or, if that is not possible for reasons of ventilation, protective nets should be installed. Restaurants and rest areas should in no case have terraces overlooking the aircraft parking areas unless they are equipped with fixed and sturdy windows.
H2.9
ACCESS CONTROL
Maintaining the integrity of airside/landside boundaries plays a critical role in deterring unauthorized access to, or attacks on an airport or an aircraft. Effective airside security relies heavily on the integrated application of physical barriers, identification and access control systems, surveillance and detection equipment, and on the implementation of security procedures. Consideration should be given to reducing to a minimum the number of access control points, both inside and outside, to airside and other security areas. Effective access control can be achieved by:
(a)
Having plant and maintenance facilities landside (but with controlled access) and, where ducting, piping, cabling, other plant or inspection panels (such as those provided in toilet areas) pass through the security restricted area boundary, ensuring that they cannot afford unauthorized access.
(b)
Planning kitchen and catering facilities carefully. Increasingly, airports are planning one catering facility to serve airside and landside. Where this is so, the facility should be situated landside, with the means to service airside areas via security airlock hatches rather than having staff moving between landside and airside.
(c)
Having baggage reclaim areas outside the security restricted area to reduce the risk of passengers backtracking through the exit doors. To meet customs requirements for international reclaim areas, these should be non-public areas and serve as a buffer to protect the security restricted area.
(d) (e)
Providing adequate facilities for staff within the security restricted area in order to reduce the number of times they need to pass control points in the course of their duties. Co-ordinating landside, non-public access and airside/security restricted area access control. This can be achieved by having one strategically placed point to control access to the apron, elevators to plant rooms on the roof and, by the use of parallel corridors (one landside, one airside), all landside and airside deliveries.
(f)
Having a single, suitably located access point for staff. This should, where possible, be a dedicated facility not encumbered by other forms of traffic or other distractions.
(i) Wherever possible, avoiding locating landside toilets back-to-back with security restricted area toilets, or ensuring that, if they are, they are designed and constructed so that it would be difficult to penetrate the airside boundary through the walls or roofs. Wherever possible, maintenance areas, service areas, miscellaneous activities areas, and buildings or controlled areas should be located landside with controlled access to airside. To prevent unauthorized access, doors or gates leading from landside to airside security restricted areas and to controlled areas which are not under surveillance should be equipped with locks and/ or alarms. Buildings and other fixed structures may be used as a part of the physical barrier and be incorporated into the fence line, as long as measures are taken to restrict unauthorized passage through them. Care should also be taken to ensure that roofs or other structures do not provide an easily accessible route for unauthorized access to the airside.
H2.10 PASSENGER SECURITY SCREENING AREAS

In the selection of suitable locations for passenger security screening areas at which walk-through metal detectors and X-ray equipment are to be used, it is essential that sufficient reliable power outlets be provided. It is also necessary to consider the possible effects of electrical fields generated by other types of equipment such as elevators, conveyor belts, etc. The mass of structural steel in terminal buildings may also have an adverse effect. It is not possible to recommend minimum distances from sources of such interference because of the variables of each location. Further guidance is best obtained from the manufacturer of the equipment to be used. The location and size of passenger security screening areas will be dictated primarily by passenger volume. Careful attention should be given to the number, type, configuration and positioning of screening areas so as to facilitate the flow of passengers through the terminal. Consideration will need to be given to the issues of queuing, physical search, and passengers requiring additional processing. Generally, international and domestic passenger flows are kept separate. However, this is not always possible, particularly at small and medium-sized airports. In such situations, passenger screening areas may be combined and the passenger flows controlled by either a door or a partitioning system to direct passengers to their boarding lounges. The international boarding lounge may be preceded
H2.11
VIP FACILITIES
VIP facilities require careful consideration as the individuals using them may be subject to a high level of personal threat. Facilities should allow for control of the VIPs and those involved with their reception and departure procedures. The facilities should incorporate a dedicated screening area for check-in and processing passengers, and for keeping cabin baggage and hold baggage separate from the normal passenger operations. Where for ease of use the facilities straddle the landside/airside boundary, the standard of access control should be no less than at other access points and arrangements for the use of these facilities should ensure the integrity of the boundary between the landside and the airside. VIP facilities must be secured when not in use.
-M&r
IATA
H2.12
Airport
Development
Reference
PERIMETER SECURITY
In deciding what form of perimeter or restricted area security is required, many factors need to be taken into account. These might include national and local threat assessment, vulnerabilities and asset values. The topography of the site should be one of the foremost considerations, together with general location, areas to be protected and the life expectancy of any materials used. It is important to note also that the physical components of perimeter security (fences, perimeter intruder detection systems, closed circuit television, etc.) should not be viewed in isolation but rather as an integrated whole. The following perimeter detection technologies should be considered and their merits evaluated as a minimum:
Radar Based Systems. Infra-red Systems. Microwave System. Thermal Imaging Systems. CCTV Systems. Taut Wire Detection Systems.
The following fence types should considered: Chain Link. Welded Mesh. Vertical Pressed or Rolled Steel (Painted or Galvanised).
Where airport perimeters are close to public walkways, roads or rivers, the perimeter should be under surveillance either by patrol or by automated detection system. Signs should be placed at 50m intervals which clearly advise the public that perimeters are under surveillance. Airport perimeters should be complete and to a consistent standard throughout the whole perimeter. Areas within the terminal complex which border with vulnerable areas such as vehicle and staff gate posts should be monitored with CCTV systems with data recorded on 24hour 365 days a year digital recordings. Other vulnerable areas recommended for CCTV surveillance which may bridge the perimeter include but are not limited to:

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Airside/land-side gate post positions for vehicles and staff. Rivers bridging the perimeter. Power plants. Fuel farms. Control tower. Centralised air conditioning facilities. Aircraft approach lighting. Emergency access routes. Drinking water reservoirs (within the perimeter and serving the airport terminal and
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IAT A
Airport Security
When designing security systems for airport perimeters the detection systems should have full redundancy capability. If a single component fails within a system the systems overall integrity should remain intact. Field devices such as fence detectors should provide indication to the central control room that failure has occurred and where the failed field device resides. Waterways which intersect the perimeter boundary should be protected and it should not be possible for unauthorised access beneath runway or terminal complexes without prior detection.
H2.13 VULNERABLE POINTS

A vulnerable point is any facility on or connected with an airport, which, if damaged or destroyed, would seriously impair the functioning of the airport. Control towers, communication facilities, radio navigation aids, power transformers, primary and secondary power supplies and fuel installations both on and off an airport must therefore be considered as vulnerable points. Communication and radio navigation aids which, if tampered with, could give false signals for the guidance of aircraft need to be afforded a higher level of security. Where such installations cannot be adequately protected by physical security measures and intrusion detection systems, they should be visited frequently by the relevant maintenance technicians or security staff. Manned installations should have strict control of access measures and admission to the installation should include the requirement to produce valid identification cards.
H2.14 SECURITY LIGHTING

Security lighting can offer a high degree of deterrence to a potential intruder in addition to providing the illumination necessary for effective surveillance either directly by the guards or indirectly through a CCTV system. Security Lighting can make an important contribution to physical security but, incorrectly applied, it can assist intruders more than guard forces. Good security lighting should:
Allow guards to see intruders before they reach their objectives. Conceal the guards from intruders. Deter intruders or hinder them in their purpose.
Security lighting acts as a particularly good low-cost deterrent. Even a low level of illumination will deter most potential intruders and vandals. If CCTV is installed, the lighting level and uniformity must be such that it helps to present a clear monitor picture to security guards.
H2.15 CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION (CCTV)

The use of closed circuit television (CCTV) for surveillance can save manpower, especially when used in conjunction with intruder detection and automatic access control systems and may supplement, extend and make more effective an existing security system. It also enhances the effectiveness of perimeter security, particularly if used to verify the alarms signalled by a perimeter intruder detection system (PIDS). It can also lead to improved working conditions for security guards who may not need
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H2.16 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
H2.IR1 Terminal Clearance Distance To minimise the effects of an explosive device contained within a hold or hand bag or carrier bag. placed within the terminal complex (eg. Concourse area) a minimum clearance radius of 60m should be maintained. This clearance should be maintained upon identification that a potential explosive device exists. Typically, the distance over which prirnary fragments can cause casualties is approximately twice that of secondary fragments. Please refer to clause H2.6 for further details and clarification. H2.IR2 Use of Secure Terminal Fixings To limit the effects of an explosive device located within the terminal complex it is important to ensure that terminal infrastructure is manufactured from appropriate materials and installed securely using appropriate quality fasteners. Roof cladding systems should be sized to ensure that in the event of them falling due to an explosion they are far less likely to fatally injure person(s). Ensure that the use of brittle materials such as carbori based polymer mixes or fibre reinforced structures is limited unless used in such a way as to protect against explosions (e.g. explosion proof containers).
H2.IR3 Glazed Panels Glazed panels i .sed as eithe part of the terminal complex or within the terminal complex should wherever possible be of the anti-shatter type. Where the performance of gldzed panels deters from this recommendation for whatever reason the use of anti-shatter flame r&tardant films is recommended to be used.
H2.IR4 Flame Retardam
terials and Terminals
Terminal structures and infrastructure should be manufactured and assembled using flame retardant and fire rated materials wherever possible. All beams and columns should be fire rated and structures strategically designed to withstand the placement of s passengers sized single bag containing an explosive device. These strategic structural considerations should be sufficient for baggage containing explosives being in any passenger area 01 any areas which hold H2.IR5 Steel Frame Constructions In the case of steel frame construction beam/column connections should be designed for load reversals to account for damage / displacement caused by explosion or impact damage.
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H2.IR6 Perimeter Detection Systems The perimeter of international airports should be fitted with intruder detection equipment and surveillance equipment. All vulnerable areas (see clause H2.12) should be monitored 24 hours a day 365 days a year by CCTV systems. To limit false alarms CCTV systems should be used in parallel to perimeter intruder detection systems. V_____________________________________________________________________________ J H2.IR7 Land-side / Airside Checkpoints The number of security checkpoints within the terminal and residing upon the perimeter should be practically minimised.
H2.IR8 Reconciliation of Safety and Security provisions The objectives of fire safety and crowd control may on occasion appear contradictory with respect to security goals. Optimum safety aims at enabling people to be evacuated in the event of danger, while security aims at controlling people's movements and limiting their access to certain areas. Reconciliation of these objectives should be based on a search for a preferred airside to landside evacuation direction. Each airport area should be the subject of specific evacuation planning that includes adequate security measures.
SECTION H3: CARGO OPERATIONS H3.1 CARGO SECURITY OVERVIEW

The term air cargo, in the context of aviation security, includes normal freight, consolidations, transhipments, unaccompanied courier items, postal mail, diplomatic mail, company stores, and unaccompanied baggage shipped as freight on a passenger-carrying aircraft. Known shippers/ consignors, regulated agents, and their operations are closely linked to civil aviation as the expedient method of transporting cargo, globally from point to point. Cargo can be tendered for carriage by:
Another airline. A regulated agent. Courier service company. Postal service. Express parcel company. A freight forwarder.
A direct shipper. Whatever source tenders the cargo for carriage, action needs to be taken to prevent the introduction of explosives or incendiary devices into air cargo. Airlines reserve the right to examine, or cause to be examined, the packaging and contents of all cargo, courier and express parcel consignments and to enquire into the correctness or sufficiency of information or documentation tendered in respect of any consignment. The right to examine the contents of consignments does not extend to post office mail. ICAO Annex 17 requires (Standards 4.5.2 and 4.5.3) Member States to secure the operations of regulated agents concept, freight forwarders and airlines. This is achieved through the provision of the Airline Security Programme and the Regulated Agent Security Programme. Reference is made throughout this Section to regulated agents, freight forwarders, courier service companies and airlines. Although that is the case, airline operations that are away from the home base are generally handled by agents or contractors. The airline is responsible for the cargo operation regardless of what the handling arrangements might be.
H3.2
REGULATED AGENT STATUS

For a freight forwarder to be designated as a 'regulated agent', that status must be obtained through the appropriate authority within the State where the business is conducted. To achieve this status it requests the production and continued compliance with a Regulated Agent's Security Programme. These programmes may be in one of two forms:
(1) Regulated Agent's Security Programme, written by the freight forwarder, courier service
company, etc., and its compliance acknowledged by the appropriate authority. freight forwarder, courier service company, etc.
(2) Manuscript Security Programme, published by the appropriate authority for acceptance by the
The programme details methods of meeting the provisions of Annex 17. Arising from the programme, freight forwarders, courier service companies, airlines, etc., when meeting set standards, may be registered/listed by the appropriate authority as 'regulated agents'.
Airport Security
Although reference is made to cargo, it should be understood that cargo also includes within its definition unaccompanied baggage, mail, courier and express parcels. Cargo consigned directly to an airline and not via a freight forwarder needs to be dealt with by virtue of the provisions of the Airline's Freight Forwarder Security Programme. In the case of airlines, they will also be bound by the provisions of the National Aviation Security Programme.
H3.3
KNOWN SHIPPER/CONSIGNOR
A Known Shipper/Consignor is the originator of property for transportation by air for the individual's own account, and who has established business with a regulated agent or an airline on the basis of the following criteria:
Establishing and registering the individual's identity and address, as well as the agent
authorised to carry out deliveries on the individual's behalf.
Declaring that the individual:
(a) Prepares consignments in secure premises. (b) Employs reliable staff in preparing the consignments. (a) Protects the consignments against unauthorised interference during preparation,
storage and transportation.
(b) Certifies in writing that the consignment does not contain any prohibited articles as
listed in the ICAO Security Manual Prohibited Goods. security reasons.
(c) Accepts that the packaging and contents of the consignment may be examined for
Once a shipper/consignor meets the necessary requirements, the regulated agent may declare the person or corporation a 'known shipper/consignor' and add the name to an official list held by the agent. The list shows the known shipper/consignor's name and address. Cargo from shippers that meet the known shipper/consignor status may be security cleared (accepted) under certain conditions:
(a)
The employee accepting the cargo is satisfied that the person delivering the cargo is or represents the regular customer.
(b) There is no sign of tampering with the cargo.

Cargo from regulated agents may be security cleared (accepted) under the following conditions:
(a) (b)
The employee receiving the cargo has examined the regulated agent's ID of the person delivering the cargo and there is no sign of tampering with the cargo. If the consignor delivers, or arranges delivery of the cargo, the employee receiving the cargo acknowledges it was delivered by the person nominated on a security declaration and there is no sign of tampering with the cargo.
(c)
The regulated agent has provided a security declaration that the cargo has been cleared in accordance with the Regulated Agents Security Programme.
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Partially cleared cargo may be accepted from other regulated agents or forwarded to airlines for security clearance. Details of the partial clearance shall accompany the air waybill. The screening process may include X-ray, other approved technology or procedures including physical inspection. It is usual for an appropriate authority to introduce an audit programme for the purpose of examining compliance with the Regulated Agent's Security Programme. This should include the physical inspection of the agent's premises and an examination of the known shipper/consignor client list and other documentation.
H3.4
VALUABLE CARGO
Valuable cargo is defined in IATA Cargo Services Conference Resolution 012. Generally it includes gold bullion and other precious metals, precious stones, bank notes, valuable securities, works of art, etc. Blank airline documents, such as miscellaneous charges orders (MCOs), air waybills (AWBs) and ticket stock, should also be dealt with as valuable cargo. Valuable cargo, by the nature of its contents, should be subject to a close inspection on the part of the airline and checked against the details on the air waybill. The airline should adopt security measures for handling valuable cargo in cargo terminals, during aircraft loading, unloading and ground transportation. Local security regulations should be instituted as the result of a review carried out by the chief security officer of the airline and the cargo terminal management. This review should be ongoing and take into consideration various levels of threat in and around the airport. As a general rule, valuable cargo must be booked with the airline and any special arrangements made for it prior to its acceptance. Details of value, contents, routing and storage must be kept confidential.
H3.5
POST OFFICE MAIL

Mail carried on passenger aircraft shall be subjected to security controls by airlines and/or regulated postal authorities before being placed on board an aircraft. Global postal services are members of the Universal Postal Union, which, in turn, is a sub-committee of the United Nations (same status as that of ICAO). The Universal Postal Union Convention (UPU Convention) sets security standards for the protection of mail services and specifies the standard of forms to be used for the purpose of forwarding the mail. Such forms will be completed by the post office. A postal service regulated by the UPU Convention shall:
(a) Deliver mail to the airline in a prescribed UPU mail bag. (b)
Such mail bags will be tagged with 'airmail bag labels' and secured with the prescribed secure ties.
(c) A 'delivery bill' will accompany all airmail shipments. (d)

A copy of the 'delivery bill' will be signed by the airline and returned to the postal authority, other copies of the document will be retained by the airline as a form of quittance (proof of payment/ receipt).
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IATA
Airport Security
Airlines should take certain actions to ensure the integrity of the mail delivered to an airport mail centre before loading onto a flight. Those actions are:
(a) Ensure the number of bags stated in the delivery bill coincides with the number bags received
from the postal authority.
(a) Make a visual inspection of the mail bags to ensure they have not been subjected to tampering. (b) Assure that the integrity of the mail bags and seals should be verified upon the receipt of the
mail.
(b) The mail should be stored in a dedicated secure area. (c) Ensure that only persons with the necessary form of ID card and a reason to be there be
permitted into the mail storage area.
Documents handed to airlines by post offices or handed over at the point of transfer should be stowed in the flight portfolio or where flight documents are kept. They should be extracted immediately upon arrival of the aircraft at its destination. Although the airline or its agent does not normally have the right to examine the mail, the airline may refuse uplift during times of increased threat. The mail, which also incorporates 'registered parcels and registered letters', is attractive to a person intent on dishonesty and should be subject to special security handling from the point of acceptance to the point of delivery. Those involved in the movement of time definite mail should not provide booking details to shippers unless they are known shippers/consignors or regulated agents.
H3.6
COURIER AND EXPRESS PARCEL CONSIGNMENTS

It is usual that courier and express parcel corporations are regulated agents. Such corporations would be expected to meet the same standards as those of other regulated agents. Courier and express parcel consignments should have an affixed courier baggage identification label. Although airlines may have IATA Recommended Security Standards within their programmes, it should be understood that Member States of ICAO can impose more stringent standards. Individual
H3.7
UNKNOWN CARGO
The uncontrolled acceptance of cargo from persons unknown to the regulated agent, and its subsequent carriage on an international passenger carrying aircraft, is a security risk. Although it is not feasible that all cargo can originate from known shippers, there is a need to control the risk factors when considering the carriage of the cargo of unknown shippers.
H3.8
UNKNOWN SHIPPERS
Shippers not known to the regulated agent and/or carrier should be called upon to provide proof of identity and submit the consignment to a prescribed method of screening. Proof of identity will entail the unknown shipper providing a valid form of identification, which may include:
A valid passport. A driver's license with photograph. A photograph identification card issued by a government department or agency.
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Screening of cargo includes: (a) Screening by X-ray, such that:
The equipment used must be of a type approved by the responsible authority.
The equipment should be regularly maintained and meet manufacturer and other regulatory specifications. The screeners must be competent in screening techniques and be trained to a standard required by the responsible authority. The regulated agent will keep a record of the operatives and their training in screening techniques. (b) Hand searching:
Those involved in the hand search of cargo are experienced in identifying dangerous items and explosive materials. It is preferred that the shipper/consignor or their representative should be present at the time of hand search if possible. (c) By other means:
The use of X-ray, enhanced X-ray and other detection bio-sensory technologies; i.e. centrifugal spectrum analysis. Trace detection. The use of simulation or pressure chamber. The use of trained 'sniffer' dogs.
And in some cases hold for a specified period of time (e.g. 24 hrs or flight time plus 2
hours, etc.).
(d) The multiple use of the above means of search may be best to achieve the necessary
degree of satisfaction that the cargo is not a danger for carriage on passenger aircraft. description in the accompanying documents. transportation.
(e) The search shall be as thorough as possible to verify the consignment is consistent with the (f) Cargo shall be protected against unauthorised interference during preparation, storage and
Once the consignment of an unknown shipper is screened to the satisfaction of the Regulated Agent's Security Programme, a declaration should accompany the airway bill, which contains all relevant information. Cargo from unknown shippers may be exempt from screening under special circumstances. These circumstances will need to be ascribed to by the responsible authority and should be contained in the Regulated Agent's Aviation Security Programme. Those circumstances may include:
The package is less than 5mm thick.
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Vaccines and other perishable medical use items. A diplomatic bag.
IATA
H3.9
Human remains and necessary packaging, if the shipper/consignor is Airport a bona fide Security funeral
director and a copy of a death certificate has been examined.
UNACCOMPANIED BAGGAGE
Unaccompanied Baggage is defined as baggage that is transported as cargo and is not carried on the same aircraft with the person to whom it belongs. There are obvious dangers in transporting unaccompanied baggage on passenger carrying aircraft. Stringent standards must be implemented to overcome these dangers and the shipper/consignor of the baggage will be considered as an unknown shipper. The following security measures should be implemented for unaccompanied baggage that is being
The baggage will be subjected to the same security checks as that of an unknown shipper.
The shipper/consignor must be the holder of a valid airline ticket to the destination to which the baggage is directed. The baggage will be handled by a regulated agent or directly checked into the cargo terminal of the airline on which the passenger will travel. In some cases States may exempt unaccompanied baggage from additional security screening if the passenger had no control over being separated from their baggage. This is provided the baggage
H3.10 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS H3.I11 Random Checks on Protocols

Whatever source is used for the transportation and storage of cargo at or between airports, proactive action needs to be taken to prevent the introduction of explosives or incendiary devices into air cargo. Appropriate failsafe protocols need to be produced and actively monitored by spot random checks to ensure that cargo is safely transported and that only permitted items1 are transferred between international and internal national boundaries.
H3.IR2 Compliance with Annex 17 Provision

Cargo process and system designers should observe the mandatory requirements setout in standards 4.5.1 to 4.5.4 inclusive of ICAO Annex 17. It is recommended that as a minimum all International cargo should be accounted for by a regulated agents system or screened using appropriate screening technology, which complies with the local national screening standard (eg DfT or TSA, etc.) or those recommended for use by Airports Council International. Protocols should be developed to ensure that complete end to end verification of security status of cargo can be assured.
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Chapter I Airport Access
Section 11: Roads
11.1 General Airport Road Considerations: Introduction.................................. 11.2 Environmental and Security Factors Associated with Traffic ................... 11.3 Traffic Data .............................................................................................. 11.4 Road System Planning Requirements....................................................... 11.5 Commercial Landside Vehicles ................................................................ 11.6 IATA Recommendations ...........................................................................
Section 12: Rail
269 270 270 271 274 275
12.1 General Considerations ........................................................................... 12.2 Typology................................................................................................... 12.3 Geography and Economics ...................................................................... 12.4 System Characteristics ............................................................................ 12.5 Good Practice .......................................................................................... 12.6 Cargo and Rail ......................................................................................... 12.7 Objectives and Benefits ........................................................................... 12.8 IATA Recommendations ...........................................................................
Section 13: Intermodality and Airport Access
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13.1 Principle of Intermodal Travel................................................................... 13.2 Ferry and Jetfoil Services ......................................................................... 13.3 Interfaces ................................................................................................ 13.4 IATA Recommendations ...........................................................................
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IAT A
CHAPTER I AIRPORT ACCESS SECTION 11: 11.1 ROADS
GENERAL AIRPORT ROAD CONSIDERATIONS: INTRODUCTION

Traffic generated by the airport is a major influence on the surrounding environs. The influence increases with the size and throughput of the airport and its proximity to the built up residential area. Fast, convenient, economic access is essential for the airport to function properly, but it needs to impinge on the neighbouring locality with as little disturbance as possible. At the planning stage, a full analysis of the airport access system is required, with the capacity of the system needing to match the terminal and airside capacity. Close co-ordination between airport planners, local planning authorities and local transportation providers is necessary to ensure that proper and timely provision for the requirements, current and projected, is in the local or regional transportation plan and in the appropriate capital expenditure programmes. The demand for ground transportation between the airport and the metropolitan area it serves is generated by: originating and terminating passengers; meeters and greeters and other visitors (including those shopping or on business at the airport); airport and airline industry employees; cargo, express services and mail; and airport support and supply services. Advance planning is highly important. Surface access development plans should be part of the airport masterplans and development plans for the surrounding area. The forecast modal split between rail-based access and road-based access (private car, taxi, bus and other) can either be an input to or an output from these plans. If the airport or local planning authority have a specific target split for a specific reason, it will be an input: if it emerges from constraints on transport infrastructure elements, it is more in the nature of an output. Planning for the road network will need a traffic model to forecast vehicle trips by vehicle type and their origins and destinations, as well as the peak volumes. From this will come the need for highway capacity on access roads, airport roads and on key junctions outside the airport.
11.1.1
Responsibilities
Responsibilities for access provision can be divided, and can rest with organisations other than the airport authority. Hence there is the potential for a clash of priorities on the timing of capacity provision. This needs to be taken into account, and appropriate steps should be taken to ensure that construction
11.1.2
Objectives
The objective of surface improvements needs to be accepted and understood. It can be to encourage a particular modal split (and therefore the use of public transport rather than the car), improved links to terminals (enhancing the attractiveness of the airport for passenger or cargo traffic), or merely accommodating growth in demand. The objective, especially if it is the first, needs to be an integral part of the masterplan. Surface access links are best improved in an integrated way, and in a way which furthers the objective. The most successful plans are those which improve access for both public and private modes, both road and non-road. The design of all of the facilities needs to recognise the alternatives of minimising capital expenditure, minimising running costs, or minimising construction time. An appropriate
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As surface access is upgraded, increased use of public transport should be encouraged by making it as widely available and as attractive as possible in terms of speed, image, reliability, convenience, safety, comfort and cost. The transportation network provided for access will also be attractive to non airport users. In the planning stage, this needs full consideration, namely: will all demands be met, or will the design and the pricing structure be geared to discouraging non-airport traffic? Within the airport boundary, traffic is generated by the airport itself. The amount will vary in nature and volume with the size and type of airport. It will include transfer passengers where there is more than one terminal, and adequate transfer systems (moving walkways, buses and shuttles, automated people movers) need to be evaluated and developed.
11.2
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SECURITY FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH TRAFFIC

Measures to meet surface access requirements should balance the need for capacity with environmental and security concerns, at both local and global levels. The airport can only grow with the consent of its neighbours, who have legitimate concerns about pollution, noise and congestion. Airport access traffic is a significant part of local traffic: ground traffic is responsible for a significant part of the total pollution from the airport. Separate road access for passenger and cargo facilities may be beneficial. To encourage use of environmentally responsible modes, an appropriate mix of incentives and disincentives should be used: passengers can be attracted by speed, reliability and comfort; employees by pricing (especially by travelcard schemes, demonstrating clear value for money for leisure as well as work trips), and also by car sharing and car pooling initiatives. Electric or low emission vehicles should be considered for on-airport traffic and for aircraft servicing. Off-airport consolidation of deliveries has also been successfully used to reduce traffic. Road design can reduce noise, severance and congestion impacts, and pedestrian routes which are designed in a way which encourages their use are more beneficial than those merely designed to minimise the interaction between foot and wheeled traffic. Security concerns may restrict vehicular access. A general rule of thumb is that unexamined vehicles should not be allowed to park within 300 feet (100 metres) of a terminal building, although this may be modified according to the specific design of the terminal (would it be screened from a blast from a bomb in a car park, or conversely are there large exposed areas of highly lethal glass?). Such considerations are less relevant with public transport access: passengers on public transport are far more likely to be under surveillance than car drivers, and have a far lower capacity for bringing in bombs. The movement of public transport vehicles is also far less predictable and far less controllable
11.3
TRAFFIC DATA
A significant proportion of airport ground transport demand is from originating and terminating passengers. However as a rule of thumb, there are about 1000 employees for each million passengers through the airport each year, and each employee makes around 10 trips a week. So a million passengers equates to approximately 4000 passenger trips and 2000 employee trips a day. Employee traffic volumes and peaks will reflect on-airport employment situations; for instance, is it only related to day to day operations, or is there, for example, a major maintenance facility? Is it strongly peaked by time of day, days of the week, or season of the year? Is there a curfew or is it a 24 hour airport? Delivery traffic can be significant especially if the airport has a large retail and catering operation. Cargo traffic will vary with the amount of cargo through the airport, and much air cargo, especially short haul, travels by surface mode anyway.
IATA
Airport Access
Meeters and greeters may create a significant amount of traffic, according to local custom: shoppers, spotters, sightseers and business partners all contribute too. On-airport traffic hotel and car rental courtesy vehicles, transfer passengers can also be significant. If the airport is a public transport interchange point, or a convenient park and ride point, there can also be large volumes of non-airport traffic.
11.3.1
Data Required
For calculations of passenger-related vehicular traffic and the resulting facilities and capacity needed, the design year average day and peak hour forecasts will provide figures for volumes of originating and terminating passengers, as well as for transfer passengers for inter- and intra-terminal traffic. To estimate volumes of vehicular passenger traffic entering or leaving the airport, there is a need for forecasts of:
Arrival rates for arriving and departing passengers for the average day of the peak month. Peak hour and peak minute information may also be required. Factors can be applied to each vehicular mode if necessary: for example the number of goods vehicles or buses, which take up more space than cars, may need to be weighted more than cars and taxis. The percentage of passengers by type of vehicle (park and ride, kiss and ride, taxi, bus, rail, water) to determine the transport mix. Meeters and greeters which can be significant according to the local culture and customs.
Occupancy of each vehicle (occupants: car) relevant for vehicle numbers and curb requirements. Total passenger related vehicle trips by mode can be estimated and added to other trips to determine
11.3.2 Stationary Traffic

Additional data are required for specific requirements like parking and curb space. Average dwell times at the curb which will vary depending on whether or not there is curb check in, for example and the number of vehicles parked by meeters and greeters and kiss and ride (compared with park and ride) visitors is needed for this. In general, short term parking (less than 8 hours) should be reasonably close to the terminals Long term (over 8 hours) can be remote, with shuttle bus or people mover access. Pricing policies can have interesting and sometimes unintended effects: increasing car park charges to improve the use of public transport and decrease car trips, for instance, can backfire by encouraging kiss and ride (4 trips) rather than park and ride (2 trips). Incentives are needed. For example, ensuring that passengers leaving terminals see the train station before they see car parking and taxi/car hire areas is a valuable indicator of the priority the airport ascribes to the rail mode. Much of the necessary information can only be obtained from surveys of passengers, employees, cargo handlers and support services.
11.4
ROAD SYSTEM PLANNING REQUIREMENTS

Planning of airport roads, especially for high volume airports, is a specialised subject and expert advice should be sought. At all airports there will be public (landside) roads open to all traffic, and non-public (airside) service roads restricted to authorised vehicles (for cargo, catering, maintenance, fire and rescue, fuel, baggage, security and the like).
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At large airports, it is preferable to separate service-related traffic long before arriving at the passenger terminal curbside area. This results in a double network of roads: those for passengers, visitors and probably employees; and those for delivery of goods, services, cargo, kitchen supplies and so on.
11.4.1
Public (Landside) Airport Roads

The landside road system serves a number of categories of traffic, namely:
Passengers. Private cars. Taxis. Shuttle and courtesy vehicles for hotels, car rental and car parks. Inter terminal shuttles. Public transport buses including group minibuses and charter/tour buses. Limousine services. Cargo and mail. Light vans, pickup trucks and trailer trucks. Airline and airport personnel. Crew buses and staff vehicles (who can, of course, constitute a significant blockage at airside entry points because of the need to screen their baggage). Airport service vehicles.
It also needs to satisfy certain basic criteria: Basic planning requirements for landside roads. They should be designed to accommodate peak traffic volumes and have adequate expansion capacity (unless the airport takes the conscious decision not to cater for peak flows). All public roads should be clearly signposted. Clearly visible signs should be positioned on the roads and on the terminal curbside areas well in advance of desired destinations to allow drivers to make any necessary changes without abrupt changes of lane and direction. Signs should be properly lighted for night use, and lettering and background colours should enhance clarity and visibility. Messages should be concise, quickly identifiable and easily understood. Colour coding for multiple terminals, for specific airlines, or for major facilities like car parks, is recommended. Links between the external public road system and the non-public or service road system should be planned carefully in order to avoid either congestion or reductions in the potential for future expansion. Main through roads should bypass the road along the face of the terminal building. Roads running along the face of the terminal building should be wide enough to permit passing of stopped vehicles and should have a minimum of three lanes. These should be wide enough to allow space for loading and unloading bags. There should be no access to the apron, taxiways or runways from public roads.
276
IATA
Airport Access
Where the public road system accommodates service vehicles, it should connect with terminals for delivery of goods at designated locations only. Roads connected to cargo areas must have sufficient height and clearances to accommodate existing and projected cargo carrying vehicles. At large airports, special lanes may be reserved for high-occupancy vehicles, and the curbside area should segregate buses and taxis (inner lanes) from private vehicles (outer lanes). Provision should be made for a future people mover system (note that such systems can be elevated above highways). Adequate facilities for two-wheeled vehicles should be provided: secure parking spaces should be available near work areas and public transport stops. Safety can be improved by the provision of a segregated network for two wheeled or un-powered vehicles. Specialist vehicles like tow tractors or main deck loaders are not normally operated on public roads but are used extensively airside. Occasionally they are required to operate on landside roads and therefore proper consideration should be given to their non-standard physical dimensions.
11.4.2
Non Public (Airside) Airport Service Roads

Basic planning requirements for airside roads are:
Access to the non-public road network must be effectively restricted to service vehicles directly
linked with aircraft handling activities. cargo terminal and the aircraft.
The service roads must be capable of accepting ULD transporter equipment between the Adequate bearing strength, height clearances and turning radii must be provided to
accommodate existing and projected service and ground support equipment, including tow tractors, where applicable.
Airport service roads should have a minimum width of 10m, preferably 12m, and a clearance
height of 4.2m, but preferably 4.6m. The latter is of particular concern with regard to service roads directly located in front of parking positions which pass under sections of the terminal building and/or passenger loading bridges. It should be noted that the figures provided are design guidelines and should be adjusted to the local situation prevailing at the specific airport concerned. Service roads should be designed to accommodate self-propelled equipment with a swept turn radius of at least 8m.
Adequate separation in accordance with ICAO Annex 14 must be provided from runways,
taxiways or other areas where aircraft manoeuvre. support equipment must be provided.
Where necessary, adequate roadway width to permit overtaking of slow-moving ground
In planning for airside road systems it must be recognized that many restrictions exist especially in those areas where aircraft ground handling activities are in progress. Safety and security aspects together with the special needs of slow traffic (e.g. tugs and dollies), wide and very high vehicles, all need to be taken into account. Exclusive use of part of the system by some categories may be necessary. Special attention should be given to:
277
The use of private cars airside should be restricted.
Aircraft tow tractors may have to operate at right angles to service roads. Special provisions may be necessary. There are two possible locations for the service road:
Behind the aircraft. Between the front of the aircraft stand and the terminal building.
Each location has its advantages and disadvantages. Since a lot of operational activity tends to occur around the forward portion of the aircraft, a frontal service road is sometimes preferred. However the disadvantage with this type of service road is that the clearance height necessary to allow certain types of service vehicles, i.e. aircraft catering, to pass underneath may create a major problem with the height or slope of the passenger boardng bridge or the elevation of the departure gate lounge. When the service road is located in front of the terminal building adequate room must be provided for the aircraft push-back tractor to manoeuvre, i.e. the tractor which is at 90 must not encroach into the service road. However this often occurs and traffic congestion on the service road follows. Though not a recommended solution by IATA, it may therefore be in certain instances more advantageous to locate the service road to the rear of the aircraft stands. In this case the service road should be very clearly marked and must not be allowed to infringe on apron taxiway operations. Proper clearance must be defined and maintained from the rear of the aircraft to the service road to the apron taxiway. Rear service roads will involve traffic coming off the service road past the aircraft wings and engines when approaching the front of the aircraft. Movement around aircraft wings, etc.,
11.5 11.5.1
COMMERCIAL LANDSIDE VEHICLES
Taxis
The requirement to provide a continual supply of taxis to the arrivals curbside loading area can be accommodated by creating a taxi pool staging area. This needs to be reasonably close to the terminal area, and provision for orderly staging and sequential dispatch of taxis to the curb is necessary. A means of alerting drivers to the need for taxis at the curb (and, in multi-terminal airports, which curb), is also needed.
11.5.2
Buses & Coaches
There are various types of buses and coaches, all of which have different needs to be catered for, namely:
Charter and tour buses need dedicated curb space. This is often provided at the end of the
terminals or in a dedicated transportation centre. There is also a need for waiting and parking space, ideally with some form of communication for drivers meeting inbound passengers.
Hotel shuttles. These also need dedicated curb space for loading and unloading, and facilities
for waiting passengers (including phones for communications with hotels). In order to reduce onairport traffic, some airports have consolidated hotel shuttles into a number of fixed route services, each one serving a number of local hotels.
Long distance buses and coaches. These are usually accommodated at a dedicated
transportation centre. This can be a valuable facility for local residents, who generally are more likely to need a bus than a plane. A dedicated transportation centre needs a good walking route or a people
278
IATA Local buses. These are particularly valuable for employees. A number of Airport Access airports have provided
a direct subsidy, start-up funding, or assistance with marketing for buses on core routes, especially those operating 24 hours a day. Some are demand-responsive, deviating from a fixed route if pre-booked a useful answer to personal security concerns. Some airports have introduced free or discounted travel schemes for employees to reduce car traffic and to increase their pool of labour. The reputation of the airport depends in part on the quality of (often low paid) retail and cleaning staff, and increasing the ability of all shifts to get to work at an acceptable price is useful. A few large airports have negotiated free-fare zones around the airport to encourage employees to use the bus for travel between on-airport sites (for example to meetings) rather than to use a car.
11.
11 .IR1 Airport Access Capacity Requirements t the planning stage, a full analysis of the airport access system is required: the capacity of the system needs to match the terminal and airside capacity. Close co-ordination between airport planners, local planning authorities and local transportation providers is necessary and recommended.
11 .IR2 Airport Road Function Requirements The airport road planner should detail the routes needed for tl if? various vehicles on and aroun: the airport complex, A traffic computer simulation model should be created to forecast vehicle trips by vehicles by type, detailing their origins and destinations, and the peak volumes. The airport road planner shall then be able to quantify road sizes and provisions accordingly. "A
11 jil Public Transps t Provisions

For existing airports wanting to expand, studies or surveys should be undertaken to establish the percentage of passengers using public transport to get to the airport and the reasons for their choice. If enhancements to tfie existing public transport infrastructure were made, ii ten the usage by passengers should also be evaluated via passenger surveys. The passenger growth iates should then be factored into the expectations of the usage of facilities, it is important that computer simulation and forecasting models realistically represent the capabilities of expensive non-airport-owned rail infrastructure.
r
11 .IR4 Reducing Vehicular Airport Emissions Electric or low emission vehicles should be considered for on-airport traffic and for aircraft servicing.
|1 .IRS Lane Demarcation At large airports, the allocation of special lanes may be considered and reserved for higff occupancy vehicles, and the curbside area should segregate buses and taxis (inner lanes) from private vehicles (outer lanes)
279
I1.IR6 Airside Service Road Sizes Airport service roads should have a minimum width of 10m, ideally 12m. This width is for the provision of two lanes of traffic. The preferred height clearance for these roads should be >4.2m <4.6m. The upper limit of 4.6m should be observed where airside vehicles are to travel beneath sections of the terminal building or pier or beneath the link bridges connecting the passenger boarding bridges rotundas with the terminal/pier infrastructure. It should be noted that the figures provided are design guidelines and should be adjusted to the local situation prevailing at the specific airport concerned. Service roads should be designed to accommodate self-propelled equipment with a swept turn radius of at least 8m:
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IATA
SECTION 12: 12.1 RAIL
Airport Access
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
In the planning stage, a full analysis of the airport rail access system is required: the capacity of the system needs to match the terminal and airside capacity. Close co-ordination between airport planners, local planning authorities and local transportation providers is necessary to ensure that proper and timely provision for the requirements, current and projected, is in the local or regional transportation plan and in the appropriate capital expenditure programmes. The demand for rail ground transportation between the airport and the metropolitan area it serves is generated by: originating and terminating passengers; meeters and greeters and other visitors (including those shopping or on business at the airport); airport and airline industry employees; cargo, express services and mail; and airport support and supply services. Advance planning is highly important. Surface rail access development plans should be part of the airport masterplans and development plans for the surrounding area. The forecast modal split between rail based access and road based access (private car, taxi, bus and other), can either be
I2.2
TYPOLOGY
There are several different types of rail access:
Metro rail. High speed dedicated. Regional and national. Light rail.
The characteristics of each type should be reviewed to decide which is best for the transfer processes in hand. Each type has evolved to meet local requirements.
12.2.1
Metro Rail System

The most common types of metro rail system are the subway, metro extension or station on a local commuter network. These are particularly good for employee access (because they are usually part of a network serving residential areas, and because the fare structure is geared to frequent travellers). An advantage to the railway operator is that many employees and air passengers travel out of or against the local peaks and therefore make good use of the spare capacity inherent in a commuter operation. However some North American variants of commuter rail only have a few peak trips in the peak direction only. Clearly this is unsuited to airport traffic and an expansion of service (to both directions, reverse commute, and trips throughout the day) would be required. This type is less good for air passengers especially those travelling long haul, with much baggage. There may not be appropriate accommodation on the trains, and the airport needs to be alert for problems and to be ready to liaise if necessary with the transport provider. There is a need for
281

12.2.2 High Speed Dedicated
The most popular type among passengers is the high quality dedicated airport express. There are about a dozen of these around the world, characterised by high speed limited stop services, and trains with a business class ambience and purpose built luggage accommodation. In some cases these provide in-town check-in. Many make a commitment to punctuality and reliability, with a scheme offering compensation for delays. In a number of cases, the timetable is such that there is always a train waiting for passengers they can wait for departure in the train rather than on the platform.
12.2.3 Regional
A regional rail service is valuable for increasing the airport catchment area as it can feed in traffic from nearby towns and cities. Frequency may be an issue, especially at hub airports; because trains serve a larger market than the airport, timings may not suit the classic hub and spoke operation with waves of inbound and outbound connecting flights.
-
12.2.4 Light Rail

Light rail is increasingly becoming a solution to the airport access problem, although as with suburban and metro systems it is more suited to employees than air passengers due to the types of rail carriages provided and their ability to deal with cumbersome baggage. However those passengers with only hand baggage especially may find its penetration into the conurbation valuable.
12.3
GEOGRAPHY AND ECONOMICS

All types of rail access require investment plus the correct geography. If a rail line runs nearby, how easy would it be to connect it to the airport? If there is not an existing railway nearby, how can rail best be used to access the conurbation centre? New construction is costly and significant new build would require either a large airport or long distances from the centre (where the speed advantage is most beneficial) to justify the outlay. But when built, it can be highly attractive rail has a better image than bus and is therefore more efficient in changing modal share. A key lesson is that it needs to go where people want to go although if the airport is big enough and the service good enough, commercial development will be attracted to the city terminal area, making it a destination in its own right. The economic viability of different types of public transport bus, light and heavy rail will vary with the size of the market, local transportation policy and the nature of the market:
If the majority of users live locally, for example, they will be more likely to know about the
public transport alternatives but are more likely to have a car available.
If the majority are inbound tourists they will not have a car available.
If the majority are on inclusive tours, they are more likely to have buses pre-arranged for
onward travel.
The potential market share for public transport can be as high as 50%, although this needs dedication and excellence not least in marketing. Travel time on a dedicated high speed link can be significantly
Airport Access
12.4
SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
There are a number of characteristics which airport planners should consider for the implementation of train systems. The assessment of the following characteristics should include: (i) The number of vehicles or carriages required to process the demand, (ii) The speed and frequency of the train operations required to meet the demand, (iii) Track and signal operating limitations, (iv) Compatibility with other train operating and station systems, (v) Operational flexibility of the train operating systems, (vi) Technology suitability.
12.4.1
Airport Station Characteristics

The location of the station(s) to serve the airport is important, especially if there is more than one terminal. If there is more than one station, there is a need for good signage and communications; although the railway can then be used for inter-terminal transport. Stations for cargo, maintenance, sightseeing or hotel areas are all possible, according to geography and demand. Here above all future expansion plans need to be borne in mind to ensure that the station a relatively fixed point will not be rendered out of date (or at least to ensure that the railway can continue to serve the airport efficiently). When planning the station, there is a need to consider the capacity of the access system. Provision for change of level needs to be appropriate for the numbers likely to be using them the likely volumes of passengers and baggage from peak trains. Facilities include:
Baggage trolleys. This can be an issue between the railway and airport. For understandable safety reasons, train companies prefer those where the brake is on unless released by a user. Many airports prefer those where the user is actually required to apply the brake when necessary.
Accommodation for change of level can include moving walkways, although here and on escalators trolley policy needs to be considered. Convenience and safety need to be balanced. Lifts/elevators are valuable especially for those with reduced mobility: they need to be designed to carry a stretcher if necessary. Ideally a choice should be provided some people are claustrophobic in lifts.
Check-in, away from the platforms but on the natural route from the platforms to the terminals, is valuable. It will facilitate passenger circulation and relieve stress by disencumbering them of their bags as early as possible. It reduces the need for trolleys and for circulation space on the route to the terminals, and may even reduce the need for check-in space in the terminals.
ln-town check-in and in-town check-out needs to be considered for the downtown terminal or at major interchanges. The facilities can range from self-service machines for those with just hand baggage via baggage drop systems, to full hold baggage check-in. Although these alternatives are popular among passengers, so far the economic case for them has been difficult to make. Everyone benefits, but matching the flow of costs and the flow of benefits can be
283
12.5
GOOD PRACTICE
Good examples are in Madrid and Stuttgart (subway/metro); Heathrow, Oslo, Stockholm, Hong Kong and Kuala Lumpur (high speed dedicated); Frankfurt and Paris Roissy-Charles de Gaulle (high speed network); Zurich, Geneve and Southampton (regional); and Portland (Oregon), BaltimoreWashington International and Bremen (light rail). Many high speed dedicated services charge a premium fare to reflect the premium product they are providing. There is little significant customer resistance to this, especially if there is a choice of rail service and especially if the airport has a high proportion of business users (who value their time highly). A premium fare for a non-premium service cashing in on a captive market does lead to customer resentment and resistance. Except in special cases (code-sharing, and airports with limited numbers of flights) it is not generally worthwhile attempting to co-ordinate flight times with train times. There is an unpredictable amount of time between the scheduled flight arrival time and arriving passengers finding the train flights can arrive early or late, and the need to reclaim baggage and complete arrival formalities are key factors. It is better to provide good information and a frequent service at least hourly for regional and high speed network, every 1 0 1 5 minutes for high speed dedicated and more frequent still for metro, suburban and light rail.
12.6
CARGO AND RAIL

The scope for the use of rail for air cargo varies. Rail is well suited to carrying high bulk, low value products like building materials and most airports are building sites. Rail is valuable for bringing in fuel, where the choice is often between a pipeline (highly capital intensive but with low running costs) and a railway (lower capital cost, higher running cost). The use for pure air cargo is more complex. There have been few successes, usually where air cargo and domestic cargo can be consolidated on a single train. There is rarely enough air cargo between two points to cover the costs of a dedicated rail service: it needs to be combined and this tends to need the skills of a consolidator.
12.7
OBJECTIVES AND BENEFITS

A good rail system will ease the journeys of passengers and employees, will reduce traffic on
IATA
12.8
Airport Access
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS I2.IR1 Sound Business and Environmental Case

The investment needed to provide dedicated airport rail provision can be very substantial. The business case should consider:
Cosf to the airport to provide the rail system. Cost to the airport not to provide the rail system. Public perception of the usefulness of the rail infrastructure proposed
; State of readiness from competing taxi and bus infrastructure and degree of market sales share likely. Assessment of travel times for all comparative modes of transport during normal and peak times. The environmental impact of providing or not providing a rait system should be evaluated. The effects to the local community in either situation should be established and informed decisions made accordingly.
I2.IR2 Complimentary Services The rail services proposed and provided should compliment airline short and long haul operations. Their should be no commercial conflict of interests on high speed long distance rail provisions serving the airport. .IR Promotion of Pail Services over Conventional Modes of Transport
Rail services should aim to attract staff and the travelling public by providing both cost effective and (^gyenient travel to and from airport facilities through the operational day and night period.
12.IR4 Integrated Approach Designers should provide rail facilities that: Have the capability with further investment in some cases to meet the operational requirements of the airport for the next 30 years. 'eet the needs of the passengers and the local community on opening.
Offer in-town or remote hotel check-in coordination, providing mechanisms, systems and railway carriages dedicated for moving and handling passenger check-in baggage and hand cabin sized baggage. Design systems which interact with one another thereby providing passengers seamless transition from the rail system to the airport environment.
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SECTION 13: 13.1 INTERMODALITY AND AIRPORT ACCESS
PRINCIPLE OF INTERMODAL TRAVEL

Passenger and staff travel via car to the airport is both attractive and convenient. Intermodal travel, which in this context means the principle of using one or more modes of transport to supplement the single mode of vehicular transport travel to and from the airport complex, is actively promoted by IATA. It is advantageous to the short and long term aspirations of airports to progress plans of intermodal travel, since it offers the airport complex the following advantages:
Passenger and staff car parking facilities become far less onerous in size and complexity. Traffic congestion and therefore road infrastructure can be correspondingly downsized. The resulting volume of road traffic and the environment impacted upon is lessened. Car parking road space saved can be used for expansion plans by the airport operator.
13.1.1 Incentives Schemes

It is difficult to change the mindset of passengers and staff, who often own expensive cars, to forego the convenience of their own vehicles for multiple modes of public transport to get to and from the airport. Clearly, to make this change viable, certain incentives should be made as a policy for the travelling staff and public:
Staff traveling at peak times could be offered discounted rail travel as an incentive. Staff which sign up to airport managed car sharing schemes could be given priority parking positions closer to the airport. Care is needed with these schemes to ensure that vehicles have the correct level of maintenance and insurance coverage. Passengers could be offered total door to door services with the use of integrated taxi and train ticket packages.
13.1.2 Disincentive Schemes

Similarly, to make this change viable, certain disincentives should also be made policy for staff travelling to and from the airport complex:
Passenger parking rates can be raised (though there are realistic limits to this, as high rates can ultimately deter passenger from travelling via aircraft). Staff car parks can be located on the airport perimeter, rather than close to passenger short and long term car parks, with bus links to the terminal. Staff APM car parking facilities can be offered to staff, but only with a payment. Other bonus schemes can be developed providing staff with a financial incentive to leave the APM car at home.
13.1.3 Developing an Intermodal Strategy

The airport operator must work with the local community, as well as with local transport companies that support the operational airport, to ensure together that a network and fare structure is advantageous to staff and passengers. The key attributes of well developed intermodal airport strategies can include:
iata
Airport Access

Total commuter and passenger travel solutions the door-to-door approach. Optimization of all resources and facilities. A strategy than aligns with the masterplan aspirations for the developing and expanding airport operation .
13.2
FERRY AND JETFOIL SERVICES

This is valuable for airport access where water exists and where the geography is favourable. There is often little congestion and it is a popular way to get around especially with tourists. Boats, ferries and hovercraft are even efficient for crossing estuaries or significant volumes of water. It is important to include and consider all potential modes of transport to and from the airport and, where facets of the airport perimeter are waterways, the use of these facilities can be a favourable option for reducing road and rail traffic. Since ferry and jetfoil services require little infrastructure and no track, they are often a cheaper alternative to rail or road provision but should not be considered as options on there own. The effects of tides, adverse currents and weather can have a negative affect on services, and supplementary road and rail access provisions should be the primary mode of transport, especially for airports where passenger traffic exceeds 1 MPPA. Ferry and Jetfoil services should be co-ordinated and controlled by harbour masters and suitable water navigational services, incorporating equipment to aid safe travel to and from the airport complex.
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Figure 13-1: Current Modal Split at Various International
Aiiport
Europe Amsterdam Brussels Copenhagen Frankfurt LondonGtw London Hrw Madrid Manchester Munich Paris CDG Paris CRY Rome Stockholm Zurich
Distance
to center
Train
link
km
15 12 8 15 45 24 13 15 30 27 14 25 35 11
Journey time rrtn

10 20 12 10 30 16 12 13 40 29 34 35 20 10
Rank Ml pass freqrhr 2001

4 4 6 4to6 4 4 12 6 6 4 5 15 4 12 7,685,00 0 2,342,81 6 3,000,00 0 3,076,00 0 8,800,00 0 4,000,00 0 1,350,00 0 9,548,24 8 2,945,40 1 2,500,00 0 7,000,00 0
Est Mod plltfn%: 2005 Rail Bus | Taxi | Car |

9,000,00 0 3,500,00 0 33% 13% 37% 27% 21% 22% 14% 6% 28% 20% 13% 27% 15% 4200 % 4% 2% 4% 6% 9% 12 % 7% 11 % 7% 10 % 16 % 5% 17 % 5% 16% 20% 33% 19% 17% 26% 40% 28% 12% 37% 27% 32% 16% 10% 46 % 54 % 26 % 47 % 50 % 39 % 33 % 55 % 53 % 30 % 43 % 36 % 27 % 40 % 52 % 77 % 65 % 96 % 55 % 70 % 80 % 40 % 71 % 56 % 81 % 60 % 46 % 41 % 69 % 51 % 58 % 54 %
Car Total pk Parks spcos

3 6 13 2 4 9 13 10 37 7 7 5 7 29,900 9,900 6,550 36,500 27,000 18,220 15,217 17,461 31,500 15,970 14,891 16,500 16,000 20,000
yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes
11%
6,000,00 0 2,200,00 0 9,600,00 0 2,500,00 0 8,000,00 0
3% 1% 6%
25% 3%
North
Atlanta Baltimore Chicago ORD and rati Dallas Denver Honolulu Las Vegas Los Angeles
18 23 29 28 35 6 3 24 11 9 26 24 15 15 20 19 27
Marri
Mnreapdis Newark NY JFK NY Laguardia Orlando SanFrandsco Seattle Toronto

) ' ' ~mm
yes yes yes no no no no no yes no no yes yes no no no no no
15 34 45
15 3 6
283,660
379,860
1% 4%
40
45 20 40 60
12
0% 0% 290,000 3,800,00 0 6% 2%
4 4
800,000
28
12 % 14 % 8% 0% 33 % 25 % 5% 10 % 16 % 21 % 9% 4% 8% 7% 23 % 8% 1% 14 %
6% 7% 21% 1% 12% 5% 10% 50% 13% 23% 10% 29% 42% 52% 8% 11% 3% 32%
30% 1%
5%
5 9 5 2 20 5 15 4 2 5 8 8 8 6 1 4
1% 2%
30% 38%
25,400 43,127 11,500 31,100 27,400 7,600 12,868 25,653 7,650 16,800 20.000 12000 10,400 18,800 536 11,232 14788
Bangkok Beijing Hong Kong Osaka Seoul Sydney Tokyo HND Tokyo NRT
24 25 34 38 17 8 20 66
yes no yes yes yes yes yes
23 29 55 10 16 60
6 10 3 6to12 20
15,000,0 00 6,502,12 4 7,400,00 0
34 % 24% 33 % 44% 14 30% % 35 % 8% 18 %
35% 31 % 15% 28 % 40 6% % 29 % 16% 51 %
3 1 5 7 5 25
7%
9,024 5,616 4,200 5,553 6,460 7,573 8,405
| Mexico City
10
| yes |
15
| 10% I 15%| 25%| 50%|
| 5,902
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IATA
13.3 13.3.1 INTERFACES Cars Buses And Taxis
Airport Access
Private cars, taxis and buses will need to interface with the terminals at the curbside. A major issue is curbside capacity and the potential for congestion, as well as the avoidance of queues and accidents. The following curbside facilities should be provided at the terminal complex:
Departure passengers drop off temporary stop, offload and go areas for cars and taxis. Departures passengers drop off accommodating park and ride bus schemes. Arriving passengers pick up temporary stop on load and go areas for cars and taxis. Arriving passengers pick up accommodating park and ride bus schemes.
It is essential that signage is clear to all passengers and that simple routes to and from the areas dedicated to the above functions are adequately sized and positioned. Buses usually use fixed stopping points: there is a need to ensure that these are reasonably convenient for terminals. It is advantageous to accommodate taxi standby parking remotely (off airport) and provide a dedicated holding area for taxis so that the terminal complex does not become congested with competing taxi traffic. Taxis can be controlled into the airport complex by on-demand flow management processes. This ensures the taxi areas are adequately supplied with taxis at the correct time and that all taxi companies with licences to operate at the private airport have equal opportunity to pick up fares. The
I3.4
I3.IR1 Intermodality Strategy Airport Planners md operators shouldWevelop co-ordinated intermodality stiategy plans. These should present the opportunity to reduce normal road traffic by no less than 10% if implemented successfully, which should be the objective.
13.162 Taxi Processes

Airport Planners and operators should consider the provision of coordinated taxi flow monitoring^ schemes, ensunng that unused taxis are held in rank on the airport perimeter rather man adjacent to the airport terminal itself. Taxis should be called from a taxi rank on the airport perimeter,
289
IAT A
Chapter J Passenger Terminal Section J1: Outline of Principle Functions J1.1 General Introduction............................................................................... J 1.2 Terminal Concept..................................................................................... J 1.3 Major Functional Areas ........................................................................... J 1.4 IATA Recommendations ......................................................................... Section J2: Categories of Passenger Terminal J2.1 Centralized vs. Decentralised Facilities .................................................. J2.2 Description of Terminal Concepts............................................................ J2.3 Processing Levels .................................................................................... J2.4 Design and Construction.......................................................................... J2.5 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... Section J3: Small Airport Terminals J3.1 Small Airport Terminals Overview .......................................................... J3.2 Terminal Space & Functionality............................................................... J3.3 Development of Small Airports ............................................................... J3.4 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... Section J4: Common Systems CUTE & CUSS J4.1 Automated Passenger Processing........................................................... J4.2 CUTE........................................................................................................ J4.3 CUSS ....................................................................................................... J4.4 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... Section J5: Airline Communications Networks J5.1 Internet Connectivity ............................................................................. J5.2 Shared Extranet Connectivity ................................................................. J5.3 Integrated Wide Area Networks (WAN) & Local Area Networks (LAN) .... J5.4 CUTE Type Systems Connectivity............................................................. J5.5 Wireless Communications......................................................................... J5.6 IATA Recommended Practice................................................................... Section J6: Passenger Processing Facilities Planning J6.1 Passenger Flows..................................................................................... J6.2 Flow Routes ............................................................................................ J6.3 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... Section J7: Concession Planning J7.1 Public Terminal Retail Concession Service Areas ................................... J7.2 Location of Retail Facilities ..................................................................... J7.3 Sizing Retail Concessions ......................................................................... J7.4 Concession Servicing & Storage ............................................................. J7.5 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... 289 290 293 300 301 304 315 316 317 318 319 319 319 320 320 323 324 325 326 326 328 329 330 331 335 339 340 341 342 343 343
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Section J8: Maintenance J8.1 ICAO Requirements ................................................................................ J8.2 Preventative Maintenance Strategies ................................................... J8.3 Typical Structural / Infrastructure Faults................................................... J8.4 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... Section J9: Check-In J9.1 General................................................................................................... J9.2 Typical Check-In Concepts ....................................................................... J9.3 Check-In Hall............................................................................................ J9.4 Check-In Counter Design.......................................................................... J9.5 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... Section J10: People Mover Systems J 10.1 Automated People Movers (APM) ........................................................ J10.2 APM Applications at Airports ................................................................. J 10.3 APM Planning Considerations ................................................................ J10.4 Level of Service Criteria......................................................................... J10.5 Type of APM Car Occupants.................................................................... J 10.6 APM Car Occupancy Demand................................................................ J 10.7 Characteristics of APM Car Occupants ................................................. J10.8 APM Configurations/Operational Modes.................................................. J10.9 APM Technologies ................................................................................. J10.10 APM System Integration Into Facilities.................................................... J10.11 IATA Recommendations ....................................................................... Section J11: Passenger Boarding Bridges J 11.1 Objectives of Passenger Boarding Bridges .......................................... J11.2 Types of Passenger Boarding Bridge...................................................... J11.3 The Rotunda/Link Bridge/Emergency Escape.......................................... J11.4 The Telescopic Tunnel Slope .................................................................. J11.5 Stand Setting Out Configurations ......................................................... J11.6 The Apron Slope Effect........................................................................... J11.7 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ Section J12: Signage J 12.1 General Signage Philosophy: Overview .............................................. J12.2 Principles............................................................................................... J12.3 Wayfinding.............................................................................................. J12.4 Electronic Visual Information Systems (EVIDS) ..................................... J 12.5 Types of EVIDS ..................................................................................... J 12.6 Types of Display Technologies............................................................... J12.7 Reference Documents .......................................................................... J 12.8 IATA Recommendations ....................................................................... 344 345 346 347 348 348 349 351 355 356 357 358 358 358 359 359 359 360 360 361 362 363 364 366 367 367 368 370 371 373 374 376 378 380 380
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IAT A
CHAPTER J PASSENGER TERMINAL SECTION J1: J1.1 OUTLINE OF PRINCIPLE FUNCTIONS
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The main objective of this chapter is to identify the principal considerations in planning the passenger terminal complex, to describe the factors which can impact on the passenger experience and level of service provided, and to offer criteria and terms for evaluation of the inputs necessary for the planning process. The terminal building, and its surrounding apron, is the primary processing interface that lies between the various modes of surface access and airside infrastructure systems; i.e. taxiways and runways. The level of satisfaction gained while passing through the structure when departing, transferring or arriving will, to a large extent, impact on the willingness of the passenger to repeat the experience of flying through that country and airport again. The experience gained will also in part influence the passenger's view of the airline flown, as the two are inextricably linked. From a passenger's viewpoint, base expectations rarely exceed the provision of quick, easy and comfortable transfers from one point in the terminal to another. Building aesthetics, while important, are just one of many factors that have secondary influence on the overall terminal experience. To the airline the terminal building is a much more complex facility. The speed in which their passengers are processed is fundamental to their overall operational effectiveness. While airlines can control delays attributable to check-in and (to some extent) on time departures and arrivals, they must also be prepared for any possible variance with respect to passenger processing at customs and passport control. The behind-the-scenes baggage-handling capabilities also influence an airline's ability to provide adequate levels of service to its passengers. Baggage that does not travel in tandem with the passenger is an expensive fault to rectify. Central to all of this is the need to keep aircraft groundtime to a safe and workable minimum. To many airport authorities the terminal building is the vehicle by which they can extract valued revenue from the airport users; namely the airlines and their passengers. While the airlines recognise and accept that a degree of commercialisation is required, particularly if this is implemented within a 'single till' user charges framework, they have difficulty in coming to terms with facilities that have the ability to adversely impact on the efficiency or effectiveness of their routine operations, or that detract from the airport level of service anticipated by their passengers. Finally, to many consultants and airport authorities, the terminal building can be viewed as an
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J1.2
TERMINAL CONCEPT
J1.2.1 Considerations IATABasic Airport Development
Reference Manual
The design of passenger terminals must be related closely to the runway/taxiway system, apron configuration and the airport access system. The requirements of the major airline users should be fully understood. The base carrier and/or airline alliance group strategies should be equally evaluated and considered. This will play an important role in the layout and flexibility of the airport terminal building. The types and category of aircraft that can be accommodated by the runway system will dictate the permissible terminal concept layouts. The terminal concept will also relate closely to the type of airline and passenger business markets proposing to use the facility. The overall extent and location of the terminal building will be governed by the ultimate development potential of the airport, as contained within the airport's master plan. The size of the individual phases leading up to the ultimate development stage is determined through an analysis of the schedules of all the airlines serving the airport, their annual movements, the average passenger per aircraft movement measurement and the resultant total peak hour flows for departing, transfer and arriving passengers. As developed further in this chapter, certain basic criteria should be observed in the planning of passenger terminals and the selection of a terminal concept. The criteria include those considerations outlined below.
J1.2.1.1 Building Sub-systems

The passenger terminal complex should be considered as a series of interconnected subsystems, each capable of expansion when demand dictates. These are:
The main passenger processor. For departing passengers this comprises the departures
concourse and main check-in areas. For arriving passengers this comprises the baggage reclaim and arrivals concourse areas. health checks & customs control).
Outbound and inbound government inspection services (passport control, security checks,
Primary & centralised holding areas; i.e. the main departure lounge. Secondary & dispersed holding areas; i.e. finger piers and/or satellites containing gate hold
rooms. Concession areas: both land-side and airside.
J1.2.1.2 Modularity & Expandability

A modular design philosophy is required such that capacity enhancements can be easily added to
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J1.2.1.3 Wayfinding and Passenger Orientation Following from the previous criteria, it is important to mention the difficulties that can be experienced by passengers when they're presented with multiple choices in terms of the directions to be taken. In order to simplify the process as much as possible, the number of choices available needs to be reduced to an absolute minimum; e.g. one passenger terminal complex. In this way passengers and their meeters and greeters have no alternatives to choose from. Consider the difficulties inherent in facilities where passengers have multiple terminal departure variables to choose from at a single airport. Passenger orientation within the terminal can be greatly enhanced by adopting a transparent building philosophy. There is no simpler way to orientate passengers than to allow them to see their final terminal destination. For departing or transfer passengers this means partial or unobstructed views of aircraft. For arriving passengers this means sight lines towards land-side surface access systems and/or meeter/greeter areas. The clear glass approach can only be applauded in this respect. Passengers can be effectively led from one area to another through the passenger handling process without the need for extensive and expensive signage systems. Directional information should only be needed to support ancillary facilities that may be away from the primary, clearly evident circulation routes; i.e. to information/transfer counters, to CIP lounges, to toilets and associated support functions, etc. Passengers should not be subjected to changes in direction greater than 90 degrees and should not be made to perform repeated 90 degree turns within a short distance. In no instance should passengers J1.2.1.4 Passenger Cross-flows Situations where passenger flow routes cross should be avoided, as these will cause confusion and, in instances where disabled or assisted vehicular passenger transfers are also present, may be dangerous as well. J1.2.1.5 Compatibility & Flexibility Gate hold rooms in piers and satellites should be sized to accommodate the largest aircraft envisaged to be handled on the apron. Parking positions and particularly contact stands for aircraft should be designed with built-in flexibility to accommodate larger future generation aircraft. Current longer length variants such as the B737-900, A340-600 and B777-300 need to be considered. Piers and satellites should have expansion zones reserved in order to allow for this degree of flexibility.
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JT.2.1.6 Short Travel Distances The distances between aircraft for transfers, and between differing modes of surface access systems and aircraft for both departing and arriving passengers, should be kept to a minimum. Distances in excess of 300 metres should be provided with moving walkways. At all times where departing and arriving passengers are with hold baggage they should be provided with assistance in the form of baggage trolleys. Terminal systems (lifts, escalators and moving walkways) should permit passenger movement without the need to off-load and reload trolleys when changing levels. They should also permit other passengers to overtake, with or without baggage trolleys. On the airside of the passenger terminal complex, baggage trolleys should be smaller, more user friendly and reflect the need to only carry permitted cabin baggage. They should be capable of being accommodated within all concession outlets. Passenger flow routes should not be deliberately manipulated such that they are redirected through concession areas, especially when shorter, more direct routes are possible. Passengers who wish to make quick, easy and direct routings through terminals should be allowed to do so. Dedicated fast-track procedures, especially for premium traffic, may be warranted. J1.2.1.7 Minimal Level Changes If possible, departing and arriving passengers should not be required to change levels. If changes are required then these should be limited to a single level. In extreme cases, where difficult site conditions, existing operations or building structures leave no alternative, then multiple level changes are certainly required and should be achieved by unbroken escalators. Multiple escalators deliberately designed and configured to route passengers through concession areas should not be viewed as good practice. J1.2.1.8 Safe and Secure Environment Passengers transferring between aircraft or beginning or ending their journey, should at all times be visible and monitored within a controlled, safe and secure environment. Parking structures and bus and rail interchange stations should be well lit, with short, direct, easilyobserved links to terminal buildings. Payment areas and/or cash dispensing outlets should be easily recognised and be located within the main terminal building. Remote and isolated payment stations should not be considered. J1.2.1.9 Cost Effective Design Solutions Capital expenditure proposals to extend or construct new passenger terminal facilities should be substantiated by a business case and cost benefit analysis that has been vetted and agreed with the users. The business case must demonstrate clear benefits in terms of increased capacity to satisfy existing and projected demand and improved operational efficiency that result in cost savings to the user. As outlined in section J1.2.1.2., it would be preferred if new construction could be viewed as an additional module to be added to an existing but expandable operational system. Design, management and construction costs should be minimised by adopting a repetitive, low risk approach which should not adversely impact on existing airline operations. Expensive, above-average cost solutions with unique architectural fixtures and fittings or engineering features should be avoided. Simple,
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J1.2.1.10 Passenger Segregation
Passenger Terminal
When developing plans for expanded terminal capacity, either through an extension to an existing facility or construction of a new terminal area, the requirement to physically separate non-secure arriving and transfer passengers from departing security screened passengers must be taken into consideration. This is particularly important where piers and satellites (that achieve segregation by positioning arriving and departing passengers on separate levels) also afford the opportunity to airport authorities to achieve a high degree of flexibility especially when needing to serve different markets and/or percentages of traffic types at differing times of the same day. For more detailed information on passenger security and screening considerations, please refer to Chapters H and K in this manual. J1.2.1.11 Centralisation In the process of planning a terminal concept, airport authorities and/or their consultants must determine the degree of centralisation of the processing activity required, or the degree that can be accommodated by the base carrier, alliance partnerships and other carriers. In centralised concepts all the major components including surface access systems, passenger processing and baggage handling systems are all located in a single passenger terminal complex, independent of any particular traffic segment. In this type of configuration airlines and alliances can avoid unnecessary duplication of activities, common facilities can be shared and associated CAPEX and level-of-user charges can therefore be reduced. As the degree of centralisation decreases the individual components become more dispersed, with functions spread out over a number of self-contained centres. In a completely decentralised
J1.3
MAJOR FUNCTIONAL AREAS
J1.3.1 Curb
(See Chapter Q for details).
J1.3.2 Departures Concourse or Check-in Hall

The departures concourse consists of various public and non-public areas. These include circulation and waiting areas, public facilities, airline ticket sales & service counters and check-in facilities (passenger and baggage). J1.3.2.1 Circulation and Waiting Areas The circulation and waiting areas extend from the front facade of the terminal up to the front of, or in some cases immediately behind, the check-in facilities. The total area includes a general circulation area parallel to the facade, a public seating area, a queuing area for passengers in front of the checkin counters, and an additional passenger circulation area either in front of or behind the check-in counters depending upon the actual check-in counter layout (linear or pass-through). This area should be completely open so that passengers arriving through the entrance doors have an unobstructed view of the check-in area and can easily locate where they should proceed for check-in. In an ideal
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J1.3.2.2 Public Facilities
IATA
Public facilities include the concessions, telephones, airport information desks, toilets, etc. Such facilities should be located in areas which are not contiguous to the check-in facilities, in order to Airport Development Reference Manual promote the most efficient and uniform utilisation of the concourse areas. This policy will also assist planners in expanding the check-in hall by adding further modules to either side of the check-in area. In countries with high visitor-to-passenger ratios, appropriate arrangements should be provided to prevent the non-travelling public from approaching the check-in facilities. Directional and information signage should be prominently located in the public areas.
J1.3.2.3 Airline Ticket Sales and Service Counters Ticket sales and service counters are required for passengers who have not purchased tickets prior to arrival at the airport, and for passengers who wish to change reservations, flight class or pay for excess baggage. Such counters should be orientated along the normal line of passenger flow, but without inhibiting the flow of passengers at check-in. A good location for ticket sales and service counters is parallel to the front facade of the terminal between the entrance doorways, and on the same level within the terminal as the main check-in counter concourse. Unlike common check-in counters, airlines usually require their own dedicated ticket sales and service counters. These counters provide each airline with a sales presence in the terminal. J1.3.2.4 Check-in Facilities For maximum flexibility, space should be allocated for two inter-linked take-away belts within each check-in island. Each belt should be capable of supporting up to 20 desks (maximum). The two reversible belts should be linked by means of a 180-degree turn, thereby providing maximum flexibility and a high degree of redundancy (should feed conveyors with the BHS fail or be off-line for maintenance or repair). Check-in facilities should also take into account the needs of passengers travelling on e-tickets. Selfservice counters need to be conveniently located, with some requiring direct feeds for self tagged bags onto baggage conveyors. See sections J9 and U2 for further details. J1.3.2.5 Airline Offices Airline passenger processing support offices are required in close proximity to the check-in area. The amount of space required by each airline and/or handling agency will vary depending upon such factors as the volume of traffic or the type of handling service performed. Airlines will also require additional administrative offices, which may be located in other areas of the terminal but with convenient access to the passenger processing areas. Airline support offices are also required in the airside concourses close to their aircraft operation areas.
J1.3.2.6 Special Facilities

Special facilities may be required, depending on the kind of traffic. These may include but not be limited to:
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J1.3.2.7 Area Requirements
Passenger Terminal
Area requirements for circulation, queuing and waiting and for the various facilities within the departure concourse are influenced by the following:
Number of peak hour departing passengers (including the number of transfer passengers not
processed airside).
Airline schedules and procedures. Type of traffic (international, domestic, charter, low frills; long, medium or short haul). Check-in counter configuration & the percentage of passengers using e-tickets).
Level of service required, including area allowed per passenger and permissible max. queuing
time.
Visitor-to-passenger ratio. Average processing time.
J1.3.3 Baggage Handling Systems J1.3.4 Passport Control Outbound & Inbound
See Chapter K for details.
J1.3.5 Security Positions

See Chapter H for details.
J1.3.6 Departure Lounges J1.3.6.1 General

Common departure lounges, gate lounges and transit lounges may occur in terminals as three separate areas, in combination, or as one. The design layout depends greatly on the traffic characteristics, government controls and airline procedures, as they apply to the three main categories of passengers who use departure lounge facilities, namely:
Originating passengers arriving from the landside. Transfer passengers arriving at the airside and transferring to another flight who should be processed on the airside. Transit passengers arriving at the airside and continuing their trip on the same flight, who should always remain on the airside.
When determining the various departure lounge requirements, duplication of space and manpower should be avoided by giving full consideration to combining, where possible, the various lounge functions. Similarly, a lounge combination will facilitate the consolidation of concessions, which may
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J1.3.6.2 Common Departure Lounge

At most international airports, a common departure lounge should be provided to accommodate originating passengers who have checked-in early and have cleared government controls, but who still await their boarding gate details. Transit and transfer passengers with long connecting times also tend to dwell in this area.
IATA
At small-scale airports it may not be cost-effective to provide separate departure lounge and gate lounge facilities. At these airportsReference it will, however,Manual be necessary to delineate parts of the common Airport Development lounge as boarding areas for specific flights (i.e. gate lounges within the common departure lounge). The following functions should be considered for inclusion in the common departure lounge:
Adequate seating to accommodate the forecast passenger loads; this requirement varies with the boarding procedures to be used by individual airlines.
Flight information displays to indicate the departure time, gate, and boarding status of each flight. Airline information desks to provide assistance to passengers; these may include processing counters for transfer passengers. Concessions; including restaurants, bars, shops and duty-free. Toilet facilities. Public address systems to announce gate variations and/or delays.
In order to determine the size requirements of the departure lounge, it is recommended that a passenger flow model be developed which takes into account flow rates, transit and transfer passenger requirements, availability of gate lounges, average load factors, etc. Using the passenger figures derived from the model, the space calculation for the departure lounge area (excluding concessions except bar/restaurant/snack bar) should be based on the passenger space provisions referred to in Section F9, Fig. F9.3. At airports with a large percentage of transfer and/or transit passengers, the required space allocation will be considerable. Requirements for government controls, as well as the location of these controls (landside/airside) and their effect on passenger flow must also be considered. It will be important for the main individual airport processes (check-in/immigration/passport control/
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IATA Gate Lounge J1.3.6.3
Passenger Terminal
Gate lounges and their associated circulation space are the main components of both finger piers and satellites. The maximum size of aircraft handled, the maximum number of gates proposed and the maximum assumed peak hour flows of arriving, departing, transfer and transit passengers in the ultimate stage will determine the width required to support assumed flows. The gate lounge is provided as an assembly area for passengers in transition between the main processor and the aircraft, and under certain conditions for passengers in transit. Usually, concessions are not located in the individual lounges, but may be located within the pier or satellite. Where a gate lounge is designed to serve high capacity aircraft which will be boarded through more than one door, access to the lounge should be arranged so as to allow passenger a direct and simple flow through to the appropriate door. Passengers usually have access to the passenger loading bridge through a security door, after having their boarding pass checked and automatically recorded by an airline agent as part of a passenger/ baggage reconciliation process. Because of the requirement to separate departing and arriving international passengers, a ramp is often used to move passengers from the gate lounge level down to a bridge node at a lower level before entering the loading bridge. The use of escalators to move passengers from the gate lounge on one level, to the entrance, to the passenger boarding bridge on a lower level is not acceptable for safety reasons. Passenger queues will form at the entrance to the passenger boarding bridge and passengers coming down the escalator may be injured due to congestion problems at the foot of the escalator. The gate lounge may serve multiple aircraft positions and be divisible into separate areas for passengers (separation according to airline boarding procedures). In such cases, some concessions may be located in the combined lounge area. When required, the gate lounge may include those facilities necessary for the operation of a gate check-in system; e.g. communications, check-in desks, baggage acceptance, etc. Toilets are not normally required in each gate lounge but should be in a general area, conveniently located with respect to each lounge. If, however, a decentralised gate security check is to be implemented, it will be necessary to construct toilets in each gate lounge. The following table is offered as guidance in assessing the space requirements for individual departure gate lounges. The following assumptions are made:
Only 70% of passengers will be accommodated in the gate lounge simultaneously (column 2). IATA level of service A @ 1.4 sqm/passenger (column 4).
20% of available gate width is used for circulation, toilets, building services and structure
(column 9). Note: IATA level of service A @ 1.4 sqm/passenger was used instead of Level of service C @ 1.0 sqm/passenger such that a worst case scenario could be established in terms of pier width.
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Figure J1-1: Table Defining Pier/Gate Lounge Widths

aircraft code & type No. % of PAX Max. no of PAX (3) Level of service scrnPAX (4) Floor area req. (5) Max. Clearance Max. % aircr between width aft aircraft of gate span (6) (7) 7.5 7.5 7.5 4.5 (8) 40.5 59.5 72.5 87.5 (9) 20 20 20 20 Depth Width available of gate req. (10) 26.4 40.6 51.0 61.0 (11) 5.6 6.3 7.7 8.9
(D (2)
(A320-200)
150 70 105 Reference 1.4 147 Manual 36 IATA CAirport Development D (B767-300ER) E (B747-400)
F
281 70 400 70 555 70
183 260 389
1.4 1.4 1.4
256 392 544
52 65 80
(A380)
All dimensions in metres. Please also refer to Section F9.10.4
J1.3.6.4 Transit Lounges

At most airports, transit passengers who disembark from their aircraft during servicing are accommodated in either the gate lounge or the common departure lounge. If local requirements make it necessary to provide a separate lounge for transit passengers, the area should be commensurate with demand and be equipped in a similar manner to other types of lounges.
J1.3.7 Airline CIP Lounges

At many international as well as domestic airports, the airlines have a marketing requirement to provide special lounges to accommodate their Commercially Important Passengers (CIPs). This requirement has grown significantly in recent years to become a major customer service element, and most airlines will require generously sized space for their exclusive use. These lounges should be located on the airside of the terminal building and preferably on the departures level, with views and convenient access to the airline's departure gates. Larger airlines will tend to combine their exclusive requirements into multiple function rooms by passenger category (First Class, Business Class and others). These larger spaces normally require their own exclusive toilets, showers and kitchens, and access by elevators and/or escalators, for which the airlines are generally willing to pay a reasonable rate. Airlines may also request facilities for arriving premium passengers. These are generally located land-side, adjacent to the arrivals concourse.
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J1.3.8 Airside Circulation
Passenger Terminal
The airside corridor, if any, is the walkway by which passengers move between aircraft, between aircraft and the baggage reclaim area on arrival, or between the lounges and aircraft on departure. The corridor should be large enough to accommodate forecast volumes of departing and/or arriving passengers and should be unencumbered with distractions, such as displays or advertising that detract from pertinent information regarding departure or arrival areas. The design of an appropriate number of exits from the departure lounge, as well as entrances to the government control and other arrival areas, must be part of the airside corridor analysis. At airports with a large percentage of transfer traffic, provision must be made to permit the direct transfer of passengers between two international flights without a requirement to clear government controls. Circulation areas may narrow as the extremity of the pier/satellite is reached. Pier/satellite circulation areas should allow for moving walkways (one in each direction when distances exceed 300m) and sufficient space to accommodate walking passengers with baggage trolleys, wheelchairs and vehicular traffic on either side. 8 10m is an assumed maximum width for this circulation zone. In piers and satellites, moving walkway lengths should be determined with convenient gate access points in mind.
J1.3.9 Airline Operations Area

The Operations Area is frequently the designation given to the area occupied by airlines and ground handling personnel who handle the aircraft while it is on the ground. It is usually located near the apron and includes the area required for the flight crew and flight attendants as well as airline and ground handling personnel assigned to ground service operations. Certain amenities for personnel; e.g. wash rooms, lunchrooms, locker rooms, together with support areas for stores, are also located in this area. The area for flight crew and flight attendants may also include facilities for flight planning, weather, and flight information. This accommodation, which is usually provided within a pier, satellite or in the main processor, is not required at every airport. However, depending upon the number of flights per day and the type of aircraft (an aircraft may have as many as 18 crew members), the size and complexity of these facilities will be more or less as described above. The area for ground service personnel may consist of separate areas related to cabin service, line maintenance, sanitation and ground servicing equipment. Such areas may include storage and workshop facilities. Secure areas for fragile or valuable items and for the storage of volatiles (with appropriate safeguards) may also be required. Normally, it will not be necessary to locate some of the foregoing (e.g. equipment maintenance shops) in the vicinity of the aircraft parking position. Current and forecast requirements for the airlines in the operational area should be carefully evaluated in relation to the areas available or projected. Expansion requirements beyond the initial area provided are generally small.
J1.3.10 Baggage Re-claim Area

To assist wayfinding and passenger orientation, consideration should be given to having glazed partitions between reclaim areas and the meeter/greeter area.
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J1.3.11 Arrivals Concourse
This facility provides a short-term waiting area for the meeters and greeters awaiting passengers, together with a separate circulating area. Information and ground transportation concession facilities should be provided for those passengers requiring such services. Facilities for car rental, hotel reservations, currency exchange, and cash withdrawals should also be available. Area requirements are based on exit flow rates and airline schedules, greeter/passenger ratios and the geometry and relationship of waiting-to-exit areas. This latter criterion requires schematic design evaluation for comparison purposes. Further reference in this regard should be made to Chapters U and F in this manual.
J1.4
J1.IR1 Passenger Terminal Design The Passenger Terminal Complex should be designed in a modular fashion such that expansion of the terminal's inter-connected sub-systems can be easily and cost effectively achieved, without negatively impacting upon existing airline operations. J1 .IR2 Passenger Considerations The Passenger Terminal Complex should be planned such that passengers can easily orientate themselves within the building complex, without need or reference to signage systems. A transparent building philosophy should be adopted. The design should promote compatibility and flexibility to accommodate the changing needs of the airlines, should be compact to reduce travel distances, have minimal level changes and feel safe and secure to the passenger.
J1.IR3 Passenger Segregation Authorities should seek and take advice from their State and make reference to pertinent ICAO material, including Annex 17 and their Security Manual, when considering the need to adopt policy with respect to passenger segregation. Appropriate Regional legislation should also be followed.
IATA
SECTION J2: CATEGORIES OF PASSENGER TERMINAL J2.1 CENTRALIZED VS. DECENTRALISED FACILITIES
Passenger Terminal
J2.1.1 Introduction
The primary question to be answered at the beginning of the conceptual design process is whether to have a single centralised passenger processing area, or a series of multiple terminal units. The decision is influenced by many factors, including the need:
To provide and maintain facilities that allow comparable levels of service to be provided; Of the dominant base carrier(s) and of competing alliance partnerships; Of the market and the passenger types to be served; To be flexible to accommodate the changing needs of the primary user; i.e. the airlines; To recognise the economies of scale. While airlines do compete for market share, they do so increasingly by working together from common operational platforms. While they prefer to work from facilities that advertise their location and corporate identity, this does not automatically mean stand-alone facilities. Airlines need a connections system capable of delivering transfer passengers efficiently and effortlessly. The passenger of today respects no boundaries and will freely switch between airlines in a relentless pursuit of cheaper fares and better levels of service. In the same way the regular passenger will not suffer poor facilities and will quickly switch his or her preference from one transfer airport to another.
J2.1.2 Centralised System

A centralised system is usually comprised of an area that provides the processing for all passengers and baggage regardless of their originating airline. For large airlines, particularly if they are the base carrier with all-day operations, dedicated check-in facilities will be established which will in turn be used by their alliance partners. Separate shared facilities will also be provided for those airlines with infrequent operations, and services and concessions are also centralised both land-side and airside. Passengers proceed to gates via airside corridors or passenger transport systems (TTS and/or bus). The main advantage of this system is the economies of scale achieved by the intensive use of services (check-in desks, Government Inspection Services, baggage reclaim, etc.) within the main processor. The cost effectiveness of the terminal is increased by the maximum use of space that is only possible with each airline contributing into the overall system. This achieves one of the basic planning objectives, to maximise the use of all facilities. As a consequence, it is difficult to argue in favour of decentralised facilities due to the inherent benefits and economies of working under one roof or operating without the need to duplicate facilities or operating systems.
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J2.1.3 De-Centralised System
The decentralised system provides very short distances from the car park or curb to the aircraft door. The epitome of this system is the Gate-Arrival system. This system benefits commuters, who can get in and out of the airport in a short time. Passenger services (check-in, baggage claim) are usually provided at, or in close vicinity to each gate. The disadvantages of this system include separate service facilities (check-in desks, Government Inspection Services, baggage reclaim etc.) for one or a small number of gates. This increases the cost of equipment and personnel. The layout is linearly distributed resulting in long distances between gates. This can be frustrating for transfer passengers at larger airports.
J2.1.4 Corporate Identity

A major factor in deciding upon the exact type of facility is the issue of corporate identification. Many airlines, in attempting to advertise and promote themselves, choose to use exclusive facilities which range from check-in counters, CIP & VIP lounges and dedicated gate hold rooms. In North America, airlines have traditionally located themselves in unique stand-alone facilities built to support the continent's hub and spoke system. Within Europe there are moves to co-locate all alliance facilities under one roof or within one easily identifiable area, such that the alliance can monitor and maintain agreed service levels. It is therefore essential for the planners to know what the airlines require. Effective and meaningful consultation is a prerequisite in the preparation of conceptual terminal designs. Inadequate or nonexistent levels of consultation may result in abortive work, programme delays, disputes or unnecessary expense to accommodate design alterations during later stages of the design process.
J2.1.5 Alliance Strategies

A current trend that is positively affecting the sharing of facilities are airline alliances and code sharing agreements between airlines. In this scenario, all airlines publicise the flight under their corporate logo, however only one aircraft is used and the check-in for both airlines is undertaken at one counter (usually done at the more dominant airline's counter). If this is the only flight for the 'minor' airline, individual counter space may not be required at that airport. Another positive trend is that airlines are combining resources in order to build cost effective and functional terminals suited to their needs. Air France, Japan Airlines and Korean Air have developed a terminal that they jointly manage and operate out of.
J2.1.6 Passenger Needs

From the passenger's viewpoint, it is important to note what makes one terminal better than another.
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IATA
J2.1.6.1 Ease Of Making Connections With Other Flights
Passenger Terminal
Increased competitive strategies have encouraged airlines to form global alliances and streamline their route operations. More and more, passengers are therefore being directed through airline hubs. This makes the transfer process and hence the ease of making connections with other flights a significant factor for travellers. This is especially true when transfer times are limited, which is often the case in sophisticated 'hub and spoke' airline networks. Ranking Under IS Over 40 mppa ?':) - w IS - 25
1 2 3 Dubai Athens Eleftherious Vienna Copenhagen Sydney Incheon Singapore Changi Minneapolis/St Paul's Amsterdam Atlanta Hartsfield Chicago Dallas Fort Worth
J2.1.6.2 Comfortable Waiting/Gate Areas With travellers spending a great deal of time at the airport before their flights depart, there is a need for a relaxing environment to ease travel stress and promote the enjoyment of the travel experience. Comfortable waiting/gate areas can make the time at airports more pleasant and enhance the overall travel experience. Under IS 15-25 25-40 )', :<>i> UUIPP.i
1 2 3 Dubai Athens Bermuda Incheon Sydney Vancouver Singapore Changi Hong Kong Minneapolis/St Paul's
Ailanta Hartsfield
Dallas Fort Worth Chicago
J2.1.6.3 Ground Transportation To/From The Airport Accessibility, transportation systems and intermodality are some of the major challenges facing airports. A first-rate, integrated transportation system can improve travelling to the airport, and in so doing the airport will also help to expand their catchment area. It should be noted that the recent tightening of airport security measures has slowed down the development of rail and airport collaborations, such as rail station check-in. MIEI' MIW P,'.r.w -i-i
i
- >j
25-40 Singapore Changi Hong Kong London Gatwick
1 2
3
Dubai Bermuda Geneva
Copenhagen Zurich Stockholm Arlanda
Over 44 mppa Atlanta Hartsfield Frankfurt Chicago
J2.1.6.4 Parking Facilities Over the last decade, air travel has increased significantly and put more pressure on airports as they continue to try to support passengers and provide at least the same level of service as before. Parking facilities are directly affected by increased passenger numbers and represents another opportunity
Ranking 1 2
3
Under 15
16-25
25-40
Over 40 mppa
Dubai Bermuda Athens Eleftherious
Copenhagen Taipei Vancouver
Singapore Changi Hong Kong Amsterdam
Frankfurt Chicago Dallas Fort Worth
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J2.1.6.5 Summary of Findings & Other Categories
Atlanta, Singapore Changi, Copenhagen and Dubai rank top in their respective size categories for Overall Passenger Satisfaction. Other categories include Flight Information Displays, Availability of Flights to Cities in the Same or Other Continents, Baggage Carts, Washrooms, Government Inspection Services, Cleanliness of Airport Terminal, Speed of Baggage Delivery, Sense of Security and Ambience of the Airport.
J2.2
DESCRIPTION OF TERMINAL CONCEPTS

Each airport has it own individual design characteristics. However, all these designs can be narrowed down into 5 distinctive terminal concepts:
Pier/finger. Linear. Open apron. Satellite. Compact module unit terminal.
A description and a tabulation of the major advantages and disadvantages of each of the above concepts is given in the following sub-sections. It should be noted that there are many variations in the respective shape of each of the noted major categories. In the past, airport authorities satisfied demand for new passenger processing facilities by constructing unit terminal systems. These consisted of a combination of the above concepts (i.e. satellites, piers/ fingers, linear, etc.) in various shapes and sizes. Previous thinking was that each unit could function independently. This has proven not to be the case. While in the past space was not at a premium and facilities could be placed on demand and with ease within a site, this is no longer the case. Greater attention needs now to be paid to how the airport should be planned efficiently and effectively in the longer term (see Chapter C Master Planning). In recent years there has been a tendency, certainly at 'Greenfield' and 'Bluesea' airports, to move towards mega terminal systems (e.g. Hong Kong CLK at 87 mppa). Economies of scale, functional design, compact single operational systems, modularity and expandability are now the fundamental driving forces behind modern day terminal design.
W&W
IAT A
J2.2.1 Pier/Finger Concept
Passenger Terminal
Figure J2-1: Central Terminal Area of Amsterdam Schiphol Airport (AMS), The Netherlands
Description The Pier/Finger Terminal Concept consists of a main centralised passenger processor and a series of piers (airside concourses). In large examples of this type, such as Amsterdam Schiphol (shown above) with approx. 39.6 mppa in the year 2000, the main processor may consist of several semicentralised check-in/baggage reclaim areas fed by a common departures/arrivals curb. All Originating & Departing passengers and baggage are directed through the central processing area to and from the aircraft parking positions, which are connected to the central building by piers (airside concourses). Departing passengers are processed at centralised check-in facilities and walk to the respective gates, assisted by moving sidewalks installed in the piers. Baggage of all departing passengers is collected at the central check-in counters and conveyed to the baggage sorting areas from where it is transported to the aircraft by mobile apron equipment or fixed conveying systems. Arriving passengers and their baggage are processed in the reverse flow.
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Pier/Finger Terminal Possible Advantages A high percentage of passengers can be accommodated under one roof. Permits low Mean Connecting Time (MCT) if flight pairs are properly co-ordinated. Allows variable expansion possibilities of the piers, independent of the main processor. Expansion can be undertaken in small incremental steps as demand requires. Centralisation of airline and government inspection services staff. Permits centralisation of major concession outlets (i.e. restaurants, duty-free, etc.). Permits use of relatively simple flight information display systems. Facilitates control of passengers, if required. Ease of movement for transfer passengers. Pier/Finger Terminal Possible Disadvantages Long walking distances, especially for transfer passengers. May require airlines to have secondary CIP facilities in piers to accommodate individual traffic segments. May require secondary concession outlets in piers. Curbside congestion in peak periods. Long taxiway routes to/from runways. If insufficient space is allowed between piers, resulting taxiway cul-de-sacs may restrict the freeflow of aircraft. Requirement to segregate arriving/departing passengers may result in need to build a secondary passenger circulation level in some piers. This in turn may increase walking distances for transfer passengers. Early check-in and close-out times. High capital, operating and maintenance costs for passenger conveyance and baggage handling systems. Potential for baggage mishandling. Clear signage systems required to overcome passenger way-finding and orientation difficulties. Unless independent development of supporting airside and landside infrastructure is possible and pre-planned, expansion of this operating system beyond a 55 mppa level will be difficult to achieve. The area of land required to support pier/gate development is large due to the need to incorporate dual taxi-lanes between sets of piers that can accommodate in excess of 10 12 aircraft total. Other examples: Bangkok, London Heathrow T3 and Zurich.
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IATA
J2.2.2 Linear Concept Figure J2-2: Terminal 4 of London
Passenger Terminal
Heathrow
(LHR),
Notes: The site for T4 is constrained on all sides by one of the primary runways, the cross-wind runway and by the primary road access system. As such, expansion of the terminal has only been possible by the addition of a remote single sided pier at some considerable distance from the main processor. Description The Linear Terminal Concept consists of a main centralised passenger processor with expansion capability to either side. On the front or airside face of the processor is a finger type concourse which may be straight or in another geometrical form. Aircraft are parked at the face and in some instances the rear of the concourse. An airside corridor may be located parallel to the terminal face with access to the terminal and gate positions. Departing passenger and baggage processing can take place either in a central area or at semicentralised groups of check-in counters.
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Depending on the internal layout, the walking distance between the car park and the aircraft can be reasonably short, but in the case of a centralised processing system the distance may become unacceptably long. The size of baggage conveying and sorting systems depends on the internal layout of the building. This concept is mainly used if there is only confined space available between the landside road system and the runway. Possible Advantages
Minimum walking distances if check-in facilities are semi-centralised. Easy passenger orientation. Simple construction of the main terminal with relatively easy incremental expansion. If required, separation of arriving and departing passengers is relatively easy using two levels. Adequate curb length. Reasonable check-in and close-out times. Compact baggage conveying/sorting systems if remote drop points are not utilised in
concourses. Possible Disadvantages
If system is decentralised, will require duplication of terminal facilities/amenities (i.e. restaurant, duty free, etc.) and staff. Long walking distances especially for passengers transferring between extreme ends of concourses. Long walking distances if passenger processing is centralised and the pier system (airside corridor) is extended. High capital, operating and maintenance cost if centralised passenger/baggage processing facilities are employed. Special logistics may be required for handling of transfer baggage depending upon size of building; i.e. remote baggage drop-off points required. May require airlines to have secondary CIP facilities in concourses to accommodate dispersed traffic segments. Aircraft movements to the rear of the concourse may be restricted due to the need to reduce engine noise levels.
IATA
Passenger Terminal
J2.2.3 Open Apron Concept Figure J2-3: Montreal Mirabel (YMX), Canada
Wore;
Mirabel (YMX) is predicted to cease commerical passenger operations from Autumn 2004.
Description
The Open Apron Terminal Concept consists of a main passenger processor with expansion capability on either side. Passenger transfers between the main processor and remote aircraft positions are accommodated by the use of apron drive busses or mobile lounges. There is no direct connection between the processor and aircraft parking positions. Departing passengers are processed at the central processing area and proceed through Government Inspection Services to a common departure lounge. From this point passengers can be handled in one of two ways:
They can be called to remote gate hold rooms, usually located at apron level, and then transported to the aircraft by bus. Or they can be called into mobile lounges which double as gate hold rooms and as transporters between the building and the aircraft parked at remote apron positions. The mobile lounges work with a scissor lift system that enables the lounge to operate at varying floor and aircraft sill levels. Baggage for all departing passengers is accepted at central check-in counters and conveyed to the 313 baggage sorting area from where it is transported to the aircraft by mobile apron equipment.

Possible Advantages
Constant compatibility of terminal/apron geometry to accommodate new generation large aircraft. Ease of aircraft manoeuvrability (i.e. power-in, power-out operation). Simplified passenger movement/orientation. Reduced walking distances. Ease of expansion capability for aircraft stands. Low cost expansion capability. Operations can be expanded without significantly impacting on the existing main processor. A simpler, smaller and more efficient central processor. Separation of arriving and departing passengers can easily be achieved.
Could be used as a low cost first phase option prior to constructing remote satellites in order to increase percentage of contact stands served. Possible Disadvantages
Very low percentage of contact stands. Increased loading/unloading processing times. Very early close-out times required. Very limited last minute boarding capability. High capital, maintenance and operating costs of busses and transporters.
Requires right of way/control of transporters due to high collision potential of transporters & aircraft. Curbside congestion in peak hours. Additional cost for larger number of ground vehicles for crew and baggage transport. Increased minimum connecting times. Additional airline staff required. Creates demand surges at arrival Government Inspection Services control positions.
Other examples: Washington Dulles & Paris Charles de Gaulle (CDG). Note CDG no longer mobile lounges.
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IATA
J2.2.4 Satellite Concept
Passenger Terminal
Figure J2-4: Denver (DEN), USA
Description The Satellite Terminal Concept consists of a central processing building for passengers and baggage and remote concourses around which aircraft are parked. The remote concourses or satellites are connected to the main terminal by above- or below-ground links to facilitate the movement of passengers between the satellites and the main terminal. These links can be formed by either APM (Automated People Mover) systems or by underground walkways with travelators. Baggage from departing passengers is collected at the central check-in counters and conveyed to the baggage sorting area from where it is transported to the aircraft by mobile apron equipment or mechanical systems. Arriving passengers and their baggage are processed in a reciprocal flow. Possible Advantages
Normally provides for the centralisation of airline and government inspection services staff. Permits short minimum connecting times within individual satellites. Variety of incremental expansion possibilities to both the main processor and piers. Permits centralisation of major concession outlets (i.e. restaurants, duty-free, etc). Permits relatively simple flight information display system.
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Linear satellites permit direct aircraft routing between stands & runways. Separation of arriving & departing passengers within satellites can be easily achieved if required. Facilitates control of passengers, if required. Short walking distances (to/from APM). Additional satellites can be designed to accommodate future aircraft design developments.
Possible Disadvantages High.capital, operating and maintenance costs of the APM system between the main terminal and satellites, especially if these are below ground. High capital, operating and maintenance costs of baggage conveying/sorting systems with potential for baggage mishandling. May require airlines to have secondary or multiple CIP facilities in satellites to accommodate individual traffic segments. Requires secondary concession outlets in satellites. Curbside congestion in peak hours if percentage of Originating Departures traffic is high. Expansion capability of the main processor is limited to either side. Due to distance and need to locate, wait and use APM system, minimum connecting times between flights in different satellites are increased. Early check-in and close-out times.
Other examples: Atlanta, Paris CDG T1, Tokyo Narita
12.
IATA
J2.2.5 Compact Module Unit Terminal Concept
Passenger Terminal
Figure J2-5: Paris Charles de Gaulle (CDG), Terminals 2A, B, C & D France
Description The Compact Module Unit Terminal Concept is a system witnessed in the past at small, medium and large airports. In the USA it has proved popular at airports where individual modules could be owned, occupied, dedicated or assigned to individual carriers. Within Europe it has sometimes been utilised to differentiate between individual traffic segments, i.e. Schengen or Non-Schengen. However, the hubbing needs of base carriers and/or the major airline alliances has resulted in this type of solution becoming increasingly unpopular or obsolete with partnerships preferring collocation under one roof. Expansion is demand driven and carried out through construction of additional modules. The transition of passenger and baggage from landside to airside and vice versa is directed through a compact facility which provides the shortest possible distance from the car park to the aircraft. Departing passengers and their baggage are processed either at a gate check-in or a semicentralized flight check-in facility. Passenger moving equipment and outbound baggage sorting devices are usually not required within each module. The gate check-in procedure allows a very late check-in and close-out time. Arriving passengers and their baggage are processed in the vicinity of the gate in the reverse flow on the lower level.
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Possible Advantages
Short walking distances from check-in to aircraft. Late check-in and close-out times (last minute baggage/passenger acceptance capability). Greater curb lengths are provided than for centralised processing terminal units. Capital investment is commensurate with demand. Construction of additional units in medium and large airports can be tailored to suit demand. Construction may not impact on existing airline operations. Moving walkways to assist passenger movement within each module are not required. Only simple baggage handling systems are required within each module. As a consequence the percentage of mishandled bags is low. Within the terminal, only a simple flight information display system is required.
Possible Disadvantages These occur when there is more than one terminal and include:
Low percentage of contact stands. Difficulties in accommodating large volumes of passengers. Individual terminal units are inflexible & incapable of major expansion. A requirement for comprehensive flight information display and sign-posting systems, including signage along the airport access routes to orient departing passengers and/or meeters & greeters to the correct terminal. A complicated system is required to transfer passengers and baggage between terminals. Depending upon volumes & the number of terminals, the high costs of such a system may also be an adverse factor. Higher manpower requirement airline and government staff members will increase in order to operate multiple terminals. This also requires more careful allocation of all manpower. Reduced ability to offer industry competitive minimum connecting times due to high number of transfer (terminal) variables & the distance between modules. An adverse impact on any high speed rail access system (local or international) due to the inability or need to serve multiple stations, the varied and complex transfer routings and the increased transfer times from/to and between inter-modal access points and terminals. The complexity of land-side road access systems.
Other examples: Budapest, Dallas Forth Worth & Hanover.
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IATA
J2.3 PROCESSING LEVELS
Three arrangements of passenger processing systems are possible.
Passenger Terminal
J2.3.1 Single Level

This system is represented by a single level roadway/curb/terminal building with all arrival and departure processing provided at grade (ground) level. In general terms departing passengers occupy one side of the building while arrivals occupy the other. Passengers move between the main processor and remote aircraft parking positions by either walking (along controlled/supervised routes), by bus or APM. This type of operation is normally restricted to small-scale operations under 5 mppa. The exception to this broad rule would be London Stansted airport, which employs many unique features (APM to remote satellites, fully automated BHS, building services and building supplies/servicing all located on levels beneath the single passenger level). Stansted's single level terminal building was expanded in 2002 to accommodate 16 mppa.
J2.3.2 11/2 Level

This system is represented by a single level roadway/curb serving both arrival and departing passengers. The terminal building is predominantly single level, although the airside face has two levels with the arrivals level located either above or below the departures level. The two levels on the airside face can be restricted to an arrivals corridor with simple airbridge connections to aircraft stands located along the front edge of the terminal. Alternatively the two levels can extend out onto the apron by means of twin level piers. In rare circumstances, single-level roadways can support two level terminals. Examples of this type of design solution can be found at London Heathrow in both T2 and T3. In T2 there is also a unique feature insofar as the arrivals and departures post check-in facilities are located at a level above the road access. Check-in is performed at road level and passengers move upstairs to process through outbound passport control and security channels to the gate.
J2.3.3 Two Level

This system is represented by a two level roadway/curb/terminal building with arrival and departure processing separated vertically on two levels. The upper level is usually the departure level with the lower level accommodating arrivals. This arrangement should be considered where volumes of passengers, baggage and vehicles justify vertical separation. The two levels can extend out into the piers or satellites, but this is dependent on the degree and extent of passenger segregation
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J2.3.4 Levels within Piers and Satellites
With segregation of arriving and departing international passengers recommended by ICAO (see ICAO Annex 17 Clause 4.3.3 and clause K3.2 of this manual) it is becoming increasingly common for airport authorities to make provision for at least two processing levels in piers and satellites. To provide for greater flexibility, authorities may provide a third processing corridor to allow passengers to transfer in isolation between international and domestic traffic segments (refer to Chapter K for further details). In this way individual gate positions can accept aircraft serving both types of traffic without the need to push back and reposition aircraft as they switch from serving international to domestic or from domestic to international routes. With two or three levels possible within piers and satellites, safe, efficient and cost effective ways of delivering passengers to the required entry level to the passenger boarding bridge must be found. There are two ways of achieving this. The first relies on a combination of mechanical systems (lifts and escalators) and stairs (as a fall back in the event of mechanical failure), to transfer passengers between levels. However these systems are expensive to install, operate and maintain. All three systems are generally provided for by the necessity to provide unrestricted access to wheelchairs. A simpler solution is to rely on ramps. In this way installation, operation and maintenance costs are kept to an absolute minimum. The ramps can lie either parallel or perpendicular to the face of the pier or satellite. Perpendicular solutions have two advantages. Firstly, they do not obscure sight lines from within the building onto the aircraft apron. Secondly, they can allow differing rotunda off-load levels, thereby allowing varying bridge configurations to be employed from the same ramp and pier layouts.
J2.4
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

The building should be designed to ensure functionality, maximum operational efficiency, passenger convenience at a reasonable cost, and be capable of further modular and incremental expansion. Such considerations as space for concessions and facilities for the general public should always be subordinate to the passenger space for processing and flow requirements. Extravagant architectural statements and/or unique structural systems should not elevate sqm rates or unit costs above accepted industry norms. The structural elements of the building should be such that it is relatively easy to undertake internal modification or overall expansion in order to meet changing demands without major interruption to daily operations. The main functional elements in the terminal building should be arranged in such a manner that the expansion of one element does not necessitate the relocation of other elements which may not require expansion. For instance, expansion of the departure baggage area should not require relocation of the check-in lobby or the baggage claim area. Wherever economically feasible, terminal design should encompass a two-level structure to shorten walking distances and allow direct access to the aircraft without change of level. Passenger boarding
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IATA
J2.5 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS J2.IR1 Passenger Terminal Concept
Passenger Terminal
The chosen passenger terminal concept should provide a simple, functional, cost effective, expandable and user friendly solution that allows airlines to undertake efficient and profitable operations in one location until the airport reaches saturation in the ultimate phase.
J2.IR2 Passenger Terminal Type

The type of passenger terminal concept to be used should only be determined after the airlines have input their functional/operational requirements into the conceptual design process.
V________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
J2.IR3 Passenger Transfer from Piers/Satellites to Aircraft

Rather than relying on mechanical systems (lifts and escalators) to transfer passenger between levels a series of ramps should be used. In this way installation, operation and maintenance costs can kept to an absolute minimum.
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SECTION J3: SMALL AIRPORT TERMINALS J3.1 SMALL AIRPORT TERMINALS OVERVIEW
The standards defined within ICAO Annex 14 and Annex 17, as well as those noted in this manual, will need to be observed by small airports and large airports alike. These types of facilities will generally make use of the same high-level processes, though with reduced capacity, throughput and infrastructure characteristics due to the difference in the scale of the equipment being utilised. Small airports often deal with higher volumes of propeller driven commercial and privately owned aircraft. As commercial propeller (turboprop) aircraft require less automated passenger docking equipment than commercial jet aircraft, support infrastructure such as push back tugs are infrequently used since the aircraft are generally less connected to the terminal infrastructure and utilize more 'remote' stand philosophies (see Section L3). Passengers are often bused or even walk between the gate room areas and the aircraft and vice versa, using dedicated apron walk routes and staff supervised protocols. While commercial propeller driven aircraft will require tarmac runways, there is the possibility of adjacent grass runways that can be made use of, predominantly for non-commercial light aircraft. Small jet powered aircraft will also use small airports, provided that the runway specifications and support infrastructure is adequately in place. Runway management protocols and equipment should be developed and provided respectively in accordance with the requirements at larger airports, befitting the code category of aircraft being accommodated. All smaller airports will require effective and well-placed control tower facilities, which should enable them to function safely and in a commercially viable manner for the ground movement of aircraft and aircraft approach guidance. Baggage handling facilities can be limited and geared around the processing of a specific flight rather than the processing of multiple outbound and inbound flights baggage simultaneously, as is the situation in larger airports. The processes and protocols for these smaller installations will still require to be modeled on the recommendations defined within Chapter U, Airport Baggage Handling, including the same level of integrity for hand and hold baggage security screening hardware and operational practices. Ground transportation at small-scale airports can be scaled down to the requirements of the airport flight traffic requirements, which can mean less equipment redundancy in the event of transportation failure. This needs to be carefully balanced to ensure that correct service standards are maintained. Information displays may be less frequent and located at critical areas only, as passenger way finding should theoretically be less arduous given the smaller infrastructure. The flight information display signage standard should be aligned with the requirements defined within Section J12. Able and disabled passenger processing will also be required in the facility. The small airport will likely need to provide limited retail, restaurant and passenger and staff public rest areas and public toilets. Limited retail will be useful for passengers and will enable small airports to create parallel revenue streams to support and help grow their airport operation. Emergency response and emergency management should be completely aligned with the
IATA
Passenger Terminal
Aircraft fueling at smaller airports will likely be accommodated by fuel container and dispensing vehicles. Please refer to Chapter M, Aviation Fuel Systems, for clarification of physical requirements and protocols to adopt.
J3.1.1 Definition of Small Airport (<1MPPA)

A small airport is defined by its capability to process flights and passengers through its runway and terminal infrastructure provision. Typically, a facility described as a 'small' airport will be capable of processing up-to 1 Million Passengers Per Annum (MPPA).
J3.2
TERMINAL SPACE & FUNCTIONALITY

The terminal building in the small airport will be sized in accordance with the recommendations defined within Chapter F, Airport Capacity. Section F9 will define the space requirements for the critical terminal building functions such as check-in, passport control, passenger hold rooms, passenger centralized security and baggage claim areas, etc. A listing of the processes in operation at airports can be found within Chapter T. Section T1, Terminal Processes, is a guide for airport planners embarking on the design of large and small airport terminals. Whilst rare, there will be situations where smaller airports will exploit a terminal space or equipment for multiple functions so as to maximize their utilization. An example of this is where inbound transfer flight baggage may be processed through predominantly departures screening equipment using agreed protocols. In this situation it should be noted that passengers and their baggage should be processed in accordance with the requirements defined within Chapter K, Passenger Facilitation,
J3.3
DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL AIRPORTS

The small airport should create an airport master plan, which should align to the requirements of the airlines and the traveling public communities. This master plan should be fully developed in accordance with the requirements defined within Chapter C, Master Planning, where applicable. Small airports should be designed to align with the long-term aspirations developed within the master plan. Development zones should be safeguarded accordingly.
J3.4
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS J3.IR1 Consistent Airport Terminai Apron and Support Processes
When planning and designing small airports the airport planner should look to consider and include airport processes as defined within Chapter T (all sections). Where an airport process or protocol is required it should align to the mandatory requirements defined within ICAO Annex 14 and Annex 17, as well as to the processes and equipment configurations defined within this manual
J3.IR2 Consistent Airport Terminal Apron and Support Infrastructure Sizing Philosophy
Airport terminals, aprons and support infrastructure should be sized in accordance within the 323 guidance and recommendations made within Chapters C, F, H J, K, L, O.P, Q, U, W and X of this manual.

SECTION J4: J4.1 COMMON SYSTEMS CUTE & CUSS
AUTOMATED PASSENGER PROCESSING

The degree of automation required for passenger processing and baggage handling systems at a particular airport will be determined by the extent of the individual airline system-wide operation, as well as other criteria such as size of terminals, economic evaluations, etc. Automation implies installation of computers, printers (document printers and specific printers for tickets, boarding passes, baggage tags) at many points along a passenger's route. These may include:
Ticket/sales counters. Check-in counters. Boarding gates. Transfer counters. Information desks.
Each airline needs to connect this equipment to its own central reservations system. The requirements for self-handled airlines to use check-in counters only a few hours a day can lead to a requirement for extra check-in counters. To avoid over supply of check-in desks, the concept of CUTE (Common Use Terminal Equipment) was established. CUTE does not eliminate dedicated airline check-in counters but does enable the sharing of counters when airline schedules permit. Rental rates for the check-in area are very expensive so the airlines need to ensure this area is optimally utlized.
J4.2
CUTE
Common Use Terminal Equipment (CUTE) is a generic airline industry term (not to be related to vendors' products and services) for a facility which allows individual users to access their host computers). CUTE undertakes all airline EDP functions, using the same entries and getting the same responses as they would through their own terminal equipment. The basic idea of the CUTE concept is to enable airlines at an airport to share passenger terminal handling facilities. This includes such areas as check-in and gate counters on a common use basis, enabling airlines to use their own host computer EDP applications for departure control, reservations, ticketing, boarding pass and baggage tag issuance, etc. CUTE provides potential savings to the airlines and airport authorities by increased utilization of check-in counters and gate space, thus lessening the need for airports to build additional counters and gates. It may also permit an airline to automate its check-in and departure control functions when the costs of installing its own equipment would be: too high; precluded by another system or equipment already installed; not permitted by the airport authority. The major benefits of CUTE are:

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Airlines access their own applications systems from CUTE work stations. Transparency of CUTE terminals to each airline EDP system. Possibility for agents to use the transaction formats of the system they are accessing. Optimum use of airport facilities with no need to dedicate special areas for different airlines.
IATA

Security of access. Use of airline system software. Accessibility to various systems from any CUTE terminal. No preliminary investment for the airlines. Shared running costs. Improved passenger service.
Passenger Terminal
Permits airlines to control their own reservations, check-in and departure control functions, thus not requiring them to use systems provided by airport authorities or handling agents which might not be compatible with their host computer systems.
J4.2.1 Initial Considerations

The Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) and the Airport Operating Committee (AOC) will define the exact problem areas as early as possible using the following questions as guidelines: e Is there a need or desire for users to share EDP equipment now? In the future? If so, in which areas/locations? Gates? Check-in? Transfer desks? Other? Once the particular local automation issues have been defined, the possible technical solutions which would best solve these problems for the carriers concerned must then be evaluated, both functionally and economically. Because of the highly technical nature of each of these solutions, and also to ensure consideration of carriers' longer term planning not known to local airline managers, it is imperative that this evaluation is carried out by head office specialists in data processing, communications, terminal planning and handling procedures. Therefore the members of the ACC or AOC must refer the local automation problems which they have defined to the respective department(s) in their head office as early as possible. In turn, the head offices of these carriers will then instruct their local managers on the course of action they
J4.2.2 CUTE Local User Board (CUTE Club)

Based on the instructions which the local managers have received from their head offices, a CUTE Local User Board should be established at the airport by the AOC. The board shall be comprised of all carriers engaged in the definition of local automation issues, and must include head office specialists in terminal and handling facilities planning, data processing, communications, costs/charges and handling procedures. This CUTE Local User Board shall then undertake the following steps:
Decide if the airport authority, in its capacity as landlord and/or handling agent, should be
invited to become a full member, or alternatively an observer of the working group.
Inform the airport authority officially about the intention of the group. Prepare a work plan.
Specify short-term and long-term requirements of the system by written documentation, giving
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Consider and agree on potential general contractors/administrators for the total local CUTE system.
Draft and release a Request For Proposal (RFP) to such bidders. Adopt a terms of reference.
J4.2.3 Equipment
The nature of the CUTE workstation equipment at an airport will depend on the specific total system specifications agreed for a local CUTE system. The type and manufacturers of such equipment may vary from airport to airport, subject to agreement between the users and the contractor/administrator. Equipment configuration requirements may vary at different airport locations. Typical CUTE workstation equipment types can be (but are not limited to):
VDU/CRT. Boarding pass and/or ATB (automated ticket and boarding pass). Baggage tag printer. Ticket printer. General purpose printer.
Readers.
J4.2.4 Request for Proposal

A proposal shall include a quotation on the price of the provision, operation and administration of the total system, broken down as follows; (a) Investments:
Terminal equipment. Telecommunications equipment. Installations and cabling, contingency, taxes.
(b) Operating Costs:

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Depreciation. Financing charges. Premises and circuit rental. Operation and maintenance. Contingency.
An initial contract should last five years.
J4.3
cuss
Common Use Self-Service (CUSS) is a facility that allows the provision of self-service applications (e.g. check-in) to customers on a shared kiosk. The CUSS platform accesses the airline's own self service application directly from their host computer(s).
IATA
The basic idea of the CUSS concept is to enable airlines to share self-service facilitiesTerminal (e.g. kiosks), Passenger without having to install and run proprietary hardware. Certified IATA CUSS compliant applications can be run on any IATA CUSS certified platform. The platforms can be equipped with a variety of hardware devices, including biometrics, according to local requirements. CUSS provides potential savings to the airlines by increasing the availability of self-service applications throughout their network. It also permits an airline to provide self-service functions when the costs of installing its own equipment would be either too high or not permitted by the airport authority. CUSS reduces the need for airports to provide space for individual airline kiosks in common use areas. As the kiosks can be located anywhere (e.g. car parks, railway stations, etc.) the check-in process can be de-centralised. The major benefits of CUSS are:

J4.3.1
Passengers can access the airline's own applications from CUSS platforms. Decentralisation of check-in is possible. Optimum use of airport facilities with no need to dedicate special areas for different airline
kiosks. Certified CUSS applications can be run on any CUSS platform, anywhere. Use of airline system software. Little preliminary investment for the airlines CUSS certified application required. Shared running costs. Improved passenger service. Supports any CUSS certified application (e.g. car hire, hotel reservations, etc.).
IATA CUSS MANUAL

The IATA CUSS Manual is a web-based publication available on subscription from www.iataonline.com. The CUSS Manual comprises three parts:
Technical specifications. Certification requirements. Service Level Agreement template.
Information on Certified CUSS platforms and airline applications are also published on the CUSS
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J4.4
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS J4.IR1 Terminal Check-in Equipment

The layout and integral design of departing and transfet baggage check-in desk facilities within terminal complexes should promote the use of CUTE and CUSS technology. CUTE technology provision should be in accordance with clause J4.2.3.
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual When designing departures and transfer check-in facilities
J4.IR2 Use of CUSS
the designer should aim to incorporate CUSS equipment. The designer should be made aware of the objectives of the airlines with respect to their commercial need to use CUSS equipment within the airport. The CUSS equipment demand and usage requirements should be reviewed annually. Where CUSS equipment is required, it should be located evenly across the check-in areas. As the use of CUSS check-in facilities becomes more and more commonplace, the replacement of traditional check-in facilities With newer CU&S facilities will be required. It is therefore recommended that when designing check-in systems for traditional check-in arrangements, the retrofitting of CUSS equipment should be considered both in terms of the design of the mechanical layout and the resultant control systems infrastructure. When providing departing concourse CUSS check-in facilities, which do not have in-built self service conveyors, the furthest distance from any CUSS check-in desk to the airtine manned
J4.IR3 CUSS Cost and Operational Effectiveness

CUSS equipment usage should be considered only when it provides improved terminal capacity and operational advantages and reduces costs to users,
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Passenger Terminal
SECTION J5: AIRLINE COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS
Note: The airport /airline communications services described within this section are typical of the services often provided by organisations such as, but not limited to, SITA and ARINC. Factors affecting the selection of an airline communications service provider will include:

J5.1
Ability To Meet Technical Requirements and Experience. Service Costs and Performance Standards. Services Compatibility. Services Protocols.
Functionality:
INTERNET CONNECTIVITY
It is technically possible to provide a general-purpose, multi-use, often remotely managed application platform for airport and airline desktops and peripherals including operational check-in printers, scanners and boarding gate readers that provides a single infrastructure for both common use and dedicated areas. The platform can focus on supporting Web Services and CUSS applications and provides support for multi-channel applications and client types such as PC, kiosk, thin client (reduced services) and PDA's. Security devices can also supported such as optical scanners and biometric devices. Support for IP printing and ATI specific peripherals is provided while the platform also accesses an industry standard CUTE peripheral manager. Device profiles allow devices to be controlled by remote management systems, and the platform includes sophisticated statistics and billing interfaces with a high level of built in authentication and security. Other features can include Single Sign On (SSO) and the ability to deploy applications in standard software containers that do not require certification in a multi-user environment. Typical Platform: A Wintel based platform, uses fast gigabit Ethernet campus connectivity linked to external gateways for VPN and Wide Area Network access. Devices may be connected using both IP or USB connections
J5.1.1 Considerations When Implementing A System Into An Airport

These platforms can also support Voice over IP, Voice, PABX, Video and Data, Wireless 802.11, WISP and ISP connectivity. All these services can in some instances be combined into a seamless service package. Local regulations may affect the ability to offer some services and Airport Planners and Engineers should check for this. The platform may be used as a transport and integration layer for other airport sub-systems that utilize the airport's campus backbone, such as Access Control, Public Address, Fire Detection and CCTV.
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J5.2 SHARED EXTRANET CONNECTIVITY
Functionality: The shared extranet type system can provide access to airline hosts for DCS, check in, reservations, ticketing, other back office applications and access to airport applications, such as CUTE, Bag System Messaging (BSMs) and Baggage Management System (BRS) and alert text messaging tools. In addition to providing end-to-end TCP/IP support these type of systems can also support legacy airline protocol support for P1024B/C, IP, AX25, EMTOX and MATIP. Features can include fully redundant links into the service provider networks and can feature a high level of security provided by firewalls. The firewall service can be fully managed and monitored remotely by a specialist security group. The extranet provides end-to-end IP with security and traffic prioritization using Cisco ALPS technology. Typical Platform: A pair of Cisco routers (CS26xx or CS36xx) with dual Checkpoint Firewalls connected via dual frame relay links to dual service provider centers (where possible).

It will be important to consider the availability of a digital infrastructure to support IP and access to the service providers backbone network via Frame-Relay. Implementing the systems can simplify the introduction of Airline IP VPN's to an airport. Since the migration from legacy airline protocols to TCP/ IP has started, airlines have had to provide their own tail circuits and provide their own routers for deployment in the airport comms rooms. Since the provision of dual tail circuits and redundant, secure, VPN connections is expensive many airlines cannot afford this and the provision of a secure, redundant managed extranet can be an ideal solution.
J5.3
INTEGRATED WIDE AREA NETWORKS (WAN) & LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LAN)
Functionality The objective of this arrangement is to integrate the dedicated service provider wide area networks with airport and airline local area networks. The service providers aim is to link airport networks and desktop portfolios and bring them together and make them available to the airport user in a coordinated and effective manner. WAN Services Carrier Access Depending on the local telecom regulations, an airport can use the service provider to act as a wholesaler of PTT services to airport tenants and provide planning and co-ordination for local access and long distance service, including the provision of data and voice circuits. Data Services
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Passenger Terminal
VPN Integration: Provides a VPN termination point so that devices on the campus network
can join and leave tenants wide area virtual private networks (VPN) securely. Both dedicated (VLAN) or shared (VPN) connected devices can access the WAN VPN and data, voice and video is supported. providers. Services are available for both operational, non operational and consumer access, providing a single, resilient access to the internet for all fixed and wireless Internet access needs. For smaller applications, services for operational data can also be made available via the Internet using secure access VPNs from a single workstations where no LAN exists.
Internet Access: Can be secure managed internet access for all airport tenants and VAS
LAN Services
Provision of LAN connections to support multiple quality of service (QOS). Using QOS supports data, voice and video applications and provides usage feeds to enable capacity management and billing, which can be down to the device level. Support for VLAN and VPN security segmentation, supporting applications in tenant dedicated and shared environments.
Voice Services
PBX access: Provides basic airport PABX access and facilities with options to access tenants own PABX systems. Handsets: Provision of a variety of handsets to support internal and external applications with a choice of analogue, digital or VoIP phones. Integrated VoIP: Provide VoIP solutions which, when the phone is positioned with a shared workstation, are tied into the user id used to logon. Supports download of dial plans associated with logon and access to legacy PABX as well as CISCO call manager. Voicemail: Provision of voice mail systems for digital and VoIP phones. Broadcast: Broadcast voice systems for general and targeted announcements and paging, including automated messaging.
Video Services
Surveillance: Provision of surveillance infrastructure including cameras and control rooms based on video over IP technology. Provide integration facilities for existing CCTV technology. Broadcast: Video broadcast facilities for use with intelligent signage including information and advertising material. Management and billing for broadcast content.
Wireless Services
Provision of a single, managed wireless infrastructure for the airport including providing segmented capacity for operational data, operational voice (2 way radio and wireless VoIP) and consumer data. Provision of the operational network management element for public wireless services at the airport. Provision of spectrum management and policing of usage policies within the airport
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Security Services
Access control Integration of access control systems and management of the central server complexes. Access control systems can be installed with biometric support that will also be integrated. Single Sign On (SSO) can also be supported. Government control authority interfaces can be provided over this infrastructure allowing airport planners to design for convergence of passenger and staff security processing. Managed Firewall The service provider, can provide a managed firewall service as part as the managed Internet access. This can be supplemented with a managed firewall service within the LAN environment to segregate various parts of the LAN.

The primary consideration for the WAN services and external voice elements of the services will be the regulations regarding the re-sale of local PTT services. In some countries this may not be possible. Other considerations to be made include the commercial model of the airport.
J5.4
CUTE TYPE SYSTEMS CONNECTIVITY

Functionality: CUTE type systems are intended for airports wishing to maximize the use of scarce check-in and gate infrastructure facilities by providing a common use platform to run airline host-connected and stand-alone applications. CUTE type systems can provide a workstation environment with attached ATB, BTP, BGR and other ATI specific peripherals. The CUTE software allows the airline applications to interact, in a standard way, with the ATI specific peripherals. Please refer to clause J4.2 for general overiew of CUTE systems. CUTE type systems can provide a secure environment allowing multiple users to share one workstation. This is enforced by processes, application certification, software containers and directory services based on remote management. CUTE platforms are made additionally secure by the use of dedicated VLANs that allow secure transactions on an airport provided network access airline host connections or IPSEC clients on the workstation allowing for a secure IP tunnel through the airportshared space to the airline's application server. CUTE type systems can allow airline applications to access their host DCS systems via a legacy CUTE gateway supporting P1024B, P1024C and X.25 and direct IP connections, in addition to the extranet. Current CUTE systems support fat Windows clients (preferably Win32), web services clients and CUSS agent-facing applications. Typical Platform: CUTE type systems can be based upon the Windows range of operating systems and therefore the Workstation and Server hardware will likely be Windows XP and 2003 Server compatible.
iata
Passenger Terminal
WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
Functionality: Wireless is the shared communications network at an airport based on Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) or WiFi technology. Solutions can be based on IEEE 802.11b WLAN standard as this is a common and appropriate solution in many cases. Support for the higher speed standards, 802.11a and 802.11 g is also available. Wireless communication can accommodate local as well as wide area network connectivity and allows access to air transport applications and passenger communication services via standards-based, commercially available wireless devices. Wireless communications is offered as a comprehensive service that covers the design, installation, operation and maintenance of wireless access points, the WLAN infrastructure, and the ongoing management of the airport wireless environment. Typical Platform: Wireless communications can be based on CISCO or Symbol wireless access points supporting VLAN technology, and can be built on a switched Ethernet VLAN based network utilizing a radius server, firewall router, HP Openview and other systems determined by the design requirements.
J5.5

Many factors are examined before placing a wireless infrastructure into an airport. Important factors can include:
RF Coverage: Determining the placement of access points for coverage to minimize interference is a key technical consideration. Wireless Applications: Support for known and expected wireless applications and their requirements need to be considered in the design. These would include performance, coverage and security requirements. Public vs. Private use: The requirement from the airport may be for either of both of these options. Public use would allow the passenger to use the wireless network to access services and the Internet, while private use allows only the airport and its tenants use of the network. Accounting: Accounting and billing requirements need to be considered. Spectrum Management: This should also be considered as a necessary element of an airport's wireless service. Security: Includes intrusion detection, firewalls, authentication, logging, and other needs. Neutral Host: Most Airports require a neutral host environment where tenants and the public can have equal access into the network within a given priority level of access. For example each wireless ISP (WISP) doing business at the airport would be able to provide service at the airport for their subscribers.
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J5.6 IATA RECOMMENDED PRACTICE J5.1R1 Internet Connectivity Solutions
Internet based systems as defined within clause J5.1 should be considered where an airport wishes to support a variety of airline and other tenants who use different protocols and applications on their desktop. It is a flexible, open environment suitable for supplemental, charter and low cost carrier functions, as well as for major carriers and airline alliances who may have more sophisticated desktop requirements. It should be specified where an airport wishes to appoint a third party to manage its campus operations and develop a broad range of IT services to resell to its tenants.
J5.IR2 Shared Extranet Connectivity Solutions

Shared extranet connectivity solutions should be specified as an option for airlines and other tenants (Retail POS. Handling Agents, etc.) who have 'light' traffic needs such as those found at out-stations (a main operator or a hub site tenant would need dedicated VPN access). The service provider can provide an infrastructure for supporting legacy and IP protocols providing the airpod with flexibility.
J5.IR3 TCP/IP Integration

Service provides now offer new generation LAN and WAN services offering TCP/IP integration, voice and video over IP in a highly secure environments These should be evaluated and considered by the airport planner.
J5.IR4 CUTE
CUTE type systems are an ideal solution for an airport implementing a workstation environment in a shared enyifnment (an environmmt different airlines share the same check-in desks and gates). These check-in desks can either be shared over a short space of time (i.e. multiple users in 24 hours) or give the airport the flexibility to move airlines around over longer time irames.
J5.IRS RF Site Survey and 3rd Party Considerations

Airports should perform an RF Site Survey, gathering customer requirements for the considerations listed above, incorporating governmental regulations and airport policies, and then producing a technical design and implementation plan as well as standard operating procedures. The practice includes careful planning of integration requirements for 3rd parties used in installation and maintenance, in addition to processes and systems necessary to support WISPs for public access. A spectrum management plan should also be provided.
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IATA
SECTION J6: J6.1
Passenger Terminal
PASSENGER PROCESSING FACILITIES PLANNING
PASSENGER FLOWS
J6.1.1 Flow Rates General Flow Chart

General flow charts should be established showing originating, destination, transfer and transit passengers, split by all traffic types (no-frills, charter, scheduled) by sector (domestic, international, European Community, Non-European Community, etc.) and by short/medium and long haul routes. (See Fig. J6-1 & Fig. J6-2). These are determined from statistical data and air traffic forecasts and should be prepared for existing and projected traffic covering years 0, 5, 10 and 20 of the forecast period. In this way forecast data can be translated into annual and peak hour flows such that an understanding of the scale and scope of the facilities can be realised.
J6.1.2 Originating Passengers and Baggage

The rate at which originating passengers arrive with their baggage at various points of the terminal, e.g., curb, check-in counters, government inspection services, etc., forms an important part of the planning process in determining the size and capacity of the main functional areas. These passenger flow rates should therefore be carefully analysed, particularly where volumes are large. As the characteristics of domestic and international passengers are frequently different, the volumes and patterns of each category, if significant, should be recorded separately. This type of analysis may be produced in a format similar to that shown below where the passenger flow rate at the check-in counters is recorded for the design day in increments of 10 minutes, commencing approximately two hours prior to the first aircraft departure. The data given below is only an example and similar data must be obtained for each specific terminal in order that the recommended analyses can be conducted. Historical Data Historical open and closed flight times can be obtained from the overall baggage handling Management Information Systems (MISs) and from airline specific Departures Control Systems (DCSs) which is the best and recommended source of historical data. Most modern MISs and DCSs are able to provide data output in the form of spreadsheets/data tables which can be graphed/mapped into the conventional flight schedules as depicted within Fig. J6-1. The modern MIS can also present Standard Time of Departure (STD) 'minus time periods' associated with the processing of early passengers and their baggage. It should be noted that MIS data is usually not airline specific. It should also be noted that the use of MIS data is dependent on the manner at which passengers are processed prior to check-in. Concourse screening versus in-line screening will present variations in passenger arrival profiles. Where the recommended airline specific DCS historical data is used, this information can be collated
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resulting from departing flights: IATA Airport Development Reference Manual Step 1:
The following is a step by step guide which should be used when establishing passenger profiles
Establish typical flight check-in pattern(s) for the terminal in question. Note that different check-in patterns may apply to different periods of the day, and different type of flights (long-haul, short-haul, charter or no-frills). It must also take into account grouped originating passengers arriving by rail or bus.
Period of Day 06:00- 10:00 10:00-18:00 18:00 24:00 120-110 110100 0 0 0 3 1 4 Percentage of passenger per flight arriving at the Check-in counters by 10-minute periods prior to flight 10090-80 departure. 90 1 2 3 6 8 9 80-70 70-60 6050 6 10 20 11 11 15 14 17 15 50-40 26 18 15 40-30 20 15 15 30-20 12 10 7 20-10 3 2 1 10-0 0 0 0
Step 2: Apply appropriate check-in patterns to the design day forecast passenger load per flight.
Time 06:00 06:30
I
6
07:00
07:30
08:00
08:30
I
83
09:00
09 30
AB 111 3 17 28 56 73
280 Passenger 56 33 8
CD 222 0 3 6 19 32 64
320 Passenger 64 39 10 0
EF333 2 4
"__L
11 18 36 47
AB444 0 1 2 7 11
GH555 1 2 5 9 18 24
90 Passenger 18 11 2 0
EF666 1 3 8 13 26 34
Total
19 32
67 92
94 85
54
42 37
34
43 55
59 81
94
75
61 39
22
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Figure J6-1: Annual Flow Rates
IATA
Flow Chart (Annual Movements)
Passenger Terminal
Sohoduled (8.88)
Total (14.94 Dom. ) 1.10EC No 2.01 Frill! (3.11
EC
N ECS/M.H.
N EC L.H.
EC 2.20 I 1.65
I N EC S/M.H.
4,5
I I______0.31
Q. 10 0.2
t.1Q
2.01
Originating & Destination Traffic (12.02)
Loaend Dom. EC NEC S/M. H. L.H. Domestic European Community Non European Community Short-Medium Haul Long-Haul
tjotfj Transfers & Transit counted twice. Annual Passenger Movements (x 1,000,000). Transfers from same segment to same segment counted once. Figures derived from Passenger Forecast.
Traffic Split & Figures are given for illustration purposes only.
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Figure J6-2: Peak Hour Flow Rates

Flow Chart (Peak Hour Movements) - Part Only
Airside Dom. N EC LH
a a 1_J a N
Arrival
Departure
Arrival
Departun
Arrival
Departure
Arrival
Departure
1_ J
s a
3 S
9.
s 1 as
a a
I a aa
Originating & Destination Traffic
Land side Lgflind Dom. EC NEC S/M.H. L.H. Domestic European Community Non European Community Short-Medium Haul Long-Haul Figures derived from Passenger Forecast. Transfers & Transit counted twice.
Traffic Split & Figures are given for illustration purposes only.
J6.1.3 Destination Passengers and Baggage

The flow rate of destination passenger and baggage is different from the originating flow rate just described. These passengers will enter the terminal upon aircraft arrival in groups directly related to the aircraft capacity, discharge rate (e.g. one or two passenger boarding bridges) and passenger load factor. As a consequence, the flow rate of passengers and baggage is directly related to the aircraft arrival rate and passenger load factors. For further information please refer to Chapter F of this manual, Section F6.
J6.1.4 Transit and Transfer Passengers

At airports where the volume of transit and transfer passengers is large, the flow rates of these categories of passengers will also require careful analysis. As in the case of destination, the flow rates of transit and transfer passengers are directly related to the aircraft arrival rate, discharge rate and passenger load factors.
IATA
J6.1.5 Aircraft Type
Passenger Terminal
The number and size of aircraft must be taken into account with respect to both arriving and departing passenger and baggage flow. The forecast mix of aircraft may change with the growth of passenger traffic (especially the ratio of wide-body aircraft processed at the airport) and can have a significant impact on the passenger terminal complex. If large aircraft predominate, the possibility of larger surges of passengers in all functional areas of the passenger terminal area is greater than with smaller aircraft.
J6.1.6 Well Wishers and Meeters/Greeters

In public areas, mainly the check-in and arrival concourses, well wishers and meeters/greeters must be taken into account. The number of well wishers will vary depending on individual cultures and the type of flight (scheduled/charter, business/leisure, pilgrimage).
J6.2
FLOW ROUTES
J6.2.1 General
In accordance with the outline philosophy defined within Chapter K (Sections K1 to K6 inclusive) passenger flow routes should:
Be as shod, straight and direct as possible, unimpeded by obstructions from passenger crossflows or concession facilities.
Be capable of use by all airlines and not restricted to individual aircraft loads.
Permit multiple routings and be designed to give passengers a choice of government control
positions in order to avoid bottlenecks.
Be sufficiently flexible to permit establishment of temporary channels which can be by-passed

by other passengers (e.g., for individual health control processing of a particular arriving aircraft passenger load) or to permit regulation evolution.
Permit processing of passengers individually or in groups. Introduce a minimum number of level changes.
Government regulations or security reasons should require flow separations; i.e.: One flow route for departing domestic passengers and one for international passengers. One flow route for arriving domestic passengers and one for international passengers.
Departing passengers after security check-points must be physically separated from arriving
passengers.
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J6.2.2 Flow In Terminal Area
A number of factors which affect passenger flow in the terminal area should be taken into account as design targets; these include: (a) Walking Distances Walking distances for passengers should be as short as possible. In determining the distance between major functions in the terminal, the planner must consider whether baggage is to be carried or not, the type and availability of baggage trolleys, changes in level, and the accessibility of the aircraft without resorting to ground transport. The suggested maximum walking distance between the major functions (i.e., car park to check-in/ baggage claim and check-in/baggage claim to gate lounge) is 300m. Greater distances can be accepted provided a form of mechanical assistance is made readily available to passengers. Such systems are costly and therefore a full cost/benefit analysis is necessary before installation. In all terminals where progressive expansion is envisaged, incorporation of a peoplemover system, and due provision for the necessary right-of-way and other related factors must be (b) Separation of International and Domestic Traffic In line with the requirements of Section K3, and where control requirements make it necessary, provision must be made for the separation of international and domestic passengers on the airside of terminals. However, a flexible arrangement should be incorporated whenever possible, so that all or specified gates can be used as required for either category of passengers, and to allow regulation evolution (this is particularly true for countries on the fringes of Europe who may or may not join the common community). This is an important objective in the planning of terminal layouts, and the co-operation of control authorities must be sought in the reduction of restrictive regulations, which could prevent optimum use of facilities. (c) Separation of Arriving and Departing Passengers In line with the requirements of Section K3 and for domestic traffic, separation should not necessarily be mandatory, but under certain circumstances or regulations, arriving and departing passengers may have to be separated (Refer to Section K3 for further details). For international traffic, in all terminals, originating passengers have to be separated from their friends, from domestic passengers and from arriving passengers at the point where the security check is carried out. (d) Changes in Level If passengers are required to change levels when walking, escalators or moving ramps should be provided, at least in the upward direction. Passengers should not be required to move baggage other than hand baggage between levels. Experience has shown that the use of elevators to enable passengers (other than disabled passengers) to change levels is not satisfactory from a capacity point of view. The use of escalators to transfer departing passengers to lower levels at confined air bridge rotundas is not recommended.
340
IATA
(e) Facilities for Disabled Passengers Refer to Section K6 Disabled Passengers (f) Integrated Public Information
Passenger Terminal
Passenger flows can be greatly expedited by providing an integrated public information system, including standardised internal sign posting, flight arrival and departure information, and an adequate selective public address system. Advertising posters and displays must not be permitted to detract from sign posting provided for information purposes. (g) Concession Location Special care should be taken to ensure that concessions are conveniently located and do not interfere with the passenger flow. Passengers should not be intentionally routed through concession areas, especially when more direct routes are possible. (h) CIP Lounge Location In line with the functional requirements of business lounges defined within Section P3 Hotels & Business Centers, airline CIP/business lounges should be located in a central position on or immediately above primary passenger circulation routes. Direct access to concession areas may also be advantageous. (i) Check-In Area Layout The area around the check-in facility should be large enough to accommodate the friends and family of passengers without interference to the check-in process. If this is not the case, then consideration should be given to excluding friends and family from the check-in concourse. Please refer to Section J9 Check-in Systems and Section U2 Departures Systems. (j) Boarding Area Layout The boarding card reader/check-point should be as close to the aircraft as possible, (k) Arrival Area Layout Terminating International passengers should be able to join meeter/greeters immediately outside the point where they clear the final inbound controls. To assist the orientation of both parties, consideration should be given to providing a transparent screen between the reclaim area and the arrivals concourse. (I) Transit and Transfer Passengers In line with the requirements of Chapter K (Sections K1-K4 inclusive), the terminal design must permit
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J6.2.3 Flow to Aircraft

The flow of passengers between the terminal building and the aircraft should be direct and uncomplicated, with clearly defined flow routes which are safe and operationally acceptable. Passengers should be able to enter and leave the aircraft without steep changes in floor levels and under protection from weather, blast and noise. Passenger flow at the aircraft will obviously be affected by the apron system and layout employed. The following points are pertinent to this aspect: (a) Passenger Boarding Bridges In line with the requirements of Section J11 Passenger Boarding Bridges, this system is favoured by the airlines where it is justified and supported by a cost/benefit analysis which demonstrates an achievable high utilisation rate. Passenger boarding bridges foster smooth, relatively uncontrolled individual embarkation and disembarkation of passengers. Passenger boarding bridges have proved particularly advantageous with high capacity aircraft. For Code E aircraft, consideration should be given to the provision of two bridges, to improve the rate of passenger flows. For Code F aircraft, and in particular the A380 with two main decks, consideration should be given to the provision of two bridges, one to both levels, to improve the rate of passenger flows. A third bridge may also be employed depending upon individual airline requirements. (b) Apron Transport At airports where loading bridges are not installed and the aircraft are parked remotely, buses should be used to convey passengers directly between the aircraft and the terminal. (c) Direct Apron Access This system is not generally encouraged by the airlines as passengers are exposed to the effects of weather, aircraft blast and noise. However, for low frills carriers, whose business models cannot support additional on-costs, expenses related to air bridges are often not permitted. Also, it is essential that passenger movement on the apron is constrained to clearly marked walkways with a minimum number of access points onto the apron, and that such movement is always strictly supervised. This is particularly relevant for small commuter aircraft (particularly in the case of a running engine) which are unable to use loading bridges, or where bridges are unavailable. Passenger proceeding between the aircraft and the terminal building should never be allowed to walk across taxi-lanes or taxiways.
J6.2.4 Access Control

When planning new airports, or major redevelopments to existing ones, consideration should be given to reducing to the minimum the number of staff, authorised persons and vehicles requiring access to the airside areas. In this way the number of access control points inside and outside all buildings can also be reduced to the minimum. This can be achieved by:
Having plant and maintenance facilities landside.
Providing adequate facilities for staff within the restricted zones (RZ) to reduce the number of
times they need to enter and leave it in the course of their duties.
342
Co-ordinating landside, non-public access and airside/RZ access control.
J6.3
IATA
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS J6.IR1 Flow Charts
Passenger Terminal
All airports should establish flow charts that clearly show originating, destination, transfer and transit passengers, split by all traffic types (no-frills, charter, scheduled) by sector (domestic, international. Schengen, Non-Schengen, etc.), and by short/medium and long-haul routes. These are determined from statistical data and air traffic forecasts and should be prepared for existing and projected traffic covering years 0, 5, 10 and 20 of the forecast period.
J6.IR2 Flow Routes

Flow routes for passengers should be as short and straight as possible, with few if.any changes in level, in order to minimise the time taken to travel to, from and between aircraft.
^------------------------------------------------------..............__________________________________
JIIR3 Separation and Segregation of Passengers

: ":< 'CXts'. '''X'.'
Flow routes should allow for the separation of international and domestic passengers and/or arriving and departing international passengers as required by ICAO and/or individual government regulations. Please also refer to Section K3 and in particular K3.IR1 for further clarification.
JS.IR4 Barriers to Passenger Movement

Passenger flow routes should not be deliberately manipulated such that passengers are rerouted through concession areas, especially were direct routes are possible. Please also refer to Section J7 Concession Planning.
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SECTION J7: CONCESSION PLANNING J7.1 PUBLIC TERMINAL RETAIL CONCESSION SERVICE AREAS
Surveys on airports show that passengers want, and expect to see, retail and food concession facilities at airports where they can shop and dine. At some larger airports up to 20% of the terminal area can be dedicated to airport shops in often purpose-built retail lounges, although 8%-12% is more typical. With passengers willing to spend large amounts of money on airport shopping, concession revenues can provide the airport with up to 30-50% of their total airport revenues. IATA and its airline members support the airport authorities in their plans to develop or expand airport concessions provided that:
The commercial revenue earned by the airport authority is used to reduce airline user charges. Airports should operate a 'single till policy' for all revenue sales from airport and subsidiary companies. This form of trading should be fully open book to enable airlines to readily evaluate revenues from all forms of airport operator trading activities. The accessibility and accommodation for these facilities must be arranged so that maximum exposure to the passenger and visitor can be accomplished without interfering with the flow of passenger traffic in the terminal. See Clause J7.2.1.
For planning purposes, concessions are typically categorized in six groups:
Duty Free. Specialty, duty paid retail. Convenience retail. Food & beverage. Services.
SERVICESCONVENIENCE news standsBanks, ATM's*FOOD & BEVERAGEInsurance SalesCoffee bars, snack shops*Post OfficeRestaurants*Barber shop/beauty salonCocktail LoungeMassageCafeteriaNurseryFood courts*Day RoomsDUTY FREEFitness centre, pool, saunaSPECIALTY RETAILCurrency Exchange*GiftsObservation areaClothingPay phones*ShoesBaggage wrapping, storage*Personal care products*Medical services*BooksShoe ShineWine/liquor (duty paid)Business centre*Greeting cardsCommon use CIP lounges*ADVERTISINGVideo arcades, casinosWall mounted advertisingGeneral information, tourism information*Displays, event areas
*Denotes recommended.
IATA
J7.2 LOCATION OF RETAIL FACILITIES
Passenger Terminal
J7.2.1 Passenger Flow

Concession sales are governed heavily by the principle of passing trade and advertising. Successful concession programs are employed primarily on enplaning passenger flows, but without impeding these flows or causing complex routings. Passenger dwell times tend to be longer than they were in the past, leaving many passengers ample time for shopping and dining.
FIG. J7.1 Passenger Flow Through Retail and Food Concession Areas
PIER/SATLITE
FOOD
RETAIL
SEATING
PRIMARY PASSENGER DEPARTURES ROUTE
RETAIL
SEATING
1 T
RETAIL
RETAIL
RETAIL
FOOD
RETAIL
RETAIL
X
SEATING RETAIL RETAIL/
FOOD
SEATING
RETAIL RETAIL RETAIL
FOOD
PASSPORT CONTROL
NOTES
SECURITY CONTROL
DENOTES FLOW
PASSENGER
DEPARTURES CHECK-IN
DENOTES EMERGENCY EXIST (Observe National Mandatory Requirement)
It is fairly common for enplaning passengers to locate their gate and then return to concession lounges once they have a clear understanding of the time that they have available. Concession areas that complement efficient and operationally successful terminals usually: Have a clear distinction between directional signage and concession signage or advertising. Have clusters concessions in areas differentiated from the remainder of areas Have flightof information displays at frequent intervals in the concession the so terminal. that passengers can judge their timelines appropriately.
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During concession planning, the convenience retail (news stands) are separated from other duty paid retail, because these units tend to be repeated throughout the terminal, often are located near gates, and are viewed as both a concession and an important passenger service. In larger terminals, there is often a core area of food, including restaurants and a food court, but also satellite food and beverage units in gate areas. Concessions to serve arriving passengers and greeters tend to be more limited. Arriving passengers are focused on leaving the terminal as quickly as possible.
J7.2.2 Landside Retail

Landside concession facilities should incorporate both retail and food concession facilities. The size of these facilities should be aligned to cater for the volume of passengers, landside staff and wellwishers/greeters that are likely to use the facilities. The retail element of this facility will typically account for 20%-30% of the total retail space provided within the terminal. This reduced percentage of retail entices passengers to progress through security and immigration as quickly as possible, and then proceed to duty free or duty free priced sales areas.
J7.2.3 Airside Retail

It is recommended that airside concessions should account for 70%- 80% of the total concession space within the terminal. Retail facilities should be sensitive to cater for national and international passengers. Successful airside retail areas are well illuminated, heated and ventilated (refer to Section Y2 for recommended lighting and heating levels), providing a suitably wide cross spectrum of product sales. It is essential that airside retail sales do not impair the functional characteristics of the passenger terminal. Use of airside concessions by passengers reduces space demands on hold rooms, and 25-40% of the seating provided in airside restaurants and food courts can be counted as contributing to available airside seating.
J7.2.4 Restricted Retail Goods

Some products are inappropriate to be sold within the airport terminal because of security requirements. Harmful goods may include pen-knives, scissors, letter openers, etc. Reference should also be made to the IATA Security Manual, which defines products that are inappropriate to be sold within airports. No goods which could be used in a harmful way should be sold within airport shops, landside or airside. Particular attention should be given to those products sold airside, as these products may fail to be screened.
J7.3
SIZING RETAIL CONCESSIONS

Retail concessions are planned based on supportable space. Using market research, comparisons with successful concession programs at other airports of similar size and traffic characteristics, and historical concession performance at the airport, sales per enplanement (SPE) in the six concession categories are forecast. These annual SPE's are then combined with forecast annual enplanements and typical concession sales productivity (sales per unit area) to arrive at supportable concession space. Concession rents are typically calculated on the basis of percentage of gross sales. Where concessions are appropriately sized and competitively tendered, these rents will typically deliver 3 to 5 times the annualized floorspace cost of the terminal (considering terminal capital and operations) and provide an excellent source of revenue to the airport.
J7.4
CONCESSION SERVICING & STORAGE

Terminal planners should consider concessions servicing and storage during terminal planning and design, including:

J7.5
Secure truck bays for the delivery of supplies and stock to concessions and the removal of
waste. Security screening points at the truck bays to screen concession goods. Waste storage and compaction facilities at or near the truck bays. Storage areas for concession goods within the terminal.
Back of house service corridors and service elevators so that food, food waste and retail stock
J7.IR1 Landside: Airside Retail Proportions 70%-80% of concession space within airports should bW located ahside. The remaining 20%30% of airport retail sales should be located land-side.
J7.IR2 Functional Requirements The primary functions of the departures lounge should not be compromised by ine inclusion of concession facilities. Clear* straight passenger routes through the concession space should be provided. Concession spaces should be differentiated from the balance of the airside area, and concession signage should be different in color and format from directional or emergency signage. 1_____________________ J7.IR3 Passenger Seating 25-40% of the seating within airside restaurants, bars and food courts can be used as conU ibuting to the required airside seating. J7.IR4 Retail Spatial Considerations The size of concessions should be determined through development of supportable spao calculations, considering market research on passengers needs/wants, and the performance of other successful concession programs.
SECTION J8: J8.1
MAINTENANCE
ICAO REQUIREMENTS
Clauses 9.4.1 to 9.4.32 inclusive from ICAO Annex 14 explain the mandatory requirements for all member state airports to have maintenance programs in place and fully operational to ensure that airport buildings, aprons and support infrastructure systems are maintained appropriately and diligently. Sample ICAO Annex 14 Chapter 9.4 text includes: "9.4 Maintenance General 9.4.1 Recommendation. A maintenance programme, including preventive maintenance where appropriate, should be established at an aerodrome to maintain facilities in a condition which does not impair the safety, regularity or efficiency of air navigation. Note 1. Preventive maintenance is programmed maintenance work done in order to prevent a failure or degradation of facilities. Note 2. "Facilities" are intended to include such items as pavement, visual aids, fencing, drainage systems and buildings. 9.4.2 Recommendation. The design and application of the maintenance programme should observe Human Factors principles". In addition to ICAO International legislation, there can be and often is national legislation which requires airports to instigate maintenance programs with similar mandatory objectives. Airport designers are recommended to design facilities which can be maintained safely and easily.
J8.1.1 Objectives Of Airport Asset Maintenance

All building structures will require some form of maintenance to ensure that they remain capable of functioning safely and appropriately. The level of maintenance will depend on many factors, which may include but is not limited to:
Building or infrastructure materials used. Building of infrastructure usage (baggage hall vs passenger hall vs airfield lighting systems). Age of the building or infrastructure asset (older assets usually require more frequent maintenance).
The following assets should, as a minimum, be included within airport active maintenance programmes (where applicable). Other airport assets may need to be assessed and maintained and included. Airport designers should design airport assets which allow airport operators to maintain assets easily. Airport designers are recommended to liaise with airport operators at project handover to provide suitable inventories of assets and maintenance schedules for the assets listed below: Terminal Buildings
Building structure Heating and ventilation systems. Lighting systems.

J8.2
Roads and tunnels infrastructure. Staff and passenger fire escapes. Passenger boarding bridges. IT infrastructure systems. Baggage systems. Fire escapes. Road/Aircraft bridges. Etc.
Apron Systems
Taxiway lighting and control. Runway lighting and control. Perimeter fencing and security detection. Access control systems. Fire services systems. Sewage treatment and disbursal systems. Fuel farm and fuel delivery systems. Etc.
PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES

Preventative maintenance is used as a tool to retain service levels of equipment and infrastructure while minimizing the operational impact of system downtime on the airport. This is achieved by conducting servicing in planned non-operational periods for the airport and its clients. While all airports should develop preventative maintenance strategies, the precise details of aiiport maintenance strategies will vary from airport to airport, according to the size and complexity and the operational duty of the airport. Preventative maintenance strategies should learn from historical data on items such as Mean Time Before Failure (MTBF) for equipment and infrastructure. Equipment should be replaced or maintained before the next MTBF occurs. There are maintenance scheduling software packages available which are able to predict and list actions and trends on equipment which can reduce long term operational maintenance costs in parallel to improving performance of airports and availability and safety
J8.3
The table below is a sample of a typical maintenance scheduling report output: Asset Code/ NameLast Repair Date/Duration of FixPredicted remaining time before failure Date/TimeStaff Skills and Maintenance CostMaintenance Kit/ Documentation RequiredID 3014 Passenger Boarding Bridge GOLF 2215th July 2002 (2 hours)31st January The maintenance fixes are prioritized according to commercial and safety risk, and by asset MTBF 2003Passenger Boarding date/time which is managed by the computer and the maintenance software. Bridge 1x Certified Service Technician TYPICAL STRUCTURAL / INFRASTRUCTURE FAULTS GBP 950Kit3014-B1 Rotunda Hinge There is a wide range of faults that can occur within an operational airport that can be avoided by Pivots applied GreasingID 1077 maintenance. Some faults are predictable, some are not, and certain correctly preventative Baggage faults will be Hall associated with poor design, poor installation or poor historical maintenance. Often Column internal building systems (HVAC, etc.) are properly maintained, while the actual building structure is Protectors1st June 2002 overlooked (most steel and concrete structures require regular maintenance). 4 Hours1st February 2003General One of the most Structural common and most serious structural maintenance faults is associated with the Technicians damage of building internal or external columns which are hit by airside vehicles. Concrete column X3 protection footings and/or steel column protectors can often be frequently hit by airside vehicles, GBP 5750Kit 1077-D1 such Building as baggageColumn tugs, aircraft towing tractors, airside passenger buses, etc. While the occasional lighter Protective Barrier contact (though not recommended) can be usually accommodated by good structural design, where Repair this type of contact is frequently occurring and protection systems are degraded over time, serious
structural problems can result. Airports operators should consult a qualified structural engineer in areas of any doubt. Concrete degradation is common, particularly where climates necessitate the use of road salts for negative weather temperatures. Delaminating steel beams and columns are frequently observed in wetter climates where water dispersal within the structure is poorly designed. Expert structural evaluation is required on a case by case basis to ensure that structures can withstand the intended design loads and usage requirements. It is recommended that designers should produce structures which promote ease of maintenance inspections and adequate water drainage systems.
J8.4
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS J8 IR1 Airport Maintenance Strategies

In line with the requirements of ICAO Annex 14 Chapter 9.4, airports should have a fully implemented and airport wide systems maintenance strategy.
J8.IR2 Design for Maintenance

Airport facilities and infrastructure should be designed in such a way as to promote ease for maintenance inspections and general routine maintenance activities from authorized personnel. As a small limited example, plant rooms should be adequately sized, illuminated and ventilated. Slmilariy, water drainage systems should be adequately and safely accessible for regular cleaning activities. IT infrastructure should be accessible and designed to aid hardware and software maintenance activities.
J8.1R3 Design for Maintenance

All maintenance works at the airport should be carried out with cW scheduling and operational jot miiion between the airport and the AOC. Airlines should be Informed in advance about major maintenance works, especially when these works could influence their operational processes.
SECTION J9: CHECK-IN J9.1 GENERAL

The layout of the check-in hall in the passenger terminal is largely influenced by the check-in concept planned by the airport authority. It is essential therefore that the airlines and handling agents are consulted early in the terminal planning process to ensure optimal operational effectiveness. The allocation of check-in counters to the various airlines and alliances should be considered early in the planning process. There should be a logical flow for all passengers, and particularly alliance passengers, between check-in, CIP lounge and the departure gate lounge.
J9.2
TYPICAL CHECK-IN CONCEPTS

There are three typical check-in concepts that can be selected:
1. Centralized Check-in. 2. Split Check-in. 3. Gate Check-in.

J9.2.1 Centralized Check-in
Passengers and baggage are processed at check-in counters located in a common, central area usually the departure level of the terminal. The counters may be divided into sections specifically designated for individual airlines or flights or, alternatively, passengers may be free to check-in at any counter position. If the latter option is chosen, particular attention must be paid to the baggage sorting implications, which at large airports may necessitate sophisticated and costly systems. The check-in counter configuration chosen will govern the width and the depth of the terminal building.
J9.2.2 Split Check-in

The check-in function is split between two or more locations within the terminal complex. For example, passengers and baggage may be accepted at central check-in counters, or alternatively at other locations around the airport including but not limited to:
Check-in area located in the train station. Check-in area located in the car park. Check-in area located in a commercial building located on the airport. The entrance to the gate lounge.
Downtown check-in. Attention must be paid to baggage acceptance at these remote locations. It is much more complex to take baggage from remote locations to the central sortation hall. The physical layout of terminals with split check-in systems varies widely because of the variety of types of procedures available. The airlines prefer a centralized check-in layout since split check-in layouts require additional airline check-in staff.
J9.2.3 Gate Check-in

Passengers proceed with their baggage directly to the gate and are processed at check-in counters immediately in front of the appropriate gate lounge. A good example of this type of check-in layout is Hanover, Germany. This concept:

J9.3
Simplifies check-in handling procedures. Shortens passenger walking distances within the terminal. Reduces passenger reporting time. Reduces baggage sorting requirements. Could generate more staff requirements.
CHECK-IN HALL
The airlines acceptance of passengers and their checked baggage takes place in the check-in hall, which consists of a number of check-in counters with appropriate baggage conveyance facilities. Check-in counters may be placed in either a linear type layout or an island type layout. Within each of the two main types of counter layouts, several variants exist. The distance a passenger must carry his/her baggage to the closest terminal check-in point should be kept to a minimum. Most check-in layouts now include a CUTE system (see Section J4). The layout of the check-in hall is changing quickly to accommodate an increasing number of selfservice kiosks. The airlines are introducing these kiosks as a means to speed up the check-in process, lower costs by reducing the number of passenger agents required, and increase security at counters. It is estimated that 33-50% of check-in counters will be self-service based on recent experience in Europe and North America (see clause J4.3). Approximately half the self-service kiosks are designed for passengers with baggage. Where traditional check-in counter layouts (island or linear) are required in a contemporary airport design, provision should be made to allow for the gradual replacement of these counters with selfservice kiosks. The baggage system planned for should also contain a similar degree of flexibility. Limited seating should be included in the check-in hall for some well-wishers to use while passengers are checking-in. Baggage trolleys and related storage areas need to be provided. Many airlines now use stanchions in front of the check-in counters so passengers can be processed in a single queue or a few queues separated by class of service rather than processing passengers in multiple queues. Most typically, an airline will use 8 check-in counters to process passengers for a 747-400 flight. One counter is used for first class; two counters for business class and the remaining five counters for economy class. Departure flight information displays (FIDS) must be available within the check-in hall. The FIDS monitors should show which airlines are operating from which check-in counters. Appropriate systems for the conveyance of passengers' baggage from the check-in counters to the baggage make-up area must be provided. The type of system may include a number of transitions and can be relatively complex, as is the case with centralized check-in, or very simple in the case of gate check-in. The maximum number of check-in counters per baggage conveyor belt must be

flow from each feeder belt, so as to prevent congestion or jamming of bags when they merge on the main conveyor. Automatic controls to ensure that bags from any counter have equal opportunity of access to the main conveyor may also need to be incorporated. Specially designated counters are required for the acceptance of oversized baggage. These counters may be located in each check-in island at clearly identified positions, usually one per check-in island, or they may be located at the head of the check-in hall at one or several positions. These check-in positions will have wider baggage belts with a straight feed down to the outbound baggage room. They usually also have easy access to a freight elevator that will allow large pieces of baggage to be placed on a cart and taken down to the outbound baggage room.
J9.3.1 Linear Type Check-in Layout

Linear type layouts may be used both for centralized check-in and for gate check-in. The counters may be arranged in an uninterrupted, linear layout or be spaced so as to allow passengers to pass between the counters after check-in (pass-through layout). This type of check-in layout is not favoured since the check-in hall becomes long and narrow when a large number of counters are required. This layout usually tends to promote congestion in the check-in hall.
J9.3.2 island Type Check-in Layout

Island type layouts are suitable for centralized check-in. Each island, where the axis is orientated parallel to the flow of passengers through the terminal concourse, may consist of 10-20 individual check-in counters on each side. This number of counters on each side of the check-in island will require two main baggage conveyor belts installed in parallel back to back. Commonly 20-30m separation between adjacent islands is evident. The IATA recommended distance is 24-26m. The island check-in layout is favoured by ACCs over the linear check-in counter layout. The head of each check-in island should be used for airline sales, ticketing and information counters. Each side of each check-in island should be identified with a letter or number. In some cases the area between two check-in islands is identified.
IATA
J9.4 CHECK-IN COUNTER DESIGN
Passenger Terminal
Airlines/handling agents must be consulted in the design phase of the check-in counters, as the layout of the counters will depend on the procedures they will use for passenger check-in and baggage handling. The check-in counter design must consider the ergonomic requirements of both passengers and the airline staff. The computer monitor and keyboard should be adjustable to suit different sizes of airline staff. A mock-up of the check-in desk should be built and airline check-in staff encouraged to test the mock-up model before the new counters are manufactured. In designing the check-in counter, adequate space must be provided for all possible airline computer equipment. The dimensions and exact location of such equipment should be determined by consulting the airlines/handling agencies concerned at each specific airport. Computer equipment dimensions are constantly changing, therefore flexibility is required in the design of areas in/on the counter where the equipment will be placed.
Figure J9-4: JFK T1 Counters as a Benchmark for Counter Design
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J9.4.1 Check-in Equipment
The equipment which will be housed in the check-in counter includes:
Computer monitor (flat panel preferred), keyboard and CPU. Boarding pass printer. Baggage tag printer. Document/itinerary printer. Passport reader. Telephone/interphone. Conveyor controls. Baggage scale readout.
The PC and printer equipment is usually supplied by the CUTE supplier.
J9.4.2 Check-in Signage

Good signage is required over each check-in counter so passengers can easily identify the airline operating from that counter. The signage should also identify:
The type of service (First class, Business class or Economy class). The flight number. The destination(s).
There are several types of monitors that are used for check-in signage. These include: TFT-LCD display monitors. Plasma display monitors.
J9.4.3 General Counter Design Requirements

Some of the general requirements that need to be considered in designing the check-in counter are:
A suitable stool with adjustable height and 5 prong base.
Keyboard shelf with adjustable height as an option to having the keyboard placed on the desk
top.
Palmrest for the keyboard. Adjustable footrest. Waste basket. Counter identification number.
Selection of materials that provide ease of maintenance, possibility of future modifications,

reduced glare (matte finish) and resilient enough to withstand heavy wear and tear.

356
Exposed counter edges should be rounded. Suitable location for baggage identification tags and airline timetables. Easy access to the CPU.
IATA
Passenger Terminal

If equipment is to be located within the counter, printers should be on a shelf which pulls out for easy refilling and maintenance. The pull-out shelf should be lockable. Good cabling management should provide easy access from the back side of the counter for repair/replacement of computer equipment. Adequate space/drawers should be provided so that the desk looks neat and organized at all times. For security reasons all drawers and pigeon hole arrangements containing baggage tags, ticket stock, boarding passes, etc. should be lockable. Adequate ventilation is required for computer equipment in the counter. Lighting for the check-in counter must be carefully considered so that sufficient working light is provided without excessive glare preventing reading of the computer screen. Where possible, the desks should be based on a modular system of basic units.
Figure J9-3: Example of Check-In Counter Design

i--------------* hH
SECTION SECTION B-B
C-C
357

Figure J9-4: Example of Check-In Counter Design (cont'd)
SECTI ON A-A Agent Position Combined Standing/Seated

Table of Dimensions Element A B C D E F G H J K L M N 0 P Q R S T U V Counter Height Desk Working Height Counter Depth Depth of Counter Top Tagging Belt Height Weigh Belt Height at Passenger Side Shelf Depth Shelf Height Height of Waste Basket (optional) Protrusion of Weighing Belt in Front of Counter Length Tagging Belt Front of Belt to Back of Counter Counter Width Net Conveyor/Scale Width Space Between Counters Clear Space Below Work Surface Width Agent Knee Space Depth of Cut-out for Agents Knees Clear Space Above Work Surface Storage/Equipment Space Depth of Free Area for Inst. & Cabling Dimensions (cm) 122-128 92-100 80-90 25-30 40-45 30-35 10-15 70-80 approx. 15 25-35 80-90 15-20 120-130 50-60 58-68 87-95 min. 60 approx. 30 25-30 According to Local Airline Requirements approx. 15
Notes:
1. Dimensions based upon an average passenger eye level of 1.60 m. 2. Dimensions C + G should be max. 1.00 m. 3. Provision of shelf at passenger side of desk is optional. 4. Provision of feeder belt system is optional. If scale/platform used, dimensions E, F, K, L and M are not applicable. 5. Careful attention should be paid to slope of weighing belt (max. 10%). 6. Optional waste basket shown at bottom of agent knee well. This only valid for combined standing/seated agent position. 7. Where double counters are proposed which will be used by a single airline, and that carrier chooses to share equipment, counter
storage/ equipment space can be less than twice the requirement for a single counter.
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IATA
Passenger Terminal
Figure J9-5: Self Service Kiosks in Munich Terminal 2
J9.5
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS J9.IR1 with: The favoured Check-In Hall layout includes Island Check-in
I/
0-20 counters per side.
Double main baggage collector conveyor belts. 26m separation between islands. A CUTE system. fpf JFK check-in counters used as the benchmark design. A mock-up counter tested by airline check-in staff. Increased availability of self-service kiosks (see Figure J9-5).
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SECTION J10: J10.1
PEOPLE MOVER SYSTEMS
AUTOMATED PEOPLE MOVERS (APM)

Automated People Mover (APM) equipment has become more and more commonplace, particularly within the confines of the airport perimeter. APM systems are a transportation alternative often used to transport passengers travelling greater distances within airports. An APM system is basically an automated driver-less train, in which individual vehicles or trains operate at frequent intervals on dedicated guideways. APM systems are designed to carry large numbers of passengers within high density activity areas such as airports.
Figure J10-1 Typical APM
08
As new airports are developed and existing airports are expanded to accommodate these requirements, the distances which passengers must travel within the airport increase. Conventional pedestrian modes such as moving walkways are acceptable for short distances, but do not provide a sufficient level of service to passengers when greater distances are involved. APMs offer lower cost alternatives to traditional rail provision as drivers are rarely if at all needed (APMs can be operated often in manual mode with a driver on-board). Track infrastructure is both cheaper and easier to install with fewer track-placed signals. The basic building blocks of APMs are: Rail rolling stock of light gauge. Track infrastructure and controls. CCTV systems. Air conditioning/heating systems. Centralized track and rolling stock control facility. Power distribution network via track and transformers.
Planning for new and existing airports continues to indicate the need to accommodate additional aircraft and greater numbers of passengers. More gates and/or reconfigured gate layouts are often required to accommodate these aircraft. The reasons that APMs are used extensively on the airport complex include:
The volume of people being moved is relatively small: typically 150 people at a time though upto 500 passengers is possible. Often the travel distances are relatively short, with distances below 1km being common. The frequency of people movement is often high. The destinations or the drop-off and loading points for passengers are limited, often less than 5 destinations on a single track and commonly only 2 destinations are provided.
These combined factors steer the designer away from manned services, such as full gauge rail and buses, and lean them toward APM technology. Planners of almost all large airports envision the implementation of an APM system at some point in its development. Even at airports which do not initially anticipate an APM system, space and rights-of-way should be reserved so that APM systems can be accommodated if needed in the future.
J10.2
APM APPLICATIONS AT AIRPORTS

APM systems can be planned to satisfy several different transportation requirements at airports. The principal applications for APM systems can be classified in the following groups:
Terminal to gate connections APM systems connecting main terminal processing areas to aircraft gates in satellites or piers. Landside connections APM systems connecting unit terminals and landside airport functions such as remote parking and car rental facilities. Intra-terminal connections APM systems serving as connections between aircraft gates within one terminal or satellite to facilitate the movement of intra-line transfer passengers.
Atlanta, Georgia, USA Chicago, Illinois, USA Cincinnati, Ohio, USA Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas, USA Denver, Colorado, USA Frankfurt, Germany Hong Kong, China Houston, Texas, USA Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Las Vegas, Nevada, USA London-Gatwick Airport, UK
London-Stansted Airport, UK Miami, Florida, USA Newark, New Jersey, USA Orlando, Florida, USA Osaka-Kansai, Japan Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA Seattle-Tacoma, Washington, USA Singapore Tampa, Florida, USA Tokyo-Narita Airport, Japan
J10.3
APM PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

After identifying potential APM applications at an airport, it is important to define the service to be provided by the system and to identify and analyze its APM car occupancy characteristics and demand. The airport elements which require interconnection should be identified. These points of service can include:
Satellites or piers and a main terminal, in the case of terminal to gate connections.
Unit terminals, parking areas, car rental facilities or other landside functions, in the case of
landside connections.
Groups of gates in an intra-terminal connection. Off airport transit stations or intermodal facilities in transit connections.
The potential station locations within each element can be developed later, based on the physical configuration of the elements, level of service criteria, and the demographics of the potential APM car occupancy . Goals should be established for the level of service to be provided to passengers. The key criteria affecting APM system planning are maximum walk distance, minimum connection times, and passenger waiting time for trains. Many other airport level of service criteria also apply to the planning of APM systems, including criteria such as minimizing passenger level changes, minimizing transfers between trains, and maximizing the visibility of the system to passengers.
J10.5
TYPE OF APM CAR OCCUPANTS

All categories of potential APM car occupants should be identified. It is important to identify each category separately so that different demand, peaking times, and characteristics can be applied to each category. Categories vary for each airport and application, however, typical categories include the following: Passengers:
Arriving international. International to international transfers. Departing international. Arriving and departing domestic. Domestic to international transfers. International to domestic transfers (after processing). Domestic to domestic transfers.
Flight Crews same as with passenger list.
Employees
Airline. Other.
Passenger Terminal
Visitors

J10.6
Meeters/Greeters. Well Wishes. Other.
APM CAR OCCUPANCY DEMAND

For each category of APM car occupant, the demand should be analyzed. The APM car occupancy demand analysis should be performed on a consistent basis with the other airport forecasts and analyses. The APM car occupancy analysis should account for the possibility of varying peak times for different categories of APM car occupants, such as international vs. domestic peaks, and peaks within airlines or groups of gates. If airport design hour forecasts are used, a surge factor should be applied to account for the uneven distribution of passengers throughout the design hour. The APM car occupancy demand numbers can later be applied to alternative system configurations to determine the capacity requirements of the APM system.
J10.7
CHARACTERISTICS OF APM CAR OCCUPANTS

The characteristics and special requirements for each type of APM car occupant should be identified. Some key characteristics include the following:
The need for separation between types of APM car occupants, such as sterile and non-sterile, or secure and non-secure passengers must be defined. The space requirements for each APM car occupant category can vary greatly depending upon the amount of baggage present. Landside systems, in which passengers have baggage which will be checked or has been claimed, have a much higher space requirement than passengers with APM carry-on baggage only. International passengers generally have higher space requirements than domestic passengers. Employees typically have a lower space requirement than passengers.
These key APM planning considerations, together with the unique requirements of each application, can be used to develop and evaluate alternative APM system configurations.
J10.8
APM CONFIGURATIONS/OPERATIONAL MODES

In planning a new airport or the expansion of an existing airport, it is very important to address the APM systems in the earliest stages. An efficient and cost effective APM system configuration can be a key factor in determining the feasibility of some types of airport layouts. In early planning, alternative APM configurations and operational modes should be developed, analyzed, and evaluated. These early planning analyses will assure that adequate rights-of-way and space provisions are made for the APM system, and that the selected airport and APM configurations are compatible. Numerous variations and combinations of APM configurations can be developed. Some systems use multiple overlapping routes with off-line stations, or switching and crossovers between shuttle systems. The best APM system is usually the simplest system which will satisfy the planning criteria. Added complexity can increase the cost and reduce the reliability and availability of an APM system. The APM configurations and operational modes can be different for each airport layout. The most
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J10.9 APM TECHNOLOGIES
In airport and terminal planning, it is important to develop configurations and operational concepts which reflect the capabilities of proven APM technologies. Also, since there are a relatively limited number of APM suppliers, accommodating as many technologies as possible in the planning phase will help to assure a competitive source for the APM system in the procurement phase of the project. The term APM applies to a diverse group of technologies with a wide range of physical and operating characteristics. New technologies are constantly being developed and marketed, and existing technologies are refined with each new application. Technologies vary in size, performance, propulsion type, suspension type, appearance, and numerous other aspects. For planning purposes the key characteristics are as follows:
Size Technologies vary in vehicle size and train length, from single vehicle trains of 8-12 passenger capacity, to 4 to 6 vehicle trains of 75-100 passengers per vehicle. Speed The maximum cruise speed of various APM technologies ranges from 25 to 100km per hour. In applications where the distances between stations are very short, the differences in speed make very little difference in the overall travel times. In layouts with longer distances between stations, the higher speed technologies can reduce the travel times significantly. Propulsion type APM technologies can be classified into 2 general groups, self-propelled and cable propelled. Self-propelled technologies include those propelled by convention or linear induction motors located either on board the vehicles or continuously along the guideway. Cable propelled technologies use passive vehicles attached to a cable which is propelled by drive equipment at a single point along the guideway. Suspension type APM technologies have a wide range of suspension types, including rubber tired, monorail, steel wheel/steel rail, air levitated, and magnetically levitated technologies.
For planning purposes, APM technologies can be placed in general groups with similar performance, capacity, and physical space requirements. These general groups can then be analyzed and evaluated to determine whether they satisfy the APM planning criteria. Provisions can then be made in the airport and terminal layout to accommodate the physical requirements of the appropriate generic technology groups.
J10.10 APM SYSTEM INTEGRATION INTO FACILITIES

The most successful APM systems are those which are well integrated into the airport and terminal facilities. Since the planning and design of the airport and terminal facilities is normally started before an APM supplier is selected, the integration should begin by using physical requirements of the appropriate generic technology groups. The use of simulation tools is also useful to determine by modelling the frequency and track movement dynamics. Specific APM facilities which should be integrated include the following:

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Passenger stations. Guideway. Maintenance facilities. Central control facility. Propulsion power substations.
IATA
J10.11 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS J10.IR1 APM Installations
Passenger Terminal
The use of APM systems for transporting passenger and airport staff traffic around the airport complex should be considered when any one of the following conditions are evident:
The distance between airside security boundary and remote satellites or piers is more than
0.75Km.
More than 3000 persons per hour need to be transported between a distance of no less than 0.75Km on the airport complex. If the cost of installing, running and maintaining an APM's is less than the cost to provide alternatives modes of transport when totally calculated over a 15 year period with appropria..* depreciation etc. If the use of an APM dramatically removes an internal airside road traffic congestion problem. Where Mean Connection Time (MCT) for passengers need to be reduced or improved.
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SECTION J11: J11.1 PASSENGER BOARDING BRIDGES OBJECTIVES OF PASSENGER BOARDING BRIDGES
The passenger boarding bridge is used by large and smaller airports worldwide. It can be used to assist the airport operation by:
Reducing the Passenger Disembark/Embarkation Time. Improving Staff and Passenger Safety. Improving Passenger Experience. Improving Disabled Access. Providing a means of escape from the aircraft in case of an emergency.
FIG. J11-1: Typical 2 Section Apron Drive Passenger Boarding Bridge
The passenger boarding bridge can significantly reduce disembarkation and embarkation times when compared to conventional steps and vehicle lifts. Passengers typically move nearly 25% faster through passenger boarding bridges than compared to other alternative processes, since the process does not incorporate movement of buses with corresponding passenger dwell periods. Passenger and staff are also less likely to injure themselves using a passenger boarding bridge
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Passenger boarding bridges improve the passenger experience particularly in more extreme climates, since the passenger can be transferred to and from the aircraft in controlled climates and away from adverse weather such as rain, snow and extreme humidity and sunshine. Passenger boarding bridges offer improved access for disabled passengers and reduce injuries to staff handling disabled passengers that would normally use alternative, non-automated means of access.
J11.2
TYPES OF PASSENGER BOARDING BRIDGE

There are three types of passenger boarding bridge:
The apron drive passenger boarding bridge. The nose loader passenger boarding bridge. The cantilever passenger boarding bridge.
J11.2.1 The Apron Drive Passenger Boarding Bridge

The apron drive passenger boarding bridge provides the greatest flexibility for airports wishing to serve a wide range of aircraft, as it moves in 3 axis degrees of freedom, namely:
Axis 1 Vertically up and down about the pivot point on the rotunda. Axis 2 Laterally in and out via the telescopic section movement. Axis 3 On an arc rotating about the rotunda.
It is typically possible to serve smaller or lower aircraft such as the Fokker 28/100 series, through to the large higher aircraft such as the Boeing 747 series and Airbus A380 aircraft using the apron drive unit. The apron drive unit usually comprises two or three telescopic tunnel sections attached to the rotunda unit. It is affixed close to the terminal link bridge and has a rotating cab at the aircraft end. Three section tunnel apron drive units are recommended to be used where the range of aircraft height differential varies the most. It is a common fact that, the greater the slope length, then the shallower the resultant slope gradient will be on all passenger boarding bridges. The cab which docks with the aircraft comes in two variants: non-leveling and self-leveling. Self leveling cab units are recommended, even though they produce the less effective slope length, as they are safer for passengers and staff particularly when the telescopic sections are on a maximum gradient.
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The apron drive passenger boarding bridge is more flexible, in that misaligned aircraft can be more easily accommodated because the cab can be moved to account for the parking error (rather than having to move the aircraft, which is the requirement with nose loader passenger boarding bridges).
J11.2.2 The Nose Loader Passenger Boarding Bridge

The nose loader passenger boarding bridge is most commonly used to support aircraft which share similar or closer door sill heights, as the nose loader passenger boarding bridge can only move in two axis of freedom, namely:
Axis 1 Vertically up and down about the pivot point on the rotunda. Axis 2 Laterally in and out via the telescopic section movement.

Since the distance from the rotunda pivot point to the cab is usually limited to being (significantly) less than half the stand width, the effective slope length then also becomes limited, which in turn restricts the permissible aircraft height range. It is common and recommended for the nose loader passenger boarding bridge to be used in situations where the aircraft to be served are: small only, small to medium, medium only, medium to large, or large only, as the rotunda height can be set accordingly. It is possible to serve small to large aircraft ranges using the nose loader passenger boarding bridge, but the usual result is that the telescopic tunnel gradient becomes excessively steep or multiple parallel stand center lines are required. The nose loader passenger boarding bridge requires that the aircraft need to be stopped very accurately since the cab cannot be moved down the length of the stand centre-line.
J11.2.3 The Cantilever Passenger Boarding Bridge

The cantilever airbridge is rarer than most passenger boarding bridges and used mainly to expedite passengers more quickly from large aircraft such as the Boeing 747 series or the Airbus A380 using the aircraft's aft port door positions. The cantilever passenger boarding bridge is usually used alongside a conventional apron drive unit serving the forward door positions. A nose loader combination is possible, though this is a very rare as it is also very restrictive. The cantilever passenger boarding bridge extends over the port wing and engine(s) to reach the aft port door on the aircraft. The cantilever structure is used since the weight of the telescopic sections cannot in this extension be supported by ground driven powered wheel assemblies. The load is instead transferred across the upper bracing structure which is predominately in tension, where the main weight and dynamic moments of the assembly are transferred to the upper sections of the rotunda. The use of the cantilever passenger boarding bridge is not a preferred or a recommended solution. Where two passenger boarding bridges are required the alternative recommended solution is to provide dual conventional apron drive passenger boarding bridges to expedite passengers serving the forward lower first door, lower second door, or the upper deck doors.
J11.3
THE ROTUNDA/LINK BRIDGE/EMERGENCY ESCAPE

The rotunda is the main support mechanism for all passenger boarding bridges and is a fixed entity on the stand. The location of the rotunda is the single most critical unit on the stand as every other component including the aircraft will be positioned around the location chosen for the rotunda. It is important to select a position for the rotunda which will permit the Passenger boarding bridges to:
Reach all the aircraft. Be parked such that they do not clash with building structures or other aircraft. Create a link bridge clearance which permits vehicles to pass beneath them.
When setting the rotunda height it is good practice and recommended to initially set the finished floor level of the rotunda in accordance with the levels defined within the table seen in Fig J11-3. It will be necessary to use a computer program to calculate the optimum rotunda height and plan position taking into account the parked position of all aircraft, the permissible bridge slope, the number of telescopic tunnel sections, and the apron slope characteristics.
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FIG. J11-2: TABLE OF RANGE OF AIRCRAFT DOOR SILL LEVELS

Typical Aircraft B737-700 A320-200 B767-300 A340-300 B777-200 B747-400 A380-800 Sill Height (Level 1) 2.67m 3.39m 4.13m 4.40m 4.72m 4.65m 5.13m Height Type Low A/C Low A/C Medium A/C Medium A/C High A/C High A/C High A/C
FIG. J11-3: TABLE POSSIBLE ROTUNDA LEVELS AGAINST AIRCRAFT RANGE

Aircraft Service Range Low Aircraft Only Low to Medium Aircraft Medium Aircraft Only Medium to High Aircraft High Aircraft Only Possible Rotunda Level (m) Range > 3.75 < 4 > 4 < 4.5 > 4.5 < 5 > 4.5 < 5.5 > 4.5 < 6
FIG. J11-4: TABLE DEFINING CLASSIFICATION OF AIRCRAFT DOOR SILL LEVELS
Classification of Aircraft Door Sill Levels Low A/C have door sills Medium A/C have door sills High A/C have door sills
A/C Sill Height Range < 3.75m > 3.75m < 4.5m >4.5m
The link bridge connects the fixed rotunda to the terminal building. It is good practice and recommended to be able to separate the flows of arriving passengers and departing passengers, by provision of alternative passenger routes, starting at the point where the rotunda connects to the link bridge. It is also good practice and recommended to provide means of escape for passengers and staff at the point where the rotunda meets the link bridge. As a result, if an individual were standing where the rotunda meets with the link bridge, that individual should be able to follow any of the following potentially available routes:
1. Access to the aircraft. 2. Access to the terminal Departing Passenger Route. 3. Access to the Terminal Arriving Passenger Route. 4. Access to the Apron Emergency Evacuation or Staff Access.
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Figure J11-5: Typical Link Bridge Connection Preferred Ramps Configuration
-----^1
7 71 /
1 1
1 _____
(or
-S
At any one time, only three of the four routes possible should be available to passengers at the rotunda link bridge merge position, depending on whether that passenger is departing or arriving on the aircraft.
J11.3.1 Emergency and Other Safety Considerations

In the common situation where passenger boarding bridge emergency escape stairs are fitted it is recommended that they do not move with the rotation of the cab, and instead they remain parallel at all times within the length of the telescopic sections. Consideration must be given to the fire protection properties of the loading bridges. Where the relevant authority agrees that such protection is necessary, the passenger boarding bridges must maintain their integrity and provide a means of escape from the aircraft in the event of a fuel spillage fire commensurate with the requirements of NFPA 415 Standard of Airport terminal Buildings, Fuelling Ramp Drainage and Loading Walkways. All floor finishes within the loading bridge must be non-slip, with means provided to minimise any tripping or slipping hazards. A means of communicating with passengers queuing between the gate and aircraft must be provided to direct passengers back to the gate in the event of an emergency at the aircraft or an incident within
J11.4
THE TELESCOPIC TUNNEL SLOPE

It is recommended that a slope of 1:10 (1 unit up or down for every 10 units parallel to the apron) is used for all types of passenger boarding bridge. The slope should be measured from the rotunda pivot point in all instances to: (i) The cab to aircraft interface for non-leveling apron drive cabs. (ii) The end of the telescopic sections of the self-leveling apron drive variant. (iii) The cab to aircraft interface for nose loader and cantilever variants.
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J11.5 STAND SETTING OUT CONFIGURATIONS
When configuring a single or multi aircraft ramp stand (MARS), the following factors should be considered when aiming to serve all aircraft:
Preference should be given to the use of two section apron drives over three section variants
in the first instance.
Aircraft should not be positioned with hydrants beneath the engines.
The distance from the furthest most feature of the aircraft tail assembly, when viewed in plan,
should not be less than 4.5 m from the back of stand perimeter marking.
The minimum wing tip clearance to the stand perimeter should be 2 m. Bridge parking locations should be designed to aid the movement of aircraft support vehicles.
The positioning of fixed or mobile auxiliary aircraft ground power provision should be assessed
and accounted for.
Terminal gate room evacuation routes via the rotunda and link bridge emergency stairs should
be accounted for, as should the space needed to accommodate passengers. for selected operations.
The potential provision for automated arrival baggage system conveyors should be considered
J11.6
Aircraft misalignment (badly parked) tolerances should considered. PAPA Boards and AGNIS equipment space should be safeguarded. Equipment area zones should be identified and likely space requirements accounted for.
THE APRON SLOPE EFFECT

The slope of the apron can have a significant affect on the ability of the passenger boarding bridge to serve the desired aircraft, and affects the safe operation of the stand in general. The slope will affect drainage and the resultant height of the aircraft and hence the slope of the tunnels of the passenger boarding bridge. The correct recommended balance is to set the apron slope such that it should decline away from the head of stand line at a gradient of 1:100 (1 unit down for every 100 units running parallel to the stand center-line). Where possible, it is recommended to try to set the position of the rear main undercarriage assemblies of the aircraft such that they will naturally roll away from the terminal structure and toward the taxiway. This will ensure that push back loads are minimized.
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Photos courtesy of Airport Design Associates (ADA) UK
J11.7
J11 .IR1 Passenger Boarding Bridge Cab Self levelling cab units are recommended, even though they produce the less effective slope length, as they are safer for passengers and staff particularly when the telescopic sections are on a maximum gradient. Cab stairs, where fitted, should remain parallel to the telescopic tunnel sections at all times.
J11.IR2 Use of the Nose Loader Passenger Boarding Bridge It is recommended for the nose loader passenger boarding bridge to be used in situations when the aircraft to be served are: small only; small to medium; medium only; medium to large; or large only, as the rotunda height canoe set accordingly.
J11.IR3 Apron Drive Variant Selection Where the attributes of the apron drive unit are favoured over the nose loader unit, the two section tunnel apron drive passenger boarding bridge should be selected as the first choice. If the two section tunnel bridge cannot meet the operational requirements then the three section tunnel apron drive unit is recommended to be used.
IATA
Passenger Terminal
J11.IR4 Use of Multiple Passenger Boarding Bridges Per Stand Perimeter Where it can be demonstrated that multiple passenger boarding bridges are required to aid passenger embarkation and disembarkation, the recommended solution is to provide multiple conventional apron drive passenger boarding bridges to expedite passengers serving at least the forward lower first door, lower second door or the upper deck doors. Rear door service slS&ld be provided only by special agreement of all parties concerned.
J11.IR5 Rotunda Height When setting the rotunda height it is good practice and recommended to initially set the finished floor level of the rotunda in accordance with the levels defined within the table seen in Fig J113. Fine tuning of these dimensions will be required to accommodate all aircraft to be served, and the permitted clearances of the link bridge over the stand road. "A J11.IR6 Access and Passenger Route Separation The link bridge connects the fixed rotunda to the terminal building. It is good practice and recommended to be able to separate the flows of arriving passengers and departing passengers by provision of alternative passenger routes, starting at the point where the rotunda connects to the link bridge. It is also good practice and recommended to provide means of escape for passengers n staff at the point where the rotunda meets with the link bridge, as fully defined within clause 11.3 of this section. J11.IR7 Telescopic Passenger Boarding Bridge Slope It is recommended that a slope of 1:10 (1 unit up or down for every 10 units parallel to the apron) is used for all types of passenger boarding bridges.
J11.IR8 Apron Slope The correct recommended balance is to set the apron slope such that it should decline away from the head of the stand line at a gradient of 1:100 (1 unit down for every 100 units running parallel to the stand center-line). Where possible, it is recommended to try to set the position of the rear main undercarriage assemblies of the aircraft such that they will naturally roll away from the terminal structure and toward the taxiway.
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Airport
Development
Reference
SECTION J12: SIGNAGE J12.1 GENERAL SIGNAGE PHILOSOPHY: OVERVIEW

A well-conceived signage system can contribute considerably to the efficient flow of passengers and traffic at the airport. It is therefore essential to consider the signage system in the early planning and concept evaluation stages, and to endeavour to design a system which is easy to understand, concise, and logically placed in the various facilities within the passenger terminal buildings and surrounding areas. The primary purpose of an airport signage system is to move the travelling public through a myriad of roadways and corridors using a concise and comprehensible system of directional, informational, regulatory, and identification messages. Ideally, the passenger terminal building will incorporate wayfinding elements into its basic design, including self-evident passenger-flow routes, memorable landmarks at key junctions and information points, floor and wall finishes that are consistent in different waiting area or corridor types, etc. It should be recognized that a given terminal concept can have a significant impact upon the eventual signage system, particularly at large airports where several Passenger signage should be clearly segregated and should include: Signage Description Airport Information Departures Signage Arrivals Signage Transfer Signage Baggage Signage Emergency Signage Concourse In-Ground Lighting Display Type Static & Dynamic Static & Dynamic Static & Dynamic Static & Dynamic Static & Dynamic Static Dynamic Text/Background Group (see J12.2.4) 2 1 1 1 1 3 N/A
It is important for signage systems to adhere to a basic guideline of copy styles and sizes, consistent terminology, recognizable and universally acceptable symbols, and uniform colours for standard functions. Message content must be in layman's language, understandable by the unsophisticated as well as the sophisticated traveller, and should be designed to accommodate the needs of disabled passengers. Use of standard terminology can help to simplify the process of making the transition from the ground mode to the air mode ( and vice versa) for the travelling public. Even though no signage system can satisfy everyone's needs and questions, signs must be designed with the objective of developing a concise and informative series of non-verbal messages which will aid the majority of passengers. The basic criteria for an effective communications system includes the thorough programming of all aspects of vehicular and pedestrian traffic flow, and the appropriate delivery of all pertinent information to the traveller, visitor, or employee. It is important for the following three categories of messages to be communicated through signing and graphics.
J12.1.1 Directional Signage

Directional signage is of greatest importance in an airport terminal complex. All other designs are subordinate. Proper directional signs are necessary because the rapid movement of vehicles, people and particularly passengers is essential for maximum utilization for the airport. At any transition point between air and ground transportation, success or failure of the terminal operations and its signage is largely measured by the ease, speed, and comfort of access to and from the various destinations
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Passenger Terminal
In addition to traditional signage considerations for the conventional passenger, directional signage is paramount to those persons arriving late for a flight, persons with disabilities, foreign visitors, nonEnglish speaking passengers, and those passengers experiencing the disorientation which can be common after entering larger passenger terminals or transportation centres.
J12.1.2 Informational Signposting

Informational signage is of considerably less importance than directional signage. These signs provide specific details about airport services and functions such as: restaurants; toilets; telephones; snack bars; gift shops; news-stands; post office; operational offices; police; and many others. The intent of these signs is to help individuals satisfy needs not directly related to aircraft boarding, baggage claim
J12.1.3 Tertiary Signage

Regulatory, advertising and identification signage fall into a tertiary level of message priority. Regulatory signs relate to government requirements and recommendations for providing passengers with travel advice. Designated advertising display areas help to communicate promotional information for tenants and various off-airport businesses, as well as establish a source of revenue for the airport. Identification signs provide the tenants with appropriate public exposure in leased space and other areas established by the airport authority.
J12.2
PRINCIPLES
There is a need to establish a uniform hierarchy of messages and information throughout the airport terminal complex. Clear and concise information, presented by either 'primary' or 'secondary' sign systems greatly improves the efficient passenger flow, both on the roadway and within the terminal. Care in developing a system for organizing information is critical to the success of any sign programme. Two successful methods for determining a hierarchy of information are:
The use of larger character heights for primary information. A total separation of the type or classification of information from one sign panel to the next.
Both techniques are successful in airports that consistently implement and maintain either one of these methods. The following principles should be observed with any signposting system.
J12.2.1 Simplicity
The layout and wording of signs should be as simple as possible. The emphasis should be placed on the reduction of signs and sign content where possible.
J12.2.2 Grouping of Information
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A uniform standard of terminal message and information hierarchy should be established to assist the travelling public. The need for visual continuity among messages and information is critical to the smooth flow of passengers, helping to eliminate any elements which may interrupt the scheme or cause possible confusion.

J12.2.3 Visibility
The importance of an effective typography style for airport signage cannot be overemphasized. The ultimate presentation of all other aspects of signing is embodied in the message itself and the letter style (typeface) which is used. The use of a well chosen airport typeface can communicate 'the image of the airport' to the passenger and promote efficient traffic flow. A conservative ratio to use as a minimum would be 3m of viewing distance for each 1cm of capital or upper case letter height. Thus a 15cm upper case letter and its associated lower case would be recognized easily by most passengers at a distance of 45m. Experience indicates that other requirements, such as message dominance, often dictate that the actual size be larger than minimum viewing standards. It is also recommended that 1.6cm be considered the minimum size for letter-types, regardless of the viewing distance. Tests of the various type sizes being considered by an airport, under actual or simulated field conditions, are recommended. The interior design, vertical clearances, clear horizontal viewing distances and basic message requirements have a significant impact on the copy height. The airport planner is still left with the task of deciding what might be considered an appropriate viewing distance based on circulation and passenger flow. In certain instances this will be determined by the architectural space in which the sign is located. In other situations, such as an airport concourse or a long corridor, viewing distance can be difficult to determine because of other tenant obstructions. In such a situation, where space is otherwise unrestricted, the design community would recommend 23m (7.6cm cap height) as a minimum. Choice of a type style should take into account legibility and compatibility with the symbols and the environment. Lettering and word spacing affect the legibility and appearance of different lettering styles in varying ways at different distance. Colour and lighting also affect spacing needs. Generally the following rules of thumb are useful:
White lettering on a dark background requires more letter spacing than does black on white. Internally lighted letters may require greater letter spacing depending upon the intensity of light. Open letter spacing increases legibility from great distance. Many type styles suffer aesthetically when open letter spacing is used. Well executed optical letter spacing is better than mechanical letter spacing.
J12.2.4 Colour
The three specific colour groups that are highly recommended are:
Group 1: Black Text Yellow Background Group 2: Dark Blue Text White Background Group 3: Red Text White Background
Colour definitions are classified as: Colour Yellow Dark Blue Red Hue: 41 170 8 Saturation: 255 255 255 Luminance: 122 84 122
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J12.2.5 Aviation Symbol Signs
Passenger Terminal
Symbol signs are most effective when incorporated as an integral part of the total signage system. The use of short verbal messages along with symbols is more effective than the use of symbols alone. Symbol signs are most effective when they represent a service or concession that can be represented by an object, such as a bus or coffee cup. They are much less effective when used to represent a process or activity, such as ticket purchase, because these are complex interactions that can vary from airline to airline. It is more confusing to over-sign than to under-sign. It is important to note that the use of too many symbols or arrows at any one particular location can be counter-productive. However, when properly used and blended into the overall signage system, symbols can play an important role in facilitating communication and orientation in airport facilities. J12.2.6 Siting One of the most important aspects of good signage is siting. The closer to one's natural line of sight, the better. A useful rule of thumb is to avoid exceeding a 10 angle from the natural line of vision. If conditions require that the viewing angle exceeds 10, the size and distance relationship may have to be adjusted. Legibility varies greatly from one symbol to another, or from one type style to another. Colour relationships, lighting, spacing and viewing angle may also affect legibility. Pragmatic testing of symbols and lettering on-site, or in simulated on-site conditions, is required. Local Considerations
Local terminology will govern the text of certain signs e.g. petrol/gasoline, leftluggage/baggage lockers, etc. country concerned. Language Signs at international airports should be displayed in:
Airport road signs should be the same as those used on roads outside the airport in the

J12.3
The language of the country concerned. English (the international aviation language). Additional languages (only where justified by the volume of such passengers).
WAYFINDING The ability to orient yourself and navigate through places is fundamental to a sense of security and confidence. An effective information system for wayfinding provides for:
The ability to effectively locate and orient oneself in the airport or terminal. The ability to determine possible destinations and opportunities around you. The ability to confidently determine the route to a desired destination.
An airport needs to provide sufficient information for passengers in order to give them a quick working knowledge of the facility. Signage is used to provide information about the facility when it is too complex to be conveyed by the architecture, or when other sources of information in the space are insufficient or unreliable. Sources of wayfinding information include:
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Terminology and graphics. Architecture. Directories ("You are here" signs).
Maps and brochures. IATA Airport Development Reference Manual Facility operations and maintenance. Directions given by staff.
The primary objective of directories in airports is to provide the passenger with an overall orientation with respect to the terminal and its facilities. Another objective of a directory is to help the movement of passengers to and from their destination with ease and efficiency (thus reducing dependence on airline and airport staff as information sources). In most cases the directory is a supplement to the existing sign system. It is important that the individual needs of each specific airport be considered in the planning of directory information units. A major problem with some directory map layout designs is the improper orientation of the maps for the person needing the information. When an individual is standing in front of a directory, the map should be oriented according to the actual building layout and the traffic flow as experienced in that location. It should also be noted that passengers are becoming increasingly reliant on electronic visual media for information, direction and communication in airport and other facilities. Efficiently moving, informing and managing the travelling public, as well as preventing unnecessary delays or misdirection of passengers through the airport terminal can generally be assisted by effective Electronic Visual Information Systems (EVIDS) utilizing dynamic displays.
J12.4
ELECTRONIC VISUAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (EVIDS)

Implementation of EVIDS is easier now than ever before. Their manufacturing cost has decreased for both the cost of one pixel (point) of display and the cost of supporting computer systems. This increased cost effectiveness will contribute to the continuing growth of EVIDS in airport and airline operation. One of the contributing factors is that the new display technologies are designed and manufactured with their own memory and self-controlling capability, thus standardizing the open architecture system design. In addition, the development of wireless controllers allows an easy add-on system design for small locally-controlled systems, such as airline counter, gate podium or back screen displays. Utilization of the communication backbone concept for overall systems integration (called the Universal Cable System (UCS)) provides an excellent opportunity to integrate EVIDS with other information technology systems. Increased acceptance of a CUTE solution also provides a technological opportunity to integrate airport operated systems with airline operated systems using flight record information data from EVIDS. Design specifications and criteria for the application of EVIDS are mainly determined by consultants and designers specializing in that particular segment. There is a movement among the governing aviation organizations to standardize EVIDS in the area of message size, character size, display format and colour of displayed messages. A joint policy document by ACI and IATA Airport Automation the Way Ahead, provides an excellent reference for such standardization. These guidelines and standards for electronic displays incorporate the input of not only the end users, but also designers and manufacturers. As the importance of EVIDS continues to grow, more guidelines will be developed and greater standardization across national boundaries is expected.
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The following is an overview of the applications of electronic/dynamic systems at a typical airport.
J12.4.1 EVIDS and Roadways

Dynamic signage can be used to inform travelling passengers and meeter/greeters of the location of a particular airline at certain terminals or entrances, the availability of car parks, and even provide public service messages for the community where the airport is located.
J12.4.2 EVIDS and The Departures Check-in Hall

In addition to traditional FIDS, EVIDS technology can be located above individual ticket and checkin counters to provide agents and passengers with information related to the latest flight and/or services provided by the airline at that particular counter.
J12.4.3 EVIDS and The Departure/Gate Lounge Area

Dynamic displays can be used to indicate the most current departures at the gate, to inform passengers about scheduled changes, and to reassure passengers that they are entering the proper loading bridge by displaying the flight above the entrance. Dynamic signage can also direct arriving passengers
J12.4.4 EVIDS and The Baggage Claim Hall

Baggage claim belt directory location, individual baggage claim flight information, and special service announcements such as silent paging are the most important arrival area applications for dynamic signage. This creates an opportunity to use EVIDS as a welcoming tool, and to provide information regarding public transportation, lodging, events and other services in multi-language presentations. For specific services an interactive dynamic display media such as a touch screen can be used. Such systems may also include a printing device for maps and directions as well as direct reservation telephone lines.
J 12.4.5 EVIDS and Transfer Passengers

Dynamic displays can enhance services provided to passengers regarding transfer flights, emergency announcements and public or private messages.
J12.4.6 EVIDS and The Airside/Apron

Use of dynamic signage provides a means of communicating important information regarding parked aircraft to ground services groups; i.e. the most current flight number in the event of a change, new departures times, type of cargo, the catering service, and other functions.
J12.4.7 EVIDS and Emergency Areas

The placement of suitably located emergency and fire exit signage will be critical to passengers needing to evacuate a terminal building particularly in a crowded situation. The precise location of such emergency/fire exit signage should align with national legislation. Signage should not be obstructed by obstacles such as building infrastructure or equipment. Line of sight considerations for all modes of operation of the building should be considered. Situations where the line of sight is impaired and visibility possibly reduced due to smoke propagation should also be
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Figure J12-1: Fire Exit Signage Position and In-Floor Exit Location Lighting
FIRE EXIT SIGNAGE
FIRE EXIT SIZED AND POSITIONED TO LOCAL LEGISLATION STANDARD
FIRE EXIT IN FLOOR LIGHTING DEFINES ROUTE TO EMERGENCY EXITS
J12.5
TYPES OF EVIDS
J12.5.1 ANDS Airline Name Display Systems

ANDS provide the identity of the occupant airline and its particular flight information at any one of the assigned ticket or check-in counter positions. The minimum includes one airline total flight information per counter position, one airline logo per counter position and optional flight information for the airline daily schedule. Information displayed is activated by airline personnel tending the counter positions using either CUTE 2 or the ANDS input device.
J12.5.2 BCD Baggage Claim Directory

The BCD provides the arriving passenger with the airline flight number under the corresponding header to the assigned baggage claim device. Minimum capacity should include up to two flights per baggage claim device. Information displayed should be inputted by airport/airline personnel responsible for baggage claim assignment; this can be a real-time system with advanced
J12.5.3 BIDS Baggage Information Display System

BIDS provides specific baggage related information to arriving passengers and airline personnel within the assigned baggage claim facility. Information displayed is based on scheduled baggage information with an override operation by airport and airline personnel.
J12.5.4 BLD Baggage Loading Directory

The BLD provides specific baggage belt assignments for each corresponding flight to the baggage tractor driver. Minimum capacity should include one flight per loading belt. System input is by the airport/airline personnel responsible for the baggage belt assignment.
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Passenger Terminal
J12.5.5 EGIDS Electronic Gate Information Display System

The EGIDS provides airline identity and flight information at each gate podium and loading bridge entrance location. Minimum capacity should include up to one airline and one flight information for each gate podium and loading bridge entrance. Information displayed is activated by airline personnel using the CUTE system and/or gate input device at each gate podium position.
J12.5.6 FIDS Flight Information Display System

The FIDS provides complete flight related information regarding arrivals and departures to the travelling passengers, the general public and airport/airline personnel. A real-time system with a master flight schedule and active flight schedule is interfaced between airport and airlines and CUTE if applicable. One of the most popular applications of EVIDS is the arrival and departure board displays which provide public information on scheduled airline flights. The airline industry has a standardized recommended practice, RP1785, concerning FIDS. Two examples of departure board legends are shown in Figures J12-2 and J12-3. All dynamic legends should align with ICAO Document 9249
J12.5.7 GTIDS Ground Transportation Information Display System

The GTIDS provides ground transportation information from the airport to surrounding communities for arriving passengers. This particular information is limited to availability from participating transportation agencies.
J12.5.8 IIS Interactive Information System

The IIS provides a passenger with the ability, on an individual basis, to access available information about flights, local transportation, lodging and events in designated areas of the airport terminal.
J12.5.9 RIDS Ramp Information Display System

The RIDS provides information pertaining to the most recent flight assigned to a particular gate
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J125.10 VPDS Visual Paging Display System
The VPDS provides a method of displaying visual paging messages and other emergency information to people with hearing impairments via electronic display media. Operation of VPDS is an automated event-based and menu-driven system, operated by the airport paging communication centre. All messages are pre-formatted with the international symbol for hearing loss.
J12.6
TYPES OF DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES
J12.6.1 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

CRTs are applicable to all systems for close viewing and indoor environments. Although historically commonplace they are being phased out and replaced with Plasma or LCD technology. The disadvantages with CRT displays are:
The phosphor on the inside of the tube display can become burnt over longer periods and stained by the repetition of the same or similar images. CRT monitors are traditionally quite bulky units, though this has improved.
J12.6.2 Electro Luminescent (EL)

EL is a less popular display technology, available from only a few manufacturers. Applicable for all systems requiring large character messages in an indoor environment.
J12.6.3 Fibre Optics (FO)

Fibre Optics provides an application for the old principle of the transmission of light via fibre cable. Applicable for airfield-type displays and roadway information systems in an outdoor environment.
J12.6.4 Thin Film Transistor Liquid Crystal Display (TFT-LCD)

TFT-LCD are an attractive display technology, due to excellent contrast, character configuration and full colour range. Applicable for large character information systems and line-oriented displays in an indoor environment, a TFT-LCD display refresh horizontal and vertical frequency should be in the region of 50Hz = > 120Hz. Graphics are driven by computer software so they present a very flexible communication technology. The readable display viewing range is more limited, and screen resolutions not as high as the newer plasma screen technologies. TFT-LCD technology is currently cheaper than IATA recommended plasma-based counterparts.
J12.6.5 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
LED is a very popular display technology, offering excellent graphics presentation with high density. Applicable to all types of information systems utilizing small and large characters, they are used mostly in an indoor environment with limited application for outdoor use.
J12.6.6 Incandescent Lamps. (IL)

A traditional display technology, incandescent lamps are popular for their brightness and the simplicity of their driving circuitry. Applications include large character information systems mainly in an outdoor
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IATA
J12.6.7 Reflective Disk (RD)
Passenger Terminal
Reflective disk is a display technology with the most choices in display media by size, shape, positioning of the reflective element with vertical or horizontal rotations, and optional back lighting features. Used for large character information systems and is suitable for both indoor and outdoor environments.
J12.6.8 Split Flap (SF)

Split Flap is one of the first electromechanical display technologies. It is being phased out and surpassed by other newer more graphical technologies. Applicable to large character information systems, it was suitable for both indoor and outdoor environments. Display graphics are limited and are difficult to update once the graphic set is chosen (the display needs to be mechanically dismantled).
J12.6.9 Plasma Screens

Plasma screen technology offers very high resolution graphics and a full colour sprectrum plus total flexibility in signage application through software-based interfaces. This technology is now being used extensively inside terminals to communicate flight information and passenger messaging information (such as emergency evacuation instructions), and it is commonplace to use the same screen for various messaging tasks depending on priorities within the terminal building at particular times. For example a plasma screen used 98% of the time to display flight information can be used to display emergency messaging in emergency situations. Plasma screens have become much more reliable and cheaper than early variants of the technology. The technology benefits from thin screen assemblies which can be placed within the terminal readily and which are not bulky. Multiple screens can be connected via software enabling total wall size messaging for both flight announcements and limited advertising. Plasma screens typically allow a 160 degree viewing angle (80 degrees each way about the center of the screen). Their placement and line of sight alignment is important but not as critical when compared to LCD screens. High ambient lighting can particularly effect this type of unit, though contrasting flexibility is available and units can be fitted with ambient light intensity sensors which then adjust display contacts automatically.
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J12.6.10 In-Floor Emergency Route Lighting

Although not commonplace, the safety advantages of this simple technology are very apparent. Basically the floor of departures and arrivals areas including the pier and satellite buildings are fitted with flush, durable lighting along clear paths which lead to emergency exits. The lighting system is activated only when the building needs to be evacuated and directional lighting is required. This technology can be used where ceilings are low and where signage could become obstructed in the event of a fire by smoke. In-floor emergency lighting, where used, should be fitted with a 2 hour local battery standby.
J1Z6.11 Fire and Emergency Exit Displays

Unless specified in local national mandatory legislation, emergency and fire exit signage should be permanently illuminated and fitted with a 2 hour local battery standby.
J12.7
REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
Additional reference should be made to the publication "Guidelines for Airport Signing and Graphics" produced by the American Association of Airport Executives (AAAE), the Airports Council International (ACI), and the Air Transport Association of America (ATA). This publication includes information on the latest technology available with regard to airport signage. Copies may be purchased from: ATA Distribution Center P.O. Box 511 Annapolis Junction Maryland 20701 USA Full information regarding the format and data which should be included in both visual and public address systems, together with related operating procedures, is contained in the IATA Passenger Services Conference Resolutions Manual (Recommended Practice No. 1785). Planners should also refer to the ICAO Document on Dynamic Flight-Related Public Information Displays (Doc. 9249).
J12.IR1 Development of Signage Masterplan The development of a clear, concise and a consistent signage strategy is paramount. It should be noted that signage will not compensate for poor building design and resultant passenger flow. It is therefore recommended that signage masterpians are developed at the earliest possible "y J12.IR2 Dynamic Signage Technology
J12.IR3 Low Ceiling Emergency Exit Technology

Where ceilings are low (<3m floor to ceiling) and in areas densely populated with passengers the use of emergency exit in-floor lighting guidance systems snould be used.
...
2.1||4 Emergency and Exit Signage and Lighting
The placement of suitably located eniej^my and fire exit signage and directional lighting will be critical to passengers needing to evacuate a terminal building particulariy in a crowded situation. All emergency exit and in-floor directional emergency lighting systems should be supplied with a local 2 hour standby power source. The precise specifications and location of such emergency/fire exit sign q should align with national legislation.
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IATA
Chapter K Passenger Facilitation Section K1: Principles K1.1 General Security Considerations............................................................. K1.2 General Facilitation Considerations ......................................................... K1.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section K2: Roles and Responsibilities of Governments/Airlines K2.1 lATA/Airline Participation ........................................................................ K2.2 ICAO ....................................................................................................... K2.3 Governments ........................................................................................... K2.4 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section K3: Immigration Processes K3.1 The Role of Immigration.......................................................................... K3.2 Passenger Type Separation...................................................................... K3.3 Departures Immigration Control Requirements........................................ K3.4 Passenger Arrival Immigration Requirements.......................................... K3.5 Diplomatic Immigration Channels............................................................ K3.6 Future Immigration Channels .................................................................. K3.7 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section K4: Customs Processes K4.1 General Considerations........................................................................... K4.2 Legislation and Recommended Practice Requirements ........................... K4.3 Government Controls ............................................................................... K4.4 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section K5: Simplifying Passenger Travel K5.1 Introduction: A Vision for the Future ....................................................... K5.2 Industry Standards as Components to Reach the SPT Vision................... K5.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section K6: Disabled Passengers and Staff K6.1 Designing for the Needs of Disabled Passengers and Staff .................... K6.2 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 400 402 396 396 398 392 392 393 395 388 388 389 390 390 390 391 386 386 386 386 385 385 385
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CHAPTER K PASSENGER FACILITATION SECTION K1: K1.1 PRINCIPLES
GENERAL SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS

In order to ensure a safe environment in which to operate, security requirements and appropriate design must be taken into account in all new development, re-development and refurbishment of airport facilities as clearly described in ICAO Annex 17. To provide the necessary framework, governments must develop and consistently implement precise airport security standards. Such standards should ensure that the integrity of the local security programme is maintained, while at the same time offering sufficient flexibility to meet the specific operational circumstances of each airport. Security requirements must be realistic, economically viable and allow for a balance between aviation security and safety on the one hand, and the need to ensure that the benefits associated with movements of persons and goods by air are protected to the fullest extent possible on the other. They should also, to the greatest practicable extent, be harmonised with internationally-agreed standards and norms to enhance operational efficiencies of government agencies, airlines and
K1.2
GENERAL FACILITATION CONSIDERATIONS

The rapid, orderly and predictable movement of persons and goods through airport facilities is as important to airline operations as effective security measures. Appropriate facility designs incorporated into arrival, departure, baggage reclaim and cargo handling areas are essential for efficient operation. The needs of various governmental control agencies, such as Customs, Immigration, Agriculture and Quarantine must also be addressed, as should the needs for enhanced telecommunications capabilities. ICAO Annex 9 and the World Customs Organisation's Kyoto Convention, amongst a range of official publications, provide significant guidance as to international standards and best practices developed to reduce unnecessary barriers and facilitate movement.
K1.3
K1 .IR1 Document Awareness
Airlines and airport authorities should take note of the latest information on horn subjects defined within K1.1 andK1.2, and should ensure that due allowance for all related requirements, including costs, is made in all airport terminal and apron development plans. In this respect, it should be noted that techniques, procedures and equipment employed will vary by location, and are subject K1.IR2 Design Layout of Passport Control Facilities Passport/Immigration facilities should be designed with throughput and spatial planning requirements as defined within ADRM clauses:
F9.3 PASSPORT CONTROL. F9.10.2 Passport Control Departures. F9.10.5 Passport Control Arrivals.
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SECTION K2: K2.1
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF GOVERNMENTS/AIRLINES
IATA/AIRLINE PARTICIPATION
When a major airport development project is proposed by an airport authority, experience has shown that the most effective and mutually beneficial course of action is to establish communications with the airport authorities and their consultants as early as possible to explore alternative airport plans and terminal concepts to benefit all concerned. The IATA forum for this consultation is the Airport Consultative Committee (ACC).
K2.2
ICAO
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a division of the United Nations, and was formed in 1944 pursuant to the signing of the Convention on International Civil Aviation. ICAO creates high-level legislative principles for international civil air transport in order to ensure the highest possible degree of uniformity in regulations and standards, procedures and organisation regarding civil aviation matters. Standards and Recommended Practices on Facilitation are provided for in Annex 9 to the Convention. This document contains Standards and Recommended Practices or SARPs, which Contracting States are urged to adopt, and as far as practicable, include in their own national legislation. The airport development designer and airport operator should obtain ICAO published documents to confirm the legislative standards by which airlines and airports must function.
K2.3
GOVERNMENTS
National standards vary from country to country, with the main exception being those pertaining to European Union (EU) Member States, whereby each Member State enacts national legislation in order to implement EU Directives and Regulations. The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) founded by the European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) represents the civil aviation regulatory authorities of a number of European States who have agreed to co-operate in developing and implementing common regulatory standards and procedures. These are known as Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR). The JARs should be consulted for common EU safety and regulatory procedures. Non-EU governments set policy for security and general passenger facilitation issues on a national basis while attempting to harmonize standards for international travel. In the context of passenger facilitation, governments employ trained staff at border control points within the airport terminal building 390 Immigration (Arrivals and/or Departures) and Customs (Arrivals).
K2.4
K2.IR1 Passenger Facilitation Consultative Group Airport planners are urged to consult with lATA's passenger facilitation teams to develop coordinated and efficient passenger processing areas within their airports. Please visit lATA's website at: www.iata.org/soi/securityfacilitationrfacilitation/index for further contact information concerning this subject matter.
IATA
Passenger Facilitation
K2.IR2 Supporting International and National Documentation Airport planners within Contracting States or wishing to connect with Contracting States should obtain Annex 17 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation Security. This Annex details the security requirements with which Contracting States should comply. Please refer to ICAO's website at: www.icao.int Other useful documents which should be obtained by authorized organizations include but are not limited to:
ECAC Document 30 (Restricted Access), which was ratified in July 03, should be similarly obtained to verify the requirements of EU states.
IATA Security Manual.

ICAO\
! Manual. .J
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SECTION K3: K3.1
IMMIGRATION PROCESSES
THE ROLE OF IMMIGRATION

Immigration services are provided by governments in order to examine aliens on arrival/departure at/from ports of entry in order to establish whether on arrival (i) aliens are properly documented and (ii) they have a right of entry to that territory. On departure, the authorities track when the alien departs the territory, and verify that the alien should not be prevented from departing for reasons of law enforcement. Passengers and crew should present the required travel documents (passports/visas/ identity papers as applicable) on arrival at the primary inspection line. Some countries may also inspect documentation on exit from the territory. Immigration agents use dedicated national and, where possible, international databases to validate bona fide travelers. Some Immigration authorities emphasise pre-entry and on-entry control, while others concentrate on after-entry activities. However there has been a shift toward international co-operation on immigration issues and many states are moving towards a multilateral approach to passenger processing. This approach has been facilitated by the increase in the use of machine-readable passports and the capture and verification of biometric data. For further information in this regard please refer to Section K5: Simplifying Passenger Travel, Clause K5.2.2, which provides more information on the latest International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standards pertaining to Machine Readable Travel Documents (MRTD) and to the use of Biometrics to facilitate border clearance. The airport planner should refer to Chapter F, and in particular to Section F9.3 for further details on the sizing requirements for immigration/passport control facilities.
K3.2
PASSENGER TYPE SEPARATION

In accordance with ICAO Annex 17 clause 4.3.3, the separation of departing and arriving passengers is essential where departing passengers have entered the airside environment after undergoing security and immigration inspections. It is subsequently recommended by IATA that all departing international airside passengers must NOT be permitted to mingle with arriving passengers in common areas. Option 1 (Preferred Option) Passengers must be segregated by means of a physical barrier, which must NOT be capable of being breached by passengers. The structure must be considered to be permanently fixed and of sufficient height and fixture to prevent cross filtration of flows of passengers and/or goods between departing and arriving passengers. Option 2 (Temporary Solution) Where the option 1 solution cannot be met in the short term, all departing and arriving international passengers must be separated. This should be facilitated by
Figure K3-1: Departing and Arriving Passenger Separation

Option 1 - Preferred Permanent Barrier Interlocked Doors As Appropriate
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K3.3
DEPARTURES IMMIGRATION CONTROL REQUIREMENTS

Immigration staff located within the departure point need to have access to dedicated databases to validate the bona fides of, in this case, the outbound traveler. Passengers who are improperly documented will be stopped by immigration staff and may be taken off line for further scrutiny. Where required, terminal developers should provide suitably sized departure immigration control desks/kiosks as advised within Section F9 of this manual. In addition to the main outbound immigration processing channels, common immigration administration offices should be provided. Departing passenger interview rooms should also be provided in a landside location and should be considered as secure rooms. The fit out (with customary heating and ventilation systems, lighting and water provision) of the departing passenger immigration interview rooms and the administration offices should be determined following consultation with local government immigration departments. Standard Processes: Each government has its own domestic legislative provisions regarding outbound controls of passengers and their baggage. Many governments, in light of perceived threats to border integrity, require routine inspection of some or all baggage of departing passengers. Screening baggage for explosive material is also commonplace, and permanent but flexible infrastructure should allow airlines to carry out such inspection where required. Please refer to Sections U11 (Hold Baggage Screening and U12 (Hand Baggage Screening) for further details in this regard. Future Possibilities/Technologies: Intelligence gained through Advance Passenger Information (API) systems and/or Interactive Advance Passenger Information systems can be used in conjunction with RFID labels to the standard as defined by IATA resolution 1740c to ensure baggage is adequately
K3.4
PASSENGER ARRIVAL IMMIGRATION REQUIREMENTS

Standard Processes: Passport/document controls for arriving passengers are required, except in the case of pre-inspection at the airport of departure. Consideration should be given to the availability of multiple channels based on nationality, traveler status (i.e. passenger/airline crew/diplomat), and the availability of API and Advance Passenger Processing. Health controls for arriving passengers are a permanent feature in only a few countries, however flexibility is required in this area in case of a public health emergency of international concern. Terminal designers should account for the provision of medical examination rooms for this purpose and these should be sized according to the perceived flow rate of passengers that will be required to use the facilities. Immigration staff located within the arrival point need the same information technology as provided at the departures point, namely the use of dedicated databases to validate the bona fides of, in this case, the inbound arriving traveler. Terminal developers should provide suitably sized arrivals immigration control desks/kiosks as detailed within Section F9. In addition to the main inbound arriving passenger immigration processing channels, arriving passenger interview rooms should be provided. Arriving passenger immigration interview rooms should be located airside and should be considered as secure rooms. The fit out (with customary heating and ventilation systems, lighting and water provision) of the arrival immigration interview rooms should be determined following consultation with local government immigration departments.
K3.5
DIPLOMATIC IMMIGRATION CHANNELS

Airports which experience higher than average volumes of diplomatic or semi diplomatic passengers should develop dedicated passenger routes, more applicable equipment infrastructure, as well as operational protocols to permit the efficient processing of this category of traveler. The airport developer should seek clarification from local immigration departments in this regard.
K3.6
FUTURE IMMIGRATION CHANNELS

Airports and immigration departments should strive to improve the efficiency of immigration channels where possible by providing faster and more effective processing of travelers. In an attempt to achieve
K3.7
K3IR1 Passenger Type Separation Solution Departing and arriving international passengers should be separated within the airside environment as defined and in accordance with clause K3.2. Wherever practically possible the defined Option 1 (Preferred Option) should be adopted to perform adequate departing and amving passenger separation. Where the option 1 solution cannot be applied immediately, the Option 2 solution should be adopted as a temporary solution. Implementation of Option 1 should be the aspiration for all airports.
K3.1R2 Departing Immigration Facilities Departure immigration control facilities should be designed in accordance with clause K3.3, with due consideration of the processing and sizing recommendations defined within Section F9.
K3.IR3 Arriving Immigration Facilities Amving immigration control facilities should be designed in accordance with clause K3.4, with due consideration of the processing and sizing recommendations defined within Section F9.
SECTION K4: CUSTOMS PROCESSES K4.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

At most international airports, government clearance requirements are in force for international passengers. In co-ordination with the government inspection agencies (e.g. HM Customs & Excise in the UK and the US Bureau of Customs & Border Protection (BCP), etc.), these requirements must be taken into account in the early stages of planning the airport terminal facilities. In facility planning, government controls should not be regarded as unchangeable: a certain degree of flexibility is required, dependent upon the border agency's perception of the level of threat to border integrity. Even if a control requirement remains unchanged, the technique used to enforce it may change, with corresponding changes in related space and facility requirements. During early discussions it may be found that government authorities are not aware of new concepts in clearance procedures. Where this is the case, the airline representatives should ensure that the appropriate agencies and/or authorities are made aware of these developments. The IATA Facilitation Representative for the country concerned is responsible for keeping the government inspection agencies informed on such matters. The object of the IATA Facilitation Programme is to eliminate or simplify government clearance requirements. While this is not always possible, facilitating the rapid flow of passengers and goods through the airport is a necessity for border agencies, airlines and airport operators. Success in this field can alter the nature of the space and facilities which may be required by the governmental control agencies as well as by airlines for traffic handling purposes. It is important that those planning new or re-designed airport terminal facilities should be made aware of actual and anticipated improvements in facilitation before alterations or new constructions are commenced. Contacts with the National Facilitation Representative, the IATA Facilitation Representative, the IATA Regional Facilitation Co-ordinator or the IATA Facilitation Secretariat should be made at this stage. It should be recognized that government border control agencies may maintain some requirements (e.g. for the airlines to present passenger manifests) because they feel that the airport design does not provide adequate assurance that all passengers will present themselves for inspection. Alternatively, the provision of Advance Passenger Information (API) or other automated border procedures may enable border control agencies to segregate arriving passengers into those with and those without such data. Careful attention to design aspects, particularly within the airport terminal building, can ensure that passengers will proceed through the government control areas where necessary, and thus minimize requirements for government authorities to maintain certain control documents and procedures.
K4.2
LEGISLATION AND RECOMMENDED PRACTICE REQUIREMENTS

Airport designers should observe the following legislative requirements when planning the functional areas associated with the layout of Customs facilities for the processing of passengers, cargo and mail and express parcels where appropriate:
National Government Legislation e.g. DfT (UK) /CATSA (Canada) /DHS (USA), etc. European Union (EU) Directives. ECAC Document 30.
ICAO Security Manual. IATA Guide To Facilitation.
Aside note: The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) founded by the European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) represents the civil aviation regulatory authorities of a number of European States who have agreed to co-operate in developing and implementing common safety regulatory standards and procedures. These are known as Joint Aviation Requirements (JARs). The JARs should be consulted for common EU safety and regulatory procedures.
K4.3
GOVERNMENT CONTROLS
K4.3.1 Customs Control Facilities & Equipment

In addition to arriving passenger processing facilities, international cargo, occasionally domestic cargo, and in all cases, passengers' checked and hand-carried baggage requires customs control and clearance of imported and exported items. The airline/operator/known shipper must provide: (i) customs checking facilities (ii) check goods and (iii) provide appropriate Customs documents at the checkpoints. Customs facilities maybe located at the following airport passenger and cargo processing checkpoint areas:
Customs control kiosks/checkpoints in airside passenger arrival facilities (See Section F9 for sizing requirements). Publicly accessible Customs declaration offices located in landside passenger pre-departure facilities, (allows passengers to document goods for which local excise duty has been paid or those being re-exported, etc.). Cargo processing buildings, operated by the customs administration, by individual airlines and, in certain instances, customs brokers or freight forwarder operators.
All cargo handling and/or clearance procedures occurring within the cargo facility or elsewhere in controlled areas of the airport facility must comply with specific national customs regulations. These include, but are not limited to requirements for the safeguarding of goods in operator's custody, the keeping of transport records, transfer of goods to other airlines, and delivery to consignees. The airport developer should work with the local government customs representative to establish an inventory of necessary infrastructure to be provided by the airport developer, operator or freight handling entities (airlines, brokers, forwarders, etc.) that are resident at the airport. The following should be used as checklist for designers to verify the requirements with the local customs representative:
Customs inspection tables and IT LAN/WAN interface specifications. Securable customs interview / detailed search room. Customs administration offices requirements and IT LAN/WAN interface specifications. Customs staff accommodation areas complete functional requirements. Customs & excise duty payment facilities and IT LAN/WAN interface specifications. Customs security screening equipment specifications and spatial requirements to accommodate X-Ray machines /metal detectors/particle analysis machines and other specialist customs equipment. Kennels for K9's used for detecting drugs and general contraband in passenger luggage and cargo consignments.

K4.3.2 Customs Bonded Warehouses
Bonded warehouse facilities are used to hold goods which must be accessed by authorised airside personnel on a regular basis, and for which national customs duties are not normally applicable or collected. Examples of goods which fall into this category are cigarettes, alcohol, etc., which are for sale on aircraft and within duty free airside shops. Additionally, bonded warehouse facilities are frequently used for the temporary controlled storage of goods in transit to another country or another airport within the same country where formal customs formalities will occur. Designers should liaise with airlines and cargo freight processors to establish the extent of such storage facilities that maybe required. Designers should also liaise with government customs representatives to establish any special customs clearance infrastructure considerations and/or requirements. Bonded warehouse facilities must be secure and provide environments that are appropriate for the goods they are intended to hold. Bonded warehouse facilities intended to hold goods to be sold within the terminal should ideally be located as close as practicable to that terminal; bearing in mind any future potential terminal expansion areas.
K4.3.3 Transfer Passenger Baggage Customs Clearance

Regulations in some countries require that the customs authority inspect and clear transfer passengers and their accompanied goods (hand carried and hold checked baggage) in the same manner as controls applied to persons entering the country. Where such inspection of transfer passengers and their possessions is required, the airport must make provision for the passenger to be reunited with their hold baggage prior to physical presentation before a customs official.
K4.3.4 Customs Sampling Terminal Design Implications

There has been a gradual reduction in the degree of customs inspection of terminating passengers' baggage. In most countries today, some form of sampling or selective inspection is practiced whereby only randomly-selected passengers may be inspected or where only a portion of bags carried on a given flight are physically examined. This situation will vary from country to country. Terminal building designers should liaise with the government customs representative to confirm what inspection methodologies are or will be employed, and seek to establish typical or average processing times for customs inspections. This information, when used with the recommendations in Section F9, will allow terminal building designers to correctly calculate the flow of passengers in customs facilities, and calculate the resultant space needed for customs activities. Designers should refer to Section F9 for further generic information pertaining to the spatial planning of customs facilities. Multi-Channel Customs: The random sampling concept is usually applied within multi-channel customs facility layouts. The typical passenger customs clearance area is normally situated adjacent to and immediately after terminating passengers (and transferring passengers where required under national customs regulation) have reclaimed their checked or hold baggage. The dual-channel (red/green) system is, in some regions of the world, expanded to provide a third channel which maybe used for special regulations. RED CHANNEL: Passengers with articles to declare proceed through a channel indicated by a red sign in the form of a square, where their baggage is inspected and appropriate duties assessed. GREEN CHANNEL: Passengers with nothing to declare proceed through a channel indicated by a green sign in the form of an octagon where they are generally not inspected, although customs authorities normally reserve the right to make a spot check of passengers proceeding though this
IATA
BLUE CHANNEL:
A separate customs channel is used in certain circumstances, and where national regulations allow, to further segregate arriving passenger clearance processes. As an example, the blue lane process has been used to facilitate the clearance of persons travelling between two airports located within the European Union, and for which customs inspections are not required. In other situations, special customs regulations are applicable for this channel, when used. The provision of this channel is optional and dependent on the local national government legislation requirements and/or international agreements in place. Airport designers should liaise with their local customs representative for clarification. The number of processing lanes in each of the coloured categories shall vary in accordance with the type and volume of passenger traffic being handled, and local governmental regulatory requirements. Government agencies (Health, Immigration, Customs, Agriculture) should be urged to consider the possibility of using one official to carry out inspections on behalf of several agencies. This not only results in cost savings, but can also expedite the passenger's journey through the inspection facility. Such combined inspection processes are already in effect in Canada and Australia, and since the inception of the Department of Homeland Security, this will eventually be the case in the United States as well.
Aside Operational Consideration Note:
K4.IR1 Customs Legislativa Requirements Designers of terminai buildings, cargo processing/storage, and mail/express items processing and clearance facilities hould refer to the legislation and best practice documentation listed within clause K4.2 whenglanning the customs facilities in these respective areas within airports.
R2 Customs Facilities & Equipment representa '< jif&me' faf&r to clauses K4.3.l,and:K4,3.4, and should liase with their local customs determine the precis customs facilities and equipment accommodation 'layout plans. 1
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SECTION K5: SIMPLIFYING PASSENGER TRAVEL K5.1 INTRODUCTION: A VISION FOR THE FUTURE
Making passenger flows in airports more user-friendly benefits not only passengers, but also airlines, airports, government authorities and travel agents. Automated technologies are available which can be cost-efficiently implemented, and the primary concern of the Simplifying Passenger Travel (SPT) Program is that these technologies and their related processes and procedures are implemented with global interoperability to ensure maximised security and efficiency for all concerned. Various trials have and are taking place world-wide in these areas, and related-standards are emerging. Certainly some attention in airport planning needs to be given to current and up-coming developments in implementing new technologies, for example: common-use self-service (CUSS) check-in; realtime communications of passenger information between the service partners; biometrics for automated identification of passengers; and radio frequency identification (RFID) of check-in baggage.
K5.1.1 The Key Concept

The aim of the SPT Program is to improve the passenger travel experience by replacing repetitive checks of passengers and their documents with a newer, more streamlined system. The new system will collect the information once, and then share it electronically with subsequent service providers. A one-stop check prior to departure will clear the passenger through their entire journey. When founded in 1998, the SPT Program's prime driver was capacity limitations, and this continues to be an important incentive to work towards the SPT vision. SPT represents the industry's best attempt to cope with the increased projected number of passengers by utlising airport space more efficiently. It is felt that this goal should be achieved without the need to resort to large capital expenditures. With recent increases in security concerns, the SPT Interest Group (a self-funded membership) recognised that the concept of collecting all passenger information prior to departure and enabling its live exchange between service providers would also facilitate security enhancements in airtransport. For further details please refer to: www.simplifying-travel.org
K5.2
INDUSTRY STANDARDS AS COMPONENTS TO REACH THE SPT VISION

There are several standard-setting groups working in unison with the SPT interest Group to develop an international structure enabling interoperability of Simplified Passenger Travel. These are areas to explore when investigating the future uses of airport terminals.
K5.2.1 Common-Use Self Service (CUSS) Check-in Kiosks

The IATA CUSS Manual contains the standard specification for the CUSS kiosk. The business model for implementation will likely be that airports will own the kiosks and lease them by time or usage to airlines.
This sharing of infrastructure by airlines is essential to ensuring that departure halls do not become congested with airline-owned kiosks. In addition, this business model will enable airlines that operate limited flights into an airport to also benefit from using self-service check-in. The brand-ability of the kiosks will be imperative in attracting airlines to their use. For further details please refer to: www.iata.org/CUSS
K5.2.2 Pre-clearance of Government Authority Requirements Using Biometrics

Real-time messages providing passenger information to government authorities prior to departure enables response messages to be sent guiding the airline whether or not to board a passenger. This real-time messaging, known as Advanced Passenger Processing (APP), is an extension of Advanced Passenger Information (API) see Sections K1 to K4 inclusive. Experience of real-time immigration pre-clearance has been accumulated over the years and, being successful, has created interest by other governments who are working towards this model. In parallel, the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) has developed standards for the machine-readable zone (MRZ) in travel documents (passports, visas and identity cards). ICAO has also endorsed a global, harmonized 'blueprint' for the integration of biometric identification information into passports and other machine readable travel documents (MRTDs). Facial recognition has been selected as the biometric to be used world wide for machine-assisted identity confirmation and States have the option of using one or two secondardy biometrics if they so wish. Four technical papers have also been published which guide States on how to implement biometrics in MRTDs. Specifically the papers include:
Biometrics Deployment, Logical Data Storage, Use of Contactless Integrated Circuits, and PKI Digital Signatures.
The technical papers can be found at: http://www.icao.int/cgi/goto_atb.pl7icao/en/atb/fal/mrtd/overview.htm The result will improve the risk in conducting preliminary immigration checks remotely and front line checks on arrival automatically. For further details please refer to: www.icao.int/cgi/goto_atb.pl?icao/en/atb/fal/mrtd/overview.htm Many projects are being conducted by government authorities which are building support for the
K5.2.3 Opportunity for Security Check

Security professionals are provided on a local basis to screen passengers prior to boarding. It would therefore be possible with the information collected prior to boarding pass issuance for pertinent data to be transmitted to the security check for pre-assessment of the degree of screening necessary. This would assist with the resourcing of both equipment and staff at security checkpoints.
K5.2.4 Baggage Handling

Having established a process for passengers to speed through traditional airport checks, it is important that the baggage does not then delay them. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology can be applied to baggage handling to increase the accuracy of identifying check-in baggage and reconciliation with passengers. Alternatively, an overnight courier concept can be built into the passenger journey such that the passenger's bags are collected and delivered to the passenger's doorstep. Whichever business model is used, a modified IATA Recommended Practice 1740c (RP 1740c) defines the radio frequency wave length. For further details please refer to: www.iata.org on RFID group
K5.2.5 Market Differentiation The aim of the SPT program is to cater to the needs of a significant proportion of the travelling
public that the service providers already 'know' prior to departure. Catering to a significant proportion of the passengers in this manner enables the service providers to focus their attention and resources on the other 'unknown' passengers. By knowing passengers, the service providers can also tailor their offers to the customised needs. Personalised messaging services from service providers to passengers can be constructed upon technologically-enabled services. In addition, automated systems can enable service providers to record passage through check-in, security and boarding points so as to know the passenger's status in their journey and thereby best assist them through the airport. Remote tools can also be developed to take the one-stop check off the airport site through remote
K5.3
(f.
K5.IR1 Departure Halls

Consider the impact on departure hall space allocation of the following services for a proportion of the passengers, but only where economically viable and operationally advantageous:
CUSS check-in. RFID bag tags.

Real-time verification of advanced passenger information.
Intelligent security checks. One-stop check on departure,

and in a second phase:
Home pick-up of baggage with RFID tags.

Remote CUSS check-in by internet, PDA or WAP and 3rd Generation Internet Enabled phones for those without baggage.
K5.IR2 Arrival Hills Consider the impact of RFID on the passengers and government arrivals procedures where passengers are approved prior to departure and their baggage is delivered door~to~door. These processes will have significant effect on arrivals halls and carousel areas.
SECTION K6: K6.1
DISABLED PASSENGERS AND STAFF
DESIGNING FOR THE NEEDS OF DISABLED PASSENGERS AND STAFF

The number of disabled passengers or visitors using an airport can be very significant. Airport facilities should be adequately designed to permit easy access, mobility and movement under informed direction throughout the terminal complex. The main categories of disabled persons for airports designers to account for can include but may not be limited to:
1. Vision impaired or totally blind passengers. 2. Deaf or hard of hearing passengers. 3. Mobility impaired passengers. 4. Reading Impaired passengers (dyslexic, etc).
During the design period, the airport planners and designers should evaluate the capability of their designs to permit the travel of these passengers, with the provision of suitable specialist equipment and a total appreciation of the difficulties faced by the disabled travelling public and the disabled staff Signage should be clear and concise and as defined within Section J12. Where signage is provided at major corridor junctions, suitably sized Braille wall mounted panels or Braille impregnated hand rails should also be provided. Braille characters should be used for signage directing passengers to pier or terminal connections, passenger facilities, customs, immigration, emergency exists, phones, retail, seating, information centres, and for toilets if deemed necessary. As well as Braille indicators, signs may also include a secondary typeface that repeats the text message carried by the standard sign, but in letters that are 'raised out' of the surface of the panel. This lettering should appear on the same panel as the adjoining Braille impregnations, be of the same colour as the background (so as not to clutter the information seen by sighted passengers), and should generally consist of lettering that is somewhat spaced apart and light, as opposed to bold, in appearance. Arrival and Departing flight information normally displayed on FIDS should be repeated in certain locations by digital voice messaging or provision should be made at the information desks to cater for disabled passengers needing up to the minute arrival and departure information. At least one flight information display within each respective zone of the airport should have doubled font sized text compared to normal FID's, in order to permit visually impaired (not blind) passengers to read the messages more easily. Lifts, should be fitted with digital speech messaging systems to advise passengers of lift level and door opening and door closing status. They should also be fitted with buttons that have Braille either on the buttons themselves or alongside the floor level and emergency buttons. Travelators (moving walkways) and escalators should be fitted with audible warning or digital speech messaging to warn of entry and exit points for these units. Transit systems should be fitted with digital speech messaging systems to advise passengers of
K6.1.1 Countering for Vision Impairments or Blindness Disabilities
K6.1.2 Countering for Deaf or Hearing Disabilities
When a voice message is given within a terminal complex a visual message defining the same information should be displayed at the same time at the appropriate location(s). Public address systems should be clear and audible, with speakers adequately positioned within all passenger and staff zones of the airport terminal building. Each set of public telephones should have at least one clearly marked telephone that is equipped with a volume control or sound booster device for persons with a hearing impairment.
K6.1.3 Countering for Mobility Impairment Disabilities

Doorways and passageways, of adequate width and without thresholds, should be provided. Ramps and/or elevators should be provided to allow wheelchair passengers to follow the normal passenger flow routes and to use all general facilities. Many larger airports feature particularly long walking distances between check-in counters and gate areas. Motorised carts, lightweight stroller units and other means of assisting fatigued or mobility-impaired passengers must also be easily accessible in these areas (for specific design considerations please refer to K6.IR1, below). Specific arrangements should be made in toilet facilities for the disabled, and these should be properly identified and of a suitable internal design that provides easy access and aid bars. Passenger in distress alarms should also be fitted. Telephones need to be accessible to a person using a wheelchair, and pertinent counter heights should also be designed with practical wheelchair user specifications in mind. Car parking spaces for the disabled should be designed and placed closer to the entrance of the terminal. Several spaces adjacent to the terminal building entrance, separated from the main flow of traffic and clearly marked, should be made available for the loading and unloading of passengers with disabilities from automobiles. These spaces should allow individuals with wheelchairs, braces or crutches to get in and out of automobiles easily and onto a level surface suitable for wheeling and walking. The international accessibility symbol should be displayed at accessible entrances to the terminal. Where possible, stretcher cases should be able to by-pass the normal passenger flow routes (e.g. by permitting ambulances to proceed directly to the aircraft through appropriate security equipment and protocols).
405

K6.2 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS K6.IR1 Areas for Special Consideration
be adapted are listed below: : .Ct-c:}:-,; i...:;:-<-vel heck counters oi desks are a desirable feature for wfteelcha-. passengers, or for passengers needing to be seated while being served.
The following main areas on Mch terminal design has to
-in
SecurityThe processing of disabled passengers through security checkpoints will normally

require access doors to allow wheelchairs to by-pass the metal detectors. Hand-check facilities will be required in these cases or prevision of particle analysers, as deemed necessary by the national security authority. (Refer to Section U12).
Baggage Reclaims (Arriving Passengers) The baggage reclaim areas must be accessible
I 7* \
to persons with disabilities and the facility designed to allow for efficient handling and retrieval of baggage by all persons. jfl ^^mCheck-in to Gate Piorn Where appropriate, electric can* can tie pmwjm on 'rsidc concourses to transport mobility impaired passengers. From a terminal design pair it of view, "planning for these vehicles will require consideration of power supply for baery recharge, safety whenpaffied, parking zones"cut of main passenger flows, floor stresses to cope W0: vehicle weigf^^jrnaintenance zones separate from passenger areas.
At the Gate Boarding through the passenger loading bridge is the preferred method for passengers with &/5MfVes. Disabled passengers travelling with ih&irgwn wheelchairs prefer to stay in their chairs until they must transfer to iheir sear on boato t:u raft. On arrival they again prefer to transfer from the aircraft seat into their own wheelchair. The wheelchair may be a light-weight push type or it mayim a heavy electric wheelchair. In either case, the chair (and the batteries) must be transported from the gate lounge down to the aircraft apron so it can be loaded on the : . 0 ^^!^^îe lifting device in the gate area is. JneWmrb transport wheelchairs between levels. This lifting device can also be used for handling Changes in Level: The design of passengers access ramps, excluding passenger boarding bridges, should ensure that a gradient is not any steeper than 1:12. Ramps with gradients greater than this will cause difficulty for staff assisting wheelchair passengers when using the ramps. Passengers Requiring Physical Assistance 'Mfhen aircraft do not interface directly with terminals, disabled passengers will require trmspoa. They should be moved from the aircraft the terminal by a lifting vehicle and shouldpe introduced into the main terminal passenger treams whenever possible. This may require-doors into the terminal m the arrivals lv< MsVom apron level to arrivals level. Departing passengers will require sitriilar facilities from the departurdSem. U db&rs are required into the arrivals or departure levels, space must be allowed tor the lifting vehicles to manoeuvre between the aircraft to mate with the terminal building. ifW
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IATA
K6.IR2 Disabled Access Assessment Plan

Airport designers should produce Disabled Access Assessment Plans for designs proposed which will impact on both the staff and passengers who use them. The Disabled Access Assessment Plan should be a holistic evaluation of the practical needs of disabled staff and passengers. Design should be measured in performance and designers should aim to provide the service levels indicated in the system described below. Gold STAR: Silver S AR: Bronze STAR Less than 5 Airports with more than 12 * Airports with more than 7 k Airports with more than 5 + Recommended that the Airport Disabled Access Assessment Plan needs reviewing, and improvements to the airport facility provided accordingly. STARS AWARDED ***
-kk -k-k k-k k k
Disabled-friendly Check-in, Security and Immigration Designs Provision of Ramps in Parallel to Stairs Provision of Braille Signage at low level at building junctions Provision of Lifts in parallel to Escalators Provision of Braille Data on or close to Lift Buttons Provision of Audible or Voice Messages on Travetators Provision of Electric Vehicles for Disabled Passenger Movement Provision of Disabled Toiletes for staff and Passengers Provision of Disabled Person Parking Facilities closer to the Terminal Provision of Airbridges or transfer vehicles for disabled passengers
*
-k
*
k
407
408
IAT A
Chapter L Aircraft Parking Aprons Section L1: Current and Future Aircraft Types L1.1 Current and Future Aircraft Types Overview............................................ L1.2 Boeing 25 Year Vision Statement ............................................................. L1.3 Airbus 25 Year Vision Statement .............................................................. Section L2: Physical and Functional Requirements L2.1 Introduction and General Considerations ................................................ L2.2 Basic Apron Layouts................................................................................. L2.3 Blast Fences and Barriers ........................................................................ L2.4 Apron Perimeter......................................................................................... L2.5 The Cargo Apron ...................................................................................... L2.6 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................... Section L3: Gate Stands and Remote Stands L3.1 Gate and Remote Stands: Introduction ................................................... L3.2 Gate Stands ............................................................................................. L3.3 Remote Stands ........................................................................................ L3.4 Equipment Parking and Maintenance....................................................... L3.5 Expansion Capabilities.............................................................................. L3.6 Parking Clearances................................................................................... L3.7 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................... Section L4: Ground Handling Equipment L4.1 Ground Handling Vehicles ....................................................................... L4.2 Passenger Loading Step Vehicles............................................................. L4.3 Potable Water Supply Vehicles ................................................................ L4.4 Catering Vehicles...................................................................................... L4.5 Aircraft Push Back Tugs ............................................................................ L4.6 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................... 426 428 429 429 430 432 419 419 420 422 422 423 425 409 409 412 416 417 418 407 407 408
IATA
Section L5: Service Roads & Storage Areas L5.1 Service Roads: Introduction..................................................................... L5.2 Pedestrian Pathways ................................................................................ L5.3 Equipment Restraint Lines........................................................................ L5.4 No Parking Areas...................................................................................... L5.5 Typical Ground Equipment Layouts .......................................................... L5.6 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................... Section L6: Distributed Electrical Power & Air L6.1 400Hz Electric Power Systems ................................................................ L6.2 50/60Hz Electric Power Systems .............................................................. L6.3 Pre-Conditioned Air Systems..................................................................... L6.4 Pneumatic Air Systems............................................................................. L6.5 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................... Section L7: Aircraft De/Anti-lcing Facilities L7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ L7.2 Siting Considerations ............................................................................... L7.3 De-Icing Facility Design and Construction ............................................... L7.4 Environmental Considerations ................................................................. L7.5 Operational Considerations ..................................................................... L7.6 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................... 445 447 447 447 447 449 438 439 440 442 444 433 435 435 435 435 437
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IAT A
CHAPTER L AIRCRAFT PARKING APRONS SECTION L1: CURRENT AND FUTURE AIRCRAFT TYPES L1.1 CURRENT AND FUTURE AIRCRAFT TYPES OVERVIEW
This section has been compiled with the kind assistance of Airbus and Boeing. Its objective is to help airport operators and designers appreciate the business drivers associated with the development of newer commercial aircraft, reflecting current trends and operational requirements and how these might impact on long term airport master plans. A series of questions were posed to both Airbus and Boeing and a 25 year vision statement of the aviation industry was requested. The text provided in clauses L1.2 and L1.3 has been reproduced verbatim from Boeing and Airbus respectfully in answer to the IATA request.
L1.2
BOEING 25 YEAR VISION STATEMENT

The driving forces in the aircraft industry will be operating cost, environmental impact, and capacity. Lower operating cost could provide consolidation pressure to increase aircraft size, especially in some hub-to-hub markets. Longer, direct flights, to avoid the cost of the passenger transfer and increase airplane utilization, could increase the fragmentation of the airlines' route structure and required increased operating weights. Increased usage of the lower holds for revenue cargo may also increase the operating weights of aircraft. Lower costs could also provide pressure for unique features that decreases fuel burn (canards, more aft loading via tail fuel tanks, increase wing span/winglets, etc.) that would require more flexibility in gate layout. Greater utilization, to reduce the impact of ownership cost, will require reduced turn times and could extend the normal operating window to earlier/later times of the day/night. Aircraft changes, to address environmental issues, will primarily be internal to the engines and the APU. Engines will increase in by-pass ratio, which will increase the nacelle diameter, reducing ground clearance and increasing the potential for damage. Reducing community noise may require increased wingspan and thrust to improve climb performance as well as detail refinements to reduce airframe noise. Future airplanes will be 'more electric', and with pressure to reduce APU operation will increase the demand for electrical power from the terminal grid while parked. Demand for capacity will increase. Some of the increase will come from larger sized aircraft, but most will result from increased frequencies and additional destinations. Both the increased frequencies and destinations will require additional gates as well as better utilization of gates. In the future, airplanes may:
411
IATA
L1.3
AIRBUS 25 YEAR VISION STATEMENT

Air transport driving forces remain world economic liberalization and growth, international trade development, population growth and migration, and fares relative decrease allowed by continuous productivity gain from all actors of the industry. Air transport is becoming a commodity product, where efficient and value for money services are key for survival. Growth factors as well as historical ability of this industry to adapt should allow air traffic to more than triple in the next 25 years. As developing countries, especially in Asia, are poised to be world economy and population locomotives for the next decades, air transport leadership should have switched from North America to Asia by 2020. Economics, population concentration and air transport congestion will drive the need for larger, cheaper and more efficient aircraft. While the need for point to point connections will develop. The need to connect non-stop all economic and population areas will lead to increasing aircraft range requirements; for domestic or regional routes where US transcontinental has become the reference for smaller and smaller jet aircraft; as well as for long international routes, where transpacific today's standard may grow up to Europe-Australasia capability. However, ultra long range flight development could be hampered by economic viability and health issues. Such aircraft evolution will require specialised and optimised propulsion systems able to meet increasing economic challenges on short and medium range operations and take-off and speed issues on longer routes. Ever more demanding environmental constraints (noise and emissions) will add another complexity to engine development challenges. 2025 aircraft fleet requirements to transport billions of passengers, on longer but also more dense routes will certainly necessitate larger aircraft than today: A380 will be a dominant player on major intercontinental trunk routes and even saturated regional ones. As well, larger medium size aircraft will be needed to replace today's single aisle aircraft in short and medium range markets, down to regional markets where larger small jets will take over current 30/50 seaters. The real technical challenges for the aircraft industry are directly linked to this traffic increase, which should be coped with by absolute improvements in the key technical parameters:
Safety, with an overall reduction on total number of accidents. Environment, reducing in substantial amounts all aircraft emissions. Air Transport capacity, including more efficient and bigger aircraft. Affordability, through absolute reductions on ticket price. Quality of flight, by improving overall comfort and punctuality.
Tomorrow's air transport infrastructure, including airports, will have to accommodate the predicted level of traffic with increased flexibility, from very large aircraft to small jets. Most importantly,
412
IATA
SECTION L2: L2.1
Aircraft Parking Aprons

PHYSICAL AND FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The aircraft apron is considered part of the terminal complex and will therefore be greatly influenced by the choice of terminal concept. However it must also be considered in relation to the taxiway and runway system. The Apron can be defined as the area on the airside of the terminal buildings where aircraft manoeuvre and park, and where loading, unloading and aircraft servicing activities are performed. The apron can be divided in to the following aircraft movement areas:
Aircraft Stands (terminal gate or remote positions) The area on the apron designated
for parking of aircraft.
Apron Taxiways A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to

provide a through taxi route across the apron.
Aircraft Stand Taxilanes A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to

provide access to aircraft stands only. apron area.
Apron Service Roads Routes designated for the movement of service vehicles within the
The apron must be planned in relation to the taxiway and runway system as well as the terminal In addition to the physical constraints summarized in Section G1 of this manual, the apron design must also make due allowance for:
Applicable International and State Safety Regulations governing airline and airport operations; particular reference should be made to ICAO Annex 14, Aerodromes, which stipulates clearance distances associated with all categories of airport operations.
L2.2
Expansion capability.
BASIC APRON LAYOUTS
L2.2.1 General
Figure L2-1 illustrates two basic aircraft parking layout principles, namely taxi-in/push-out and taxiin/taxi-out. Figure L2-2 shows typical apron elevations for a selected aircraft range. The variations observed will be part of the analysis, leading to the decision as to the preferred method of operations.
L2.2.2 Elements Of Comparison Between Taxi-Out And Push-Out

While no fixed commercial rule has emerged regarding the choice between taxi-in/taxi-out parking configurations, it can clearly be seen from a comparison of diagrams within Fig. L2-1 that there are considerable disadvantages to the use of taxi-in and taxi out apron configurations, namely:
Far more stand/apron space is required. Blast affects from turning aircraft can be a limiting factor when planning aprons. Passenger boarding bridges cannot be used.
413

The trend is clearly in favour of push-out configurations at high volume airports utilising larger aircraft, and taxi-out configurations at lower volume airports using the smaller regional type of aircraft (where manoeuvring space is less restricted). In all cases a study must be conducted considering present and foreseeable conditions which may influence aircraft parking configurations. The main advantages of the taxi-in/push-out configuration are:
Reduction in apron congestion due to the ability to position ground equipment immediately adjacent to the aircraft parking position prior to aircraft arrival. Additionally, at aircraft departure there is a reduced requirement to remove equipment from the apron area. Ability to load passengers or baggage, almost up to the scheduled time of departure. Clearances between adjacent aircraft, ground equipment and fixed obstacles are less critical. Aircraft parking guidance systems can be relatively simple. The effects of jet blast on equipment, personnel and terminal facilities is substantially lessened and the requirement for blast fences are reduced or eliminated. The effect of fumes and noise are similarly reduced. Simple and correspondingly less costly passenger loading bridges can be employed. The total area of the apron pavement area and related costs is kept to the minimum.
A disadvantage with the taxi-in/push-out configuration is that it requires additional aircraft tow tractors and associated personnel to effect the push-out. Aircraft tow tractors are costly, especially those designed to handle wide-body aircraft. Provision and operating costs plus frequency of usage must
L2.2.3 Power-back
At certain locations, some airlines have elected to power-back their aircraft using reverse thrust. This operation has been authorized for certain aircraft operated by a very limited number of airlines, under strict operating conditions and at selected airports. This practice should not be considered as part of normal operations; if adopted it could have an adverse noise impact on the communities close to
L2.2.4 Flexibility
To achieve the optimum utilization of facilities it is desirable to match, as closely as possible, the capacity of the apron with the forecast aircraft mix. The use of MARS stands provides this flexibility when stands are required to accommodate both wide-bodied and narrow-bodied aircraft in varying mixes. Where feasible, the apron should be designed to accommodate the appropriate number of large aircraft expected during the peak period. At other times, smaller aircraft can use the same stand centrelines. This solution makes possible the implementation of simple aircraft guidance systems, loading bridges, hydrant fuelling systems, etc.
414
Figure L2-1: Basic Aircraft Parking Layout Principles
IATA
Taxi-In Push Out
Parking Limit Line
Aircraft Stand Taxi Lane
Taxi-In Taxi Out
415
Figure L2-2: Typical Stand Elevations for Selected Aircraft
Example of Passenger Boarding Bridge Service Levels B747400/B777-200/MD87 Range
When the aircraft mix varies throughout the day (i.e. when a majority of small aircraft alternate with a majority of large aircraft and space is limited), consideration should be given to a more flexible utilization of the apron. Examples of flexible parking layouts are illustrated in Section L3 Figure L3.1 and Figure L3.2; however it should be noted that other combinations are possible. It is imperative that the degree of flexibility remains compatible with efficient and safe stand utilization. Identification of each aircraft stand by the pilot should present no ambiguity, while access should be facilitated by the provision of appropriate apron markings and guidance systems. Loading bridges and hydrant systems are likely to be more complicated and the extra costs involved should be compared with the savings realized by providing a smaller number of stands overall.
L2.3
BLAST FENCES AND BARRIERS
L2.3.1 General Blast Effects

As jet blast can have a significant impact upon the procedures adopted for the handling of aircraft in terminal apron areas, it is essential that this factor be one of the fundamental considerations in the planning of new apron layouts. The acceptability of varying apron layouts should be considered in terms of blast effect in relation to:
Health and safety of passengers and operational personnel. Design of buildings and fixed facilities. Risk of damage to mobile equipment. Risk of damage to other aircraft.

Engine exhaust velocity and temperature characteristics are generally published by manufacturers in the form of constant value contours plotted in the horizontal and vertical planes (see Fig. L2-3). The engine thrust required for taxiing is proportional to the aircraft weight; aircraft design, airline operating practices and apron slope conditions. Airlines should be consulted when the jet blast implications of specific apron layouts are being evaluated. Jet blast levels are likely to be greater than normal minimum values due to:
Upward sloping apron. Wind, altitude and temperature effects.
Aircraft making turns (particularly where asymmetric power is used or one or more engines shut down). Mechanical malfunction (e.g. brake friction). Human factors.
The experience of airlines and airport authorities has indicated that blast velocities should not
L2.3.2 Blast Fences

When assessing jet blast effects related to a proposed apron layout, the use of blast fences may be considered as a means for dissipating or deflecting jet blast away from vulnerable areas. Blast fences can be used to protect ground equipment, personnel and buildings from the blast of manoeuvring aircraft. Their function is to deflect the exhaust wake of aircraft jet engines upwards. Blast fences are constructed of modules which can be combined to produce the most suitable layouts. These structures may be attached to the ground or alternatively weighted to resist the overturning stresses from jet blast. In the latter case, they can be relocated relatively easily. The height of the fences varies with the type of aircraft. In the case of large aircraft with tail mounted engines, construction of a blast fence may not be cost-effective and therefore start-up procedures for that engine may have to be restricted. Blast fences are regularly used in terminal apron areas where aircraft are operated on a taxi-in/taxiout procedure. Occasionally they are also required where aircraft move away under power on an aircraft stand taxilane, having been pushed back from a nose-in stand. (See Fig. L2-4) The location of blast fences must be related to the aircraft manoeuvring pattern and the areas or facilities requiring protection. The dimensions of the blast fence and the design of the surfaces exposed to the blast effects can be determined from the operating characteristics of the aircraft types to be employed.
417
IATA

Figure L2-3: Jet Engine Exhaust Velocity Contours Boeing 777 at Take Off Thrust Setting and Break Away Thrust Setting
N0TF5:
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418
Figure L2-4: Example of a Typical Blast Fence Installations
: !
I sI Shown WIW '-----------------
L2.4
APRON PERIMETER
The airport perimeter will often encompass both natural and human-engineered features. The perimeter may weave in and out of fixed features, cross rivers, and provide vehicle and staff access points. It is essential that the perimeter is engineered to provide security and ease of access for emergency and permitted vehicles and staff only. Where airport perimeters run parallel to public roads, the actual perimeters should be fitted on the inner face of the fencing system with vision obstruction barriers. Vision obstruction barriers have two major benefits: they will deter both legitimate plane spotters and would-be terrorists using plane spotting groups as a cover; they will reduce vehicle accidents on the adjacent public roads due to casual plane spotting by vehicle drivers. For more comprehensive information on security and fencing systems please refer to Section H Clause H2.12 Perimeter Security.
Figure L2-5: Apron Perimeter Fencing Visual Obstruction Barriers
When developing the apron perimeter it is useful to consider using the natural features of the landscape to benefit the sound insulation properties of the environment. Where the environment has no natural sound insulating properties it is of benefit to consider creating man made contours and developing a terrain to aid sound insulation and reduce local visual impact of the apron. Figure L2-6 defines the ICAO Document 9184 AN/902 Airport Planning Manual recommendation for the use of such man made terrain.
Figure L2-6: Cross Section of Sound Insulating Forest
Sound Insulation Forest
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L2.5
THE CARGO APRON

The following requirements must be considered when planning cargo aprons:
They must be considered as a continuation of the cargo facility. An apron immediately
adjacent to the cargo facility fulfils this requirement and should be used by all-cargo/freighter aircraft, thus providing for short distance transportation and access between aircraft and facility.
Expansion of the cargo apron must be feasible, in order to accommodate increases in peak
hour demand for aircraft stands or increased aircraft sizes. Parking configuration depends on local requirements and constraints, and must also allow for the necessary ground handling equipment.
A cargo apron design should also provide, at each aircraft stand, adjacent staging areas for
the equipment needed for loading and transportation of arriving and departing ULDs.
Parking of handling equipment should be possible between the airside cargo road and apron,
and/or along the outer edges of the apron, without impeding aircraft manoeuvring on or off the apron. Power-in/power-out aircraft parking requires more space for each stand, and extra precautions against blast.
Several factors must be considered when fixed loading bridges are planned to connect all-
cargo/ freighter aircraft to ETV storage systems within the cargo facility. Justification for loading bridges will depend on utilization potential, impact on staffing requirements, processing/turnaround time, and frequency of extreme weather conditions. As with passenger loading bridges, crossutilization between wide-body and narrow-body aircraft, as well as within certain types of narrow-body aircraft, may be limited. In addition, aircraft cargo door configurations (nose, side forward, side aft) will impact utilization potential.
IATA

Fixed aircraft servicing equipment, such as hydrant refuelling and power, are only appropriate to aircraft stands with high utilization. Lighting on the apron should provide sufficient illumination to permit the reading of cargo documents and labels at the aircraft parking stand. However, such lighting should not be allowed to adversely affect crew visibility when taxiing aircraft. On the apron, cargo service roads should be separate from the apron taxiway.
L2.6
An analysis of the peak hour stand requirements and the related volume of air cargo to be transported and processed is necessary in order to determine the size of the apron and adjacent
r
L2.IR1 Taxi-in And Push-Out Apron Configurations
The use of taxi-in and push-out apron stands configurations should be selected as (he preferred stand planning solution.
L2.IR2 MARS Stand Configurations

The use of MARS stands provides flexibility when stands are required to accommodate both wide-bodied and narrow-bodied aircraft in varying mixes. When flight schedules dictate, the option to configure stands in the MARS format should be considered. In such situations the MARS format is the IATA preferred stand configuration solution, as it maximises utilisation of the stand areas to their full potential and can reduce infrastructure costs.
L2.IR3 Blast Screens

Blast screens should be used to protect buildings, mobile apron devices and operational staff working in adjacent areas to the location of jet exhaust velocities and jet high temperature areas. Blast screens should be positioned in accordance with clause L2.3.2.
iata

GATE STANDS AND REMOTE STANDS
SECTION L3: L3.1
GATE AND REMOTE STANDS: INTRODUCTION

In recent years increasing importance has been placed by airlines upon terminal gate stands, primarily because they provide for more rapid and comfortable handling of passengers, avoid the need for buses, and enable better turnaround times. In general, airports should seek to handle as much capacity as possible with terminal gate stands incorporating passenger boarding bridges, as this represents by far the most comfortable, effective and cost-efficient means of enplaning and deplaning passengers. Where necessary, however, remote stands can offer facilities an effective and economical alternative to terminal expansion when capacity demand begins to exceed expectations on an occasional or permanent basis. It should be noted that any remote stand expansion or construction needs to incorporate contingencies for general apron operations (including but not limited to taxilanes and runway clearance requirements), remote transportation vehicles, the expansion of related passenger
L3.2
GATE STANDS
The gate stand can be used in conjunction with passenger boarding bridges, with aircraft loading vehicles, or even with apron stairs. However the objective and recommendation with gate stands should be for them to be used with passenger boarding bridges wherever possible to improve customer service standards. For further details on passenger boarding bridges please refer to Section J11. The gate stand is usually an integral part of the pier, satellite or main terminal departure lounge. The gate stand is comprised of the following interconnected components: 1. Link bridge from terminal or pier structure to rotunda (Departures + Arrivals Dedicated Routes). Or 1a. Link bridge from terminal or pier structure to rotunda (Departures + Arrivals SINGLE MIXED Route).
2. Emergency Stair Node. 3. Gate Apron Stand Area. 4. Passenger boarding bridge(s).
The gate apron stand is the preferred solution for airlines, passengers and staff. It is more economical to operate than a comparably sized and served remote stand due the reduction in connection vehicle equipment, fuel, staff and time. The gate stand can also be configured to be used in conjunction with all three types of passenger boarding bridges (see Section J11). Having established the mix of aircraft required to meet the flight schedule criteria, it will then be necessary to accommodate those aircraft types physically on the available apron area. It is essential that correct volume and type of aircraft are understood with contingency consideration for late aircraft turnaround. The gate stands should be considered prime real estate on the apron and gate served apron stands should be allocated accordingly. Gate stands should be used to serve the major volume of aircraft traffic which should be determined from the flight schedule. This is not necessarily the larger aircraft, as a domestic traffic biased airport could require the serving of small to medium sized jets predominantly with only the occasional large jets such as the Boeing 747-series and A380 aircraft being served.
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Gate stands should be as flexible as possible and should serve a wide a range of aircraft ranging typically from, in order of preference (i) large to small aircraft; (ii) large to medium aircraft; (iii) medium to small aircraft; (iv) large aircraft; (v) medium aircraft only or (vi) small aircraft only, though much depends on the operational requirements of the terminal and the flight schedule. The use of a single passenger boarding bridge per gate stand should be used wherever possible for all aircraft of size smaller than the full double deck A380 series, except when especially rapid aircraft turnarounds may be required. Where the A380 series aircraft are to be served it is recommended that the gate should be provided with the dual passenger boarding bridges to facilitate the more rapid disembarkation of passengers serving the forward first lower port door and the forward second upper port door. Occasionally a third bridge may also be used for this aircraft only (see Figure L3-1 below).
Figure L3-1: Passenger Boarding Bridge Quantities by Aircraft Type

Number of Passenger Boarding Bridges: Aircraft B747 (Series) A380 (Series) Other Aircraft Recommended 1 2 1 Maximum 2 3
(2 under special agreement)
It should be noted that many medium sized aircraft have dual forward door positions which can be served. Wherever possible the forward door should be served by the passenger boarding bridge. The capital costs associated within the use of passenger boarding bridges means that wherever possible 2 section passenger boarding bridges (nose loader or apron drive) should be used as the first choice over the use of 3 section passenger boarding bridges.
L3.3
REMOTE STANDS
The provision of aircraft stands remote from the terminal building is an economical way of increasing terminal capacity, particularly in relation to limited periods of apron congestion which occur either daily or periodically. The total airport terminal building capacity must however remain in balance. Expansion of aircraft stands, whether in number or size, must be matched by an expansion of certain elements of the terminal building. When considering the introduction of remote stands the following factors should be considered:
The layout of remote parking stands must not interfere with apron taxilanes or runway
clearance requirements.
Aircraft manoeuvring considerations for terminal gate stands also apply to remote stands.
Since remote stands are often located in close proximity to active taxiways, careful
consideration must be given to entrance and exiting procedures and the effects of jet blast.
Apron drainage must be in conformity with the local building codes as well as environmental
regulations. For example, special treatment may be required for spills of aircraft fuel or de-icing fluid See ICAO Annex 14 Clauses 3.14.10 and 3.14.11. established.
The economic viability of providing remote stands as opposed to gate stands must be
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IATA

Remote stands give more flexibility in assigning an aircraft stand, especially for flights with long turnaround times, over night stays, technical delays, or flights having special security requirements.
At the outset it must be clearly established what aircraft types will operate on the remote stands so they may be appropriately sized. Since, by definition, these stands are remote from the main terminal area, consideration must be given to the most effective utilization of ground equipment. Consideration should be given to staging ground servicing equipment nearby. Consideration should also be given to requirements for aircraft hydrant fuelling, ground power, air conditioning and de-icing.
For a safe operation it is important to have good apron lighting and lampposts should be appropriately placed.
B737-400/500 MARS Configuration All Aircraft Passenger Boarding Bridge Served
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Figure L3-2: Example of Flexible Parking Configurations
L3.4
EQUIPMENT PARKING AND MAINTENANCE

Ground servicing equipment must be parked in areas adjacent to the aircraft stands to be readily available when required. If required turnaround times are to be achieved, it is essential that such equipment is conveniently located in reasonably close proximity to its regular place of use and is readily accessible to ground handling staff. Such areas should be sized to accommodate all equipment used on a regular basis to support aircraft servicing for all types of aircraft usually served in a particular apron sector. Such areas should be clearly defined by appropriate apron markings. Long-term parking facilities must be provided for ramp equipment with convenient access to the apron area. At airports with harsh winter weather conditions, a heated ground equipment shelter will be
L3.5
EXPANSION CAPABILITIES
Expansion of the apron will become necessary in two instances:
When the number of aircraft stands is less than the demand. When the size of the stands must be increased to accommodate a larger size of aircraft.
Expansion of aircraft stands, whether in number or in size, may be matched by an expansion of the terminal, and this will be different for each of the possible terminal concepts. This expansion must be planned from the outset to avoid unnecessary waste in capital investment.
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IATA
L3.6
PARKING CLEARANCES
L3.6.1 General
The application of adequate clearance margins in the development of apron layouts is essential to ensure acceptability by airport authorities. The apron with associated fixed equipment, as well as aircraft which are parked on the apron, is part of the total airport system which in operational terms is subject to the requirements for the safe conduct of flight operations. These requirements (in the form of Standards and Recommended Practices) are contained in ICAO Annex 14 Aerodromes, and associated publications, particular attention should be made to Chapter 3 of ICAO Annex 14, clauses, 3.8.3, 3.8.4 and 3.8.5 (Table 3.1). Clearances recommended by the airlines for planning use have achieved universal acceptance as good aircraft operating practice. They recognize the need to conduct operations in a broad field of circumstances while achieving an acceptable level of performance and safety. Clearances in the following categories must be taken into account in the planning and design of apron layouts:
Flight Operations. Ground service equipment operation.
L3.6.2 Flight Operations

The practical effect of these requirements on apron planning is to provide adequate separation between apron areas, active taxiways and active runways, and thereafter to restrict the height of fixed apron equipment and parked aircraft according to their distance from the runway and their position relative to it. These limitations are stated in Table 4-1, ICAO Annex 14. If apron development is being considered at existing airports which could result in the infringement of these clearance requirements by existing buildings or fixed facilities, the situation should be brought to the attention of the ACC and the Airport Licensing Authority.
L3.6.3 Aircraft Ground Movement
The layout of apron areas must provide for the clearance requirements of aircraft moving over the taxiway system between the runway system and the aircraft parking stands. Clearances should be provided for aircraft on the basis that they are capable of following the taxiway centreline, due regard being given to the ability of the aircraft type having the longest wheel base to follow curved guidelines and the tendency of the wing tip on the outside of the turn to cover a greater area than when proceeding in a straight line (the wing tip of a 747-400 extends an additional 3.5m). An aircraft manoeuvring onto a stand under its own power should normally be allowed a minimum clearance of 7.5m between it and other parked aircraft, buildings or fixed obstructions (see Figure L5-1 for further clarification).
Where an aircraft taxies into a nose-in position in front of a building structure, a minimum clearance of 4.5m between the structure and the nose of the aircraft will be sufficient, provided an effective stopping guidance system is available. In such cases it will be necessary to increase this clearance at apron level to facilitate the manoeuvring of an aircraft tow tractor into position for the push-back 427 operation.
For a B747 (with tow tractor and tow bar), a distance of 20m (15m plus 5m for tractor manoeuvring) is required between the aircraft nose gear and the building structure. If a service road is located in front of the aircraft and can be used for tow tractor manoeuvring, a distance of 15m is required between the aircraft nose gear and the service road. On apron taxiways and aircraft stand taxilanes the minimum clearance between taxiing aircraft and parked aircraft, buildings or fixed obstructions should be as given in ICAO Annex 14 Table 3.1 (e.g. for a B747-400 on aircraft stand taxilanes, a wing tip clearance of 10m is required; on apron taxiways a wing tip clearance of 16.5m is required). The design of apron taxiways should include a minimum number of changes in direction. Where a change of direction is unavoidable, this should be accomplished by means of a transitional curve having a large radius. Aircraft stands and apron taxiway layouts should not be developed on the basis of the aircraft making minimum radius turns. Where aircraft are required to turn from the apron taxiway onto a stand centreline, a distance of at least half the length of the aircraft should be provided in order to achieve alignment following completion of the planned turn.
L3.6.4 Ground Service Equipment Operation

As the type, quantity and method of operation of ground service equipment will vary widely from airport to airport, it is essential that local requirements for space and clearances are established by consultation with the airlines. In favourable situations, the clearances required for the operation of ground service equipment on the aircraft stand around the aircraft can be contained within the overall dimensions of the aircraft and the surrounding aircraft ground movement clearances (See Section L4). In less favourable situations, the above will not apply. Additional space or clearances may be required when: Transporters (e.g. buses, mobile lounges or other specialized vehicles) are used to convey passengers between the passenger terminal and aircraft on remote stands.
Mobile tankers are used in the absence of hydrant fuelling. Other items of equipment, either individually or collectively, are exceptionally large or unwieldy. Large exchanges of baggage, cargo or mail are required during short turnaround or transit operations (this is particularly relevant with the operation of combi-aircraft). The cargo terminal is located a long distance from the passenger terminal apron. The overall aircraft size or wingspan is limited.
The table below defines the recommended clearances as defined within ICAO Annex 14 Chapter 3 for taxiway verge to aircraft aft wheel assemblies. These distances should be carefully considered when planning out the clearance criteria for remote and gate stands.
Figure L3-3: Taxiway Aircraft Wheel Clearances

Taxiway Wheel Cleanness
"X-
X/2
------fr.--------0---------&-------Or
"Y" Minimum Wheel Clearance
# Denotes Lighting System on Taxiway Center Line Width of Taxiway Code Letter A B C D E Dimension X 7.5m 10.5m 15m-18m*1 18m-23m *1 23m 25m PimY 1.5m 2.25m 3m-4.5m * 4.5m 4.5m 4.5m
Denotes Refer to ICAO Annex 17 Clause 3.8.4 Denotes Refer to ICAO Annex 17 Clause 3.8.3
L3.7
L3.IR1 Preferred Use of Gate Stands The objective with gate stands should be for them to be used with passenger boarding bridges wherever possible to improve customer service Whjrds and to reduce airtine operational costs.
L3.IR2 Gate Stand Flexibility Gate stands should be as flexible as possible and should serve a wide a range of aircraft ranging typically from, in order of preference (i) large to small aircraft; (ii) large to medium aircraft; (Hi) medium to small aircraft; (iv) large aircraft; (v) medium aircraft only or (vi) small aircraft only, though much depends on the operational requirements of the terminal and the-flight schedule requirements.
L3.IR3 Stand Placement Taxiway Consideration Since remote stands are often located in close proximity to active taxiways. careful consideration must be given to entrance and exiting procedures and th& effects of jet blast and taxiway turning paths.
SECTION L4: GROUND HANDLING EQUIPMENT L4.1 GROUND HANDLING VEHICLES

Ground handling vehicles are used to service aircraft while they are parked on the apron. They service all aspects of the aircraft and numerous vehicles will approach and be parked next to the aircraft any one time. It is therefore essential that these vehicles are compliant with recommendations contained within this chapter and those stipulated within the IATA Airport Handling Manual Chapter 9 Airport Handling Ground Support Specifications. The placement of vehicles will vary according to the aircraft make and model variant, therefore reference to the aircraft manufacturer's airport interface manuals is essential. The ground handling vehicles will in some instances be required to drive on public roads, as well as on the apron within the service roads and the stand areas. Where vehicles are required to be driven on the national highway they shall need to be compliant with local national legislation as well as the international recommendations stipulated within this manual and the IATA Airport Handling Manual. Please refer to Figure L4-9 for a sample list of the current Ground Handling Equipment specifications defined within the IATA Airport Handling Manual.
L4.1.1 Baggage Handling Vehicles

Baggage handling vehicles will be located airside and will travel frequently to most aircraft stands, to the airport baggage departures halls, and to baggage arrival halls. It is important that the vehicles are efficient, reliable and safe to operate, both for staff and for the environment. Battery, petrol and diesel powered tugs can be used, though wherever possible the use of battery powered baggage tugs should be the preferred choice. The use of battery powered tugs will improve the working environment of the departures and arrivals baggage halls. If petrol or diesel baggage tugs are used then the ventilation systems within the baggage hall environment should be designed to adequately and safely disperse the vehicle fumes, particularly in areas of where baggage handling operators reside.
Figure L4-1: Modern Battery Powered Tug
Photo Courtesy of aviance UK Ground Handling Baggage handling dollies are towed by baggage tugs and used to transport departing and arriving baggage within the airport complex. Baggage handling dollies are often linked together in trains of dollies which are driven directly to and away from aircraft.
At large busy International airports, dolly trains should be restricted in length, with no more than 5 dollies being connected at any one time, subject to the recommendations of the both the dolly and tug manufacturers. Vehicle turning circles on some dolly units can be restrictive and can clash with building columns when connected in long multiple dolly trains. The braking distances for dolly trains with more than 3 dolly trains which are fully laden can be dangerously too long and difficult to control, particularly in wet conditions. Recommendations from the manufacturer of the baggage tug with respect to load carrying practices should be sought. Figure L4-2 details a typical open sided dolly unit which is used to transport loose baggage. These are often fitted with side nets (not shown). Figure L4-3 details a typical LD container dolly unit fitted with free running rollers. The use of ball table mounted to these types of dollies is also commonplace.
Figure L4-2: Typical Open Sided Baggage Dolly
Figure L4-3: Typical LD Container Dolly

L4.1.2 LD Container Sizes
The use of LD sized containers is commonplace and practiced by many airlines to protect the aircraft and improve the loading and unloading of baggage and cargo on the apron. Baggage is better retained when using LD containers, and subsequently can be driven to and from the aircraft while being less likely to fall out and become damaged on the road way. The following LD specifications are commonly used:
LD7 (Cargo Applications) L4.2 PASSENGER LOADING STEP VEHICLES
LD8
There is a wide range of passenger stair vehicles commercially available. Aircraft docking stairs can be towed or can be self-propelled, covered and uncovered. They are suitable for boarding passengers and crew personnel as well as for maintenance and aircraft servicing purposes, particularly where stands are remotely positioned away from terminal building infrastructure. Mobile passenger stairs should be fitted with canopies to improve customer service standards. Self propelled and towed mobile stair variants can be used on small to large aircraft types, though for large aircraft it is best practice to use passenger boarding bridges. Passenger stairs should be used where terminal building infrastructure does not exist or where a passenger boarding bridge malfunction has occurred. The precise functional and design requirements of passenger loading step vehicles can be found within the IATA Airport Handling Manual Clause 920 Functional Specification for Self-Propelled Passenger Loading Steps, and Clause 920A Functional Specification for Towed Passenger Steps.
IATA

Figure L4-5: Typical Passenger Stair Vehicle
Photo Courtesy ofACCESSAIR Systems Inc.
L4.3
POTABLE WATER SUPPLY VEHICLES

Potable water is delivered to aircraft via dedicated potable water vehicles or via hydrants with outlets placed above ground level and on the stand perimeter. It is more usual for potable water to be supplied via vehicles. Please refer to Section G1, Fig. G1-5: Example of Aircraft Servicing Arrangement Typical Turnaround for B777 200LR. The typical location on the apron for a potable water vehicle is shown. The precise functional and design requirements of potable water vehicles can be found within the IATA Airport Handling Manual Clause AHM 970 Functional Specification for a Self-Propelled Potable Water Vehicle. Care should be taken to ensure that potable water supplies delivered to the apron do not become contaminated by fuel hydrants or fuel dispensers, for this purpose potable water stand hydrants must not be located in a pit below apron surface level.
L4.4
CATERING VEHICLES
Catering vehicles service aircraft's on-board catering requirements. When they approach the serviced aircraft the storage area is raised to service the aircraft in accordance with the aircraft manufactures recommendations. The precise functional and design requirements of catering vehicles can be found within the IATA Airport Handling Manual Clause AHM 927 Functional Specification for a Catering
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L4.5
AIRCRAFT PUSH BACK TUGS

There are 2 types of push back tugs:
Type 1 (see Figure L4.7) those which require the use of tow bars. Type 2 (see Figure L4.8) those which latch to the aircraft nose wheel assembly directly and encase the wheel whilst coupled.
Type 2 push back tugs are cheaper to operate as they do not generally need two operators to use them, whereas Type 1 push back tugs generally do require 2 operators. Type 1 Push back tugs are generally used for smaller aircraft since the clearances beneath the aircraft are more restricted. Medium and Large aircraft also commonly use tow bars and Type 1 push back tugs to maneuver. Both Type 1 and Type 2 tugs are generally able, subject to tug manufacturers specifications, to maneuver all types of aircraft over long distances at reasonable speeds. Type 2 tugs are generally able to taxi aircraft at higher speeds. No technical preference exists between Type 1 and Type 2 push back tugs.
Figure L4-7: Type 1 Aircraft Towing Tractor
Photo Courtesy of Aviance UK Ground Handling
Figure L4-8: Type 2 Aircraft Towing Tractor
Figure L4-9: IATA Airport Ground Handling Manual Sample Listing (Full List Extends from AHM 900-996)
AHM 900 ~
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS ISSUE AND REVISION DATES

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS ISSUE AND REVISION DATES BY AHM NUMERICAL SEQUENCE
Shown below is a table containing the original and latest issue dates for all the AHM 900 Series. Original Latest AHM Title Issue Revision Number Date Date 900 901 902 904 905 905A 909 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 917 918 920 920A 921 922 923 924 925 927 931 932 933 934 Equipment Specifications Issue and Revision Dates Functional Specifications Environmental Impact on the Use of Ground Support Equipment Aircraft Doors, Servicing Points and System Requirements for the Use of Ground Support Equipment Reference Material for Civil Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Document Cross Reference Report Summary Of Unit Load Device Capacity And Dimensions Basic Requirements for Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Ground Support Equipment Requirements for Compatibility with Aircraft Unit Load Devices Forklift Pockets Dimensions and Characteristics for Standard Forkliftable General Support Equipment Intended for Palletisation Basic Safety Requirements for Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Compatibility of Ground Support Equipment with Aircraft Types Standard Controls Basic Requirements for Ground Support Equipment Towing Interface Guideman Hand Signals Basic Requirements for Battery-Powered Ground Support Equipment Functional Specification for Self-Propelled Telescopic Passenger Stairs Functional Specification for Towed Passenger Steps Functional Specification for Incapacitated Passenger Boarding/Deboarding Vehicle Basic Requirements for Passenger Boarding Bridge Aircraft Interface Functional Specification for Elevating Passenger Transfer Vehicle Functional Specification for Heavy Item Lift Platform Functional Specification for Self-Propelled Conveyor-Belt Loader Functional Specification for a Catering Vehicle Functional Specification for Lower Deck Container/Pallet Loader Functional Specification for Main Deck Container/Pallet Loader Functional Specification of a Powered Extension Platform to Lower Deck/Container/ Pallet Loader Functional Specification for a Narrow Body Lower Deck Single Platform Loader Dec 74 Dec 74 April 95 April 75 Oct 78 Jan 00 April 75 August 75 May 79 April 85 Jan 77 Sept 95 June 78 Feb 82 April 86 April 92 Nov 73 Jan 77 April 84 Oct 92 June 79 Feb 82 Feb 82 August 75 August 75 April 89 April 92 Jan 02 Jan 01 Jan 03 Jan 02 Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan 01 00 01 99 01
Jan 01 Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan 01 03 99 01 99 99 03 98 03 01 01 99 99 03 02 02 99
Jan 01

L4.6 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
4..R1 Use Bakery Powered Baggage Tugs Battery and dieset powered tugs can b used, though wherever possible the use of bairn,-? powered baggage tugs should be the preferred choice.
of
L4.IR2 Baggage Dol ly Trains At large busy international airports, dotty trains should be restricted in length wilt} no more than 5 dollies being connected at any one time, subject to the recommendations ot both the dolly and tug manufacturers. BLaagaB
L4.1R3 Passenger Loading Step Vehicles Wherever deemed necessary to use, mobile passenger loading steps should be fitted with canopies to improve customerservice standards, particularly in c o u n t r i e s where ad<m, t conditions are commonplace.
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IATA
SECTION L5: L5.1 SERVICE ROADS & STORAGE AREAS
SERVICE ROADS: INTRODUCTION

Basic planning requirements for airside roads are:
Access to the non-public road network must be effectively restricted to service vehicles directly
linked with aircraft handling activities. cargo terminal and the aircraft.
The service roads must be capable of accepting ULD transporter equipment between the
Adequate bearing strength, height clearances and turning radii must be provided to
accommodate existing and projected service and ground support equipment, including tow tractors, when applicable.
To comply with the requirements stated within the joint IATA/ACI publication entitled: Apron
Markings and Signs Handbook.
Airport service roads should have a minimum width of 10m, preferably 12m, and a clearance
height of 4.2m, but preferably 4.6m. The latter is of particular concern with regard to service roads directly located in front of parking positions which pass under sections of the terminal building and/or passenger loading bridges. It should be noted that the figures provided are design guidelines and should be adjusted to the local situation prevailing at the specific airport concerned. Service roads should be designed to accommodate self-propelled equipment with a swept turn radius of at least 8m.
Adequate separation in accordance with ICAO Annex 14, Chapter 3, and in particular clauses
3.8 (Table 3-1) and Fig 3-2, must be provided from runways, taxiways or other areas where aircraft manoeuvre. support equipment must be provided.
Where necessary, adequate roadway width to permit overtaking of slow-moving ground
In planning for airside road systems it must be recognized that many restrictions exist, especially in those areas where aircraft ground handling activities are in progress. Safety and security aspects, together with the special needs of slow traffic (e.g. tug and dollies), as well as wide and very high vehicles, all need to be taken into account. Exclusive use of part of the system by some categories may be necessary. Special attention should be given to:
Ground handling equipment should be moved via service roads and not across aprons.
Designated handling and parking areas should be properly marked. The size of aircraft loaders, passenger buses, mobile lounges, fire fighting equipment and fuel tankers may require special arrangements for manoeuvring and storage.
The use of private cars on the airside should be restricted.
Aircraft tow tractors may have to operate at right angles to service roads. Special provisions
may be necessary.
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Each location has its advantages and disadvantages. Since a lot of operational activity tends to occur around the forward portion of the aircraft, a frontal service road is sometimes preferred. However the disadvantage with this type of service road is that the clearance height necessary to allow certain types of service vehicles (i.e. aircraft catering vehicles) to pass underneath may create a major problem with the height or slope of the passenger loading bridge or the elevation of the departure gate lounge. When the service road is located in front of the terminal building, adequate room must be provided for the aircraft push-back tractor to manoeuvre; i.e. the tractor which is at 90 must not encroach into the service road. This often occurs however, and traffic congestion on the service road follows. In situations where a service road can only be located behind the aircraft and outside of the stand perimeter, the service road should then be very clearly marked and must not be allowed to infringe on apron taxiway operations. Proper clearance must be defined and maintained, from the rear of the aircraft to the service road and to the apron taxiway. Rear service roads will involve traffic coming off the service road and past the aircraft wings and engines when approaching the front of the aircraft. Movement around aircraft wings, etc., must be done with extreme caution.
L5.1.1 Marking Characteristics

The marking characteristics are:
Double line: do not cross. Single line: cross with caution. Broken line: a roadway centre-line. Dotted line: yield/give way. Colour: the colour shades must be of high visibility (e.g. reflective material and consistent with every-day off-airport use), but must not conflict with the yellow colour already established for aircraft movement on the apron (ICAO Annex 14, Para 5.2.1.5). Recommended colours are RED for safety and WHITE for traffic markings.
L5.1.2 Service Road Marking Standard

Service Roadway markings should be painted white and should consist of double solid outer lines which indicate that crossing is not permitted. A single solid outer line should mark the areas where crossing is permitted. In the case of two opposing directions of travel, there should be a centre (broken) line to divide traffic. The width of each lane of a road shall be of a minimum width to accommodate the widest vehicle in use at that location. It is recommended that the following minimum specifications be adopted:
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Width of line: 10cm. Gap between lines: 5cm. Broken line: 1.5m. A STOP line: 20cm. Directional signs should be in the form of a white arrow painted on the roadway surface. An
IATA
L5.2 PEDESTRIAN PATHWAYS

Pedestrian pathways should be provided across service roads and be painted with white stripes across the roadway surface to the following specifications:
Width of line 0.5m. Length of line 2.0m. Gap between lines 0.8m.
Pedestrian walkways should be clearly indicated and designed so as to keep the pedestrians clear of hazards.
L5.3
EQUIPMENT RESTRAINT LINES

These are lines behind which ground support equipment is kept during the movement of an aircraft onto or off the aircraft parking position; also as a safety stop for all ground support equipment prior to final approach to the aircraft and as a safety zone to allow for jet engine intake and/or propeller clearance. This restraint marking should be defined by an unbroken red line with a white line inside the aircraft parking area indicating the boundary of the aircraft parking area. The line must be painted so as to allow for the safe movement of the largest aircraft onto or off the parking position. The minimum width of line is 10cm.
L5.4
NO PARKING AREAS
Prohibited parking areas on the apron include such zones as the apron drive loading bridge movement area, fuelling pits, etc. These areas should be marked by red hatch lines and bordered by a solid line of the same colour and width as per the following specifications:
Minimum width of lines: 10cm. Gap between lines: 20cm.
The lines must be painted at 45 in reference to the aircraft parking position centre line.
L5.4.1 Equipment Parking Areas

These are specific areas set aside for the parking of ground handling equipment, and include:.
Long term parking. Short term parking. Staging areas.
The lines delineating these areas should be painted white, with a minimum line width of 10cm. When designing equipment parking areas consideration should be given to co-ordinating the long term, short term and staging area requirements, including the size and type of equipment. Particular attention should be paid to the staging areas close to the aircraft.
L5.5
TYPICAL GROUND EQUIPMENT LAYOUTS

Figure L5-1 illustrates the ground equipment movement and parking areas around a typical aircraft parking position. It should be noted that the parked position of all aircraft served should be taken into account when determining the position and plan profile of the apron safety line, which should be indicated on the apron using a solid red line.
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L5.6
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS L5.IR1 Service Roads

Service roads should be designed in accordance with clause L5.1 of this section and ICAO Annex 14 Aerodromes.
L5.IR2 Ground Equipment Parking

Apron ground equipment areas and zones should designed in accordance clauses L5.2, L5.3 L5.4, and Figure L5*1 of this ^section as well as ICAO Annex 14 Aerodromes. Particular attention should be made to apron marking standards which should be in compliance with ICAO clauses 5.2.
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SECTION L6: L6.1
DISTRIBUTED ELECTRICAL POWER & AIR
400Hz ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS

Power required on aircraft can be supplied by either a fixed installation directly, providing 400 Hz power to each stand, or by providing 50/60 Hz industrial type power which can be converted into 400 Hz for the aircraft by means of mobile converters (the latter solution has broader applications; e.g. heating or air conditioning).
L6.1.1 Available Technologies

Fixed installations for supplying 200 V/400 Hz AC electric power to aircraft include a variety of available techniques, such as:
Centralized systems distributing 400 Hz power to a number of stands, based on either a pair of high capacity rotary converters or static converters located in an electrical room in the terminal. Decentralized or point-of-use solid-state units mounted on the passenger loading bridge near the aircraft closure or at remote stands.
Also, the supply of 200 V/400 Hz AC electric power to aircraft can be accomplished by means of mobile, plug-in, electric converters connected to a 50/60 Hz power outlet of sufficient capacity,
L6.1.2 Design Guidance

Detailed technical information concerning the design and evaluation of the various types of 400 Hz systems is contained in the Air Transport Association of America "ATA 400 Hz Fixed Power Systems Design Guidebook". The engineering advice provided in this design guidebook has been established jointly by the airline and equipment manufacturing industry's best specialists, and should be followed in order to evaluate
L6.1.3 Economic Justification

The economic justification for a fixed 400 Hz installation must be established versus the use of either aircraft APUs or mobile ground power units (GPUs) with a diesel engine, or mobile electric converters connected to 50/60 Hz power outlets at each stand. Such justification usually depends on how many hours a day, in yearly average, a typical stand will be occupied by an active (being serviced) aircraft.
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It should be noted that wherever the local climate requires aircraft air conditioning for a significant part of the year, there may be little or no economic justification for a fixed 400 Hz installation alone, since for such period it would also be necessary to run the APUs for air conditioning purposes. In The final 400 Hz mode of distribution to the aircraft is critical because of potential apron congestion and aircraft servicing constraints. It is recommended that no 400 Hz distribution cable should run on the ground except within a maximum distance of 3m from the aircraft inlet. Even in this case, the cable should run perpendicular to the aircraft fuselage and not parallel to it, and should not be located in the way of, or constitute an obstacle to, aircraft servicing and loading vehicles. Additionally, whenever possible, distribution by pits should be avoided. The following distribution systems are recommended: Stands equipped with a passenger loading bridge or bridges: the cable should run to the head of the (most forward) bridge (pantograph or equivalent system for the telescopic part of the
L6.1.4 Distribution to Aircraft

Nose-in stands without a passenger bridge: a general feeder cable should run in a trench along
the front line of the stands and should include a series of connection points where service posts can be installed according to any changes in aircraft layout. This is in order to provide flexibility in future airport developments.
Taxi-in/power-out stands without a passenger bridge: installation of a fixed 400 Hz distribution
system is generally not recommended, since such stand arrangements are generally used for low or relatively low frequencies of stand utilization. L6.2 50/60HZ ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS
L6.2.1 General An alternate solution to providing 200 V/400 Hz AC electric power outlets, which frequently offers more flexibility and a lower mean operating cost, is to provide multi-purpose 50/60 Hz industrial power outlets on each stand. The same outlets, or a set of outlets on the same distribution system, may be used for a variety of requirements, such as:
Supplying 200 V/400 Hz AC electric power to aircraft by means of mobile plug-in electric
converters. Such units are usually significantly smaller, cheaper and require less maintenance than conventional GPUs with a diesel engine.
Heating the aircraft in cold weather by means of mobile, plug-in electric heaters. Such units,
again, are usually significantly smaller, cheaper and more free from maintenance problems than diesel powered heating units. They present the additional advantage that they can be safely left operating (e.g. during night stops to avoid the risk of water circuits freezing) without staff supervision, which is necessary for diesel units. Note: this also depends upon the local cost of diesel fuel versus electrical power.
Cooling the aircraft in hot weather by means of mobile, plug-in, electrical air conditioning units
(ACUs). Similarly, electric ACUs are usually significantly smaller, cheaper and more maintenancefree than diesel operating units.
For possible future applications, supplying power to plug-in type electric loading equipment
such as container/pallet loaders, ULD transport vehicles, roller beds, etc. (Refer to paragraph (d) below regarding standard connectors). L6.2.2 Design Guidance No specific technical design information is currently available for industrial power supply at an airport's stands, as such guidance is basically contained within the rules of the art for general purpose electrical engineering. However, the following may be used as general guidelines for first step evaluations:
The power to be used should be the local standard for industrial applications; e.g. 380 V/3
phase/ 50 Hz AC in Europe, or 230 V/3 phase/60 Hz AC in North America. to the "ATA 400 Hz Fixed Power Systems Design Guidebook".
Power requirements in kVA per stand for aircraft power supply should be estimated according
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The economic justification of a fixed 50/60 Hz installation must be established versus the use of either aircraft APUs or a conjunction of the diesel powered units (GPUs, ACUs, heaters, etc.) required according to local conditions. An estimate of purchasing and operating costs for electric plug-in units as compared to diesel powered ones must also be included in any evaluation. Additionally, an economic comparison must be established between a multi-purpose 50/60 Hz installation and a conjunction of specialized fixed aircraft servicing facilities such as, typically, a 400 Hz power system and an air conditioning (pre-cooled air) system. The lower initial investment cost and higher flexibility of a multi-purpose 50/60 Hz installation may often result in significantly lower overall costs. The cost per kwh of local electrical power varies widely and must, of course, be taken into consideration as part of this study.

The distribution requirements for 50/60 Hz industrial power at a stand are basically similar to those for a 400 Hz system:
Care should be taken to reduce the distance power cables run on the ground between the
fixed outlets and mobile plug-in units, and to minimize potential interference with aircraft servicing and loading vehicles.
Whenever possible, distribution by pits should be avoided.
When a 50/60 Hz industrial power plug-in facility is used for aircraft air conditioning or heating, In addition, in order to benefit fully from the system's flexibility, care should be taken to
standardize the connectors used in order to allow any mobile unit to plug in.
preference should be given to mobile units in order to minimize the length of hose, with the advantages of increased system efficiency, reduced ramp congestion and less hose wear.
Standard connectors, such as described in the IATA Airport Handling Manual AHM 960
Appendices C (for use on the North American continent, 230 V/3 phase/60 Hz AC) or D (for use on the European continent, 380 V/3 phase/50 Hz AC. Also refer to The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Aerospace Recommended Practice ARP 1372A, and International Standard ISO 7715 which are equivalent), should be used whenever compatible with the maximum kVA
L6.3
PRE-CONDITIONED AIR SYSTEMS
L6.3.1 Available Technologies

Fixed installations for supplying low pressure pre-conditioned (i.e. heated or cooled) air to aircraft include a variety of available techniques, such as:
Centralized systems distributing low pressure pre-conditioned air to a number of stands from
a heating or cooling plant located in a central technical room. The heating plant may be independent (e.g. electrical, ice storage, peak shaving, etc., technologies) or based on heat exchangers fed by the terminal building's own hot or chilled water distribution system.
Decentralized systems including a fixed air conditioning/heating unit at each stand, with a heat
exchanger fed by the hot or chilled water distribution system of the terminal building or an independent system (e.g. electrical, ice storage, peak shaving, etc. technologies).
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Decentralized systems including an independent fixed air conditioning/heating unit at each stand, operating from electric power distribution. Also, pre-conditioned air supply to aircraft can be accomplished by means of mobile, plug-in, electric ACUs or heaters connected to a 50/60 Hz power outlet of sufficient capacity, when provided at each stand.
L6.3.2 Design Guidance

General technical information concerning design and evaluation of the various types of preconditioned air systems is contained in the Air Transport Association of America "ATA Spec 101: Ground Equipment Technical Data publication and Facility Planning Guidelines publication". The engineering and economic evaluation advice provided in the ATA publications has been established jointly by the most qualified specialists of the airline and equipment manufacturing industries, and should be followed in order to evaluate or to study any proposed system.

The economic justification of a fixed, pre-conditioned air supply installation must be established versus the use of either aircraft APUs or mobile ACUs with a diesel engine, or mobile electric ACUs connected to 50/60 Hz power outlets at each stand. It usually depends on the combined result of how many hours per day, in yearly average, a typical stand will be occupied by an active (being serviced) aircraft, and how many days per year heating or cooling the aircraft cabin will be considered necessary according to local weather averages. Usually, the economic justification needs to be assessed together with a fixed 400 Hz power system, since obviously the main purpose of a pre-conditioned air installation is to eliminate or reduce the use of aircraft APUs.

The final mode of distribution of pre-conditioned air to the aircraft low pressure air inlet is particularly critical in relation to apron congestion and aircraft servicing constraints, due to the large size (usually minimum 20cm diameter) of the required hose. Based on the general objectives in the planning of apron fixed facilities, it is recommended that:
The hose should run perpendicular to the aircraft fuselage rather than parallel to it, and should not be located in the way of, or constitute an obstacle to, aircraft servicing or loading vehicles. If this arrangement is made impossible by the stand layout for a given type of aircraft, the hose should run on the ground as close as possible to the aircraft centreline, and side transfer loading equipment and methods should be eliminated for this type of aircraft. The hose length should be minimized in all circumstances in order to reduce the loss of pressure and improve air conditioning efficiency. When a stand serves aircraft types with either a forward or aft located air conditioning inlet, the hose length should be determined for those aircraft types with a forward inlet location, and an extension hose should be used for the types with an aft inlet location. It should be noted that many systems are experiencing significant wear and tear on the hose resulting in frequent replacement, which adds to operating and maintenance costs.
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For stands without a passenger bridge, however, fixed preconditioned air installations are generally not recommended. In these cases consideration should be given to the use of mobile electric ACUs or heaters connected to a 50/60 Hz power outlet, since the connecting power cable creates much less interference with servicing vehicles than an air conditioning hose of comparable length.
L6.4
PNEUMATIC AIR SYSTEMS
L6.4.1 General
Pneumatic generation and distribution systems for high pressure air supply to aircraft are primarily intended to provide the compressed air necessary to start jet engines on the stands. This is a short duration requirement at each stand, since all the engines of an aircraft can be started within a period of between 1 and 5 minutes depending on the aircraft type. In addition, such systems are sometimes used or considered as a means of continuously running a flow of high pressure air into the aircraft in order to operate the aircraft on-board air conditioning packs to either heat or cool the cabin. In this case, the system would be used in place of low pressure pre-conditioned air systems. However, doubts have been expressed by a number of engineering specialists regarding the effect of this type of operation on the technical condition of on-board air conditioning packs, and experience has not yet allowed determination with certainty as to whether it may result in a significant reduction of mean time between failure (MTBF) of the packs, which would adversely affect both aircraft inflight reliability and maintenance costs. Therefore it is necessary, before considering the use of a high pressure pneumatic system for aircraft air conditioning, to make sure that the principle and characteristics (flow, pressure, temperature, moisture amount, etc.) of the system have been fully approved by all airframe manufacturers as well as the aircraft engineering departments of the airlines involved. Technically, pneumatic generation systems are always based on a number of high performance compressor units (several types of compressor design are available) located in a central technical plant. The size, length and layout of the distribution ducts are critical for system performance and potential loss of pressure, and must therefore be carefully engineered. Due to the high peak of power consumption (flow + pressure) required, no decentralized alternative (except conventional mobile ASUs of either the diesel or the turbine powered type) has up to now been made available.
L6.4.2 Design Guidance L6.4.3 Economic Justification

In general, installation of a pneumatic system is considered when it is a requirement to start the aircraft on the stand. In this case it will usually prove to be economical to use the system for cabin conditioning as well (depending on local weather conditions). The economic justification of a fixed compressed air supply installation must be established versus the use of either aircraft APUs running for a few minutes in order to start the engines, or mobile ASUs with either a diesel or a turbine engine. If the system is also to be used for cabin conditioning, then the system justification must also take into consideration the elements stated in clause L6.2.3. Furthermore, if an airline or a group of airlines are considering power back operations with their aircraft, this would have an important effect on the results of this study.
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It should be noted that:
The decision to use a pneumatic system for engine start should not be based upon
environmental considerations, since the starting of aircraft engines creates much more noise and air pollution than the APU or ASU.
On the contrary, economic evaluation should take into account the fact that a fixed
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compressed air supply results in starting the engines on the stand before push back, where as most airlines today in fact start the aircraft engines from the APU during (or even partially after) push back. Using a fixed installation, therefore, may result in increased fuel consumption and noise due to Aircraft Parking jet engines running before and during push back, as well as additional aircraft Aprons and engine running time which may also affect crew salaries. Such factors of increased expense for the airline should be taken into account in the economic evaluation.
When the use of a compressed air supply installation is contemplated for both air start and
cabin conditioning purposes, assessment by airline engineering departments as to the use of this system for cabin conditioning is necessary in order to evaluate the economic viability of the system.

The mode of distribution of compressed air to the aircraft high pressure air inlets depends on the uses being foreseen:
If compressed air is used only for engine start, the hose location is relatively secondary, since
at that time most servicing operations on an aircraft have ended. However, consideration should be given to minimizing the length of the hose in order to reduce pressure loss and increase system efficiency. A powered hose retrieval and storage system should be provided for any fixed distribution using hose lengths over approximately 9m.
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L6.5
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS L6.IR1 400 Hz Systems

In addition to the design guidance defined within ADRM clauses L6.1 and L6.2, further detailed technical information concerning the design and evaluation of the various types of 400 Hz systems is contained in tfie Air Transport Association of America "ATA 400 Hz Fixed Power Systems Design Guidebook". This further reference material should be used in the design planning of 400 Hz fixed power systems used on the apron/stand areas.
IATA
The economic justification for a fixed 400 Hz installation must be established versus the use of either aircraft APUs or mobile ground power units (GPUs) with a diesel engine, or mobile Airport Development Reference Manual electric converters connected to 50/60 Hz power outlets at each stand. A full justification is required to access the benefits of providing 400Hz equipment at the head of stand. V._____________________________________________________________________________
L6.IR2 Pre-conditioned Air and Pneumatic Systems

In addition to the design guidance defined within clauses L6.3 and L6.4, further detailed technical information concerning design and evaluation of the various types of pre-conditioned air systems and pneumatic systems is contained in the Air Transport Association of America "ATA Aircraft Ground Support Air Systems Planning Guidebook". This further reference material should be used in the design planning of pre-conditioned air and general pneumatic systems used on the apron/stand areas.
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SECTION L7: AIRCRAFT DE/ANTI-ICING FACILITIES L7.1 INTRODUCTION

Safe and efficient aircraft operations are of primary importance in the development of any aircraft deicing facility, and the requirements for a de-icing operation will differ greatly for each airport. While remote primary de-icing may be desirable at one airport, gate de-icing with or without remote secondary facilities is appropriate at others. Operational and Air Traffic Control (ATC) matters may be paramount at one airport, while environmental concerns may predominate at another. These are just some of the many options to be chosen between where de-icing operations are concerned, but in an overall sense it is important to keep in mind that each airport will have varying priorities, and that many factors will need to be weighed before responsible, safe and efficient decisions can be arrived at. The manner in which the ATC system operates during icing conditions is critical. If the ATC system imposes significant delays before take-off, the de-icing problem is increased, not only because of the need to de-ice again, but also because of the extra taxiing required. In addition to the concerns for safety, the airlines and the airport authorities must work with ATC to minimize delays. The first and most important task for designers contemplating the development of de-icing facilities is to evaluate the type of facility best suited to the airport needs. This evaluation will entail an assessment of the actual physical layout, the operational requirements and the environmental sensitivity of the airport. This means aircraft movement flows, frequency and severity of icing events, realistic capacity need in snow/ice conditions, the physical space available, the length of routes to the departure points, the available and potential drainage, the kinds of fluid (Type 1, 2, 3 or 4, see definition below within clause L.7.1.1) in use, and fluid collection/retention/recycling possibilities, etc., must be considered. It is important to recognize that the requirements for and economics of recycling and reuse vary widely. The environmental circumstances, ranging from the proximity of the airport to rivers and water sources, the runoff patterns to be expected, the types of receiving water and the movement rates of water bodies all impact the problem. Another variable is the type of soil and the potential for soil contamination.
L7.1.1 The Types of De-icing Operations

In general, there are four types of de-icing operations:
(1) At passenger terminal gates, where aircraft are de-iced just before departure after
passengers and baggage/cargo are loaded.
(1) At designated de-icing areas at or near the passenger terminal ramp. (2) At designated remote de-icing areas en-route to the departure runway. (3) At a specially designed centralized de-icing centre.
Facilities for these operations progress in level of sophistication from (1) to (4), although they all must satisfy the airport considerations noted above. Because option (1) does not usually entail additional facility development, but principally relies on mobile equipment, only options (2) to (4) are further discussed. Historically, the principal method of de-icing has involved the application of heated freeze depressant fluids. In recent years, new thickened fluids have been implemented which offer extended protection times (fluid holdover times). Other new developments need to be considered, including the application of infra-red heat.
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L7.1.2 Designated De-icing Area at or Near the Terminal
For some airports, decentralized de-icing facilities at or adjacent to terminals can adequately meet the demands of the airlines, while still allowing acceptable taxiing time to the departure runways under varying weather conditions. Improvements to or expansion of the facilities at terminal stands should include apron drainage areas that collect glycol runoff for proper disposal or recycling. Alternatively, de-icing run-off should be collected on the spot by sweeper/vacuum cleaning vehicles. The collected slush is either stored or directly transported to disposal/recycling contractors.
L7.1.3 Remote De-icing Facilities

Remote de-icing facilities located near departure runway ends or along taxiways are recommended when taxiing times from terminals frequently exceed holdover times. Under changing weather conditions they can compensate for icing conditions or blowing snow expected to occur along the taxi route taken by the aircraft to the departure runway. These facilities can improve flow control by permitting retreatment of aircraft without having the aircraft return to a more distant de-icing pad. Remote de-icing facilities have the following components: Aircraft de-icing pad(s) for the manoeuvring of aircraft and mobile de-icing vehicles. Bypass taxiing capability. Aircraft de-icing pad(s) for the manoeuvring of aircraft and de-icing gantry or mobile de-icing vehicles. Environmental runoff mitigation measures. Portable lighting system.
L7.1.4 Centralized De-icing Facilities

Centralized de-icing facilities off the terminal are recommended when terminal de-icing facilities experience excessive gate delays, taxiing times, or suffer from severe weather conditions conducive to aircraft icing conditions. Terminals whose de-icing gates lack permanent environmental runoff structures are candidates for off-terminal de-icing facilities, as the construction costs for runoff mitigation is not cost-effective. Centralized de-icing facilities usually have the following components:
Aircraft de-icing pad(s) for the manoeuvring of aircraft and mobile de-icing vehicles. Bypass taxiing capability. Environmental runoff mitigation measures. Permanent or portable night-time lighting system. Support facilities that include:
Storage tanks, transfer systems for aircraft de/anti-icing fluids. De-icing crew shelter. Fixed fluid applicator.
Considerable reference on the various considerations that must be examined regardless of the level of sophistication of the proposed de-icing facility can be found in Reference 1, SAE ARP4902. An overview of those considerations follows.
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L7.2 SITING CONSIDERATIONS
Thoughtful siting of de-icing facilities is critical in order to maximize the benefits of the de/anti-icing process while minimizing the potential adverse impacts on airfield efficiency, safety and operations. Certain considerations in siting de-icing facilities facilitate compliance with the 'clean aircraft' concept. Foremost among such considerations is the need to site de-icing facilities so that the maximum time interval between the start of the last step of the de/anti-icing process, subsequent taxiing, and the start of takeoff does not exceed the estimated holdover times of the applied fluids. Other major considerations include the need to site de-icing facilities so that aircraft, de-icing facility structures, and mobile de-icing vehicles or fixed de-icing equipment does not penetrate the object clearing criteria or airway facility critical areas.
L7.3
DE-ICING FACILITY DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

A de-icing facility has to be properly planned, designed and constructed to perform as intended. Elements of these preparations include such items as facility siting, number and size of de-icing pads, pad configuration and layout, visual guidance considerations, construction phased implementation, construction materials, drainage facilities, and other related components. Most of the design criteria for these components are addressed in FAA advisory circulars and other accepted industry design guidelines and standards. A de-icing facility is intended to provide an area for parking of aircraft to receive de/anti-icing treatment. To perform this function, the de-icing pad requires a pavement system that supports the anticipated loads and a positive drainage system to collect runoff containing spent de-icing fluids.
L7.4
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Since de/anti-icing fluids are chemical products with environmental consequences, de-icing facilities shall have runoff mitigating structures. The recommended structures are those that comprise a mitigating alternative that collects and retains runoff for proper disposal or recycling. In terms of structural best management practices (BMPs), this approach to 'control the source' offers airport managers an effective and economical means to comply with storm water permitting requirements.
L7.5
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
There are a number of operational issues associated with off-gate de-icing facilities. These issues should be addressed prior to the design of the facility to insure that the intended benefits will be achieved in an operationally efficient and cost-effective manner. Typically, de-icing facilities are common use facilities available to any user of the airport, and thus must be designed and operated to ensure equal access to the facility by all airport users. A coordinated approach to facility operation and use is necessary to ensure that the de-icing facility
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Figure L7-1: Ground De-Icing Operation at Central De-Icing Facility
Photo Courtesy of APS Aviation, Canada & Transport Canada.
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L7.6
L7.IR1
For proper standards, specifications, and guidance for designing aircraft de-icing facilities, reference should also be made to:
SAE International, Aerospace Recommended Practice, ARP4902, "Design and Operation of Aircraft De-icing Facilities", November 13, 2000. US Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration Advisory Circular, 150/ 5300-14, "Design of Aircraft De-icing Facilities'', August 23, 1993 <http://www.faa.gov/arp/ 150acs.cfm>. This circular provides standards, specifications, and guidance for designing aircraft de-icing facilities.
US Department of Transportation. Federal Aviation Administration Advisory Circular, 150/ 5300-14 Change 1, "Design of Aircraft De-icing Facilities'', August 13, 1999. This change updates the definitions of aircraft de-icing facilities and holdover times of fluids, design criteria for aircraft de/anti-icing fluid storage and transfer systems, information concerning recycling of glycols, and references.
US Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration Advisory Circular, 150/ 5300-14 Change 2, 'Design of Aircraft De-icing Facilities". August 31, 2000. This change provides standards and recommendations to build infra-red aircraft de-icing facilities, and adds anaerobic bioremediation as an alternative method to mitigate the runoff effects of de/ anti-icing products.
International Civil Aviation Organization, International Standards and Recommended
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Chapter M Aviation Fuel Systems
Section M1: Safety Issues M1.1 Fuel System Safety: Introduction............................................................ M1.2 Fire Extinguishers ................................................................................... M1.3 Grounding ............................................................................................... M1.4 Stand Design to Aid Fueling..................................................................... M1.5 Hydrant System Low Point Drains............................................................ M1.6 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... Section M2: Delivery to Apron M2.1 Fuel Operations: Driving and Positioning of Vehicles ............................. M2.2 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... Section M3: Storage Distribution Facilities & Processes M3.1 Fuel Depot Facilities: Introduction and Design Requirements ................ M3.2 Tankage .................................................................................................. M3.3 Pipework ................................................................................................. M3.4 Cathodic Protection.................................................................................. M3.5 Hydrant Dispenser .................................................................................. M3.6 Tank Safety Distance Summary................................................................ M3.7 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... 458 458 458 459 459 459 460 456 457 453 453 453 453 454 455
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CHAPTER M AVIATION FUEL SYSTEMS SECTION M1: SAFETY ISSUES M1.1 FUEL SYSTEM SAFETY: INTRODUCTION
Whether an airport fuel depot is processing thousands or millions of gallons of fuel per day, it is imperative that participants in the facility establish clear, effective safety guidelines to ensure the well being of staff and the operational viability of the depot and the aircraft/airport it serves. Both design and operational directives must be established and carefully adhered to in the course of the development and functioning of the facility, covering everything from fuel hydrant design and location to emergency shut down systems and even fire extinguisher placement. The following design parameters and operational procedures are presented as a starting point for the development of an effective fuel system safety programme. As always, designers and participants need to review these guidelines based on the specific requirements and challenges of their particular location, and to adapt them accordingly.
M1.2
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
At least two fire extinguishers, of a type suitable to extinguish aviation fuel fires, should be present on every stand. One extinguisher should be mounted at the head of stand as close as practically possible to the main stand center line. The second extinguisher should be located within a 20m radius of the fuel ground hydrant (if present), or as practically close to the nominal center of the wing fuel locations of the various aircraft accommodated. Alternatively the second fire extinguisher may remain on the fuelling vehicle, provided it is carried in open housing or in racks with quick-opening fasteners. Fire extinguishers should be located in accessible places and clear signage provided at suitable locations which should not interfere with the safe operational and normal use of the stand.
M1.3
GROUNDING
Grounding of aircraft is not recommended. However, where authorities require grounding the fuelling equipment and aircraft should be grounded by means of a 'V grounding cable and NOT through the fuelling vehicle. Hydrant pits or hydrant pit internals shall NOT be used as grounding connections. Where used, the grounding provision should be designed specifically for the task of earth connection and should not be used for any other duty. The center of the 'Y' earth connection should be such that it is located on the stand, forward of the engines, and away from the engine intake danger zones.
M1.4
STAND DESIGN TO AID FUELING

Generally:
(a) Reflective NO SMOKING signs should be displayed in prominent positions at the head of stand
near the aircraft and fuelling vehicles, or at least throughout the fuelling operation. Alternatively, reflective no smoking signs/symbols may be affixed onto the sides of the fuelling vehicles.
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(c) Operational problems can be caused by unsuitable positioning of the aircraft, caused primarily by misalignment of the aircraft in the parking bay, or by inappropriately located hydrant pits. Where possible, the location of hydrant pits should account for potentially misaligned aircraft. Hydrants should not be located beneath any of the served aircraft, and preferably aft of all engine positions by a minimum clearance 1.5m.
M1.5
HYDRANT SYSTEM LOW POINT DRAINS

All low points of the hydrant need to be flushed at a high velocity thoroughly and regularly, with the line under pressure to ensure removal of any water or sediment, until a clear fuel sample is obtained. Hydrant low point drain positioning and design should therefore facilitate this functional requirement.
M 1.5.1 Hydrant Pits

Hydrant pits should be designed to facilitate ease of cleaning and drainage. Pits should safely disperse all fluids and vapor in a controlled manner taking into account environmental considerations.
M1.5.2 Emergency Shut Down System

The Fuel Hydrant Emergency Stop Buttons (ESBs) must be clearly identified. Clear access to these buttons should be maintained at all times. Identification signs should be reflective and located such that they remain visible at all times. Two ESBs should be fitted to each stand perimeter. One ESB should be located close to the head of stand and as practically close as permitted to the main stand center line. The second ESB should be located within a radius of 20m of a fuel hydrant if fitted. If ground fuel hydrants are not fitted then the second ESB should be located on the inside edge of the port perimeter stand line, though maintaining a 2m true clearance from all aircraft at all times (including situations of misaligned aircraft).
M1.5.3 Safety Pre-Entry into Deep Pits

Mechanical guarding should be provided to ensure safety of personnel working close to deep
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M1.6 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS M1.IR1 Fuel Safety Signage
Aviation Fuel Systems
NO SMOKING signs should be present on each head of stand. The infonnation contained on these signs should be visible and legible to any person standing either within the stand perimeter or on the adjacent inter-stand road.
M1.IR2 Fuel Hydrant Emergency Stop Button Provision

Where fuel hydrants are installed, at least two fuel hydrant ESBs should be fitted to each stand perimeter in accordance with clause M 1.5.2.
M1.R3 Grounding
Where deemed appropriate and used locally, the grounding provision should be designed specifically for the task of earth connection and should not be used for any other duty and should be regularly maintained. The cegtre of the 'Y' earth connection should be located such that it is mounted forward of the engines and away from the engine intake danger zones.
M1.IR4 Reference Documents

The safety requirements set out in the Institute of Petroleum (UK) /American Petroleum Institute Document 1540 Design, Construction, Operation and Maintenance ofAviaiion Fuelling Facilities, should be observed.
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SECTION M2: M2.1 DELIVERY TO APRON
FUEL OPERATIONS: DRIVING AND POSITIONING OF VEHICLES
M2.1.1 Airside Speed Limits & Signage

Where no national or local regulations exist, a limit of 25 kilometers per hour must be enforced on the apron for general purposes, which includes the movement of aircraft fuel or vehicle dispensers associated with fueling. Speed limit reflective signage must be displayed at no less than 150m intervals on the head of stand roads and on the inter-stand roads. Speed limit signage maybe mounted on building structures, on vertical structures designed to support signs, or painted on the apron road (see Fig M2-1).
M2.1.2 Positioning Parked Fuel Vehicles

Vehicles should be positioned safely, taking account of the following:
(a)
The position of the parked aircraft and the clearances which must be maintained as defined within ICAO Annex 14. The fuel vehicle stop position(s) should be clearly marked on the apron. The position of fuel vehicle stop box should be denoted by a yellow painted border with yellow internal hatching and should be large enough to encompass the total area used by either the hydrant dispenser unit or the combined fuel tanker/dispenser unit (see Fig M2-1).
(b) (c)
The exit route must be in a forward direction from the fuel vehicle stop box, away from the aircraft, and should be free of any obstructions upon exit. Aircraft vent pipe safety zones (minimum 3 meter radius), APU exhaust efflux or other danger areas should be avoided.
(d)
When positioning the fuel vehicle stop box, full account should be taken of the potential aircraft settlement so as to avoid the possibility of the aircraft wing, flaps or other surfaces bearing down
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Aviation Fuel Systems
Figure
M2-1:
Apron
Fuel
Vehicle
Signage
and
Stand
General Apron Vehicle Max. Speed Restrictions and Fuel Vehicle Stop Box Position Detail
Airside Vehicle Speed LimitRedBoarder( 2 5 ^ _ Black Numbers Denote KilometersI WhiteBackground
Fuel Vehicle Stop Box Colour to ICAO Annax 14 Clause s 6.Z1.6 Standard. HEAD OF STAN
Denotes Vehicle Front Position
Yellow Box -Yellow Hatch
M2.2
-----------------:---------------------------
IfotRl
Speed limits and signage pertaining to the control and management of fuel vehicles on the apron should be in accordance with clause M2.1,1.
V__________________
M2JR2
____III_________
The position of fuel vehicle stop boxes should be clearly marked and should be in accordance with clause M2.1. h
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SECTION M3: STORAGE DISTRIBUTION FACILITIES & PROCESSES M3.1 FUEL DEPOT FACILITIES: INTRODUCTION AND DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Observance of certain fundamental practices in the design of fuel facilities is considered essential to ensure that fuel product quality and depot safety standards are maintained. In general, any new installation or alteration to an existing fuel facility must be previously approved by its customers as well as its management, and all facilities utilised for the handling or delivering of aviation fuels need to be fully grade-segregated. With respect to the materials restricted from use in depot infrastructure construction, no zinc-rich internal coatings may be used for any piping or tankage, and the following are not to be used in main piping:

M3.2
Copper or cadmium alloys. Cadmium plating. Galvanised steel. Plastic.
TANKAGE
The number and size of tanks should be sufficient to provide adequate working capacity, taking into account peak period airport requirements, supply replenishment arrangements and emergency stock coverage. Allowance must also be made for settling, testing and tank cleaning requirements. Aviation fuels should be stored in horizontal or fixed-roof vertical tanks. New tanks shall be constructed and installed to avoid ingress of water and dirt, and to provide a positive low point to collect water and sediment for ease of removal. To achieve this, horizontal tanks should be installed with a minimum slope of 1:50, and vertical tanks should have a cone-down bottom with a minimum slope of 1:30 to a centre sump. New tanks should be located away from main public roads by a distance of at least 100m. Roads within this 100m radius should be secure and classified as airside. Where new or existing above ground tanks are closer than 100m to public roads, solid physical barriers made from brick or steel should surround tank facilities on the side of the public road. Tanks will also be required to provide for the following functional characteristics:
(a) Provision for a running sample to be taken from the drain line that runs between the tank and
the sample's receiving vessel. The running sample may be collected into an open container or a closed system, made of a suitable glass, as agreed by the participants.
(b) Manholes to facilitate entry for gas freeing and cleaning. (c) Gauge hatches to provide means of sampling and tank dipping. (d) Prominently numbering and 'grade stored' demarcations (API designation). (e) A physical design such that their profile will not impair or effect ground radar operations.
M3.3 PIPEWORK
Each grade of aviation fuel must be handled in a completely segregated system. There shall be no
M3.4
CATHODIC PROTECTION
Hydrant pipelinesstorage tanks, and distributor systems should be protected from corrosion by a cathodic system. Cathodic protection essentially reduces or eliminates corrosion on a metal surface by forcing the metal to become a cathode. The two general types of cathodic protection systems that can be considered are:
1. Impressed current. 2. Sacrificial cathodic.

Both types of systems can effectively transfer the corrosion reaction (oxidation) from the metal surface to an external anode. If all exposed parts of a structure become cathodic with respect to the electrolyte, corrosion of the structure is eliminated. Special care is required with the design of impressed current cathodic fuel corrosion protection systems, but it should be noted that they are only required under specific circumstances. The following requirements represent a starting point in the installation of a proper impressed current cathodic system:
Sacrificial metal should be affixed to the fuel system pipe work and pumping equipment securely at suitable intervals. The pipe-cathode should be insulated from all other steel structures or pipelines in the vicinity which are not protected by the same system. There should be no possibility of sparking between dissimilar metals at any time whatsoever.
The size, material selection for sacrificial metals and the frequency of their placement should be designed by the fuel system supply designer.
M3.5
HYDRANT DISPENSER
The following dispenser systems should be considered by airport apron designers: Hydrant dispenser: these are powered vehicles fitted with fuel dispensing equipment and bonding equipment. Hydrant dispenser dolley: these vehicles are towed to the stand area on demand and include pump dispersing and bonding equipment.
M3.6
TANK SAFETY DISTANCE SUMMARY

It is difficult to stipulate tank safety distances in international publications, as many countries have differing fire safety regulations. In general, distances can be reduced or increased by utilising the results of specific risk assessments of local facilities. If some guidance is sought by designers beforehand, the following publications could likely prove helpful:
1. NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code USA and many other countries in the
Americas.
2. IP Model Code of Safe Practice Part 2 (Design Construction & Operation of Distribution
Installations) International.
3. HSG 176 The Storage of Flammable Liquids UK.
4. Other design standards are in issue all over the world (France, Germany etc.) and some national standard requirements are often increased by local bye-laws. Tank safety distances are determined through the evaluation of the following key factors: Type of tank (horizontal or vertical). Tank situation (buried, semi-buried, above-ground). Tank construction (single skin, double-skin, fire-safe). Tank volume (single tank basis or total volume of a group of tanks). Fire safety systems (boundary/tank cooling, tank foam suppression, water/foam cannons, etc.). Risk assessment of fire scenarios. Distance of tank from surrounding buildings. Arbitrary distances for all tanks irrespective of volume (e.g. 75m for all third party buildings from above ground tanks irrespective of volume).
M3.7
M3.IR1 Fuel Tank Design Fuel storage tanks should be designed and configured in such a way as to not impair ground radar performance.
M3.IR2 Tank Location (New and Existing Installations) Fuel storage tanks should be located in accordance with clause M3.2.
M3.IR3 Pipework Corrosion Protection Systems Fuel pipework should be dedicated to fuel only and even a specified grade of fuel. Aviation fuel should not be mixed with any other type of fuel, fluid or compound.
IATA
Chapter N Contingency Management Section N1: Aviation Crisis Management N1.1 Crisis Management Strategy: Introduction.............................................. N1.2 Emergency Response Planning................................................................ N1.3 Crisis Communications............................................................................. N1.4 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... 463 463 464 464
465
IATA
CHAPTER N CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT SECTION N1: AVIATION CRISIS MANAGEMENT N1.1 CRISIS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY: INTRODUCTION
Crisis management in aviation comprises the following three elements:
Risk analysis. Contingency Planning. Consequence Management
Failure to address either one of these three elements may result in an incomplete crisis management strategy, one without depth or logical flow. You cannot plan unless you know what you are planning to avoid or mitigate, and you cannot manage the consequences effectively unless you have planned (and trained and exercised) for such eventualities. The complex challenges of aviation crises demand a robust and sophisticated resilience strategy to ensure that a rapid return to business as usual can be accomplished. Accordingly, the FUNCTIONS that are common to each of the three elements above are: => Personnel => Intelligence => Operations => Logistics => Communications These functions are the cornerstone of any crisis management strategy and the principal on which to build effective contingency plans.
N1.1.1 Protocols and Working Relationships

Any crisis management strategy can only be determined in close co-operation with business partners. It is essential that airlines, airports, ground handling agents, local authorities and emergency services work together to ensure adequate plans and an effective response. Too often in aviation, agencies do not plan or exercise together and are then 'surprised' when emergencies occur and events do not turn out the way they were expected. There is no excuse for insufficient plans think 'Complete Crisis Management' and think 'Integrated Crisis Management Mitigation'.
N1.2
EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLANNING

Classically, Emergency Response Planning (ERP) has been the domain of airlines to ensure an appropriate response to aircraft accidents, near-accidents and incidents. This has involved the twin but complimentary activities of operational response and family/victim assistance. Increasingly, airports are now becoming more aware of their own role to support ER activities and develop crisis centres and other specialist facilities and procedures. It should be noted that in any aircraft emergency there will always be at least two airports affected. Effective ER programmes are not cheap or easy options but neither is the management of an emergency when it occurs. Ultimately, the existence of plans, procedures and well-drilled teams of
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N1.3
CRISIS COMMUNICATIONS
In times of crisis, an airport's reputation can be damaged or destroyed in a matter of days by negative or hostile media coverage. In the aftermath of a major accident, every word and action will be closely scrutinised by reporters looking for evidence of negligence or incompetence, and anxious to apportion blame. In the event of a major accident or incident, senior executives at head office, or front-line managers nearest to the scene, may be required to act as spokespeople in briefing the news media. These individuals may have no previous experience of dealing with the media, but will be expected to project an image of competence and credibility and to reassure key external and internal audiences that the airport is responding in an appropriate manner. Some of the important and often forgotten factors to consider in respect of crisis communications are as follows:
What are your airline customers saying? Have you established communication protocols? How resilient are your communication facilities and do you have backup systems? What message is your website displaying to outside world can it be changed and how What level of media training have your duty station personnel received, what about any agents empowered to act on your behalf?
N1.4
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS N1 .IR1 Crisis janagement Recommendations

Conduct an analysis of your criticai business processes and determine io wn is at risk and how the risks might be manifested. From the identified risks decide which risks^youhave to, accept plans for managing the consequences.
Build the contingency plans to be consistent and easy M^&pw check lists and prompts ^Srather than huge volumes are easier to assimilate for staff in the chaos of a crisis.
| then contingency
make
Select your crisis teams carefully the best managers do not always make the best leaders^ Determine robust joint-operating protocols with airline and other bu*(r*&$& partners Plan and exercise airport risk mitigation strategies the best possible preparation is to
practice averting a crisis.
in a crisis. Ensure such teams are fully aware of their responsibiiitiesund capable of exercising them under the most extreme conditions possible.
IAT A
N1.IR2 Emergency Response Recommendations
Contingency Management
Appoint a manager with specific responsibility for emergency response. Have that manager
join one or more industry professional groups to network and share best practice (e.g. the IATA Emergency Response Planning Working Group). these facilities effectively with the correct support tools.
Determine appropriate crisis management facilities and ensure that staff can operate from Look carefully at the emergency response capabilities of your airline, retail and support
system (ground handling, catering, etc.) partners. What are your expectations of their ability and are x they aware, trained or even contracted to meet these expectations?
N1.IR3 Crisis Communications Recommendations
Commission an independent and comprehensive audit of your crisis communications

capability to provide a gap analysis.
Provide a cascading system of media training for staff from head office, corporate
communications, front-line and route station staff. departments.
Ensure that the crisis communications plan is consistent and communicated internally to all
469
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IATA
Chapter O Cargo & Separate Express Facilities Terminal
Section 01: Planning Principles
01.1 Planning: Introduction ............................................................................ 01.2 Cargo Apron Planning............................................................................. 01.3 IATA Recommendations .........................................................................
Section 02: Forecasting and Sizing
469 469 470
02.1 Cargo Traffic .......................................................................................... 02.2 Necessity for Cargo Traffic Studies ........................................................ 02.3 Transfer Cargo/Passenger Terminal Cargo Transfer Areas ..................... 02.4 Planeside Cargo Traffic Forecast ............................................................ 02.5 Operational Cargo Forecasts................................................................... 02.6 Sizing Parameters................................................................................... 02.7 Cargo Design Considerations: Scope of Evaluation ................................ 02.8 IATA Recommendations .........................................................................
Section 03: Flows and Controls
471 471 471 471 474 474 478 486
03.1 Typical Cargo Flows ............................................................................... 03.2 Cargo Communication Controls.............................................................. 03.3 Cargo Control Regulations...................................................................... 03.4 Cargo Security Controls.......................................................................... 03.5 Cargo Safety Controls............................................................................. 03.6 Cargo Government Controls.................................................................... 03.7 Cargo Facilitation ................................................................................... 03.8 Cargo Customs ....................................................................................... 03.9 IATA Recommendations .........................................................................
Section 04: Expedited & Express Cargo Processing
487 487 489 489 489 490 490 490 491
04.1 General Express Cargo Processing Considerations ................................ 04.2 Pre-Design Considerations ..................................................................... 04.3 The Express Cargo Process..................................................................... 04.4 Typical Express Cargo Product Flow at Express Cargo Facilities............. 04.5 Express Facility Design Parameters........................................................
492 492 493 493 494
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04.1 Express Cargo Project Management and Control.................................... 04.2 Testing and Trials .................................................................................. 04.3 IATA Recommendations .........................................................................
Section 05: Perishable Cargo
497 498 498
05.1 Types of Perishables Handling Facilities................................................. 05.2 The Essential Components of a Perishable Centre ................................. 05.3 Other Features of Perishable Cargo Facilities ........................................ 05.4 IATA Recommendations .........................................................................
Section 06: Mail Facilities
501 501 503 506
06.1 Airmail Facilities: Introduction ............................................................... 06.2 Pre-Design Considerations ..................................................................... 06.3 Mail Processing Facility Objectives ........................................................ 06.4 Mail Processing Requirements ............................................................... 06.5 Mail Handling Systems ........................................................................... 06.6 Locating the Mail Facility ....................................................................... 06.7 IATA Recommendations .........................................................................
507 507 507 508 508 508 509
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IATA
CHAPTER O CARGO & SEPARATE EXPRESS FACILITIES TERMINAL
SECTION 01: 01.1 PLANNING PRINCIPLES PLANNING: INTRODUCTION
The organisation that initiates the preliminary investigation leading to the construction of new, modified or enlarged air cargo facilities should also generate the policy objective establishing the need for the project, the source of funding, the planned life of the facility and the time period during which the project can be completed. It should also ensure that all possible alternatives are investigated prior to determining the ultimate course of action. The following is a cargo development document check-list (listed in the order they should be produced). Please also refer to Section V1 IATA Airport Project Process, for further details on recommended airport project management and process definitions:
1. Cargo forecast schedule. 2. Revaluation of existing processes and equipment with risk assessments. 3. Statement of need for new development agreed by all interested parties. 4. Project development brief. 5. Project development, management and funding programme.
01.1.1 Airlines and Authorities Involvement
The development of a cargo facility or multi-tenant terminal complex is normally not the unilateral prerogative or responsibility of only one authority or terminal operator. Airport and government authorities, together with the airlines and terminal operators concerned must together establish their policies, objectives, requirements and projections. Development must be the subject of extensive consultation, and requires proper co-ordination of responsibilities, plans, timetables, construction and procurement. The major parties involved are: Airport authorities. Airlines. Terminal operators, agents operating the facilities. Government agencies concerned in development and operations.
01.2
CARGO APRON PLANNING

The following requirements must be considered when planning cargo aprons:
To ensure efficient cargo handling, the apron must be considered as a continuation of the cargo facility. An apron immediately adjacent to the cargo facility fulfils this requirement and should be used by all-cargo/freighter aircraft, thus providing for short distance transportation and access between aircraft and facility. Expansion of the cargo apron must be feasible, in order to accommodate increases in peak hour demand for aircraft stands or increased aircraft sizes. Parking configuration depends on local requirements and constraints, and must also allow for the necessary ground handling equipment.
473
A cargo apron design should also provide, at each aircraft stand, adjacent staging areas for
equipment needed for loading and transportation of arriving and departing ULDs.
Parking of handling equipment should be possible between the airside cargo road and apron
and/or along the outer edges of the apron, without impeding aircraft manoeuvring on or off the apron. Power-in/power-out aircraft parking requires more space for each stand, and extra precautions against blast.
Several factors must be considered when fixed loading bridges are planned to connect all-
cargo/ freighter aircraft to ETV storage systems within the cargo facility. Justification for loading bridges will depend on utilization potential, impact on staffing requirements, processing/turnaround time, and frequency of extreme weather conditions. As with passenger loading bridges, crossutilization between wide-body and narrow-body aircraft as well as within certain types of narrow-body aircraft may be limited. In addition, aircraft cargo door configurations (nose, side forward, side aft) will impact utilization potential.
The cargo carrier's fleet mix, type of cargo and operational factors will weigh heavily in the
decision as to whether specialised loading bridges or flexible mobile loading systems are preferred. Based on airline experience, fewer carriers are using fixed loading bridges.
Fixed aircraft servicing equipment, such as hydrant refuelling and power, are only appropriate
to aircraft stands with high utilization.
Lighting on the apron should be sufficient to permit the reading of cargo documents and labels
at the aircraft parking stand. However, such lighting should not be allowed to adversely affect crew visibility when taxiing and parking the aircraft. On the apron, cargo service roads should be separate from the apron taxiway.
-,
. .
01.IR1 Cargo Facility Development Documentation When embarking on the expansion of a new or revised cargo development project it is recommended that the documentation as defined within clause 01.1 should be produced.
01 IR2 Cargo Service Roads and Apron Parking Areas It is recommended that cargo service roads should be separate from the apron taxiway. Parking of cargo handling equipment should be possible between the airside cargo road and apron and/ or along the outer edges of the apron, without impeding aircraft manoeuvring on or off the apron.
474
01.IR3 Airline and Partner Consultations It is recommended that airlines and other parties are properly informed and included in the planning process via proper consultations. Expert airline assistance can be best obtained from the establishment of an IATA Airport Consultative Committee (ACC).
____________________________________________
::........__________________.______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IATA
SECTION 02: 02.1
Cargo & Separate Express Facilities Terminal

FORECASTING AND SIZING
CARGO TRAFFIC
Cargo traffic may be carried either on pure freighter aircraft, on combi aircraft (where the main deck is shared between passengers and cargo), or in the belly holds of passenger aircraft. Since this affects the requirements for apron facilities, IATA forecasts differentiate between these transport methods. In the forecast, the combined number of tonnes of freight and mail handled at the airport are taken into consideration. Usually scheduled and non-scheduled cargo traffic are considered together as both are handled in the same cargo terminal area. The forecast differentiates between passenger and all-cargo operations, as each will have a specific influence in respect of apron use.
02.2
NECESSITY FOR CARGO TRAFFIC STUDIES

The handling of increased amounts of cargo in larger terminal facilities entails complex physical and document handling systems (for both airlines and handling operators). Comprehensive studies are an essential basis for such systems which will maximise handling efficiency at the lowest cost. Based on forecasts, the project can then be developed by planners representing both authorities and operators and, if required, with the assistance of external experts.
02.3
TRANSFER CARGO/PASSENGER TERMINAL CARGO TRANSFER AREAS

Not all import cargo will terminate at the station. The methodology for handling on-line transfer cargo must be determined, and space must be provided for that portion which returns to the warehouse for re-processing. This may require additional bulk cargo breakdown space, export bulk cargo staging area and build-up work area. For ULDs transferring intact (no breakdown or build-up required), additional staging and storage space may be required, and cargo transferring to and from other airlines must also be evaluated. When transfer cargo is not governed by customs requirements and same day transfer routing is possible, it may be possible to establish a transfer function at the passenger terminal. This function is responsible for capturing transfer cargo at the arrival of an inbound flight and delivering the shipments directly to the outbound departing flight. The degree of transfer will depend on staffing as well as facilities available and required at the passenger terminal. The impact on cargo facility sizing can be significant if transfer accounts for a sizeable amount of total cargo boarded. Proposals should take into account the need for a rapid turnaround and the transporter's need to minimize the connecting time without compromising security measures.
02.4
PLANESIDE CARGO TRAFFIC FORECAST
Planeside volumes are normally the most common available they represent enplaned and
deplaned cargo for all aircraft and over-the-road movements.
The planeside forecast generally represents the big picture of cargo types that are processed
through the warehouse (e.g. general freight, priority freight, small packages, company material, mail, etc.).
The forecasts must correspond with or be converted to the prescribed peak facility design
volume (e.g. cargo processed on the peak day of the average week of the peak month, or the maximum volume occurring on 95% of the days in the peak months, etc.).
475

Planeside volumes should be further categorized to reflect how much is carried in containers versus how much is carried as bulk (narrow-body and wide-body bulk holds). It is necessary to ensure volumes for all third party handling arrangements are quantified. The planeside cargo forecasting methodology technique relies on determining the average historical cargo carried by an aircraft equipment type (e.g. A300, B747, B767, DC-10, A320, B757, etc.) and by market (Atlantic, Pacific, Latin America, North America, etc.). These averages are then applied to future aircraft schedules. When new aircraft types are included in future schedules, estimates based on available cargo capacity and range will need to be determined.
Figures 02-1 and 02-2 provide survey format forms to quantify planeside volumes and describe a growth rate approach to forecasting.
Figure 02-1: Annual Arriving/Departing Cargo Volume Past, Present & Future Cargo Volume (Tonnes)
Year Current 19 (Previous 19 six ig Years) ^ 19
1Q
Terminating
Transhipment
Total
Annual Growth Forecast 1st 5 years (19________- 19_________):_______% 2nd 5 years (19________- 19_________):_______% 3rd 5 years (19________- 19_________):_______% Atofe 1: Terminating Cargo + Arriving transhipment = Total Arriving cargo. Note 2: Originating cargo + Departure transhipment = Total Departing cargo.
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Figure 02-2: Typical Survey Form to Quantify Planeside Volumes

Monthly Departing Flight Cargo Volume Day 1 to 7 of Peak Month Month:__________________________________ Year:_________
Legend: ETA
IATA
Estimated Time of Arrival ULD Unit Load Devices LD Lower Deck MD Main Deck
ETA (a) Direct Delivery
Volume (Tonnes) Fit. No. (b) Cargo Requiring Storage (c) Transhipment (d) Total No. of ULDs for breakdown LD MD
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1
02.5 OPERATIONAL CARGO FORECASTS
Operational cargo forecasts are intended to translate the previously developed planeside forecast into volumes that correspond with each function or operation in the material handling process. source and availability of data to define each cargo operation may differ. However, the need to quantify each function remains the same.
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual The level of statistical detail for each airline cargo operation may vary significantly. As a result, the
02.6
SIZING PARAMETERS
Besides cargo volumes, there are several other cargo handling characteristics that impact the size of a cargo facility. This section will address many of the factors that will be required by a cargo facilities planner to determine the sizing requirements. Since there are several methodologies to cargo facility sizing, the task of quantifying the space requirements will be left up to qualified airline cargo facility planners, their designers and consultants. Before actual facility sizing can begin, the planner must first evaluate several factors:
Understand the current operation(s) and then define the operational objectives for the future. Define present constraints that need improvement. Decide on common objectives and policies to be realized in the new or extended area (e.g. faster handling, function as transfer centre for international cargo, efficient transfer air/road). Establish processing requirements and applicable standards of handling with the airlines and operators concerned. Determine the extent to which each operating function will be performed outside on a routine basis. This will have a direct affect on the size of the facility required. It is common for most material handling functions to be performed inside, while some staging and storage functions can be managed outside depending on the availability of space, security and weather issues.
Once the above factors have been evaluated, the planner will have an idea of the functions that will need to be sized. The ultimate objective of the facility planner will be to convert each operational cargo volume defined earlier into space requirements through the development of various conversion factors and processing rates. Some of these are discussed below.
02.6.1 Cargo Terminal Building

The size of the cargo terminal building facility is derived from the total annual cargo movement estimates. The space required is a function of the facility's proposed processing capability. The Low Automation (mostly manual) Automated (Average) Highly Automated 5 tonnes per square metre 10 tonnes per square metre 17 tonnes per square metre
A critical element of the cargo terminal is the location and width of the airside access doors. The basic module elevation has a span of 18 metres, is commonly used and provides 3 airside doors (without column interference). Each door should typically have a width of 5m and can accommodate side-loaded pallets and dollies (4.05m), as well as the wider self powered transport dollies. Modules built with 15-16 metre spans can accommodate 3 airside doors that provide clearance for 2.45m wide dollies.
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IATA

Figure 02-3: Typical Cargo Terminal Building
22 m
57 m 35 m
11NiO O A O i O O O I O O
Truck loading / unloading
Handling, storage and
from 65 to 90
Expansion for ETV
02.6.2 Cargo Ramp Area

As a general rule, the apron size for all cargo facilities lies in the range of 4 to 5 times that of the cargo terminal building area. This includes aircraft stands, internal taxilanes, airside roads, ground service equipment parking as well as processing zones on the apron. If more defined data is not available, the following procedure can be used to size the ramp area. The tonnage per annum is used to derive the number of aircraft per day and thus enabling the planner to size the ramp accordingly. The annual tonnage + 250 (days) provides the daily tonnage. The average load per aircraft (all cargo) is 50-55 tonnes. The typical fleet mix for an all cargo operation is as follows: Aircraft Code E Code D CodeC Fleet Mix 70-75% 20-25% 5% Average Load 60 tonnes 30 tonnes 10 tonnes
Two other important factors in facility sizing are the hours of operation, as well as the average turnaround time per aircraft. All cargo facilities typically operate no less than 20 hours a day, with a typical turnaround time of 4 to 7 hours per aircraft. Facility planners should seek operational confirmation of the turnaround time expectation and plan accordingly.
479
Figure 02-4:Typical All Cargo Apron/Building Plan
Cargo Terminal
02.6.3 Dwell Time

Dwell time is a term used to reflect how much time import and export shipments reside in the warehouse. Dwell time will need to be quantified for each of the operational staging and storage functions. Remember, the volumes developed earlier generally represent those processed during the peak design day. If international import shipments reside for three days, the facility will need to be sized to manage three days of storage.
02.6.4 Average Weights

Average weights are required generally whenever a processing rate or sizing conversion factor is defined in terms other than weight. For instance, the processing rate to determine the number of ULD receiving and pick-up docks may be ULDs per hour. As a result, the volumes representing the amount of cargo received or picked-up will need to be converted to ULDs received or picked-up. This would be accomplished by determining the average weight per originating and terminating shipper loaded ULD. Typical average weights that may be required include:
Weight per terminating domestic bulk shipment. Weight per originating domestic bulk shipment. Weight per terminating international bulk shipment. Weight per originating international bulk shipment. Weight per terminating domestic ULD shipment. Weight per originating domestic ULD shipment. Weight per originating international ULD shipment. Weight per terminating international ULD shipment. Weight per originating shipper loaded container. Weight per terminating shipper loaded container.
02.6.3 Processing/Conversion Rates

Cargo facility planners will often utilize historical processing rates that correspond with the airline's degree of mechanisation to accomplish much of the sizing. In addition, on-site sampling may be required to quantify some conversion rates. Some common processing and conversion rates that Import dock ULD shipment processing rate. Export dock ULD shipment processing rate. Import dock bulk shipment processing rate. Export dock bulk shipment processing rate. Bulk cart/ULD breakdown processing rate. Bulk cart/ULD build-up processing rate. Bulk domestic/international import/export shipments per wooden skid.
02.6.4 Circulation Parameters/Equipment Sizes

Besides volume related factors, the size of a cargo facility will depend significantly on circulation and equipment size requirements. Examples of some factors include:

02.7
Forklift manoeuvrability between bulk cargo storage racks. Turning radii and physical dimensions of cargo transport equipment. Aisle size requirements for performing build-up and breakdown in a cart/dolly environment. Physical dimensions of bulk and ULD storage systems. Location and size of other circulation aisles.
CARGO DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: SCOPE OF EVALUATION

The guidelines contained within this section should be considered in the planning of multi-tenant cargo terminal complexes under any of the following three development scenarios:
Entirely or substantially new cargo terminals to be built at an airport where it is expected that
allcargo/freighter aircraft will be operated in addition to cargo-carrying passenger aircraft. The chosen cargo complex site should include provision for later expansion of all facilities.
Extensions or modifications of existing cargo facilities which cannot entirely meet the guideline recommendations. In this case, the layout and design guidelines should be considered insofar as is practicable given the existing constraints. The recommendations stated within Chapter 0 should be systematically considered in relation to the choice of the extension or modification layout, even if the existing constraints do not permit full compliance with the details of the guideline recommendations. In neither of the above situations do these guidelines recommend constructing the cargo facility to the foreseen ultimate requirements. They essentially recommend that these ultimate requirements be defined in the long term, and that the space provisions and reservations be made to accommodate them if and when the need arises, thus avoiding the risk of the facility becoming obsolete at some point in time.
Building or extension of a shared, or potentially shared, (multi-user, multi-agency) cargo terminal. Although these guidelines may also be useful when designing a dedicated single-user facility, it is obvious that in such a case only one of the flexibility requirements (i.e. modular expansion to keep in line with traffic development) applies, and not the other one (i.e. handling agencies/space sharing flexibility). Hence the designer of a single-user cargo facility may find it advantageous to occasionally deviate from these guidelines. In this section cargo terminals within the typical size range (from 1,000 to 10,000m 2 and from 10,000 to 50,000m2 covered space) are primarily considered (this refers to the total covered space involved in a project or a set of buildings jointly planned and developed). It is felt that this size range covers most of the foreseeable requirements for international multi-user cargo terminals. Smaller or larger buildings (e.g. 500 or 100,000m 2) may require different design or layout solutions to be applied, but the basic objectives should remain the same. It should be kept in mind that, even where a significant portion of the total cargo volume is carried by all-cargo/freighter aircraft, the majority is usually carried on passenger aircraft. Hence, although
02.7.1 Design Consideration Objectives

In compliance with ICAO Annex 9 Facilitation, Recommended Practice 6.4, and the IATA Cargo Facilitation policy, the design, layout or access of buildings should in no way be detrimental to the possibility of any aircraft operating on the airport to have choice of self-handling. Alternatively, it may be handled by another airline, or by a handling agent, or eventually by a common-user/co-operative type of handling agency, as felt appropriate, for the handling and storage of its cargo. The direct commercial impact of cargo warehouse handling makes it an essential factor of cost/ quality-of-service competition. Therefore, in addition to world-wide agreed facilitation objectives, any restriction on the choice of handling organization, dictated by the cargo building layout or otherwise, would have an adverse effect on airline competitiveness and, ultimately, the shipping public's interest. The general building layout should consequently leave all possibilities open for the choice of handling arrangements: The space and installation requirements in a cargo facility may, and usually do, vary considerably between the different airlines operating at a given airport, and for airlines individually over a period of time (e.g. evolving development, change of schedules, aircraft types, traffic patterns, etc.). For instance, some may. operate all-cargo/freighter aircraft whereas others may not. Some may be totally ULD oriented whereas others may operate only with bulk cargo. Some may wish to improve productivity with a high degree of mechanisation, whereas others may be satisfied with the most simple terminal-and-dollies arrangement, etc.
Experience demonstrates that the physical division of customs areas (import/export/transit) inside warehouses is significantly detrimental to space utilization (i.e. building cost) and flexible cargohandling methods (i.e. efficiency of cargo handling), and results in prolonged dwell time in the warehouse, thereby adversely affecting building costs and the shipping public's interests. Design of the cargo facility should therefore be based on prior agreement with local customs authorities that, preferably, will permit a free flow within each warehouse (import and export cargo being controlled by Customs staff at the boundary of the bonded area and the landside acceptance and delivery area). If absolutely unachievable, at the most two separate storage areas (import and export) should be considered.
02.7.2 Siting
In choosing a site for the cargo facilities/terminal and support facilities, the following should be taken into account:
The site should be in accordance with the long range masterplan for the entire airport, which should be reviewed and updated at periodic intervals keeping in mind both passenger and cargo facilities expansion. Sufficient land area should be provided for the planned initial facilities, and for future expansion for the specified planning period. A high quality airside road is required for transportation of cargo directly between aircraft on the passenger terminal apron and the cargo facility. The site should include adequate space for a cargo apron adjacent to the main cargo facility for
The area adjacent to the cargo apron should be designated only for cargo processing facilities, with each facility having its own expansion capability. Other cargo related facilities, such as agents/forwarders facilities, bonded stores, customs offices and other office blocks, as well as free-trade zone facilities, should be accommodated on the landside areas of the terminal complex, without impeding cargo flow, traffic and parking. When insufficient area is available in the cargo terminal complex for these functions, space should be reserved on a conveniently located site, with direct access to the cargo terminal, thus facilitating transfer operations. If a railway or underground link to the airport is foreseen or already exists, an intermediate station or an extension to the cargo terminal area should be considered for staff transportation. When a cargo terminal area is separated from the passenger area by a taxiway or runway, or otherwise located at such a distance that the average duration of airside transportation for a typical train of ULD dollies would exceed 15 minutes, or a maximum 20 minutes, consideration should be given to: Providing an adequate tunnel in order to shorten the airside distance. Should this solution be adopted, the ramps in the tunnel should at no point exceed a 4% slope, and the clear height at any point in the tunnel should be in excess of 4.6m in order to allow the use of trucks to carry ULDs up to 3m in height. If a tunnel is considered, restrictions for use must be reviewed by all cargo airlines that will use the tunnel, as several operating restrictions may apply (such as for the transportation of dangerous goods through the tunnel).
The cargo buildings and apron must be sited so as to avoid infringement of flight operations clearance standards, and they must not cause interference with navigational aids. Taxi distances to and from the cargo apron should be as short as possible. Adequate services, involving power and other utilities, as well as telecommunications and data connections will be required for the cargo terminal complex and related facilities, and should be capable of future expansion. Where possible, the prevailing wind and rain or snow directions in inclement weather should be considered in relation to the general orientation of the cargo facilities in the master plan. This is to avoid potential hindrance and damage to cargo and equipment, particularly on the airside. Site restrictions may force planners to reduce their requirements, but this should never compromise flow or the primary cargo facility, as well as provision for their subsequent expansion along the airside and cargo aircraft apron. Off-airport space should be developed for secondary functions and facilities when site restrictions dictate. It should be recognised that off-airport space may be viewed as a more economical alternative as long as customer service objectives can be maintained from the off-site location.
02.7.3 Infrastructure/Roads
The infrastructure (roads, loading area, parking) should be designed for the planned capacity and allow for future expansion. The airside and landside road systems should accommodate vehicle sizes both for individual facilities and the total cargo area, with particular consideration for large vehicle access. The roads in the cargo terminal complex must be integrated with public road systems and other airport road systems and include adequate (possibly separate) access to the existing and future road network.
IATA

Although moving cargo to and from the passenger terminal(s) should in all circumstances remain a basic consideration, it should be only a secondary objective when selecting the cargo terminal location. Experience indicates that ground transportation of cargo is much more sensitive to the quality of the roadway used (in terms of duration, potential damage to pallet contours and economics) than to its length. Airside Roads At least one airside, (fully customs-bonded), two-lane roadway must be provided between the cargo terminal(s) area and any of the passenger terminals. This road should meet the following criteria:
Minimum usable width is 10 m, preferably 12 m, to allow crossing of wide-type pallet dolly trains and/or overwidth ULD transfer vehicles. Strong vehicle-grade pavement, designed to stand up to 1,500 kPa (15 bar) local footprint pressure with a typical load up to 10,000 kg per axle, to withstand the worst cases encountered with transportation of air cargo pallets on dollies.
Up and down gradients should be avoided if possible, and should never exceed 4% at any location, including any necessary tunnels or underpasses. The number of turns should be minimized, and ample turn radii, in excess of 20m at any location, should be provided where a turn is necessary. Insofar as is practicable, crossings which include a STOP signal, and particularly any crossings of an aircraft taxiway, should be avoided. A paved shoulder, 3m wide and of sufficient bearing strength, should be provided on each side to allow for an emergency stop by unserviceable transportation vehicles without impeding other traffic. Landside Roads
At least one landside, two-lane public roadway of 10 m minimum width must be provided to give access to each part of the cargo terminal complex landside (truck docking area). It is also recommended that, in order to accommodate the frequent occurrence of standby trucks
02.7.4 Cargo Terminal Concept

A cargo terminal designed in a linear (modular) plan layout, with the possibility of allocating parts (modules) to as many airlines/handling agents as necessary, and the potential for expansion at preferably both, but at least one end(s) of the building, will have many advantages, particularly in view of the following objectives:
A free choice of handling organization. The fact that a cargo terminal is essentially a physical transitory sorting facility, between airside and landside, where a large number of vehicles need to have free access as close as possible to the essential warehouse portion. The requirement for any cargo terminal to be capable of later (phased) development/extension which should not necessitate destruction or significant change of the parts already built.
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It should also be noted that offices, technical service areas, and special storage facilities should be positioned without detriment to normal cargo flow and future expansion. In order to provide each user airline with the required possibility of conducting its own commercial cargo activity (i.e. customer contact, document handling and processing, etc.), it is essential that the cargo terminal complex design provides proportional office space in each individual section (module) allocated, including, in the event of later expansion or reassignment of the modules to other operators, a re-arrangement capability. The easiest way to provide this flexibility, without detriment to normal cargo flow and future expansion, is to design continuous office space at a mezzanine level above the landside dock area (import delivery and export acceptance) over the whole terminal transverse width. Transverse Layout A cargo terminal complex building should be designed so the module proportions, width and depth, provide sufficient linear facades and doorways for trucks and vehicles to dock, and sufficient area to perform all other cargo processing and storage functions. The space allotment to the various operators and handling agents should be via modules which are as flexible in dimensions as possible; defined, for example, by the pitch of columns in the construction. Each allotted module should have access to both airside and landside. Permanent dividing walls should be avoided in favour of a system of demountable partitions which can be relocated, when the need arises, thus facilitating changes in space allotments within the terminal complex. The partitions should provide adequate security between airlines. Where customs regulations make it mandatory for each warehouse to have separate import and export storage, this requirement should be taken into account to define modules, space allotment and partition systems for each operator's warehouse. Depth Layout The building depth should be established only once the operational requirements of all tenants are defined. In general, the building depth should be as short as practicable, but the dimensions should be large enough to accommodate all areas and processing functions in a natural and direct flow between the landside and airside faces. Points to be noted include:
The objective of operational flexibility. The requirement to allow phased development through various stages, allowing space utilization and capital spending to increase in step with the operator's expanded activity. Provision for the space and functional requirements of the Boeing 747F all cargo/freighter aircraft, as well as the latest high productivity mechanized cargo handling systems, should be made in any new cargo terminal development. In order to avoid potential obsolescence, adequate space should be protected in the overall plan for future wide-body operations.
02.7.5 Facilities 02.7.5.1 Doors and Entrances

The following points should be considered when designing access to and from the cargo warehouse:
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Access from landside and airside should be direct through large doors of a size compatible with
IATA

Proper locking mechanisms on all doors are required for security purposes.
Canopies are typical for weather protection, but special curtains or high speed folding doors in In the case of two-way traffic through one door, a one-way flow route or traffic light may be
required.
open doorways may also be required under severe inclement weather conditions. The design should include such provisions without imposing undue constraints on cargo flow.
Appropriate door signs or numbers, clearly visible and similar both inside and out, will facilitate
efficient customer and cargo handling.
Manual operation of large doors is both slow and cumbersome. Mechanical or electrical drives
improve the operation, but should always incorporate required manual override and safety provisions.
Normal and emergency exists for personnel by man doors should meet local requirements.
A direct interface between airside transport equipment or landside shipper vehicles and a
container handling system may be included in the design.
Airside doors should not be located so that traffic entering/exiting the building would impede or
interfere with aircraft parking or aircraft interface. 02.7.5.2 Column Spacing/Obstructions Fixed obstructions such as utilities, special facilities and offices should not impede cargo flow and processing. For the same reason the building column grid should be as large as possible without exceeding economical levels. A freespan for cargo handling would be ideal. However, this is only possible occasionally and in special cases. Construction costs and beam considerations generally make columns necessary. In such cases the widest column spacing achievable is most desirable; generally the spacing can be in excess of 15m. The planned operational and storage systems, and the main aisles and entrance doors should be considered when designing the column grid. Another basic consideration is future flexibility. When a 6m ULD depth is used, with related storage and transfer vehicles in a ULD storage system on airside, the freespan should be a minimum of 22m from the outside wall containing the storage system. To protect columns from damage by vehicles and cargo, strong surrounding protection is required in the operational manoeuvring areas. 02.7.5.3 Free-Height Requirements Depending upon the layout, and future storage area size, provision for the various heights must be incorporated in the terminal design. Utilities, lighting, beams, fire protection, etc., must be installed and constructed so as to clear calculated free heights. In order to arrive at the most acceptable design decisions, it is essential that 'trade-off' studies, which evaluate various storage systems versus required facility size and efficiency, are carried out, in conjunction with the airlines and handling operators. In the basic cargo operation, bulk shipments are normally moved from place to place with forklifts. The minimum clear height where forklifts operate should be 5m to allow for normal lift capacities. As forklift extension depends on the model and manufacturer, the cargo facility planner should verify equipment utilization with the airline or cargo operator.
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As most cargo is delivered or received to/from clients in bulk, to be consolidated into, or broken down from aircraft load units at another time, interim storage by shipment or destination is required in the cargo facility along the planned lines of flow. Floor storage will require more space than vertical storage systems if comparable circulation is provided. Whereas storage systems provide an adequate constant space between racks for lift vehicle manoeuvrability, the tendency with floor storage is for aisles to decrease in size and number as cargo volumes increase. As a consequence, multiple handling of shipments increase and inventory control becomes more difficult. At this point, vertical storage may not significantly enhance space utilization but it will improve productivity and customer service. When storage systems are utilised, the clear height will be defined by the number of storage levels, the distance between each level, and the clearance requirement above cargo stored on the top rack. Use of high storage systems can reduce the required storage floor space, but investment in equipment and systems is necessary in both the primary and subsequent development phases. When designing the cargo terminal facility, either floor space should be planned to permit later expansion, or the facility must be constructed with the correct height, floor strength, etc., in the appropriate areas in which these installations will be located. Bulk Freight Storage Bulk freight is often placed on industrial wooden skids or equivalent. The skids provide an effective way to transport and store bulk shipments within the warehouse. Typical stacking height on a skid is approximately 1.5m, allowing a shipment on a skid to be placed directly into lower deck containers. Stacking height may exceed this for shipments placed in main deck and high stack ULDs. If the preponderance of cargo is received in lower deck containers, then a reasonable distance between bulk freight storage racks would be 1.5m. Typical storage racking for a forklift operation is three levels. Mechanized lift equipment may permit additional levels. The actual mix of freight stored should be evaluated and racking systems should be developed to accommodate the specific height requirements. If the racking system can only provide for storage of the smallest shipment received, it will be necessary for cargo personnel to reduce the shipments heights or use floor space. ULD Storage When an ETV and pallet/container storage system is planned, the distance between stacking levels will depend on ULD height. ULDs generally fall into three categories; lower deck 1.7m, main deck 2.4m and full-contour 3m. Overall clear height will depend on the mix of 1.7, 2.4 and 3m storage requirements. Three tiers of 3m storage will require a clear height of 12m. Building height should be considered as an economical method of achieving future expansion. Initial construction of a tall warehouse may allow a tenant to expand vertically to meet storage expansion requirements before it is necessary to expand transversely. Long-Term Storage On occasion, lengthy storage times for cargo may occur as a result of slow clearance or handling and/or lack of aircraft capacity. Such storage is detrimental to fast and efficient space utilization. To combat this problem, higher storage charges for longer periods can be implemented, together with mandatory transfer of the cargo to secondary storage spaces. Reserve capacity in the terminal facility,
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Lighting at dock areas and entrances should allow normal reading of marks or labels on cargo and units handled. It should also be adequate for security surveillance requirements. Inside the terminal, general lighting should be adequate for normal handling operations and traffic flow. Extra lighting is required at work stations and storage areas to facilitate document and label reading. 200-300 lux at floor level should be available. All lighting shall allow true colour reading. Offices and control areas require the applicable standard light intensity. The layout of the lighting system should allow for the special requirements of PC/CRT operation. Offices should have windows which admit daylight. Where possible, work areas in the terminal should also have access to daylight through windows, along the tops of walls or in the roof. This will reduce energy costs and improve working conditions.
02.7.5.5
Staff Facilities Staff facilities such as washrooms, toilets, and canteens should be available for all staff working in terminals and offices and should be easily accessible to disabled persons. Special toilets should be available. Public conveniences, light refreshment concessions, etc., can be provided centrally or per terminal facility, on the landside.
02.7.5.6
Technical Facilities Technical areas for repair or overhaul of equipment and systems, including battery charge or change facilities, should be located in or near the cargo terminals.
02.7.5.7
Special Facilities Special facilities in the cargo terminals to handle particular commodities require specific positioning and construction according to their particular standards. The most important facilities are:

02.7.5.8
Vaults and safes to store valuable shipments. Radioactive room for safe storage of radioactive shipments. Coolers, refrigerators and freezers for perishables. Animal and house pets storage, with quarantine facility if so required. Human remains storage. Dangerous goods storage and handling area.
Bypass Large and special shipments of valuables, perishables and livestock should bypass the cargo facility, and be transferred directly between aircraft and road vehicle on the apron or between the ground handling equipment and road vehicle. Access to the bypass must be restricted and meet all airport
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02.8 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
02.IR1 General Cargo Forecasting When forecasting cargo traffic demands the combined number of tonnes of freight and mail handled at the airport should be taken into consideration and used as the initial dominant sizing factors in planning the processing footprint for facilities.
02.IR2 On-Line Transfers The methodology for handling on-line transfer cargo must be determined, and space must be provided for that portion which returns to the warehouse for re-processing. This may require additional bulk cargo breakdown space, an export bulk cargo staging area and a build-up work area.
02.IR3 Planeside Cargo Forecast The planeside cargo forecasts must correspond with or be converted to the prescribed peak facility design volume (e.g. cargo processed on the peak day of the average week of the peak month), or the facility should be sized to handle the maximum volume occurring on 95% of the days in the peak months.
02 IR4 Ramp Size It is recommended that, in sizing the ramp, consideration should be given to aircraft that remain on the ground for an extended period of time (e.g. 24 hrs).
IATA
SECTION 03: 03.1

FLOWS AND CONTROLS
TYPICAL CARGO FLOWS

A typical flow of documents and communications and goods, both arriving and departing, in a cargo terminal facility, is shown in Fig. 03-1.
03.1.1 Dynamic Communications

The rapid developments in communications, data processing and automation have made it possible to establish direct connections locally and world-wide via Local Area Networks and Wide Area Networks for all parties concerned with cargo processing. Co-ordination and transmission of information using these connections results in faster handling and clearance of cargo, and tracking of items dynamically has become a reality with users accessing cargo inventories via the web and monitoring real time progress of goods through the cargo process.
03.2
CARGO COMMUNICATION CONTROLS

Provision for good communications, between and within cargo complexes and terminals is essential for efficient operations. The scope and types of communication facilities must therefore be included in the planning. These will include cables, ducts, conduits etc., as well as facilities forthe transportation of documents. At one time or another, in addition to telephone and telex, any of the following systems may be required:
Ground-to-air radio/telex, 2-way personnel radio, public address. Data processing via world-wide networks and satellite communications. Closed circuit television (CCTV). Facsimile, document and message conveyors. Pneumatic tube systems or document transporters.
All offices and terminal areas should have access to the communications required for process
control. To ensure that the cargo processing time matches the speed of air transport, an efficient, integrated system of communications is required. This involves the interrelation of customs, including customs brokers, airlines or handling operators, freight forwarders functions in all communications, and documentation systems related to the dispatch of air cargo with covering documents. In the planning of communications systems which may be required in relation to local situations, company procedures, or larger cargo volumes, it is recommended that only those systems required for immediate use in the early years of growth be installed at the outset. However, in this relation it is also essential to ensure that due provision (with consideration given to the quantity and quality of such provisions to ensure future use as technology changes) for the subsequent installation of more
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Figure 03-1: Typical Cargo Process Flow Diagram
PASSENGER AIRCRAFT EXPORTOUTPUT
""jf
D
CARGO AIRCRAFT EXPORTOUTPUT
Airside
CARGO IMPORTINPUT
">J
......
-------------- ......
-- 4 - -
\7 CARGO SORT ATI V ONAND CHECK O INO

CUSTOMS EXAMINATIONAND CLEARANCE
FLIG HT ASS EM BLY PAS SE NG ER AKC PRE FLIGHT RAF T ASSEMBLYVadAOMJNEt t +t LABEL CONNECTIONANDHOLD Oi i IN lAREAoVCARGO TDfRE SPECT FLIGHT ASSEMBLY COUNT IDENTIF YoAORIG INATING CARGO RECEIVI NGo...A
INTERUNEt CONNECTION TOTJTHERS HOLDAREA
t
DOMESTIC PREOELWEHY HOLDAREA
8
D O
D
o
CLEAREDBOND HOLDAREA
INTERUNE"f* DELIVERY
CLEAREDBONO DELIVERY
O <3>
____
EX PO 9 RT INP * According to local circumstances, this may apply to airside, landside or both. UT
Landside
IMPORTOUTPUT
Note: With respect to the figure above it should be remembered that there are other airside direct
cargo transfer combinations also possible (i.e. passenger aircraft to passenger aircraft, passenger aircraft to cargo aircraft and cargo aircraft to passenger aircraft). KEY TO SYMBOLS OPERATION An Operation occurs when a unit of cargo is lifted up or put down or ^ moved during a process. Marking and labelling is considered an operation. An operation also occurs when information is given or received or when planning or calculating takes place (e.g. input or extraction of information from/to EDP Systems).
0
INSPECTION TRANSPORTATION
1 I An Inspection occurs when a unit of cargo is examined to determine '' proper packaging, acceptability for carriage, weighed, measured, etc. A Transportation occurs when a unit of cargo is moved from one place to another beyond the limited movements which occur during some operations and inspections.
N L/
DELAY STORAGE
r~\ A Delay occurs to a unit of cargo when it is prevented form progressing '^ to its next planned activity.
T- J
Storage occurs when a unit of cargo is staged, prior to assembly, V assembled, pending dispatch to aircraft, or held pending breakdown and/or Customs examination and/or delivery.
SOURCE: American Society of Mechanical Engineers (A.S.M.E.) Symbols
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03.3
CARGO CONTROL REGULATIONS

Compliance with all government (particularly customs), safety and security regulations must be included in the terminal design, layout and cargo terminal operations to ensure an approved basis of cargo handling in all facilities. This compliance should be without detriment to the facilitation of cargo handling procedures. In the planning phase, approvals must be obtained from all authorities concerned, particularly from customs officials with respect to cargo processing and combined control and checkpoints on the established customs boundary.
03.4
CARGO SECURITY CONTROLS

Security responsibility lies with the airport authority, airlines and terminal operators to safeguard the airside, the aircraft, and the cargo stored and processed in the area. The necessary controls and provisions must be incorporated in the plans. Air cargo contains a large percentage of high-value goods and valuables that require special attention during transport, storage and ground handling by airlines/operators. Besides special storage in vaults in the terminal facility, additional escort and guard services to protect against theft and fraud should be considered. Access to the operational section of the terminal facility (which is under the control of the terminal operator), and to the adjacent airside area, should be controlled by the security services of the operator or the airport authority. Entry to this area should be restricted to personnel belonging to the airlines, terminal operator and customs. In certain cases, due to the risk from theft, continual surveillance of the total cargo terminal area may be necessary. Security related to cargo acceptance requirements must also be considered. Under certain circumstances security regulations may have a direct impact on facility size, layout and equipment (e.g. X-ray). More details of precautions and security procedures can be obtained from the IATA Security Manual.
03.5
CARGO SAFETY CONTROLS

Fire prevention and protection for the terminals, the handling systems and the goods stored therein, as well as the staff, must be incorporated in compliance with local regulations. Dangerous goods such as inflammables, explosives, corrosives and radio-active materials should be handled and stored in accordance with IATA regulations and moreover in accordance with local national regulations (e.g. issues related to fire extinguishing systems for certain dangerous goods, specifications for storage facilities etc.). High rise cargo-storage systems generally require additional, integrated, fire protection (sprinkler system). Working conditions and safety provisions for the facilities, systems and equipment used must comply with national standards and industrial practices. All mechanical systems must incorporate built-in
03.6
CARGO GOVERNMENT CONTROLS

For international cargo and sometimes for domestic cargo, customs control of import and export is required. The airline/operator/shipper must provide customs with the goods and related documents at established check-points. All cargo handling in the cargo facility, and on the airside of the airport, must comply with specific customs regulations, like those relating to the safeguarding of goods in an operator's custody and records of the air transportation, transfer to other airlines, or delivery to consignees.
03.7
CARGO FACILITATION
Efficient handling, with minimum obstruction by government control checks, and short storage time in the airport terminal facilities can only be achieved through facilitation agreements and with the approval of the facility design by customs and other authorities.
03.8
CARGO CUSTOMS
Often the modification of long-standing customs regulations will need to be obtained to facilitate operations in the new situation. These may include:
Delegation to the airline terminal operator of control over the process area behind a customs boundary, inside the cargo facility, and the adjacent apron area, based on good in-house inventory control and security. Spot checks can be made by customs in this area at any time. An agreed customs boundary between the landside area, open to forwarders and shippers for acceptance and delivery of cargo, and the airside processing and operating area which is only open to operational staff. Appraisal space for customs checks in the boundary area provides required control of cargo flows. Operational customs offices should be located in this area. Temporary enclosed storage of import cargo, if required. This should be arranged in an area adjacent to the import flow in the cargo facility. A separate bonded warehouse, on the landside of the cargo handling facilities, if complex clearance procedures result in import cargo being stored longer than 1 to 2 weeks at the airport. All goods to be held longer than operationally acceptable can be transferred to this warehouse, and thus free the cargo facilities for their main function of fast cargo processing.
In the wake of advances in technology and integrated databases, customs clearance is becoming more automated. A few governmental agencies have developed automated customs clearance programmes. Connection or integration with systems for airlines/handling operators and agents will significantly improve processing and clearance of cargo.
03.8.2 Other Customs Areas

Where the airport masterplan foresees freezones for the handling of international transfer cargo, or handling or production of export goods without duty, these area should be developed adjacent to cargo facilities and the related expansion area. In conjunction with customs, a common bonded area can then be designated to facilitate cargo movements between areas.
03.8.3 Additional Controls

Other government controls to be expected, with their separate requirements, are animal quarantine for all live animals, as well as food and plant control for produce shipments. Additional controls may be instituted to meet other requirements which may arise.
03.9
03.IR1 Integrated Communication Solutions Provision for good communications between and within cargo complexes and terminals (security departments and customs and immigration) is essential for efficient operations. During the clearance process the name of the shipper and owner of goods within the cargo manifest should be cross-checked against any available security database to identify any potential high risk individuals or companies or organisations that are known. 03.IR2 Cargo Legislation The processing of cargo should observe the requirements of international and national legislation defined by:
ICAO Annex 17. National Government Legislation.

The processes developed and adopted by the cargo systems designer should permit international and domestic cargo to be processed efficiently and in accordance with this above legal
SECTION 04: 04.1
EXPEDITED & EXPRESS CARGO PROCESSING
GENERAL EXPRESS CARGO PROCESSING CONSIDERATIONS
04.1.1 Introduction
Express processing facilities are in many ways closer to a passenger terminal in function than they are to a cargo building. The concept presented within this section should provide guidance for the planning and design of future express cargo processing facilities. It is important to keep in mind that the express company is directly responsible to the customer and is held responsible for any failures. It's therefore important that the express company be able to exercise 'custodial control'.
04.1.2 Express Cargo Scope

This chapter only provides general information and guidance. The focus will be on the common processes, facilities and services that are necessary to support this activity. The content addresses the international movement of express cargo and is thus involved with complex variations of national economies, commercial and legal considerations, as well as local infrastructure and regulatory requirements and the conflict they face with standards required for a world wide system.
04.1.3 Express Cargo Development Philosophy

Each express operator has a unique processing systemthere is no market for 'speculative' facilities. The only source of needs is from the individual company and is determined by them. The factors to be considered in determining the scope of any facilities include:
Will the facility be a hub, a gateway, or an O&D point, and what relationship does it have to
surface transportation?

04.2
What kind of volume will be processed? What functions will be performed on-airport and what will be performed off-airport? What are the processing times required (sort windows)? How many destinations are involved (splits)? What processing procedures are required by the local authorities?
PRE-DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Airports should understand the needs of the express industry and must not treat such facilities as just another cargo warehouse. Because the express industry is relatively new, quite often express must be made to fit within the parameters of the traditional air cargo system. It is not only critical to have specific express facilities, it is also important that specific clearance and handling procedures are instituted. It is pointless for an express company to invest in an express handling facility if the custom authorities will treat the express product as regular cargo. Determining who will build the facility and how it is financed is often subject to more debate than the facility itself. Parties that need to be involved with facility development are:
The airport. Government agencies concerned with bi-lateral and self-handling rights. Customs.

04.3
Security agencies. Government agencies concerned with commercial trucking and delivery. Government agencies concerned with business and operating licenses. Slot Co-ordinators.
THE EXPRESS CARGO PROCESS

The relative role of the express operator vs. the cargo operator can be quite different although some of the processes for express operations are similar to those of traditional air cargo. The express company is solely responsible for the early phases of the following:
Data Collection. Analyses and Studies. Decision on scope and role of the operation.
One aspect of data collection that differentiates express from other operations is that volume figures for express operations are not considered as single source per airport. Critical in the consideration of the scope and impact of an express operation on an airport is the regulatory flexibility by both the airport and relevant government agencies. There are many kinds of specific operations within the express industry, and in some cases within the same company. It is generally divided into four types of operations:
1. Ramps or Origination & Destination (O&D) points: serves a metropolitan area and its
immediate surrounding.
2. Gateways: a service point serving a larger area. Arriving express is transloaded into other
feeder aircraft or commercial line haul, or into trucks for shipment to other cities.
3. Hubs: Major facilities where the bulk of the express is not destined for the local area. These are
major sort facilities with heavy aircraft activity. Tracking and sorting are major activities. Custom clearance cannot be an issue.
4. Co-locations: It is common to find a ramp located adjacent to a gateway or hub. These would
04.4 TYPICAL EXPRESS CARGO PRODUCT FLOW AT EXPRESS CARGO FACILITIES
Each express company will take the minimal requirements described below and add onto them more scans involving greater detail, additional channels, special clearance and handling enhancements, etc. The processing facility has to be able to accommodate redesigns and changes as they will happen over time.
04.4.1 Express Item Arrival

The arrival process needs to begin before the shipment arrives. Arrangements should be made with Customs to pre-clear any arriving shipments. Arrangements should be made in advance to guarantee that Customs can advise which shipments they want to examine before the plane lands. When the aircraft arrives the shipments are separated into their respective channels for processing. Those that need to be cleared are identified, scanned and sent to the inspection area. Customs will insist on having the right to inspect any shipment, even those that were previously pre-cleared.

Some ULDs will come off an airplane and be loaded immediately onto another. This transfer needs to be done quickly, therefore there is no need to brings these ULDs inside the facility. A canopy would be desirable in rainy and snowy climates. Other ULDs will be off-loaded from the aircraft and loaded onto large trucks. This practice is especially popular in the Americas. The trucks are allowed on the ramp and receive the ULD directly off the aircraft. In other airports ULDs have to travel through the facility to be loaded on a truck waiting at the dock. For a hub, most ULDs must be brought into the facility, broken down, sorted and rebuilt before being sent to their next destination. The time this takes is known as the sort window. It is vital to the express companies' operation to have Customs procedures in place that allow through shipments destined for another country to proceed without impediment. In airports that restrict the express companies' rights to self-handle or require common clearance, it can be very difficult to do adequate tracking.
04.4.2 Express Item Departure

In a sort transfer operation, the arrival and departure is the same process. The airport processing facility is not the point of origination of the shipment, it is merely a way point on its journey. Departure customs requirements are usually much simpler than on arrival. The important documentation is the manifest for the next arrival destination. There may be many different final destinations on a single aircraft and thus different manifests are required. This can be a complicated task simplified if a standardised pre-selection manifest is not used.
04.5
EXPRESS FACILITY DESIGN PARAMETERS
04.5.1 The Express Ramp

Usually the express operator will share a ramp unless the operation is large enough for a single operator. All express operations operate at close to the same time, therefore the ramp needs to be built for peak operations. Express operators look at the airport as a way-point and not a destination, therefore they will be interested in having the shipments moving quickly. Accommodating trucks on the ramp as well as the use of racks and dollies will all contribute to faster shipment movements. Three further items need to be considered when designing a ramp: tether pits, drainage and lighting:
1. Tether pits are now being used in most cargo terminals to avoid having aircraft sitting on their
tail. Most modern cargo planes have their main loading door in front of the wing, which means that the rear of the plane is loaded first. Tail stands used to be the norm for this situation, however they've been known to cause structural damage to aircraft, and require inspections to be performed which can delay aircraft departure. Airports are encouraged to install a tether pit at each cargo aircraft parking position. Specs have to be followed exactly, otherwise the pit will be rendered useless. If tether pits are refused an alternative is a weight cart. Usually a reinforced dolly stacked with steel, it can be a good substitute provided it does not have to be moved. If an aircraft needs a pushback, the weight cart will have to be moved. Its very small wheel and large weight will damage the ramp in no time.
2. When considering drainage two factors have to be kept in mind. The slope for drainage cannot
exceed one degree, otherwise it might impede on the loading and unloading of the containers on the aircraft's roller deck floor. Secondly, provisions need to be made for the containment and
IATA
04.5.2 Express Processing Facility Considerations

The following need to be considered:
The site needs to be in accordance with the airport masterplan The plan needs to allow for the
unique requirements of an express facility.
Remote location from passenger and cargo operations.
Sufficient land for future expansion, in line with forecasts considering the strong historical
growth rate.
Ground transportation network capable of accommodating large trucks. Airside access road to passenger and cargo complexes for commercial line haul transfer. Ramp should be dedicated only to express aircraft with exclusive or preferential rights.
The ramp needs to be conveniently located close to the runways and taxiways in accordance
with ICAO Annex 14.
The area adjacent to the ramp should be reserved for express operations only. Sufficient land for employee parking and dedicated bus or train stops if applicable. GSE and ULD storage facilities located airside. Easy access to electricity and telecommunication. Heavy usage is the norm in express
operations.
04.5.3 Express Processing Facility Structural Considerations

The functional capability and flexibility of the express processing facility building is more important than the architectural details. The following factors should be considered:
It needs to be a simple functional building, no elaborate decor or design.
The operation needs to be kept as much as possible on a single level, though mezzanine
levels are commonly used for locating sortation equipment.

14.
It must be located at ramp level on the airside so tugs and dollies have easy access. It needs to be adjacent to the ramp adhering to the apron planning requirements of ICAO Annex
On the ground side of the facility there will be a requirement for truck docks and ramps.
The ventilation system needs to be designed for the building type, size and usage, all of which
differs from conventional cargo facilities which often have much higher ceilings and a very different usage.
Lighting LUX levels must be designed to provide staff with suitable levels of light. Working
areas and rest will require different LUX levels. A specialist should propose the correct LUX levels for the various building functional areas.
Due to the high volume of staff used within the express processing facility, the provision for
rest rooms, toilets and showers needs to be adequately provided.
499

04.5.4 Express Facility Sizing and Functional Considerations
The size of the facility will be determined by the expected volume of express the facility will handle. The sort window will determine how many shipments can be handled within a specific time frame and will subsequently determine the size of the facility needed. The amount of bypass that can avoid the system will also greatly affect the size of the facility. Once the sort operation has been determined and designed there must be accommodation of other necessary functions:
Customs, immigration, quarantine (CIQ) accommodation. Oversize shipment handling. Hazardous material processing. Aircraft line maintenance facilities. Aircraft ground service equipment maintenance. Traditional air freight processing and storage. Pilot accommodation.
Finally, it is good to provide for the processing of a traditional freight operation if there is sufficient room. Clarification: Shippers/Integrators tend to use multiples of 3000 parcels per day particularly when designing a sortation systems. However, forecasts and aircraft load information are based and expressed in tonnage. As a result, the sizing information has been derived from and expressed in terms of tonnage. In order to size the express terminal facility tonnes per annum figures are used. The amount of space required is associated with the facilities' processing capability. The planning ratios in the following Regional Hub/Gateway Reliever Hub 7 tonnes per sq. m per year 5 tonnes per sq. m per year
04.5.5 Express Apron Area

As a general rule of thumb, the apron size for express facilities lies within the range of 8 to 10 times the size of the express building. This includes aircraft stands, internal taxilanes, airside roads, ground service equipment parking as well as processing zones on apron. If more defined data is not available the following procedure can be used to size the ramp area. Again, as with all cargo facilities, integrator facilities can use the tonnage per annum to calculate the number of aircraft per day. This enables the planner to size the ramp accordingly. The annual tonnage + 250 (days) provides the daily tonnage. The average load factor per aircraft (integrator) varies according to the classification of the facility. A regional hub/gateway has average loads of 20-25 tonnes per aircraft, with 2/3 of all aircraft being Code D. A reliever hub has average loads of 15-20 tonnes per aircraft, with 2/3 of all aircraft being Code C. Important issues when planning integrator facilities are: understanding the type of operation; the hours of operation; as well as the turnaround times. An integrator typically operates between 2 and 12 hours per day, with 2 hours being the low end for a reliever hub, and 12 hours being the high end for a regional hub. Aircraft servicing the facility arrive and depart in a wave with the majority of all aircraft
500
Figure 04-1: Typical Express Facility Apron Layout

12 m
IATA
18m Cargo & Separate Express Facilities Terminal _______

Staging _ . Area
Length
of
critical
Single or Dual Taxilane
17
ICAO Annex 14 -Table 3.1
04.6 04.6.1
EXPRESS CARGO PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL Design Approval The express company needs to approve the final designs of both the building structure and the interior system and fit-up. Design details cannot be finalised until customs clearance procedures are known.
04.6.2
Express Cargo Project Management Structure A simple structure that is flexible and leaves room for expansion is best. It is important to note that the developer should allow four to six months for the installation of the sort system and three months for offices, the bulk going to the implementation of telecommunication tools. The structure must have the sort area enclosed and useable power provided to allow for the sort system installation.
04.6.3
Express Cargo Project Management Apron It is preferable that the apron be built by the airport, since they will normally insist on controlling the apron. If the apron is exclusive and part of the leased area, the developer may have to be the
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04.6.4 Project Management Sort System

The sort system will typically belong to the express company and should usually be managed solely by the express company. The airport needs to allow the express company the freedom of choice of supplier when it comes to building the sort system.
04.7
TESTING AND TRIALS

Once the facility and the systems are installed, they need be subjected to testing and trial runs before being considered fully operational. The elements to be included in trial runs are:
The apron, including tether pits, lighting fuelling and handling. A real aircraft containing real cargo should be brought in. The structure including all utilities and HVAC. The sort system: all belts, readers, rollers and lifts. Telecommunications. All the personnel, including the CIS personnel involved with the clearance operation.
A trial run must be a live run, not a dummy run involving a few staff member and a few packages. The facility needs to be able to function as if it was a peak period. A minimum of three trial runs should be performed.
04.8
04.IR1 Development of a Building User Requirement Specification Express cargo facilities have unique operational attributes. The operational needs of the user(s) should be fully explored and understood. Bespoke facilities should be provided to ensure appropriate processing capability. It is recommended that a building user requirements specification be developed and endorsed by the user(s), one which should detail and capture the specific operational and building requirements and contingencies;
04.IR2 Design Approval The following organisations and persons should be consulted through the design process when embarking on the design of a new or extended express processing facility. Airport Operator. Government agencies concerned with bi-lateral and self-handling rights.
"I
Customs. Security agencies.

Government agencies concerned with commercial trucking and delivery. Government agencies concerned with business and operating licenses. Slot Co-oidinators. J
04.IR3 Expansion Capability The express sort system designer should ensure that, upon opening, the provided space and systems within the facility can cope with the following conditions:
Meet the operational protocols defined within the agreed building user requirement specification. Meet the throughput expected for the forecasted and agreed final design year for the facility, plus provide a further 25% contingency express processing hall space to account for any abnonval growth in traffic forecast potential. Future ramp expansion requirements must also be factored in.
Operational express cargo infrastructure IT systems should have a redundancy capability as agreed in the building user requirement specification. 04.114 Installation of Tether Pits Airports are encourage to install a tether pit at each cargo aircraft parking position. Specs have to be followed exactly otherwise the pit will be useless.
04.IR5 Cargo Stand Slopes The slope fpM drainage on express cargo stands should not exceed one degree otherwise it might impede on the loading and unloading of the containers on the aircraft's roller deck floor.
04.IR6 Office Space Provision When designing a new facility or refitting an existing Express Cargo facility, the proportion of office space should be no less than 20nf per 100rrf of actual Express Cargo processing floor area.
04.IR7 Space Requirements Refer to clause 04.5.4 and 04.5.5 when setting out the apron and the processing facilities for express parcel facilities the following table should be used in determining the plan areas on the apron and within the express parcel facilities.
04.IR8 Ground Service Equipment (GSE) Space Provision. The amount of ground service equipment on station is in direct correlation to the amount of operational aircraft stands as well as some additional equipment. Adequate space must be provided to accommodate all the GSE.
04.IR9 Empty ULD Storage Facilities/Space The volume and turnaround of ULD equipment is significant at express processing facilities. There is likely to be a need to store empty ULD equipment either in purpose built storage and dispensing plant or within an area outside of the building designed and dedicated for this use.
O4.IR10 Floor Loadings All building structural loadings should be assessed and facilities designed by a qualified Structural pesign Engineer. The floor loadings of an express processing plant should take account of the reduced static and dynamic toads associated with express processing equipment when compared 04.IR11 Aircraft and GSE Maintenance Parts A protected perimeter area close to the Express processing building should be provided for the storage of Express height aircraft and GSE parts. Certain parts should be stored within heated and ventilated structures. The Express facility designer should seek clarification on the specific requirements of the parts to be stored and the appropriate environment and space to be provided. The maintenance area is likely to require a fully fitted workshop though clarification from the Express facility operator should be sought in this regard.
SECTION 05: 05.1
PERISHABLE CARGO
TYPES OF PERISHABLES HANDLING FACILITIES

There are two main types of handling facilities for transit or total distribution of perishable cargo. These facilities are usually designed and constructed to perform certain specific functions to meet the needs of the airport users. The most recent information about perishables and perishable facilities is contained in the IATA Perishable Cargo Manual and is updated by the IATA Live Animals and Perishables Board. Definition A transit facility can be defined as a processing centre with established infrastructure and operational units that: facilitate the loading and unloading of perishable shipments to and from the aircraft; enable swift connections within the airport handling facilities; and interface with surface transport. The process may also include import formalities such as health inspection and customs control. The primary function of a transit facility is to move perishable goods quickly and efficiently with the coordination of all parties involved and supported by modern technologies and tracking systems. A total distribution facility provides the same services as a transit centre and in addition it offers other value-added services, such as: repackaging; pre-cooling; cold storage; quarantine; quality control; customer and information services; as well as the logistics and movements of goods from origin to the final destination.
05.2.1 Processing Area

Different kinds of products are categorized and processed separately. Fruits and vegetables are processed separately from other products such as seafood, fish and meat. Although flowers may be processed within the same area with fruits and vegetables, they should be separated wherever possible.
05.2.2 Working Area

Working areas are specifically assigned locations within a perishable centre with controlled environments for specific loads. Each working area has its own temperature control and is large enough for ULD build-up, goods sorting, repackaging and quality control. The area protects the goods from exposure to harmful conditions. Fruits, Vegetables and Flowers Working Areas The ideal working temperature for these products is from 4 to 6C with a humidity of about 85%. Considering that the products may stay inside in a working area for a couple of hours, special attention should be made to minimize condensation on the products. It is a known factor that any load that is exposed to near zero temperatures is susceptible to condensation on its surface. Condensation causes irreversible damage to products such as berries. A well contained working area can prevent the condensation problem. Short exposure to low temperatures does not affect products such as tropical fruits. There is increasing concern about ethylene contamination on products. New technologies, such as the use of potassium permanganate or ozone in the ventilation system to help prevent ethylene are being evaluated for commercial application.
Seafood and Fish Working Areas
A suitable working area for seafood and fish should have high humidity (near 100%) but a very low temperature (near 0C). This type of controlled environment ensures no dehydration of the product and keeps pathogen growth as low as possible. Repackaging and re-icing should be handled in separate working areas to ensure sanitary control. In some cases, using ozone in the ventilation system may be considered to remove bad odors.
Meat Working Areas
Meat must be handled in accordance with the health regulations of the country of origin and destination. There are also other requirements that are more stringent than those for general perishable products. It is strongly recommended that the national health authority and the local government be consulted prior to the planning of a perishable centre, and especially the meat working areas therein.
05.2.3 Loading Areas (Truck)

Prior to the loading and unloading of products at the perishable centre, certain conditions that affect the quality of the products may take place. Most perishable products are transported from the shipper's premises to the perishable centre at the airport (or from the airport to the consignee's premises) in refrigerated trucks. These trucks are equipped with refrigeration systems that are designed to maintain certain temperatures within the cargo compartment, but in most cases these mobile systems are not capable of cooling the product inside. If the temperature of the perishable loading and unloading area, as well as the working area, is set to align with the product, condensation on the product will not occur and the quality of the product is thereby maintained. Curtains should be used between the loading area and the working area in order to prevent draft. Excessive air movement can be caused by imperfect interface between the truck and the loading dock.
05.2.4 Transit Areas for ULD

Prolonged exposure to sun, wind, rain, snow or extreme temperatures are known factors that cause damages and loss to perishable shipments. The key to a successful perishable centre depends on its temperature controlled storage/ holding capacity for palletised and containerised perishable loads. When the transit area for ULDs is not fully temperature controlled, it should provide the load with adequate protection from extreme weather conditions. Well packed loads are unlikely to deteriorate rapidly when they are kept in a temperature controlled environment. The critical path is between the transit area and the aircraft, where exposure to all kinds of weather conditions can expedite the deterioration of the product.
05.2.5 Inspection and Customs Areas

Inspection by local authorities is a routine formality for all perishable shipments. Ideally, specific inspection teams and facilities should be assigned to inspect specific commodities. The inspection of fruits, vegetables and flowers should take place in a dedicated area isolated from seafood, fish
05.3
OTHER FEATURES OF PERISHABLE CARGO FACILITIES
05.3.1 Cold Rooms

Fruit and Vegetable Cold Rooms Two different kinds of cold rooms for fruits and vegetables should be used in a perishable centre: one at 0-2C and the other at 12-15C, with humidity in both near saturation. These temperatures will meet the requirements of all kinds of fruits and vegetables. The control of ethylene levels using prescribed technologies will further reduce the rate of deterioration of the products. Flower Cold Rooms Flowers should be stored in low temperature (near 0C), and high humidity as well as control of ethylene levels are essential. However in the case of tropical flowers the room temperature should be maintained at around 15C. Seafood, Fish and Meat Cold Rooms Generally the cold room temperature for these commodities should be set at 0C. If they are frozen, deep freeze coolers designed to maintain a temperature of at least -18C is required.
05.3.2 Pre-coolers
Maintaining the appropriate temperature for fresh fruits, vegetables and flowers can be difficult during transportation, primarily because they produce their own heat. In many cases, even with appropriate packaging and handling, these products raise their own temperatures significantly. Since higher temperatures can shorten the shelf life of these products, it is imperative to cool down the products immediately upon their arrival at the perishable centre. Fruit and Vegetable Pre-coolers Many facilities use vacuum pre-coolers to cool products. The technique is to drop the pressure until the water inside the product starts to boil at a near zero temperature. This technique is only suitable for products with large surface and in small volume such as lettuce. The disadvantage of this technique is too much water being evaporated from the product while it is cooled. For a long journey and exposure to various weather conditions, further loss of water from the product can significantly reduce its marketability. A method which is broadly used by the growers is to shower the product prior to vacuum cooling. But this technique can hardly be applied within a perishable centre. Another technique which has been commonly used is forced air cooling. This technique employs a forced air system to send cool air through to penetrate the boxes. This technique is affordable and works for any kind of fruit or vegetable. Flower Pre-coolers The technique used to cool flowers is similar to the forced air cooling method. Vacuum cooling should never be used for flowers since it decreases their shelf life significantly.
05.3.3 Treatment Rooms

Different kinds of treatments should be available at the perishable centre as a service to the customers. Quarantine Treatment Rooms:
Ripening Treatment Rooms: Many products such as tomatoes, bananas and tropical fruits are shipped green and need to be exposed to ethylene in order to start the ripening process. This ripening treatment can be performed in a forced air pre-cooling room with injection of ethylene and an increase of temperature. Any leak of ethylene must be controlled in order to avoid contaminating the facilities.
05.3.4 Repackaging Room

When perishable loads are delivered to the airport, some customers may need a service to remove or repackage the damaged packages prior to departure. Modern perishable facilities should be capable to provide such services. Fruit and Vegetable Repackaging Rooms Poor packaging often results in the loss of a certain percentage of the entire shipment. Repackaging the damaged packages will unavoidably reduce the content or weight of the shipment, but will certainly help reduce further loss and contamination of the remaining stock. This service should be performed in a special sanitary room. Flower Repackaging Rooms Flowers can benefit from repackaging, however in most cases, flowers must be packed in a specific way by trained and highly qualified personnel only. Seafood and fish Repackaging Rooms Repackaging marine products usually requires re-icing and the application of strict processing standards. Re-icing a fish that has undergone extreme temperatures may be in breach of the food safety law in some countries. Therefore only highly trained personnel should be allowed to perform this service, in a special sanitary room.
05.3.5 Quality Control

Quality control helps to determine what kind of treatment, such as re-icing, pre-cooling or fumigation, is necessary for the load. It provides advisory service to customers for maintaining consistent standards. Quality control sometimes includes temperature monitoring of loads and of the environments of the various locations inside the perishable centre.
05.3.6 Tracking Systems

A reliable tracking system is an essential service to the customers. It enables the customers to obtain real time information of their shipments. Customs can also access the data to perform advance clearance of shipments. Typical tracking systems use barcode technology and many are now accessible through the internet.
05.3.7 Distribution Services
Figure 05-1: Product Flow Process Schematic

PERISHABLES FROM AIRCRAFT
CHECK BY PERISHABLEf HANDLING AGENT
PERISHABLES CENTRE
HANDLING
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
FLOW OF DATA
PIECEt CONTROL
DATA
CUSTOMS OFFICE
STORAGE BY CATEGORYf OF GOODS INSPECTION
INSPECTION OF GOODS
SORTING OF GOODS
INSPECTION CLEARANCE
PREPARING FOR DELIVERY
LOADING
DELIVERY
The illustrations above shows the typical flow of a product in a perishable handling centre. Variations in the process may occur and are subject to local legislation.
05.4
05.IR1 Reference Publications Pertaining to Perishable Cargo For further details about perishables and perishable facilities, please consultthe IATA Perishable Cargo Manual which is updated by tfje IATA Live Animais and Perishables Board.
05.IR2 Perishable Cargo Facility Attributes Perishable cargo handling facilities should have two distinct areas defined, namely: (i) the processing area and; (ii) the working area. Wherever possible the processing of flowers should be separated from the processing of vegetables, fruits and meats. The processing and working areas should have temperature and humidity controlled environments to suit the products being processed as defined within this section.
05.IR3 Safo Working and Environmental Issues At all times a safe working environment should be maintained for all staff operating within the boundary and the immediate locality of the perishable cargo centre. Particular attention should be paid to temperature and humidity control systems. Active monitoring processes and protocols should be used/adopted to avoid the presence and contamination of dangerous bacteria created by heating and ventilation systems, such as but not limited to legionella pneumophila, otherwise known as Legionnaires Disease. The chemicals used within the perishable cargo facility should not inflict any adverse negative impact on the immediate or surrounding environment resulting from the storage, use or disposal of the said chemicals. The selection, the storage, the use and the disposal of the chemicals should be in line within local legislation.
05.IR4 Facility Design Extensive review of the likely perishable cargo needed to be processed is required. The designer should define the process attributes in fine detail and then clarify likely process flows of goods. This will determine the correct sizing of the facility for the processing of flowers and fmit/vegetable _y
SECTION 06: 06.1
MAIL FACILITIES
AIRMAIL FACILITIES: INTRODUCTION

Airmail is a valuable commodity, requiring fast airport processing and air transportation with last minute close-out time for acceptance. It has the highest priority of all goods to be transported. Routings are decided by postal authorities based on the first scheduled airline to destination, and payments to the airlines are based on the documents proving carriage over particular route segments. Such documents are essential for billing the mail departments concerned. Airports processing mail shall require the secure means to accept mail onto the airport, allocate the mail to the correct aircraft (flight/country sortation), and in some instances screen the mail and then dispatch the mail to the aircraft. Where screening of selected mail for explosives or toxic substances is required by the country or province in question, this should be conducted in facilities designed, fitted-out and operated by the national mail processing organization (e.g. Royal Mail (UK); United States Postal Service; etc., or licensed and authorised agents).
06.2
PRE-DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The following criteria will decide the need for an airport air mail facility:

06.3
Volume of airmail (import/export/transfer). Safety, speed and service requirements for airmail categories. Airmail distribution function for several national mail centres. Inadequate airline facilities in cargo/baggage areas. Efficiency requirements.
Siting of the mail facility is optimized by providing: Fast airside connection for mail with scheduled (mostly passenger) flights on the apron. Good landside access and docking facilities for mail trucks. Positioning on customs boundary between airside and landside with minimum customs control. Flexibility for future expansion and additional services.
MAIL PROCESSING FACILITY OBJECTIVES

The main objectives of an airmail facility are:
Fast and accurate processing at airport of mail and documents (First Class mail within 2 to 3 hours after delivery; Second Class mail within 24 hours after delivery). Minimum duplication of sorting/manifesting at the airport by using segregated mail delivery and documentation between postal centres where possible.
Efficient sorting by destination, flight and category, with bypasses for special and pre-sorted mail. Checking and recording weight for aircraft safety and charging for outgoing mail. Optimal use of pre-information regarding shipments between airports, and also with related community mail centres. Implementation of automation involving national postal communication and documentation to improve handling speed.
14TA Airport Development Reference Manual

Maximum security in view of the valuable nature of most airmail. Vaults should be provided for high risk mail, such as gold bullion, precious stones, etc.
High risk locations will provide facilities for the screening of explosives and toxic materials to aid security. All facilities will take into consideration the protection of the mail from prevailing weather conditions.
06.4
MAIL PROCESSING REQUIREMENTS

The main functions to be performed in the mail facility are:

06.5
Landside acceptance and delivery from trucks, in units or bulk. Airside acceptance and delivery of mail in airline carts or in aircraft unit load devices on dollies. Checking, sorting, weighing and distribution per flight or truck of the various categories of mail. Temporary storage of mail prior to dispatch, preferably in airline or postal transport units. Documentation and communication of shipment data, re-routing of mail and tracing.
MAIL HANDLING SYSTEMS

Depending on the volume of mail, availability of labour, and the transport equipment used by postal authorities as well as airlines, processing varies from manual handling to mechanised handling. However, fast handling remains the major objective. Where unitised delivery from mail centres exists, special unloading provisions are required on the landside. Mechanized equipment to unload transport units onto a sorting system will speed up sorting. Adequate space around the sortation devices is required for ramp carts and dollies to fill the units for departing flights. Adjacent space is required to store lower priority mail leaving later. Incoming mail is normally received after the outgoing mail has been processed, and can therefore be sorted on the same sorter. Large volumes require more complex sorting systems. Outgoing mail on carts should be weighed to verify the total weight, by mail category, leaving per flight. Where it is necessary to automate the processing of mail handling within the confines of the airport perimeter, the designer should work closely with the mail processing companies. This includes the airlines, customs authorities, as well as traditional mail processing organisations, in order to ensure that system demand profiles are fully understood and that adequate flight carrier sortation facilities are provided.
06.6
LOCATING THE MAIL FACILITY

After completing the study of the proposed physical handling, flows and volumes, as well as the required space for communications facilities and documentation, a decision as to site and size can be made, having regard also to future expansion. The location and design of the facility will ensure that no unauthorised person will have access to the mail. The mail facility can be situated in any one of three locations: Next to the baggage handling area, with mail truck access to the airside for delivery and acceptance. Since most first class mail is transported on passenger aircraft, integration with fast, and last-minute baggage transport will contribute to efficient mail transportation on the apron.
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IATA

In the cargo complex, adjacent to a cargo terminal which normally provides adequate space for processing inside and around the facility. In this solution, special airside transportation of mail to the passenger apron is then required in view of the last-minute delivery requirement. If a large volume of transfer mail is to be handled in a short period, a secondary mail section in the passenger area may be required. A separate mail facility with its own infrastructure situated between the passenger and cargo areas, with optimum distances to both. This will mainly apply to the handling of large volumes of airmail. However, integration with other surface mail handling should be discouraged in view of extra landside traffic not related to the airport. With a separate location, special airside transportation is required between the aircraft and the mail terminal.
06.7
06.IR1 Mail Processing Delivery Standard In most cases, delivery and retrieval times will be an integral part of bi-lateral agreements between the postal administration and the air carrier. Where mail is processed by airports, the processing time from point of entry into the airport to aircraft departure time should be as follows:
First Class mail: 2 to 3 hours after delivery. Second Class mail: 24 hours after delivery.
06.IR2 Specialist Mail Sub Processes Where screening of selected mail for explosives or toxic substances is required by the country or province in question, this should be conducted in facilities designed, fitted-out and operated by the national mail processing organization (e.g. Royal Mail (UK); United States Postal Service; etc., or licensed and authorised agents). Consideration should be given to providing an area for mail that is taken out of the direct flows by drug interdiction authorities. This would facilitate inspection at destination or transit points, and would apply to mail originating in countries where narcotics or prohibited drugs are known to be produced.
513
514
IATA
Chapter P Airport Support/Ancillary Facilities
Section P1: Aircraft In-Flight Catering Facilties P1.1 Aircraft In-Flight Catering: Introduction .................................................. P1.2 Design Requirements .............................................................................. P1.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section P2: Aircraft Maintenance P2.1 Aircraft Maintenance: Introduction.......................................................... P2.2 Functional Requirements of Maintenance Hangars.................................. P2.3 Location of Maintenance Hangars ............................................................ P2.4 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section P3: Hotels and Business Centers P3.1 Hotels Overview ..................................................................................... P3.2 Functional Requirements of Airport Based Hotels.................................... P3.3 Location of Hotels at the Airport Complex ............................................... P3.4 Business Centers ..................................................................................... P3.5 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 519 519 520 521 521 516 516 517 518 513 513 515
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iata
CHAPTER P AIRPORT SUPPORT/ANCILLARY FACILITIES SECTION PI: AIRCRAFT IN-FLIGHT CATERING FACILTIES P1.1 AIRCRAFT IN-FLIGHT CATERING: INTRODUCTION
Catering units provide pre-prepared in-flight food and drink provisions for many originating departures and some transfer flights from airports. Consequently, in-flight flight catering facilities are required. The size and capability of these catering facilities will need to be sized to align with the requirements of the airlines and their flight schedules. Aircraft catering units should be separate from but located as close as possible to the terminal building. The aircraft in-flight catering units should preferably be airside at apron level, with ready access to both airside and landside zones. It is important that the location of the catering facilities do not infringe on the areas dedicated to possible expansion of the terminal building and apron areas at some future date.
P1.2
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
It is commonplace for airline companies to have competing catering companies located close to the airport perimeter providing the capability to supply food to their aircraft. The design of the in-flight aircraft catering facility should be balanced to align with current and foreseen airline catering contracts, and subsequently will need to be sized to deal with the peak demand from those contracts. It is also common for in-flight catering facilities to be sized with a small amount of spare capacity, but with the
Figure P1-1: Typical Catering Facility Plan
AJi j^'Ovens/ StovesUtensil Cleaning UnitAdmin/ OfficesFood Preparation AreasBonded Stores A *Truck Loading / Unloading| Bay | 10Bay 9BayBayBay pf ay
* / "t \ \'^_^_^7_)j_t_ A Vehicle Maneuvering
NOTES ------- DENOTES GROWTH EXPANSION CAPABILITY CATERING PLANT SHOULD NOT BE LOCATED IN TERMINAL OR APRON MASTER PLAN FUTURE DEVELOPMENT ZONES 517
IAT&

The typical in-flight aircraft catering facility will, as a minimum, contain the following functional facilities: Vehicle maneuvering space for catering trucks and supply trucks. Multiple catering vehicle loading and un-loading bays. Fully fitted industrial quality food and drink kitchens with stoves and ovens. Food preparation areas. Utensil cleaning units. Certified bonded store areas. Drainage. Heating, ventilation/cooling systems (particular care is needed with respect to the type of ventilation system used ensuring proper ventilation and/or air conditioning of catering units to avoid food contamination by fumes from the apron). Garbage disposal (including foreign garbage, according to local health requirements). Storage and disposal of empty bottles, containers and waste material. Washing facilities for catering personnel. Refrigeration units. Fire protection and alarm system. Adequate parking facilities for catering and clerical staff.
Figure P1-2: Example of Modern Catering Facility (Truck Dock
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P1.3 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
Airport Support/Ancillary Facilities
P1.IJR1 Location of In-Flight Catering Facilities The location of in-flight catering facilities at the airport must not infringe on the areas dedicated to possible expansion of the terminal building and apron areas. The airport and runway development masterplan strategy should be given due consideration. P1.IR2 Capability of In-Flight Catering Facilities In-flight catering facilities should be sized to align with the peak daily flight schedule requirement for day one of opening plus 5 years. Major further space provision should be safeguarded for incremental in-flight catering facility growth.
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SECTION P2: AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE P2.1 AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE: INTRODUCTION

Aircraft maintenance is required at most airports, in various degrees of sophistication, to enable aircraft to fly safely and within the appropriate levels of maintenance service standards. Maintenance is comprised of general routine servicing and major overhaul servicing activities. Virtually all airports will be required to permit routine maintenance activities. Major servicing of aircraft is usually completed at major airports where airlines are based, and it is common for multiple alliance partner airlines to share the servicing facilities. Routine servicing can in some instances be completed on apron areas or within dedicated aircraft hangars. Hangars are commonly used to accommodate major servicing activities of aircraft which can include but are not limited to activities such as:
Wiring investigations and modifications. Software checks and upgrades to aircraft control systems. Main thrust engines and APU engine replacements. Interior refit. Control surfaces servicing. Aircraft surfaces, impact damage servicing. Hydraulic systems servicing. Lubricant replacement. Landing gear tire and brake replacements etc.
Routine servicing activities can include but again may not be limited to: Lubricant topping up. Hydraulic fluid topping up. Fuel line checks. Control surfaces operational checks. Turbine starter unit replacement and checks.
Hangars provide protection from the elements in carefully controlled environments and house specialist equipment and tooling. Dust filtration ventilation systems are commonly provided and are particularly useful when environments present servicing problems.
P2.2
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF MAINTENANCE HANGARS

The space contained within maintenance hangars is used to accommodate certain functional requirements needed to maintain often large fleets of aircraft. Major servicing hangars usually accommodate the following functional areas:
Aircraft spares holdings. Administration offices.
IATA
Hangar doors. APU exhaust ventilation systems. Servicing crew/staff mess facilities. Specialist lifting equipment. Paint Removal and Spraying Booths.
Fig P2-1 shows a typical major aircraft servicing hangar, with elevated service platforms to allow maintenance staff to reach all areas of the various aircraft, whilst within safe working conditions.
Figure P2-1: Typical Major Servicing Hangar
Photo courtesy of Mott MacDonald Consulting Corp.
P2.3
LOCATION OF MAINTENANCE HANGARS

The location of maintenance hangars is often governed by the availability of apron space. Due to the 521 fact that aircraft need to be serviced and maintained as quickly as possible it is common that aircraft hangars are used 24 hours a day, and as such can present noise problems to local residents. Due care and attention should be taken to ensure that the location of the hangar is correctly designed and placed to avoid or minimize such problems. Maintenance hangars should be located with due consideration for the following operational points:
Located away from terminal building infrastructure.
Located outside of the space safeguarded for future expansion in line with the terminal's
masterplan expectations.
Adequate space should be provided for the maneuvreing of aircraft into and out of the
hangar(s). They should be sized to accommodate the scheduled aircraft servicing requirement. They should be located with consideration of the noise effects on local residential inhabitants.

P2.4 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS P2.IR1 Location of Hangars
Hangars should be located with due consideration of the resulting noise and pollution from these facilities and the effects they can potentially have upon local residents. Hangars should be placed such that they do not infringe on the future terminal building, apron and runway development zones defined within the masterplan for the airport.
P2.IR2 Size of Hangars

Hangars should be sized to accommodate the maintenance scheduling requirements of the aircraft fleet(s) to be serviced. Where it is required to service multiple aircraft simultaneously, the provision of multiple aircraft hangar bays should be considered with adequate provision for aircraft maneuvering outside of the hangar.
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HOTELS AND BUSINESS CENTERS
SECTION P3: P3.1
HOTELS OVERVIEW
Airports are being used more and more to process passengers by providing pre-check-in facilities within the hotel complex, whether it be close or even within the airport complex, or downtown some miles away from the airport itself. The use of hotel check-in is discussed within Section U2, Clause U2.11.4. This section deals in part with the functions and practicalities of placing airport hotels within the airport complex and the considerations which should be observed. Although hotels can be located close to airports, rarely do airports operate hotels with airport operator staff. Instead, the land is leased or sold to specialist airport hotel chains. It is therefore essential that the functional objectives of providing hotel space and facilities close to the airport is both understood and planned appropriately. Hotels residing on the airport complex should normally only be provided where the client base and demand has been clearly defined through extensive market research carried out at the airport. Well designed, appropriately sized and strategically placed airport hotels actually can provide advantages to airport operators by providing convenient facilities and attracting increased business passengers to the airport.
P3.2
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF AIRPORT BASED HOTELS

Most airport hotel facilities will include the following functional provisions:
Sleeping accommodations. Bars and restaurants with comprehensive kitchens. Valet and laundry services. Staff and client car parking (though maybe shared short-term airport parking). Courtesy buses, transport provision and hotel holding area. Swimming pools and gymnasiums. Business suits. Pre-check-in facilities.
The client base for airport hotels differs slightly from typical downtown hotels, where the clients are more likely to reside in the airport hotel for shorter periods. This is due to the fact that a high proportion of hotel residents will be business passengers or passengers who have connections (often the following day and usually within 36 hours or arrival). The airport hotel client base is typically confined to the following groups, though will obviously include other minority groups of passengers at any time:
Passengers in transit. Business travelers working within the region. Persons on holiday visiting within the region.
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P3.3
LOCATION OF HOTELS AT THE AIRPORT COMPLEX

The location of hotels at the airport complex will be dictated by the availability of real estate. It is essential that airport hotels are placed outside of the terminal building, runway and apron areas defined within the masterplan aspirations for future development. Airport hotels should be provided with appropriately designed road infrastructure, which should minimize the volume of traffic to and from the airport. Where practically possible, passenger demand dictates, and where airports are less than 1km from the departures concourse, walkways with passenger conveyors should be provided to connect the airport hotel to the terminal concourse. Walkways should be covered and provide appropriate protection from the local weather conditions, with air conditioning if appropriate.
Figure P3-1: Typical Airport Hotel Placement
DENOTES ROAD / PARKING
LINK BRIDGE/ TUNNEL Max. Length 1km SHORTTERM CARPARK + HOTEL PARKING + HIRE CAR SHORT TERM CAR PARK + HOTEL PARKING + HIRE CAR
CAR HIRE-PROCESSING
DEPARTURES AND ARRIVALS FORECOURTS

EXPANSION AREA DEPARTURES AND ARRIVALS CONCOURSE EXPANSION AREA
EXPANSION AREA
EXPANSION AREA
IATA
P3.4 BUSINESS CENTERS
The need for business centers within airports is becoming more and more apparent as demand for computer access grows. Greater sectors of the population are using computer technology in their everyday lives and hence business centers with internet access are recommended to be provided. Airlines commonly provide business centers within their executive lounges but these are more selective to Business and First class passengers. Airport and hotel business centers usually provide the following services:

P3.5
Multiple Internet Access. Printing Services. Faxing Services. Document Binding.
P3.IR1 Airport Hotel Location When planning the placement of airport hotels, due consideration should be given to the future masterpian requirements of the airport terminal buildings, car parks and apron and runway Infrastructure.
P3.IR2 Airport Hotel Walkways In situations where airport hotels are closer than 1 km to the terminal building, covered walkways or tunnels should be provided to link the hotel and tenninal building facility, with the possible ir^cfueloh of passenger conveyors where deemed to be of assistance to passengers. This will reduce hotel vehicular traffic movements.
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IATA
Chapter Q Landside Facilities
Section Q1: Road System and Curb Arrangements
Q1.1 Road Systems and Curb Arrangements Overview................................... Q1.2 Roads ......................................................................................................
Q1.3 Curb......................................................................................................... Q1.4 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... Section Q2: Traffic Studies & Parking Q2.1 Traffic and Parking Studies Overview ..................................................... Q2.2 Mod E Choice ........................................................................................... Q2.3 Traffic Volume .......................................................................................... Q2.4 Curb Length Requirements...................................................................... Q2.5 Parking .................................................................................................... Q2.6 Taxi and Bus Reservoir ............................................................................. Q2.7 IATA Recommendations ..........................................................................
525 526 527 529
530 530 531 531 531 532 532
527
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CHAPTER Q LANDSIDE FACILITIES SECTION Q1: Q1.1 ROAD SYSTEM AND CURB ARRANGEMENTS
ROAD SYSTEMS AND CURB ARRANGEMENTS OVERVIEW

Airport activity generates vehicular traffic on airport roads coming to and from the regional road system. Most passengers, visitors, cargo operators and employees use road vehicles to gain access to airports and they will always be a predominant modal choice, although alternatives will become more attractive to some users as road congestion and environmental awareness increase. For this reason, land should always be reserved for a right-of-way for rail. The planning of airport landside facilities, particularly for high volume airports, is a specialized subject and expert advice should be sought. Airport planning should include specific consideration of transportation on and off-airport boundaries. Consistency between airport-based planning and regional planning is critical to achieve efficient door-to-door trips. Motorists have a variety of destinations within the airport boundaries and a variety of vehicle types. The individual elements of the landside system do not serve travel independently. Each element is part of a functional hierarchy serving a specific purpose from primary movement, transition,
Figure Q1.1: Functional Classification
Terminal
Terminal Frontage Road Short Term Parking Rental Car Long Term Parking
Taxi and Bus Reservoir Terminal Approach Road
Employee Parking Recirculation Road Service Road
Rental Car
Main Access Road
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Q1.2 ROADS
The landside road system serves different categories of traffic. These categories include: Passenger vehicles, including:
Private cars. Taxis. Shuttle/courtesy bus services for hotel, car rentals and long-term car parks. Shuttle buses between terminals at multi-terminal airports. Public transport buses, including mini-buses carrying passengers to and from individual
home addresses.
Charter/tour buses. Limousine services. Delivery trucks.

Cargo or Mail vehicles, including:
Light vans. Pick-up trucks. Trailer trucks.

Airline/airport personnel vehicles, including:
Crew buses. Staff vehicles.

Airport Service Vehicles. At large airports it is preferable to separate service-related traffic from passenger-related traffic long before arriving at the passenger terminal curb area. This results in a double network of public roads using five types of roads as described within clauses Q1.2.1 to Q1.2.5 inclusively.
Q1.2.1 Main Access Road

The main access road provides a connection between the external road network system and the terminal complex area. It serves a 'line-haul' function and should be designed for uninterrupted flow conditions with intersecting roads and access control to adjacent land use developments.
Q1.2.2 Terminal Approach Road

The terminal approach road provides a transition function between high-speed operations on the Main Access Road and low-speed operations in the terminal area. The road has normally a oneway operation and is characterized by frequent but well placed decision points which should account for traffic speed. It provides the combined functions of moving traffic and serving adjacent land, community,
Q1.2.3 Terminal Frontage Road

The terminal frontage road provides direct access to the passenger terminal. It includes the passenger loading/unloading curb. The terminal frontage road is characterized by frequent interruptions of flow, with vehicles stopping and maneuvering. It's designed for one-way flow operation.
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IATA
Q1.2.4 Re-circulation Road
Landside Facilities
The re-circulation road links the inbound and outbound terminal frontage roads. A direct access to the curb is preferable.
Q1.2.5 Service Road

The service road network serves for the on-site circulation of persons and goods and for providing connection to/from areas adjoining the road, such as cargo areas, rental car kiosks, employee parking, etc.
Q1.3
CURB
The curb is an interface where vehicular flows become pedestrian flows and vice-versa. The curb area consists of a sidewalk, covered or partially enclosed, bordering the terminal road system with an adjacent paved area to permit vehicles to off-load or load passengers. The road in from of the terminal includes load/unload lanes, manoeuvring lanes to access and leave the load/unload lanes, and through traffic lanes (see figure Q1.2). The load/unload lane must be designed so that throughvehicular traffic can pass by uninterrupted.
Figure Q1.2: Example of Curbside Layout for a Single Level Terminal or for Departures at a Multi-Level Terminal Building
min. 4 to 6
Load/unload + taxis, buses and shuttles Manoeuveringlane Through traffic lane
m 4.2 m - 7.4 m
min.
18-20
J min. 2
m
531
The terminal curb can serve both departing and arriving passengers, and these two simultaneous activities may produce vehicular and pedestrian conflicts. Safe crosswalks, with appropriate traffic protection and traffic management equipment and systems should be provided. In some respects, the arrival curb area is similar to the departure curb. However, because larger volumes of passengers will peak over shorter periods of time and will arrive at the curb in greater numbers, a wider sidewalk may be required. Additional area is needed for baggage service, (personnel and hand trucks) and for concessions handling ground-transportation services. The effective curb capacity is related to the number of vehicles which can be processed in the load/ unload lane, rather than the number of vehicles going through. Congestion therefore often results from an inadequate number of load/unload positions, or curb length, rather than an inadequate number of traffic lanes. Parallel public and professional vehicle curbs are an effective way to provide
Figure Q1.3: Example of Curbside Layout for a Single Level Terminal or for Arrivals/Departures at a Multi-Level Terminal Building facade
min. 4 to 6 m
Lco7undoacl sJiutHes Through lane
'^6j
^J^s,_bjjse^_ajrid
.2
-32 m min. 30
3.7
m min. 4 m 4
Load/unload lane for private cars Manoeuvering lane Through traffic lane EH
.2 m
7.4 m
Another important item to consider in planning the curb is the signage, both for public information and airline identification. This is particularly important for the decentralized linear passenger terminal concept, as the vehicle stop at the curb should correspond approximately to the respective passenger departure/arrival areas. Planning of a taxi loading facility requires careful consideration, especially if the facility is designed to be operated on a self-help basis. Fall-back arrangements (e.g. for a taxi-loading co-ordinator to assist passenger allocation to taxis) may be needed for peak periods. The design and location of the curb relative to the terminal building must take into account security concerns. Please refer to Section H2, clause H2.6 in this regard.
Q1.4
01. IR1 Road Planning Expertise

The planning of airport roads, particularly for high volume airports, is a specialized subject and expert advice should be sought. Roads should be designed to accommodate peak traffic volumes and have adequate expansion capability.
1.IR2 Road Signage

All roads should be clearty signposted prior to traffic direction decision points.
Q1.IR3
iority and Transportation Policy
Airport development land should always be reserved as a right-of-way for rail infras$fpcture. Airport planning should include specific consideration of transportation on and < x boundaries. Consistency between airport-based planning and regional planning is critical to achieve efficient door-to-door connections.
Q1.1R 4 Provision of Crosswalks at Terminal Curb Areas

The terminal curb serves both departing and arriving passengers and these two simultaneous activities may produce vehicular and pedestrian conflicts. Safe crosswalks wio,- nopropriate traffic protection and traffic management equipment and systems should be proVBd.
Q1.IR 5 Curb Area Capiacity and Planning

The effective curb capacity is related to the number of vehicles, which can be processed in ifie? toad/unload lane, rather than the number of vehicles going through the Wa. Parallel public and ^professional vehicles curbs are an effective way to provide additional capacity. Effective curb area planning should be provided with due consideration to the requirements defined within cl use Q1.3 where in addition public and airline location identification should be provided.
SECTION Q2: TRAFFIC STUDIES & PARKING Q2.1 TRAFFIC AND PARKING STUDIES OVERVIEW
Traffic and parking studies are required to determine user characteristics and to estimate existing and future demand for landside vehicular facilities. The studies should provide dynamic planning information on the vehicle mode choice selected in each case, circulation patterns, parking needs and traffic volumes associated with the following four basic categories of landside users at airports:

Q2.2
Origin/destination passengers. Visitors. Employees. Air cargo and mail delivery.
Mod E CHOICE
Origin/destination passenger and visitor mode choices vary depending on a number of traveler and trip characteristics. These can include:
Purpose of the trip (pleasure, business or meeting/greeting a passenger). Socio-economic characteristics (including age and income). Place of residence (locally-based resident or visitor). Availability of a competitive mass transit alternative (cost, door-to-door travel time and accessibility).
As an example, a business passenger pressed for time has a greater tendency to use the taxi instead of a local bus service to go downtown than a family traveling for pleasure. High-income passengers generally value the time savings and convenience of the private car. Landside facilities should therefore be planned to reflect the specific requirements of the passenger segments; i.e. resident business, resident non-business, non-resident non-business and non-resident business. Transport user variations will be evident across different countries and continents. Airport road and parking infrastructure planners should design facilities following market research to determine the likely hometo-airport travel tendencies of the airport user community. The following modes of access for passengers should be included in the landside planning at most airports worldwide:
Private vehicle (drop-off/pickup and long-term parking). Rental car. Taxi/limousine. Schedule bus/train service. Courtesy van.
As airports operate close to 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, many airport employees do not work the typical 9 to 5, Monday to Friday schedule. Therefore they value private cars (self-driven or sharedride), especially if the mass transit service is not suited to their specific needs. Parking supply, parking
Air cargo generates employee trips but also very significant delivery trips by trucks and vans for the originating and terminating air-cargo. Experience shows there is no correlation between tonnage and air-cargo trips generated when comparing statistics from airport to airport. Site-specific research/ forecast information should be used by the airport planner.
Q2.3
TRAFFIC VOLUME
Traffic counts and trip generation studies should be conducted to determine the peak vehicle flows and the circulation pattern on the airport road network. The study should include the traffic generated outside the airport but also the road traffic generated on the airport, such as the re-circulation between the terminal curb and parking lots. Volume road traffic and parking accumulation studies are used to determine the hourly distribution
Q2.4
CURB LENGTH REQUIREMENTS

Planning the curb area will require the collection and examination of data, particularly on the processing time to load/unload vehicles, vehicle-mode preference, vehicle occupancy counts, ratio of passenger set-down on the curb to those arriving via the car parks, and vice versa. The data concerning the flow rate of originating passengers required for check-in purposes can also be employed in estimating the peak 15-minute number of originating vehicles. Originating passenger/well wisher vehicles may arrive at the curb during a time period of up to 3 hours prior to each flight, where as the effect of terminating passengers/greeters on the arrivals curb may be experienced as early as 15 minutes before and after flight arrival.
Q2.5
PARKING
Public, employee and rental-car parking lots are used by originating and terminating users of the road network. Airport car parks will usually occupy important and valuable airport real estate areas. They can be single-level parking or parking garage with several levels facilities. The proximity of parking facilities should align with the security recommendations defined within Section H2 in general, and in particular clause H2.6.
Q2.5.1 Public Parking

Designing public parking facilities should reflect user characteristics. Short-term parking users are usually meeters/greeters picking up or dropping off passengers. The parking duration is typically 35 hours or less. The inbound and outbound traffic volume at short-term lots is usually high but the number of parking spaces is relatively small because of the short parking duration. Short-term parking lots typically have a turnover of 4 to 6 cars per space per day. Short tern parking requirements can be based on a typical busy day. The layout and dimensions of the short-term lot stalls should be generous to account for the high turnover. Short-term lots should be located near the terminal. Long-term parking lots are intended for a different clientele than for the short-term lots. Long-term lots are intended for passengers leaving their car at the airport to take a flight. The parking duration can vary from 24 hours to up to two weeks at some airports. The inbound and outbound road volume is low but the peak accumulation is high. Long-term lot requirements can represent up to 85% of the total public parking accumulation. Peak long-term accumulation requirements should be based on a 7 to 14 days survey depending on the airport. A shuttle service should be considered for long
Q2.5.2 Employee Parking

Employee lots can be located further from the main terminal than public lots. A shuttle service should be considered for long walking distances and at airports with bad weather conditions.
Q2.5.3 Rental Cars

Smaller airports can usually accommodate the peak parking demand at or near the main terminal. The space requirements may become excessive at medium and large airports and can conflict with the supply of public parking. Larger remote and off-airport lots should then be considered. Consolidated rental car areas and united shuttle services should be provided, relieving congestion on airport roads. A limited number of parking spaces at walking distance from the terminal can be provided, especially for rental car pick-up.
Q2.6
TAXI AND BUS RESERVOIR

A reservoir accommodating buses and taxis waiting for arrivals passengers should be provided near the curb. Direct and short accesses to the curb from the reservoir are recommended.
Q2.IR1 Lane Separation

At target airports, special lanes may be reserved for buses and taxis and the curb side area should segregate bus and taxi traffic from private vehicle traffic to increase capacity.
Q2.IR2 Location of Parking

Parking spaces should be available near work areas and close to public transport stops.
Q2.IR3 Coordinated Airport and Regional Vehicular Planning

Airport planning should include specific consideration of transportation on and off-airport boundaries. Consistency between airport-based planning and regional planning is critical to achieve efficient door-to-door trips.
Service Related Traffic Separation

It is preferable to separate service-related traffic from passenger-related traffic long before arriving at the passenger terminal curb area at large airports.
Q2.IR5 Short Term Parking Lots

The layout and dimensions of the short-term lot stalls should be generous to account for the high turnover. Short-term lots should be located near the terminal.
Q2.ll
Staff Car Park Shuttle Service
Shuttle service to/from parking lots should be considered for long walking distances and at airports with bad weather conditions.
Q2.IR7 Traffic Studies

Traffic studies should be used to determine the user characteristics to estimate existing and future demand for landside facilities.
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Chapter R Airport Commissioning
Section R1: Checklist for the Successful Opening of a New Airport R1.1 Checklist Purpose: Introduction .............................................................. R1.2 Timing ..................................................................................................... R1.3 ACC Checklist W/G Composition................................................................ R1.4 ACC Checklist W/G Method of Operation .................................................. R1.5 IATA Recommendations .......................................................................... 537 537 537 538 538
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CHAPTER R AIRPORT COMMISSIONING SECTION R1: CHECKLIST FOR THE SUCCESSFUL OPENING OF A NEW AIRPORT R1.1 CHECKLIST PURPOSE: INTRODUCTION
The airport checklist was designed so that the airlines can work with an airport authority to ensure that the new airport will operate smoothly and with minimal operating problems right from the opening day. The checklist can also be used for a major terminal expansion. The checklist was designed after several new airports experienced major operational problems during the first several days of operation when they opened. It is meant to ensure that all the major elements of the new airport will be considered, that any elements that will not be ready are highlighted, and that a contingency plan is developed to offset any deficiencies. The checklist provides a tool to encourage constructive consultation between the airlines and the airport authority during the final stages of a major airport project. Based on experience at many airports, it is surprising how poor the communications between the airport authority and the airlines is on key planning information required to successfully complete the move to the new airport or into a new passenger terminal. Each airport will have its own set of potential construction problems. These could involve problems outside the jurisdiction of the airport authority, such as road access to the airport, or even incomplete support facilities such as cargo terminals or catering buildings. Based on recent experience, most problems with new airport projects involve software glitches associated with the baggage handling system and other complex IT systems. Another problem associated with new passenger terminals is that airline offices and CIP lounges are often not ready when the new passenger terminal opens. This is usually a result of the airlines not having signed leases for terminal space in sufficient time for airline fit-out, because the airport authority and the airlines have not been able to agree on new aeronautical user charges and/or passenger terminal rental rates. The new rental rates should be agreed to at least nine months before the airport passenger terminal is to open. This will involve a series of meetings with the IATA User Charges group. After the new aeronautical charges and rental rates are agreed to, most airlines must get head office approval for funds to complete the fit-out of offices and lounges in the new passenger terminal and then the time for the construction of these facilities must be taken into consideration. The checklist has been successfully used with several airport authorities and also on new passenger terminal projects. Checklist information must be kept confidential, as the sharing with third parties of information gathered using the checklist would likely create bad feelings between the airport authority and the airlines.
R1.2
TIMING
The checklist should be used on a regular basis during the final 18 months of the airport project. The timing should be agreed to by the Checklist Working Group (W/G) and the airport authority, and will vary with each airport project. The W/G meetings may be held monthly, every two months or quarterly. The date for the next meeting will depend on the number of outstanding issues to be reviewed at the
541

ACC member passenger terminal specialist. ACC member cargo/support/airfield specialist. IATA Airport Development staff member (will attend as many W/G meetings as possible). A member of the local BAR should be considered.
The airport authority should have an equal number of persons to work with the Checklist W/G.
R1.4
ACC CHECKLIST W/G METHOD OF OPERATION

The Checklist W/G meetings will review the checklist which has been completed by the airport authority. In many cases, the checklist is completed by their ORAT (Operations Readiness and Airport Transition) consultants. An example of the checklist is shown on the following pages; it can be obtained from IATA Airport Development ([email protected]) as an Excel spreadsheet and it should be modified to suit each airport project. The status of each element will be determined noting how much has been completed and when the element will be completed. Certain elements are further divided into sub elements to provide more OK, complete (green). On track (amber). Problem with completing on-time (red) Key or critical elements for each airport project can be highlighted (shown in bold). The key elements will vary for each airport project. Where it is anticipated that there will be problems completing an element of the project, then a recovery or contingency plan should be developed. Comments should be made for those elements that will not be completed on-time. Additional comments can be made on a separate sheet. At the regular ACC meeting the Checklist W/G will present its findings to the airport authority and ACC members. The ACC report, including the completed checklist, will be sent to ACC members, AOC Chair and the airport authority. The airport authority will be asked to reply to the report and comment on any deficiencies mentioned in the ACC report.
R1.5
A Checklist W/G should be established for each major airport project. The W/G should use the checklist, modified to suit the needs of the airport project The W/G should meet on a regular monthly basis during the last 18 months of the airport project.
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Checklist for the Successful Opening of a New Airport
2(f
IATA
Status Legend OK, Completed
I
ID# Facility Element * see Checklist Sub Elements Recommende d Completion Date
1X1
Status
IATA ACC W/G

Airport Opening Date Date Comments
On Track Problem with Completing On-Time

%
Complete d
Completion Date
Airport Access
001 002-*003* 004* 005* 006* 007 * Road Access Departure Curbside Arrivals Curbside Taxi Availability Bus Service Rail Service Parking Facilities
Recovery / or Contingency Plans
Passenger Terminal
008 009 010 011 012 013 014 015 016 017 Sales/Ticketing Desks Check-In Desks DCS/CUTE Connections BHS (Baggage Handling System) Baggage Reconciliation BHS Contingency Plan Oversized Baggage Handling Airline Office Facilities Airline CIP Lounges Signage
3
O
5 5'
C O " 3
o 3 3
Ol C O C
o
in
OK, Completed IATA ACC W/G Airport On Track Opening Date Problem with Date Completing OnID#Facility Element Time ^ see Checklist Sub ElementsRecommended Completion DateStatus% CompletedCompletion DateRecovery / or Contingency PlansCommentsPassenger Terminal cont'd018Security Screening019Outbound Passport Control020Facilities for Disabled Passengers021Departure Lounge Seating022Restaurants023Retail Shopping024Public Toilets025Gate Counters/Podium026 >*Gate Lounge027Passenger Boarding Bridges028Inbound Passport Control029Inbound Baggage System030Baggage Claim Area031Baggage Trolley Handling032Left Luggage Office033 +CIQ (Customs, Immigration, Quarantine)034Connection/Transfer Counters035Meeter/Greeter Hall
Status Legend
IATA
si 2( ?
o o
3.
3/7
IATA
Status Legend OK, Completed On Track
IATA ACC W/G

Airport Opening Date Data Comments
IXI
ID* Facility Element + see Checklist Sub Elements Recommende d Completion Date Status
Problem with Completing On-Time

%
Complete d
Completion Date
Passenger Terminal confd

036 037 03B 039 + 040 > Currency Exchange Post Office Medical Facilities Staff Amenities VIP Facilities / Terminal
Terminal Systems
041 042 043 044 045 FIDS (Flight Information Display System) BIDS (Baggage Information Display System) CCTV System (Closed Circuit TV) Access Control System Fire Alarm System
046 047 048 049 050 051 052
Gate Allocation System Gate Dumb-Waiters/Chutes HBS (Hold Baggage Screening) System HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, Air Con) Public Address System Telephone System Radio Systems
c n
CJ1
^5!

/7
2f
o o
IATA
I I
ID# Facility Element see Checklist Sub Elements Recommende d Completion Date
1X1
Time Status
On Track Problem with Completing On%
IATA ACC W/G Aiiport Opening Date Date

Comments
Complete d
Completion Date
Terminal Systems cont'd

053 054 055 056 057 TV Signal Automated People Mover Elevators Escalators Moving sidewalks
2.
o o 3
< D <
( D 3
Apron
058 059 060 061 062 063 064 065 * 066 067 068 069 Apron Markings Aircraft Docking Guidance System 400 Hz Power System Conditioned Air Potable Water Aircraft Fueling Apron Lighting Apron Staging Areas Airline Ramp Offices Airline Line Maintenance Security l/D System Plan to Move GSE to new Airport
z a o K ( D ) 3 C 0
IATA
I 1X1
ID# Facility Element + see Checklist Sub Elements Recommende d Completion Status
On Track Problem with Completing OnRecovery /or Contingency Plans
IATA ACC W/G Airport Opening Date Date

Comments
Complete d
Completion Date
Airfield
070 + 071 + 072 + 073 + 074 075 Runways Taxiways Instrumentation Control Tower Security Fencing/Gates Drainage
Cargo/Express Terminals
076 + 077 + 078 + Cargo Terminal Express Terminal Cargo/Express Aprons
Support Facilities
079 080 081 082 083 084 + Flight Kitchen Aircraft Maintenance Facility De-Icing Facilities Fuel Farm Central Utility Plant Petrol Facilities
SSk
6/7

IATA ACC W/G Airport Opening Date Date
Comment
8f
o a.
D
( D < ( D
IATA
I fXl
ID# Facility Element + see Checklist Sub Elements Recommende d Completion Date Status
On Track Problem with Completing On-Time

%
Complete d
Completion Date
Support Facilities cont'd

085 + 086 087 088 Fire/Police Facilities Waste Treatment Plant Aircraft Lavatory Dump Staff Car Parking
( D 3 u ( D ( D fl > 3 D ) 3 C Bi
Administration
089 + 090 091 + 092 + Rental Leases Signed Financial Other Agreements Executed Permits & Licenses
Miscellaneous
093 094 Airport Move Plan Airport Trials
095 096 097 098 099 100+
A/P Emergency Response Plan Airport User Manuals Airport Capacity Study Employee Familiarization Plan Employee Training Plan Employee Transportation Plan
IATA
002 Departure Curbside Curbside Layout Signage Arrival Curbside Curbside Layout Signage 070 004 Taxi Availability Taxi Molding Area Departure Curbside Layout Bus Local National Car Rental Hotel Employee 007 Rail Express to City Center Local National 008 Parking Facilities Private Car Taxi Bus Rental Car Employees Gate Lounge Seating Layout Baggage Acceptance at the Gate Remote Aircraft Lounges CIQ (Customs, Immigration, Quarantine) Customs Immigration Agriculture/Quarantine Security Others Staff Amenities Canteen Toilets VIP Facilities/Terminal Vehicle Parking/Staging CIQ Facilities Food/Beverage Arrangements Furnishings Toilets 072 065
Checklist Sub Elements

Apron Staging Areas Ground Equipment Staging Areas Ground Equipment Storage Areas Baggage Container Staging Areas Cargo Staging Areas Empty Container Storage Areas Runways Pavement Striping Signage Lighting 071 Taxiways RETs (Rapid Exit Taxiways) Holding Bays Pavement Striping Signage Lighting Instrumentation Precision Approach Certified Backup Approach Certified Approach Plates Pub/Dist Ground Radar Control Tower Equipment Installed HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, Air Con) Break Rooms/Cafeteria Parking Cargo Terminals Access Roads Airline Offices Building Structures CIQ Offices Cold Storage/Hazmat Area ETV (Elevating Transfer Vehicle) Forwarders HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, Air Con) Mail Security Staff Canteen Storage Racks Telecommunications Toilets Truck Queuing Areas 078 077 Express Termlnals(s) Access Roads Truck Queuing Area Building Structure Airline Offices CIQ Offices Sort System Tenant Access Sort System Completion Security Telecom (Operator) Telecom (FIS) Aircraft/GSE Mx Bonded Storage Cargo/Express Aprons Pavement Striping Lighting Signage Tether Pits Fueling Pits (if applicable) Ground Equipment Storage ULD Storage Petrol Facilities Ramp Vehicle Fueling Public Gas Station Fire/Police Facilities Fire Training Pit Fire Slabon(s) Security Checkpoints/Gates Rental Leases Signed Landing and Parking Fees Rentals Other Agreements Executed Land Leases Franchise Agreements Use Agreements Permits and Licenses Building Occupancy Permits Vehicle Licenses Security Badging Business Licenses Rules and Regulations Parking Permits Employee Transportation Plan Fees and Charges Determined Billing Systems Established
003
006
084
073
085
026
076
089
033
091
092
039
040
100
IATA
Chapter S Future Technologies & Miscellaneous
Section S1: Future Technology Systems
51.1 Future Technologies Overview............................................................ 549 51.2 Newer Frontiers in Airport Technology ................................................... 549
Section S2: Developing & Adopting Future Technology
52.1 Developing New Technologies for New Challenges................................. 551 52.2 Future Technology Objectives................................................................. 551 52.3 Transition from Future Technology to Viable Current Technology........... 551
Section S3: Interfaces People & Cultural Issues
53.1 Future Technologies Impact Consultation .......................................... 553 53.2 Cultural Issues......................................................................................... 554
TTA Airport Development Reference Manual
IATA
CHAPTER S FUTURE TECHNOLOGIES & MISCELLANEOUS SECTION S1:
S1.1 FUTURE
TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS
FUTURE TECHNOLOGIES immigration OVERVIEW vehicle route signage, customs and systems, passenger displays for flight arrivals and
The role of technology in airport operations is well-understood: conveyor systems, passenger and
departures, airline check-in systems, security systems, and many other forms of automation all have a part to play in a truly integrated airport operation.
These systems all contribute to the effective and efficient operation of an airport. It is essential that airports look toward the use of newer technologies in their continual effort to achieve move efficient and safer airports. Threats posed by global terrorism present airports with the challenge and opportunity to exploit newer frontiers in technology to help them mitigate these security risks and thus provide suitable confidence to passengers and aviation staff.
S1.2
NEWER FRONTIERS IN AIRPORT TECHNOLOGY

There are many airport operational areas where new technologies could be used in the future following intensive parallel trials of higher technology equipment. It is essential that only proven equipment is installed into live airports and for this reason professionally conducted trials on newer technology should be instigated to prove the abilities of these higher technologies in the specific airport environment they're intended for (Refer to Section S2). The subjects listed below represent a small selection of the newer technologies which are currently within the public domain at the time of going to print, but perhaps have not yet been fully exploited in the airport operations arena. These system technologies include but are not limited to the following subjects:
Baggage handling systems (passenger biometric intelligence). Hold and hand baggage screening technology (pulsed neutron & magnetic resonance systems). Intelligent networks.
S1.2.1 Baggage Handling Systems (Passenger Biometric Intelligence)

The reconciliation of passengers to their corresponding baggage presents a major problem to airports and airlines. In situations where baggage needs to be reconciled with the passenger, predominately for security reasons, it is likely that it will be of benefit to link a passenger's biometric data captured at check-in and map this onto RFID baggage tags. Free data field spaces on the agreed IATA RFID transmission spectrum offer this facility. The major benefit to an airline customer is that when they are trying to call the passenger they will be able to view the facial picture of the passenger using airport CCTV systems to broadcast the image to the relevant groups of staff and passengers as required. In situations where a bag has failed a detailed baggage screening process and has been confirmed to have contained a threat article such as a bomb, then security and police services will be provided with a facial image of the suspect which would be undisputed proof that the person loaded the baggage and should be appropriately apprehended.
553

51.2.2 Pulsed Neutron And Magnetic Resonance Screening Systems
Pulsed neutron technology has been used in hand baggage screening processes and successful airport trials have shown that the technology has a real place in helping to detect the presence of certain dangerous items concealed within passenger or crew baggage. The pulsed neutron technology now needs to be further incorporated into operational airports while continually developed to ensure that the technology is yet further enhanced and used in physical series to conventional hand baggage X-ray technology. Magnetic resonance systems are being developed and the technology is being explored to ascertain the effectiveness, overall benefits and safety implications posed by its incorporation into airport passenger screening systems. It is believed that if this technology is commercially developed for airports it could aid passenger security processes and may present a less intrusive experience for the majority of passengers who do not have dangerous items on their person when going airside.
51.2.3 Intelligent Networks

With the use of more and more common backbone networks within airports, the ability to hack into these networks and cause deliberate or accidental damage to them, or even to extract or manipulate data contained on them, will continue to be a prime issue for airport IT network staff. IT staff already need to regularly inspect the condition and integrity of their networks, though the human actions and initiatives required at present are substantial. The ability of networks to perform thorough and complete active monitoring of their integrity, and to raise alarms upon intrusion detection, will continue to become more and more sophisticated. Eventually networks will be able to not only assist the IT network staff but will be able to take over part of their day to day work load for common problems
S1.2.4 Bird Strike Mitigation Technologies (Acoustic Systems)

Bird strikes on aircraft is a very real problem and can present a major safety concern to airports and airlines alike. Conventionally, airports have used apron marshals who log the habits of the local wildlife and attempt remove them, mainly by scaring the wildlife away by various physical means which can include the use of birds of prey, blanks fired on the apron by an authorised staff member, etc. Audible systems have been developed and used with acknowledged and published success rates following operational trials at airports. These systems have to a marked degree alleviated the presence of wildlife such as birds. Audible system technologies include the use of high resolution recordings of wildlife or sounds known to scare off unwanted wildlife. Additionally the use of high frequency resonating sound waves has been investigated. The benefits of this technology should be explored by airports and the use of this technology will continue to gain interest.
S1.2.4 Use of Biometrics in Retailing

As the aviation industry moves toward the use of biometric systems to help solve security related problems, the usefulness of the captured data will present new opportunities. One such opportunity in the use of this data is the application of assessing passenger retail spending habits and trends. Biometric passenger data provided on newer generation passports could be obtained at retail sales points within airports. Retailers would then be able to manipulate this data to aid marketing and sales strategies (subject to national privacy legislation permissions). It should be noted that this is not an IATA recommended code of practice.
554
IATA
SECTION S2: 52.1
Future Technologies & Miscellaneous

DEVELOPING & ADOPTING FUTURE TECHNOLOGY
DEVELOPING NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR NEW CHALLENGES

The airport and airline industry must work with developers of technology to ensure that new technology is developed. The private and public sectors offer a range of technology development options or avenues. These will allow the airport and airline industry to explore the boundaries of technologies and the options available to improve efficiency, safety and the environment associated with the aviation sector. The following groups of organisations should be used by the aviation industry to facilitate the development and application of newer technologies:
Respected universities. Industry forums/peer review groups IATA/ACI/ICAO/ECAC. Airport authority/airline research and development teams. National or independent pioneering engineering consultants (e.g. DERA, etc.).
Airports and airlines need to have regular dialogue with these types of organisations, explain the challenges and help lead new technological advances for the industry through technology development sponsorship programmes.
52.2
FUTURE TECHNOLOGY OBJECTIVES

Airports need to have confidence in the abilities of new technology to perform the desired operational function. Airports need confidence that new technological systems will:
Improve upon the status quo. Be effective. Be reliable. Not adversely effect the operation. Will be accepted by its users. Be safe and secure for its use and fit for purpose. Commercially viable.
Airports and airlines should look to gain this confidence through prudent implementation of newer technology. A philosophy of proving the value of newer technology via operational trials conducted in test conditions, within the appropriate environments should be adopted. The use of the laboratory and eventually operational airport locations should be used (refer to clause S2.3).
52.3
TRANSITION FROM FUTURE TECHNOLOGY TO VIABLE CURRENT TECHNOLOGY

It can be difficult for airports and airlines to commercially make the jump to incorporate newer, 'aviation environment unproven' technology with the objective to resolve an old or new operational problem. The process steps defined below should be used by airports and airlines in an attempt to allow them to have the best level of confidence in newer technologies and the ability of new systems to deliver objectives set by the aviation industry users: Step 1 Establish the type of technology that may be applied. Step 2 Prove through laboratory trials that the technology can be applied to the industry
555

Step 3a Repeat Step 3 test but at a separate airport operation, again with limited exposure/risk. Step 4 Obtain independent verification of the test results collated from the tests in steps 3 and 3a from IATA, verifying that the technology meets the operational objectives and the criteria defined within clause S2.2. Step 5 If applicable. IATA could produce a directive publication, which could effectively define the proposed standard to be adopted. This would be reviewed/refined and potentially endorsed by its members as agreed best practice if the results and application are deemed to be favourable to the industry. Once step 5 has been achieved, the industry should accept that this technology is current best practice and can where appropriate be incorporated into airports and airline operations.
IAT A
SECTION S3: S3.1
Future Technologies & Miscellaneous

INTERFACES PEOPLE & CULTURAL ISSUES
FUTURE TECHNOLOGIES IMPACT CONSULTATION

It is essential that certain groups are consulted when new technology is proposed to be implemented. The objectives are to ensure that the technology is:
Suitable for the local environment. Can be used or managed by either local or specialist staff alike. Provides confidence to the people consulted that the technology is to support them. Local community groups can help shape the implementation of newer technology to best fit their needs. Staff groups are consulted to understand the need for potential staff retraining requirements well in advance.
When change is involved, if an airport developer asks a local consultant group's opinion about the proposed change, the group and the individuals involved will generally feel a sense of being part of the solution. They may not agree with the final decision, but they believe they were heard in the discussion phase. Implementing future technology is no different. Making certain groups of people part of the decision-making process almost always ensures a smoother transition of the technology and generally leads to an improved technology solution. There are a set of "best practices" to follow when looking at future technology and how to make consultation groups function effectively, these can include:
Form a group of those affected by the proposed technology. Not everyone affected by the technology needs to be a member, but they must have some form of representation. Give the group power to decide carefully through a formalised process. Ensure the group is fully informed. Give them access to all and any appropriate information about the technology. Explain why the technology is necessary. Have the group enumerate the impact on their lives of the proposed technology. Require that the group arrive at a decision within a reasonable timeframe. Require that any decision must be measurable. Require that the group create a technology implementation timetable (project delivery programme; and Ask the group to answer questions such as: How does this technology fit with the existing processes? How will it be used? What metrics determine if it is used effectively? What training is required?
Once the airport developer has consulted certain interested groups, the implementation of the technology becomes then a more straightforward matter of following the project delivery programme.
557
S3.2
CULTURAL ISSUES
In a business where specialist Airport developers, Architects and Engineers work in many different regions of the world to design and construct airports, it will be important for these groups of professionals to appreciate that certain cultures have often subtle cultural do's and don'ts. From an airport design and construction point of view the list below should be used as a starting point for airport developers so that they fully appreciate the sensitivities that can exist. Item Description Symbols of Nationalism Comments Although most images are usually appreciated, there will be situations where certain symbols could alienate market sectors for airports, by being perhaps too overpowering. A careful balance is required between proud nationalistic design and awareness to the sensitivities of the potential users of the airport. Some countries use colours to demonstrate a state of being (happy/sad/frightened etc). Wealth and poverty can also be attributed to certain colours in some countries. It is important that airport designers look not only to the local country where the airport resides but at the countries of origin of the main users of the airport. The geometric forms used in airport architecture will obviously have a major influence on how a building will be perceived and appreciated, or not, on the world stage. Airport design features, intentionally made to look like religious symbols and unbalanced in presence, can sometimes offend sections of the population which may work at or use the airport. If religious symbols are used in the airport's architectural design it is perhaps best to balance and appreciate the differences which can co-exist, and represent this view in the design solution. This is obviously a very sensitive issue and one which should be very carefully assessed.
Use of Colours
Geometric Forms
Religious Symbolism
In all instances it will be essential for Architects in particular to consult the various user groups, following the principles defined within clause S3 .1. This will ensure that cultural sensitivities are understood and accounted for appropriately using informed guidance from the relevant groups.
IATA
Chapter T Airport Processes
Section T1: Terminal Processes T1.1 Terminal Processes Overview.................................................................. T1.2 Sample Terminal Processes...................................................................... T1.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section T2: Apron Processes T2.1 Apron Processes Overview ...................................................................... T2.2 Sample Apron Processes .......................................................................... T2.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section T3: Support Processes T3.1 Support Processes Overview ................................................................... T3.2 Sample Support Processes ....................................................................... T3.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 562 563 564 560 561 561 557 558 559
560
IATA
CHAPTER T AIRPORT PROCESSES SECTION T1: TERMINAL PROCESSES T1.1 TERMINAL PROCESSES OVERVIEW
There are numerous processes which are often simultaneously in operation within the airport terminal complex. Some of the terminal processes listed will be technically independent of one another while others will interact with one another very closely. The terminal building will need to house and permit (in most cases) all of the listed processes. Passenger and staff will likely call upon the building and its support infrastructure to seamlessly provided the listed process functionality. Architects and Engineers should assess the process activity groups listed below and precisely map out the desired building functionality required. All process maps associated with airline functions should be agreed with the airlines in question. Process Activity Group Baggage Handling Core Function Arrivals Departures Transfers Communication Services Post Radio Voice Communication Provision Emergency Detection Emergency Alert Contingency Planning Safety Management Ground Transportation Noise Management Provision of Public Transport Facilities Provision of Public Transport Facilities Provision of Public Transport Facilities Provision of Public Transport Facilities Information Provision Traffic Control Information Source Public Address Visual Information Visual Information Creation of Flight Related Information Maintenance Maintenance of Flight Related Information Planned Maintenance Management Tools Sub Division General General General General General General General General General General General General Bus Taxi Rail Underground General Flight Schedule General Passengers Staff General General General General
Emergency Management
561
Process Activity Group
Core Function
Sub Division
People Handling
Check-in Passenger Movement Passenger Movement Passenger Movement Passenger Movement
General Departures Arrivals Transfers Terminal to Aircraft Staff General General Airside/Airside Airside/Landside Equipment Control Vehicles Hold Hand General General General Airfield Internal General General General General General General
Retail Security
Staff Movement Concession Management Stores Access Control Access Control Access Control Access Control Baggage Screening Baggage Screening ID Pass Production Intruder Detection Passenger Screening Surveillance Surveillance
Terminal Management
Airline and Handling Agent Liaison Passenger Services Authority Liaison Check-in Desk Allocation Operational Management Trolley Management
T1.2
SAMPLE TERMINAL PROCESSES An example of a typical high level process map which should be created for all relevant airport processes is shown within Fig. T1-1. This process map relates to the movement of departing passengers between check-in and the aircraft (local variations will occur). In addition to the major activity function blocks that occur, a reference is also given to the relevant technical sections within this manual which should be referenced when planning out the particular function.
562
Airport Processes
Figure Ti-1: Passenger Movement-Terminal to Aircraft
Passenger Movement - Terminal To Aircraft
Able Bodied Pax. Walk To Security & Immigration Pax. Completes Check-in Staffed/Self Service Process Disabled Pax. Wheeled Driven To Security & Immigration
Able Bodied Pax. Walk To Gate/Aircraft
Disabled Pax Wheeled Driven To Gate/Aircraft
RELEVENT ADRM SUPPORT SECTIONS Refer To Section: J9/J12/U2 Refer To Sections: J12/K6 Refer To Section: J12/K1/K2/K3/K4/K5 Refer To Sections J7/J12 Refer To Sections: J10/J11/J12/K6
T1.3
T1.5R1 Mapping The Airport Processes

Architects and engineers should assess the process activity groups listed within T1.1 and precisely map out the desired building functionality required. All process maps associated with airiine functions should be agreed with the aidines in question.
T1.IR2 Redundancy Processes

Airport designers, planners and operational staff should develop contingency plans such that if or when a function block within an airport process map becomes inoperable, then the airport retains the ability to function within the tolerances defined within /s manual.
ifr
563

SECTION T2: APRON PROCESSES T2.1 APRON PROCESSES OVERVIEW
While the number of activities on the apron is often less than those within the airport terminal, the complexity of the tasks on the apron can be equally, if not more technically challenging. The list defined below displays the activities and functions that typically take place on the apron during the operational day. Architects and engineers should assess the process activity groups listed below and map out precisely the desired apron functionality required. The list given is not exhaustive and further activities could exist which may need to be identified and captured. All process maps associated with airline/ground handling functions should be agreed with the user groups in question. Process Activity Group Apron Management Core Function Aircraft Ground Movement Aircraft Ground Movement Aircraft Handling Aircraft Handling Aircraft Handling Runway Safety Runway Safety Runway Safety Runway Safety Runway Safety Emergency Management Environmental Management Emergency Response Air Quality Analysis Air Quality Modeling and Reporting Surface Water Quality Sub Division Stand Allocation Taxiway Lighting Air Fuelling Power Apron Lighting Ice Detection Friction Testing De-icing Runway Apron Cleaning and Maintenance All Emergency Services General General Sewage Management Systems
564
IATA
T2.2 SAMPLE APRON PROCESSES
Airport Processes
An example of a typical high level apron process map is shown in FIG. T2-1, which relates to the movement of aircraft from the runway to the allocated stand. In addition to the major activity function blocks which are identified, references are also given to the relevant technical sections within this manual which should be used when planning out the particular functions.
Figure T2-1: AIRCRAFT GROUND MOVEMENT TAXIWAY LIGHTING

Aircraft Ground Movement - Taxiway Lighting
Ground Controller Internal Discussions Aircraft Proceed From Runway To Taxiway Ground Controllers Advise Pilot Of Taxiway Route to Stand Allocation Ground Radar Reviewed Taxiway Lighting Systems Illuminated To Identify Correct Aircraft Route. Passenger Loading Bridge Driven to Parked Aircraft
Aircraft Parking Aids Switched on in correct Aircraft Mode
Taxiway Lighting Route Turned Off
Stand Services Instigated
RELEVENT ADRM SUPPORT SECTIONS Refer To Section: F5/F6/F7 Refer To Sections: J3/F6/F7 Refer To Sections: F67L3/L4 Refer To Sections: J11/L6/M1/M2/M3 Refer To Section: J3/F6
T2.3
------
T2|R1 Mapping The Apron Processes

itects and engineers should assess the'-prcfess-'-keiivity groups listed within clause T2,1 and map out pmcr;y the a^sired apron functionality required. All process maps associated th airline/ground handling functions should be agreed with the user groups in question.
T2JR2 Redundant Apron Processes

Airport designers, planners and operational staff should develop contingency plans such that if a function block or blocks within an airport process map becomes inoperable, then the airport retains the ability to function within the tolerances defined within this manual
565
SECTION T3: SUPPORT PROCESSES T3.1 SUPPORT PROCESSES OVERVIEW

Airport support processes are often overlooked. The sheer number of airport support processes which may need to function in the background can be quite staggering. All of these support processes usually need to be accommodated, depending on the function, within the confines of the airport perimeter for practical reasons. There are many functions and support processes, however, which can be accommodated away from the airport complex. This can take pressure off of the airport designers and free up valuable airport real estate for terminal and apron development plans. Architects and Engineers should assess the process activity groups listed below and map out precisely the desired support processes required. The list given is not exhaustive and further activities could exist which may need to be identified and captured. Architects and Engineers should assess the merits of providing off-airport accommodation and infrastructure for support processes which may Process Activity Group Building Management Systems Core Function Building Environment Control Sub Division Building Management System (Heating and Ventilation System) Fire Sprinkler Systems Gas Provision Water Provision and Disposal Staff / ATC / Third Party General Fuel Pass issuing and reading and fuel issuing Management Reporting Vehicle Maintenance Planning Management Reporting General General General General Application/data Application/data Networks Networks Staff Infrastructure
Environmental Management Financial Management
Building Environment Control Services Provision Services Provision Account Payments Landing Fee Management Charging Fuelling Fuelling Maintenance Maintenance
Fleet Management
Airport Staff Human Resources
Employee Relations / Pay Occupational Health Recruitment Training and Development
IT Management
Development Operations Development Operations Resource Planning Capacity planning
Planning
Process Activity Group Procurement
Core Function Purchasing Contract Stores Control Asset Management Preparation for Use/Occupancy Delivery Of Customer Service Delivery Of Customer Service Forecasting Market and Operational Research
Sub Division General Management Parts and Office Consumables Maintenance General Facilities Management Billing General General
Property Management
Research
T3.2
SAMPLE SUPPORT PROCESSES

An example of a typical high level support process map is shown in FIG. T3 -1, which relates to Building Management Systems. In addition to the major activity function blocks that occur and which are identified, references are also given to the relevant technical sections within this manual which should be used when planning out the particular functions.
Figure T3-1: Building Management Systems

Building Management Systems
BMS Controll er Sets Environ ment Paramet ers) / Commu BMS nication ControllerReviews / Assesses_\Enviro nmentn Para mete r(s)
BMS Maintenance Teams
Heating and Ventilation
Field Sensors
%*
Hot Water
>
Lighting
Smoke Detection
Asset Maintenance Management System
Preve ntativ e Maint enanc e
Fire Suppression
Field Actuators
Emergency Messaging Airport Network
RELEVENT ADRM SUPPORT SECTIONS Refer To Sections: J8 / Y1 / Y2
T3.3
T3.IR1 Off Airport Support Functions Architects and Engineers should assess the merits of providing off airport accommodation and infrastructure for support processes which do not necessarily need to be within the confines of the airport perimeter.
IATA
Chapter U Airport Baggage Handling Section U1: Baggage System User Requirements U1.1 Objective of a Baggage System User Requirement Specification .......... U1.2 User Requirements Specification Contents ........................................... U1.3 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ Section U2: Departures Systems U2.1 Baggage Systems Design Approach ..................................................... U2.2 Acceleration and Bag Separation Conveyors .......................................... U2.3 De-Accelleration Conveyors................................................................... U2.4 Incline and Decline Conveyors .............................................................. U2.5 Queuing Conveyors................................................................................. U2.6 Verti-Sortation Conveyors ...................................................................... U2.7 High Speed Pusher................................................................................. U2.8 Slow Speed Plough................................................................................. U2.9 45 and 90 Degree Powered Belt Bends .................................................. U2.10 Accumulation Roller Conveyors (Powered and Free Units) ..................... U2.11 Check-In Systems ................................................................................. U2.12 Sortation Systems ................................................................................. U2.13 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ Section U3: Transfer Systems U3.1 Transfer Baggage Systems Overview ................................................... U3.2 Transfer Baggage Reconciliation ............................................................ U3.3 Transfer Processing Facilities Within the Baggage Hall........................... U3.4 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ Section U4: Early Baggage Processes U4.1 Early Baggage Processing Overview................................................. U4.2 Manual Early Baggage Storage ............................................................. U4.3 Automated Early Baggage Storage ........................................................ U4.4 Typical Automatic Early Baggage Store Layout ...................................... U4.5 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ Section U5: Arrivals Baggage Systems U5.1 Arriving Baggage Overview................................................................... U5.2 Arriving Baggage DCV or Tilt Tray Sorter Injection.................................. U5.3 Arriving Baggage Passenger Reconciliation Devices .......................... U5.4 Arrival Systems Control Desk ................................................................. U5.5 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ 567 567 572 573 575 577 578 581 583 585 587 588 589 591 600 611 613 614 616 616 618 618 619 620 621 622 626 626 629 630
569

Section U6: Control Systems U6.1 Introduction and Definition ................................................................... U6.2 System Concept .................................................................................... U6.3 Communications.................................................................................... U6.4 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ Section U7: Management Information Systems (MIS) U7.1 Introduction........................................................................................... U7.2 MIS Functions Defined............................................................................ U7.3 MIS Function Considerations ................................................................. U7.4 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ Section U8: Oversized Baggage U8.1 Overview............................................................................................... U8.2 Manual Departing Oversized Baggage Processing ................................ U8.3 Automated Departing Oversized Baggage Processing ........................... U8.4 Arriving Oversized Baggage ................................................................... U8.5 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ Section U9: Sort Allocation Computer (SAC) U9.1 Introduction........................................................................................... U9.2 SAC Functions Defined........................................................................... U9.3 SAC System Considerations................................................................... U9.4 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ Section U10: Baggage Hall Design U10.1 Baggage Hall Functions ........................................................................ U10.2 Baggage Hall Environment .................................................................... U10.3 Baggage Hall Clearances ...................................................................... U10.4 Baggage Hall Health and Safety............................................................ U10.5 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ Section U11: Hold Baggage Screening U11.1 ICAO Policy ........................................................................................... U11.2 IATA HBS Policy ..................................................................................... U11.3 Recommended HBS Process for New HBS Developments...................... U11.4 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ Section U12: Passenger & Hand Baggage Screening U12.1 ICAO Passenger and Hand Baggage Screening Policy........................... U12.2 IATA Passenger and Hand Baggage Screening Policy ........................... U12.3 Recommended Passenger Screening Process ....................................... U12.4 Recommended Passenger and Hand Baggage Screening Equipment ... U12.5 Passenger Searches .............................................................................. U12.6 IATA Recommendations ........................................................................ 631 631 633 633 634 634 635 637 638 639 639 639 640 641 641 643 646 647 647 648 650 650 651 651 651 657 659 659 659 662 664 665
570
IATA
CHAPTER U AIRPORT BAGGAGE HANDLING

SECTION U1: U1.1 BAGGAGE SYSTEM USER REQUIREMENTS
OBJECTIVE OF A BAGGAGE SYSTEM USER REQUIREMENT SPECIFICATION

The baggage system User Requirement Specification (URS) is required to explain the user functionality, performance expectations and the specific user interface requirements of the Baggage Handling System. It is absolutely vital that this document is produced before any baggage design work has been started. The baggage handling designer should use the URS as the main tool when trying to define how the baggage handling system shall function. The URS can vary in size and complexity according to the scope of the baggage project, from a small arrivals system to a large international departures, transfers and arrivals system, or component parts thereof. It essential that all of the airlines and handling agents fully endorse the URS during a formal sign-off process as the URS will be a major benchmark performance document from which client satisfaction will be measured from.
U1.2
USER REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION CONTENTS

The following generic contents are typically expected to be seen in a comprehensive baggage URS. Other sub heading topics may be also included, and which should be discussed with the various user groups. As a policy, it is best for all groups to clarify the details associated with at least all of the below listed headings (where appropriate). This will ensure that system handover does not become a functional disappointment, and moreover that documented facts on the performance expectation can be audited. The URS contents must include:
Baggage system performance expectation. Baggage input statement. Baggage system functionality statement. Physical components of baggage handling system. System availability. Baggage travel times. Baggage make up lengths and class separation. System airline interfaces. Baggage reconciliation capability. Baggage tractor types and container types. Baggage tractor battery charging facilities. Container storage facilities. Flight allocation systems and facilities. Processing of oversized baggage.
Each of the headings above is explained in more detail within subsequent clauses U1.2.1 to
571
U1.2.1 Baggage System Performance Expectations

This section of the URS should define rates (peak hour and normal flow) for the specific parts of baggage handling system to be supplied. The peak and normal flow rates in each of the various design years should be stipulated, having first assessed the consolidated flight schedules from each of the airlines. The design life of the system should be defined. This will not always be the maximum possible/achievable for the technology. Some baggage facilities will be short term solutions, designed to merely be used for 1 or 2 seasons to overcome a known forecasted operational difficulty. The design life might alternatively be 15 years. It is important that the performance capabilities of both the overall system and each of its component parts are assessed. The baggage handling system (BHS) should have a capability to process baggage from day one of opening through to the final design year without the need to operationally expand the BHS at some interim point. The BHS design should anticipate the future growth, year on year, which the new BHS should be able to process without system reconfiguration or expansion.
U1.2.2 Baggage Input Statement

The baggage input statement is used to define the agreed size and weight of conveyable and nonconveyable baggage frequented at the specific airport. The sizes and the mass weight of baggage stated in the various categories listed below will be used to size the baggage handling equipment and the user interfaces. IMPORTANT NOTE: The sizes and weights of baggage listed below will vary from airport to airport. The URS author should obtain the airport-Aerminal-specific baggage input statement through consultations with the local airline user group representatives. Standard Gauge Baggage The bag size and weight of standard gauge baggage is generically defined to be:
Length of 450 mm 900 mm. Width of 150 mm 300 mm. Height of 400 mm 750 mm. Mass is 10 kg 60 kg.
Oversized Baggage (OB) Conveyable The bag size and weight of conveyable OB is generically defined to be:
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Non-Conveyable Passenger Hold Baggage The bag size and weight of non conveyable OB is generically defined to be:
Airport Baggage Handling

U1.2.3 Baggage System Functionality Statement
This section defines how each component part of the baggage handling system shall function at a reasonably high usage level. It will, for instance, include statements on how and where baggage should be transferred from landside check-in area(s) to the airside baggage hall, or where transfer baggage is to moved (connected) from one airside apron area to the baggage hall and subsequent aircraft. The full processes in each case should be clearly defined block by block. Functionality statements should allow the baggage handling designer sufficient scope so as to develop a range of options, all of which should meet the airline's operational requirements. An example of an effective functionality statement would be: 'The baggage handling system should be provided with sufficient sortation capacity within the baggage hall to meet with the operational requirements of the airlines, flight separation and class as defined within the agreed flight schedules through to the final design year." The functionality statement should include statements on the type of technology to be used (e.g. biometrics, etc.), but should not detail what models or versions should be used unless it is a legislative
U1.2.4 Physical Components Of Baggage Handling Systems

This section should define the high level component parts of the baggage handling systems to be used. The following component parts could be defined in more detail: Component Part Check-in Redundancy Hold Baggage Screening Early Baggage Store Sortation System Transfer System Oversized Baggage Comments Number of desks; type of units; self service; etc. Service level criteria (See clause U12.1). Legislative screening requirements to be observed by airlines. Storage capacity (store by flight or time or both). Sort rate; technology preference. Definition of handling preference. Definition of handling preference and volumes.
U1.2.5 System Availability

System availability is an important baggage handling system benchmarking tool for the airlines in their contractual relationship with the airport. The correct expression of system availability is essential. It is important to note that all baggage handling system components will more than likely fail one or more times during their often extensive operational periods. It is possible for designers to use baggage handling equipment which is more or less susceptible to failure, and important for airlines and airports to understand and agree upon permissible levels of service that can be achieved and the resultant cost of that reliability. Though not recommended, it is easy to state within a URS document that the availability of the baggage handling system should be 100% reliable and in the event of a failure a fully automated redundancy route should be selected. This availability statement is too onerous. To do this would be virtually impossible and very expensive, requiring almost full duplication of systems. It is preferable to state an achievable reliability rate and operational day cycle, coupled with realistic automated baggage contingency routings in the event of component failure conditions. It should be noted that the reliability of any system is highly reliant on the ability of the operators to use the system within its agreed operating parameters. It is equally important that the BHS is maintained within agreed
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Definition of availability.
S stem Availability /__________Mean Time Before Failure x 100________gg ^ iy o -
fj\ean jj
me
Before Failure + Mean Down Time ~
IMPORTANT NOTE: Down time is measured from the instant that the system capacity falls below an agreed processing X%. For example, the baggage handling systems may have two or more independent faults but still be capable of processing X% of all baggage successfully. The instant the baggage system falls below this agreed target threshold then the down time begins. It is usual to set the X% the same as the redundancy capability % (see clause U2.1). The maximum time required to bring a baggage handling system to full operational use should not exceed:
(a) 15 minutes from a non-operational, serviceable state. (b) 5 minutes from a stand-by state. (c) 60 minutes from a preventive/scheduled maintenance state.
The probability that the system will be available to handle 100 per cent design capacity at any instant during the operating duty cycle should be typically greater than 99%. The probability that the system will be available to handle >75% design capacity at any instant during the operating duty cycle shall be typically greater than 99.9%. The probability that the system will survive an operational year, at the stated usage, without inducing a critical failure, shall be greater than 99.99 per cent. A critical failure is defined to be any fault(s) which render the baggage handling unable to process the agreed service level standard X%. The Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) target for on-line equipment using specified procedures and resources shall not be greater than 30 minutes. Preventive maintenance activities shall not allow the system to fall below 75% design capacity. The total time due to all preventive maintenance activities per month for new equipment should not exceed 40 hours.
U1.2.6 Baggage Travel Times

This section should define the time taken for baggage to travel between critical parts of the airport so as to maintain the operational integrity of the airport operation. The bag travel times should be carefully calculated, as a difference of as little as 30 seconds can often mean a requirement of far more expensive baggage handling equipment. The following table defines some useful generic benchmarks for originating departing and transfer baggage travel times, though variations will naturally occur and should be determined for each airport. Activity Time to Process Check-in to furthest Baggage Hall chute < 9 Minutes (ideal maximum) (Less HBS Level 3 Process Time) Transfer Time Domestic to Domestic Domestic to International International to Domestic International to International Minimum Connecting Time 25 Minutes (Variations will occur) 25 Minutes (Variations will occur) 35 Minutes (Variations will occur) 35 Minutes (Variations will occur)
General loading time for containers placed onto aircraft from an adjacent apron level requires +10 minutes added to the times listed above.
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U1.2.
Baggage Make Up Lengths And Class Separation

The baggage make-up lengths and class separations for the various carriers should be defined so that the sortation system is sufficiently flexible. The tables in clause U2.12.5 define the generic requirements for make lengths. The baggage handling designer should seek to confirm the precise airline requirements, which might vary from these requirements slightly. Issues relating to the ergonomics of this equipment should be provided.
U1.2.
System Airline Interfaces

This section should define all of the interfaces between the airline operators and the baggage handling system equipment. As an example the following interfaces should be considered:

U1.2.
Check-in desk conveyor and weighing operation. Sort allocation computer interface and chute / lateral use. Baggage system display. Emergency and standby control interfaces. Hand held flight scanner interface in baggage hall. Manual coding station operations. Racetrack operations. HBS control routings. Baggage system operation control graphic displays and keyboards. Apron baggage system controls.
Baggage Reconciliation Capability

The departures baggage handling system will require a full functional statement defining where and how the baggage reconciliation system should work. The operational expectations of the reconciliation should be explained, as well as the intent of the provision of the equipment. Issues relating to the ergonomics of this equipment should be provided.
U12.1
Baggage Tractor Types and Container Types

Where it is applicable, it will be necessary to explain the sizes and types of vehicles and containers used to support the baggage handling operation. The volumetric clearances for the equipment should be explained so that vehicle lane heights and widths within the baggage hall can be safeguarded. It is also important to define how the selected containers will be managed and opened within the baggage hall; i.e., whether the containers have fabric sides or hinged sides or both will make a big difference to the permissible clearances between the baggage hall floor and any intermediate or main ceiling. Please refer to Section L4 for further details on baggage hall vehicles and container sizes.
Baggage Tractor Battery Charging Facilities

Where needed, the precise number of charging facilities should be defined and the functional requirements of these facilities described, such as voltage provision and parking orientation and battery tug sizes. If the bays are required to be located close to other airline accommodation then
U1.2.12 Container Storage Facilities

Container storage and dispensing facilities are used in large airports to hold a supply of containers which can be called upon to service outbound aircraft more rapidly. Their use permits the inbound baggage to be off-loaded in parallel to the loading of the outbound baggage in the baggage hall. The sizes and types of containers will need to be described. The storage capacity and the automated input and output rates should be clearly defined.
U 1.2.13 Flight Allocation Systems and Facilities

Flight allocation systems are used by the airlines or handling agents to assign flight numbers to the sortation system chutes or laterals. The size and functions of the operator facilities need to be defined, as do any operational preferences of the airline or handling agent in this area.
U1.2.14 Processing of Oversized Baggage

Oversized Baggage (OB) can be a substantial volume of the departing and transfer baggage volume through a terminal. It is essential to identify what proportion of baggage is likely to be OB and when it is likely to arrive. Any preferences on how the baggage handling system should process OB should be defined.
U1.3
U1.IR1 Use Requirements A URS should be created and signed-off on before any baggage design work is startec
U1 IR2 Contents of the URS The contents of the URS should align to requirements stated within clause 1)1,2,
U1 .IR3 Airline/Handling Agent Acceptance The URS should be developed in close consultation With the airlines, airport operator the ground handling agents. The final version of the URS should be formally endorsed by the airlines, airport operator and the ground handling agents.
and
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DEPARTURES SYSTEMS
SECTION U2: U2.1
BAGGAGE SYSTEMS DESIGN APPROACH

Departures conveyor systems have traditionally been one of the most, if not the most complex airport operational system. It is vital that the composite functions of the departures baggage handling system meet the operational requirements of the airlines and the ground handling agents and the airport operator. The departures baggage system can be a simple manual sortation system, or can be a fully automatic sortation system with integral intelligent hold baggage screening systems, transfer inputs and early baggage stores. Departures baggage handling systems are categorized as detailed below, and should be subsequently provided with the following normal operational and redundancy capabilities: Category A Baggage Handling System Where peak baggage flow rate is envisaged to be < 999bags/hour Peak Type of sortation device possible/recommended: Manual or Automatic Sortation.
Type of sortation device possible/recommended:
Manual Racetrack(s). Automatic Conveyors with Pushers or with Verti-sorters.
System failure redundancy requirement:
Manual Covered safe and secure baggage hall or apron area, twice the size of the racetrack and vehicle space normally provided plus airport operator staff sortation assistance during system downtime.
Automatic Provision of an automatic sortation system capable of processing 50% of isolated peak flow rate at all times. Category B Baggage Handling System Where peak baggage flow is envisaged to be > 1000bags/hour < 4999 bags/hour Peak. Type of sortation device possible/recommended: Automatic Sortation Only.
Type of sortation device possible/recommended: Conveyors with Pushers or with Vertisorters. Tilt Tray Sorter Linear Drives. Type 1 DCV's.
System failure redundancy requirement: Automatic Provision of an automatic sortation system capable of processing 75% of peak flow rate at all times.
Category C Baggage Handling System Where peak baggage flow rate is envisaged to be > 5000 bags/hour Peak
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Type of sortation device possible/recommended: Automatic Multiple Tilt Tray Sorters Type 2 DCV's.
System failure redundancy requirement: Automatic Provision of an automatic sortation system capable of processing 75% of peak flow rate at all times.
U2.1.1 Baggage Design Documents

All categories of airport baggage handling development will need to be accompanied by the following documents. It is necessary and recommended to produce the following baggage system development documentation in the sequence listed below. This documentation will provide confidence that the
Document Title 1. Master Plan Function of Document Establish medium to long term aspirations of baggage handling Having established a business case, the development brief outlines the core functions and location of the proposed To understand and capture airport, airline and ground handlers' operational needs and specific functions. Document to be Written By Specialist Airport Master Planner: e.g. IATA Consulting Airport Operator Document Endorsed By AirlinesAirpo rt Operator Airport Operator/ Airlines/Ground Handlers/Financ e Airport Operator/ Airlines/Ground Handlers Comments Defines staged functionality aspirations of baggage system. This document defines: Transfer % traffic. Departures % traffic. System users. Location. Budget aspirations, etc. This defines items such as: User interfaces. Operational protocols. Airlines/tug and dolly sizes. EBS storage functionality and size. Operator Ergonomics, etc. It does not define conveyor Rates/connecting times between station are defined. Individual conveyors are not defined. This establishes whether the concept can by physically fitted into the building and surrounding infrastructure such as M&E It is important that the baggage handling detail designer/ manufacturer develops the actual final design which must meet the technical and functionality requirements. The detail design should be wholly developed by the baggage system supplier. The functions should completely meet those defined and endorsed by the airlines and ground handling agents and
2. Project Development Brief
3. User Requirement Specification
Airport Operator/ Airlines/Ground Handlers
4. Concept Schematics
5. Feasibility Design 6. Tender Design Package
7. Detail Design
These flow diagrams define functions and responses of the baggage system. They are not Once a Concept Schematic has been endorsed, the production of scaled feasibility options To define: Preferred feasibility solution schematic. Available terminal conveyor space. Technical performance standard specification. Provide national standard on Defines: Final design solution layout. Commissioning Specification. Operational Functional Specification. Baggage System User Maintenance Manual.
Baggage Systems Consultant Designer: e.g. IATA Consulting Baggage Systems Consultant Designer e.g. IATA Consulting Baggage Systems Consultant Designer
Airport Operator/ Airlines/Ground Handlers/Financ e Airport Operator/ Airlines/Ground Handlers/Financ e Airport Operator/ Airlines/Ground Handlers
Baggage System Supplier
Airport Operator/ Finance
The clauses within U2.2 to U2.10 inclusive define the component parts that normally make up a departures baggage handling system. Hold Baggage Screening is discussed within Section U11.
IATA
U2.2

ACCELERATION AND BAG SEPARATION CONVEYORS
U2.2.1 Functionality
Acceleration conveyors have 2 main uses. Type 1 Acceleration Conveyor Used to gradually or relatively rapidly increase the pace of baggage flow through a baggage system. Acceleration conveyors, when used to increase the pace of baggage flow, should have a minimum length of 3 times the typical baggage length from tail roller to head roller. This permits a bag to be accelerated then stabilized on the belt before proceeding to the next conveyor. Bags with wheels or bags which are cylindrical in profile tend to roll if the acceleration rate is too high, so it is essential to have adequate conveyor belt length to limit the effects of bag inertia resulting in rolling baggage. The belt speed is constant and only accelerates to normal running speed during routine startup sequences. It is classified as an acceleration conveyor because it runs at a preferred speed increase of 0.25m/s maximum differential. Higher grip belt surfaces are normally selected and conveyors are preferred to be with no incline or decline. Technical Summary
Minimum length tail roller to head roller: > 3 x maximum bag length. Belt motion: constant speed unless in shutdown, power save modes, or die-back. Head end floor to top of belt: 0.45m (no cascade). Tail end floor to top of belt: 0.45m (no cascade). Belt velocity: 0.1 to 1.5m/s. Belt width: 1.0m to 1.5m. Belt type: high grip. Tracking: not desirable optional dependent on location and conveyor system function.
Type 2 Acceleration Conveyor Used to increase the trailing and leading edge gap between consecutive bags. Acceleration conveyors used to space baggage should be shorter in length, no less than a minimum of 1.5 times the typical baggage length from tail roller to head roller. The belt is often used with a strong braking system which limits belt inertia problems. The conveyor is frequently started and stopped every minute to induce the desired baggage spacing from the proceeding conveyor. The acceleration conveyor obviously accelerates from stop to normal running speed, but the motor and gearbox is not usually a variable speed drive in that it accelerates to a fixed speed when inducing a baggage gap. It runs at a preferred speed increase of 0.25m/s maximum differential from the proceeding conveyor. Large baggage gaps are produced by delaying the proceeding conveyors bag. It is not recommended to have multiple short baggage acceleration conveyors adjacent to one another as baggage stability must not be compromised. Higher grip belt surfaces are normally selected and conveyors are essentially with no incline or decline. Technical Summary
Minimum length tail roller to head roller: > 3 x maximum bag length. Belt motion: stop/start characteristics.
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Tail end floor to top of belt: 0.45 m +/-0.05m for cascade. Belt velocity: 0.1 to 1.5m/s. Belt width: 1.0m to 1.5m. Belt type: high grip.
Tracking: fitted with bag separation detection overhead arrays.
U2.2.2 Layout: Acceleration Conveyor: Types 1 & 2 Figure U2-1: Type 1 Acceleration Conveyor
Motes Conveyor A Could be any length of conveyor Conveyor B and C are Acceleration Conveyors and must be 3 x Typical Baggage Length
Conveyor Velocity M/S
VelC = Vel B + 0.25M/S Vel B = Vel A +0.25M/S Vel A = X M/S
Conveyor Length M
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Figure U2-2: Type 2 Acceleration Conveyor

Conveyor A Could be any length of conveyor Conveyor B and C are Acceleration Conveyors and must be 1.5 Baggage Length Conveyor B can be stopped to induce larger bag gaps. Conveyor C is the pull away conveyor.
Notes
Typical
Conveyo r Velocity M/S

VelC =
Conveyor A
Conveyo r B
Conveyo r C
VeJ B + 0.25M/S VelA =VelB = X M/S
Any Length
l.5
x
Bag
a 1.5
x
Length
Bag
Length
Conveyor Length M
U2.3
DE-ACCELLERATION CONVEYORS
The de-acceleration conveyor is used to slow the pace of baggage flow. As a bag is transferred from a higher speed conveyor onto a de-acceleration conveyor the speed is reduced ideally by a maximum of 0.25m/s per transfer. The speed of the de-acceleration conveyor is kept constant outside of normal routine shutdown and power save modes. Higher grip belt surfaces are normally selected and conveyors are essentially free from declines. In some instances inclines of no more than 8 degrees to the horizontal maybe permitted as this more rapidly reduces the inertia of baggage and baggage momentum/kinetic energy is better absorbed. Technical Summary:
Minimum length tail roller to head roller: > 3 x maximum bag length. Belt motion: constant speed unless in shutdown, power save modes, or die-back. Head end floor to top of belt: 0.45m +/-0.075m for cascade. Tail end floor to top of belt: 0.45 m +/-0.075m for cascade. Belt velocity: 0.1 to 1.5m/s. Belt width 1.0m to 1.5m. Belt type: higher grip than normal. Tracking: not desirable or optional dependent on location and conveyor system function.
U2.3.2 Layout: De-acceleration Conveyors Figure U2-3: Typical De-Acceleration Conveyor

Conveyor A Could be any length of conveyor Conveyor B and C are De-acceleration Conveyors and must be 3 x Typical Baggage Length
Notes
Conveyo r Velocity M/S Vel A = XM/S Ve)B = Vel A -0.25M/S VelC = Vel -0.25M/S
Conveyor Length M
U2.4
INCLINE AND DECLINE CONVEYORS
The main purpose of incline and decline conveyors is to permit baggage to flow from one level to another in a controlled and safe manner within a baggage system complex. Incline and decline conveyors must have appropriate slopes of no more than 18 degrees to the horizontal, though this is an absolute maximum. It is preferred and recommended that incline and decline conveyors should have a slope of no more than 16 degrees. Baggage is retained statically on the belt purely due to the down force exerted by the mass of the bag and its contents, coupled with its often unique frictional characteristics. Baggage types must not be permitted to roll down declines or fall back on incline conveyors. Incline and decline conveyors should be fitted with high grip belts. Raised profile grooves designed not to damage baggage labels or bags should be considered. Incline conveyors can be fitted with a mid position apex roller. These conveyors are kept at a constant running speed unless in shut down, power save or in a worst case die-back mode of operation. Technical Summary:
Minimum length tail roller to head roller incline (no apex): > 1.5 x maximum bag length. Minimum length tail roller to head roller incline (with apex): > 3 x maximum bag length.
Minimum length tail roller to head roller decline (no apex): > 3 x maximum bag length. Minimum length tail roller to head roller decline (with apex): > 3 x maximum bag length. Belt motion: constant speed unless in shutdown, power save modes, or die-back. Head end floor to top of belt: 0.45m +/-0.075m for cascade. Tail end floor to top of belt: 0.45 m +/-0.075m for cascade. Belt velocity: 0.1 to 1.5m/s. Belt width 1.0m to 1.5m. Belt type: higher grip than normal. Raised profile grip faces optional and subject to location requirements. Tracking: not desirable or optional dependent on location and conveyor system function.
U2.4.2 Incline Conveyor Layouts Figure U2-4: Incline Conveyor (With Apex)
Head End
Length >3 x Maximum Bag Dim ^--------------------------------------------------------pCross Section through Typical Incline (With Apex)
Denotes Conveyor Drive
Figure U2-5: Incline Conveyor (Without Apex)
Head End
0.45m +/0.075
Drive Locations should be Varied To Assist Maintenance Head End
Cross Section through Incline (No Apex)

^X^ Denotes Conveyor Drive
Typical
Figure U2-6: Decline Conveyor (With Apex)

Tail End
0.45m +/0.075
Cross Section through Typical Decline (With Apex)

Drive Locations should be Varied To Assist Maintenance Head End Biased
Figure U2-7: Decline Conveyor (No Apex)

Tail End
0.45m +/0.075
Cross Section through Typical Incline (No Apex)
Drive Locations should be Varied To Assist Maintenance Head End Biased
U2.5
QUEUING CONVEYORS
Queuing conveyors should be used to smooth flows and act as controlling buffer. The precise number to select in a system is often a task for simulation as their use is heavily reliant on the baggage delivery profile. Typical uses include: (i) Prior to line merges or junctions. (ii) Prior to and during Hold Baggage Screening (HBS). (Hi) Prior to line diverts verti-sorters, ploughs, pushers. (iv) Prior to Bar code reader bag separation conveyors. (v) Prior to sorter injection points. (vi) Prior to bag removal points. (vii) Used as flight make-up lateral components. Clearly this type of conveyor can be used in many locations, and thus the number of queuing conveyors in a system can easily become a major contributor to the total cost of the system. It is therefore essential to balance the advantages and disadvantages of using queuing conveyors. The typical advantages include:
Ability to be more resilient to fluctuations in baggage arrival profile. Line flow profiles (peaks) can be managed out. Check-in rates can be maximized. Line flows can be synchronized at merge points. HBS input can be controlled though acceleration/bag separation conveyors as required.
HBS inspection times can be dramatically improved giving rise to manpower savings. Divert flows can be synchronized. Bar code flows can be managed more effectively. Injection of baggage onto tilt tray or DCV sorters can be synchronized.
The typical disadvantages include: Capital expenditure of extensive mechanical, electrical and controls. Higher power consumption year on year. Higher and more frequent maintenance. Reduction in system reliability. More space requirement.
Technical Summary: Minimum length tail roller to head roller: > 1.5 x maximum bag length. Maximum length tail roller to head roller: < 2.5 x maximum bag length. Belt motion: stop/ start characteristics. Head end floor to top of belt: 0.45m +/-0.075m for cascade. Tail end floor to top of belt: 0.45 m +/-0.075m for cascade. Belt velocity: 0.1 to 1.0m/s. Belt width: 1.0m to 1.5m. Belt type: higher grip than normal (dependent on application/function). Tracking: must be present. Though usually only through photocell bag detection.
ATA
U2.5.2 Layout Queuing Conveyors
Figure U2-8: Typical Queuing Conveyor

Queuing Conveyors
PE C ^ Conveyor A
PEC
PEC
c
Conveyor C <-------------------
Conveyor B
Logic
Event I Step 11st Bag Breaks PEC A beam & Holds Step la CS confirms if Conveyor B Clear then releases Event II Step 2 2nd Bag Breaks PEC A beam & Holds Step 2a CS confirms if Conveyor B Clear then releases Event HI Step 3 3rd Bag wants to load onto Conveyor A Step 3a CS confirms if Conveyor A Clear Step 3b 3rd Bag proceeds onto Conveyor 1st BAG
2nd BAG
1st BAG
3rd BAG
2nd BAG
1st BAG
NOTE 'CS'Denotes Control System NOTE 'PEC Denotes Photo Electric Cell
U2.6
VERTI-SORTATION CONVEYORS
Verti-sortation devices are used to separate or combine baggage flows, though the latter function is a less commonplace usage. Baggage can be dynamically separated such that 2 bags travelling in succession can have 2 separate output destinations following routing through a verti-sorter used in separation mode. Similarly a verti-sorter used in merge mode can take 2 separate inputs and merge to a single output route following routing through a verti-sorter conveyor. Verti-sorter conveyors are particularly useful where vertical space is more available than lateral space. The verti-sorter is also very useful in HBS installations because it imparts smaller forces on the bags than other comparable diversion equipment, particularly useful if you are using the device within an HBS zone where bags are being subjected to screening for potential explosives. The cycle time for verti-sorters is comparable to a high speed pusher. Equipment typically uses 3 conveyors within an assembly.
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Technical Summary:
Minimum length tail roller to head roller single unit within device: > 1.5 x maximum bag length Sort rate: 40-50 bags/minute. Belt motion: constant speed unless in shutdown, power save modes, or die-back. Belt width: 1.0m to 1.5m. Belt velocity: 0.1 to 0.75m/s. Belt type: normal. Tracking: must be present. Guarding: must be present and interlocked to conveyor operation.
U2.6.2 Layout The Verti-Sorter Unit Figure U2-9: Typical Verti-Sorter Unit
Elevation on VertiSorter through A-A Lower Route Selected
Plan on Verti-Sorter
Flow Maybe
Direction
Denotes Safe Guarded f-f-+ Radial Distance to Machinery 1.0m
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U2.7
HIGH SPEED PUSHER
The high speed pusher is designed to permit baggage to be diverted horizontally to one of two directions. The forces upon baggage can be considerable and this is where damage on baggage or labels, if any, usually occurs. It is good practice to limit the number of these units to a minimum and to have them located downstream from bar code reader devices and Hold Baggage Screening (HBS) cleared baggage output flows. The reasons for this are: (i) label damage can be inflicted by high speed pushers and resultant read rates can become compromised; and (ii) Baggage which has not been cleared by HBS processes potentially could contain explosives with sensitive electronics that could be activated. High speed pushers should be used to divert baggage which has cleared HBS and which has had (if used) automatic flight information from the bar code labels read already. Pushers are fitted across baggage conveyors with varying degrees of baggage tracking sophistication. Bag tracking is essential to activate the pusher at a time which ensures that the centroid point of the bag is established with varying bag lengths and weights. High speed pushers are useful in applications where alternate bags in a stream on a single conveyor need to be separated without stopping the flow of baggage in any way. Bag pushers should be the second technical choice to the designer (the first choice should be the verti-sorter device, as they generally inflict less damage to baggage). Verti-sorter devices are more flexible in that it is possible to site a verti-sorter anywhere within a baggage system. There are essentially 2 types of high speed pusher: Type 1 Four bar link. Type 2 The spiral cam. Both units perform with similar speed and efficiency, though the spiral cam tends to inflict less damage on baggage and be more reliable due to its mechanical configuration. Both units are sources of baggage snagging. It is important to have realistic expectations of these units in terms of their sorting capacity. Technical summary high speed pusher:
Sort rate: maximum 60 bags/minute (factory conditions) 40 bags/minute (operationally commonplace). Function: can sort alternative bags or can batch process by constant cycle repetition.
U2.7.2 Layout Pusher Arrangements Figure U2-10: Four Bar Link High Speed Pusher
Figure U2-11: Spiral Cam High Speed Pusher
U2.8
SLOW SPEED PLOUGH
The slow speed plough has 2 main operational functions: (i) To permit redundancy route selection. (ii) To permit batch processed baggage to be redirected. It can also be used as an intermittent route divert mechanism, in much the same manner as a high speed pusher, though if used in this mode the line flow rate must be significantly restricted as the cycle time on a slow speed plough can become an issue. It is not recommended to use the slow speed plough as a device to intermittently dived baggage, since line flow rates usually increase and replacement of the slow plough by a high speed pusher occurs well before the design expectancy of the equipment. Slow speed ploughs vary in precise design depending on the manufacturer, but the main difference is that some models have powered belts on the contact surface which is mounted perpendicular to the normal delivery line belt. When used as batch process route selection device it is essential to have the adequate number of queuing conveyors located upstream of the slow speed plough. This ensures that the plough is permitted adequate time to perform its cycle of activities before the next batch of baggage is presented to its path. Technical summary slow speed plough:
Activation rate: single vertical mounted plough conveyor, typically 5 alternate route selections/
minute.
Activation rate: dual split vertical mounted plough conveyors, typically 30 alternate route
selections/ minute. operation.
Function: can sort alternative bags with low flow rates or usually batch process by single cycle
Tracking: not necessary in all applications. Guarding: must be present and interlocked to conveyor operation. High speed ploughs can typically produce a rate of 25 alternate route selections per minute.
Afofe:
U2.8.2 Layout Slow Speed Plough Figure U2-12: Typical Slow Speed Plough
-<s
Optional Conveyor Some Units Steel Vertical are Just '
Baggag e Batch B Route Selectio
U2.9
45 AND 90 DEGREE POWERED BELT BENDS
Powered belt conveyor bends provide a useful means for smoothly changing the direction of baggage. The 45 and 90 degree conveyor bends are most common, though it is possible to have custom-bent conveyors provided (at a premium price). The mechanisms for belt removal should be carefully observed to ensure that the correct device is selected and that its maintenance characteristics meet with the requirements of the baggage system designer and operational team. Powered belt bends should be the first choice for the baggage system designer with respect to T and V junction beltto-belt perpendicular transfers. The reason for this is that the belt-to-belt T and 'L' junctions tend to snatch baggage as it dramatically changes its direction through 90 degrees. Baggage, and more significantly bag bar code labels, can become torn or damaged affecting automatic read rates. It is possible to obtain powered belt incline and decline (spiral) conveyors, though with these conveyors it is often very difficult to replace the belts. Technical summary:
Minimum recommended radius of centerline (1.5m width belt) = 1.775m. Minimum recommended radius of centerline (1.0m width belt) = 1.525m. Belt motion: constant speed unless in shutdown, power save modes, or die-back. Head end floor to top of belt: 0.45m +/-0.075m for cascade. Tail end floor to top of belt: 0.45 m +/-0.075m for cascade. Belt velocity: 0.1 to 1.5m/s.
iata

Belt width 1 .Om to 1.5m. Belt type: normal grip.
Tracking: optional dependent on location and conveyor system function. Tracking on bends can be made very accurate.
U2.9.2 Layout Powered Bend Conveyors Figure U2-13: Typical Powered Belt Bend
90 and Bend 45 Degree
Center Line Radius Max 1775 (1.5M Width) Min 1525 (1.0M
Belt Belt
U2.10 ACCUMULATION ROLLER CONVEYORS (POWERED AND FREE UNITS) U2.10.1 Functionality
Accumulation roller conveyors can be a very effective way of managing baggage flow, most commonly at the output of a baggage system alongside baggage handling staff. It is possible to use accumulation roller conveyors at a mid-point location in a baggage system, typically within an early baggage store. Accumulation conveyors are used mainly within manned locations. It is possible to have accumulation roller conveyors with powered sections throughout which are engaged by the control system to ensure that baggage does not stagnate on sections of rollers for too long. Accumulation roller conveyors are not particularly good at processing soft baggage. Most commonly accumulation roller conveyors have sections with the ability to induce power to selective rollers when a weight is placed onto the rollers. It should be noted that powered and free conveyors are more hazardous than totally free rolling roller conveyors because entrapment risk is more likely. Powered and free accumulation roller conveyors consequently are not preferred, because to safeguard against entrapment is both difficult and costly due to multiple entrapment points. In all cases, particularly with powered and free conveyors, adequate hand-safe guarding should be provided as an integral part of the design. The major advantage with powered accumulation conveyors is that, over long accumulation lengths, baggage handling staff do not need to walk up and down the length of the roller conveyor to enable them to reach the bag and then deposit it within the correct parked container. Accumulation
593

Technical summary:
Minimum length of roller length > 3 x maximum bag length. Minimum pitch between powered and free section rollers 1.5x maximum bag length. Powered roller motion: power engaged when bag present on powered roller section. Powered roller velocity: 0.1 0.3m/s. Head end floor to top of roller: 0.45m +/-0.075m for cascade. Tail end floor to top of roller: 0.45 m +/-0.075m for cascade. Roller width 1.0m to 1.5m. Roller surface: aluminum or stainless steel. Tracking: optional.
U2.10.2 Layout Powered and Free Accumulation Conveyors Figure U2-14: Conveyors Typical Accumulation
Powered and Free Accumulation Conveyor

STAGE
1
Head End
Bag weight DOES engage rollers onto powered drive mechanism
^3
DOollllOOOOOn
STAGE 2
Head End
Bag weight does NOT engage rollers onto powered drive mechanism
>
Rollers With Power Availability
O Totally Free Running Rollers
594
U2.11 CHECK-IN SYSTEMS

The following types of domestic and International check-in desks are commonly found for the processing of hold baggage only. To determine the number of check-in desk conveyors that are required to process busy hour demand, the following calculation should be undertaken: To calculate: Units:
CD
When
Baggage Design Flow Rate
Bags/Min,^,,
(D
=
Pax Rate During Peak Hour (Refer to Chapter C Clause C2.3.1)
Pax/Hour Ratio N/A
Bags Per Pax Ratio
Recommend: Ask Airline Users
Bags/Min = Peaking Factor Flat Peak Hour Duration = 1.00 Medium Peaking within Peak Hour = 1.25 Frequent Peaking within Peak Hour = 1.50 = Then Bags/Mina,,,^ 0 x Ratio N/A
(D
Bags/Min
The value Bags/Mine,,,,,,should then be compared against what is possible to be processed by the proposed number of check-in desks Bags/Mln , .i onveyors. . To calculate \w) The check-in conveyor capability Then using ...
Ch ek C
(D
*
No of check-in desk positions proposed = Pax Processing Time @ Check-in Typical Values include Very High Security - 600 seconds Medium SecurityA/IP = 150 seconds International Desks = 120 seconds Domestic Desks = 90 seconds
No. of Desks Seconds
(D =
Controlled Event Discharge (CED) Effectiveness Ratio 0.9 Option 1 CED (See Fig U2-18) 0.95 Option 2 CED (See Fig U2-19) 0.80 Option 3 CED (Random injection onto collector belt)
Ratio N/A
BagS/MIn
check-
In principle > . If it is not then you must change one or more of the variables or such that this condition is met
(D
U2.11.1 VIP Check-in Facility

These facilities are commonly not served by conveyors. They have only baggage weighing and ticket labelling facilities. Depending on the volume of VIPs through the terminal they are fitted with dedicated
Figure U2-15: VIP Check-In Facility

VIP Check-in and Arrivals.
Red VIP Position
Searc h
Area (Not a Custom s Red Channel Customs Green Channel In Bound Bag Reclaim
Weigh Scale Conveyor) Land-side / Air-side Boundary
Automatic Metal Detection Arch Wide Secure Door For Disabled Passenger and Infant Entry Passenger Metal Object Desk Position Passenger Search Staff Check-in Staff Position Issue Bag Ticket Pax Boarding Pass & Immigration
Immigratio n & Customs Staff Position

VIP Check-in Operational Process: Step
1 Passenger taken by dedicated transport to dedicated VIP facility and approaches desk
facility. Airline/Passenger Profiling Questions asked and Passengers Answers Given. Process Duration Min 20-30secs. VIP's baggage placed on weigh scales and weighed (not a conveyor). Process Duration 10-20secs. VIP's baggage license plate label printed and affixed to baggage. Process Duration 10-20secs.
Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Step 5 (Optional) Baggage security screened through EDS (either locally or sent to central main baggage hall) Process Duration 30-60secs (locally fitted EDS process time given includes load and unload time). Step 6 Process End for Baggage.
VIP Check-in Control System Common Logic: Links are only made between label issuing equipment and DCS. Possible further links include (i) biometric databases, and (ii) EDS equipment image data.
U2.112. Self Service Check-in

The most common type of self service check-in are free standing units which handle e-ticket details or processes hardcopy tickets. The facility will issue boarding passes and instruct the passenger how and where to process your baggage, which is usually a separate manned area with conveyor system in-feed. Some self service check-in facilities have both this functionality and the ability to process baggage without the check-in operator. In addition to this some self service check-in facilities have biometric verification capability and will permit links to various security and immigration databases. The facility below uses easy-to-use technology to permit the passenger to check-in one of more pieces of their baggage into a minor or major BHS operation without a check-in operator. The overall minimum to maximum process time difference for a self service check-in desk is larger than for manned check-in desks. This is due to the large variance in the ability of passengers to respond appropriately to commands, and the level of familiarity with the systems being used by the passenger.
597

Figure U2-16: Self Service Check-In Facility with Optional Biometric and Conveyor
Photo courtesy of Fabricom Airport Systems & PaSec Operational process: Step 1 Step 2 Passenger approaches self service check-in kiosk with physical ticket or e-ticket details. Passenger inserts ticket or e-ticket details. Process duration 5
Step 2a Optional biometric passenger data captured. Process duration 5 sees. Step 2b Biometric data analysed. Process duration 10 sees. Step 3 Step 4 Airline/passenger profiling questions asked and passengers answers given. Process duration 30 sees. Optional passenger places passport on the screen. Process duration 10 sees.
Step 4a Passport data validated from central database. Process duration 10 sees. Step 5 Step 6 Baggage license plate label printed and affixed to baggage by passenger. Process duration 10 sees. Optional passenger asked to place baggage item(s) onto conveyor system. Process duration 10 sees.
598
Step 6a Confirmation of number of pieces of luggage. If 0-1 items of luggage per passenger step 7 else step 5. Step 7 Process end for baggage.
Control System Common Logic Links are made to the DCS system and the bar code label printer. Links are optionally made to immigration and security databases in the event that biometric and passport data is to be verified.
U2.11.3 High Security Check-in

Check-in areas which operate high security protocols should use the main conventional conveying equipment and system interfaces. It is possible, for example, to have high security check-in operations at normal and remote check-in facilities. The high security element involves either up-to 100% of the passenger profiling questions being implemented, access at check-in to national and international security databases including passport control, or else biometric databases. Although recent and significant security advances in self service check-in desks are evident, it is historically more common for the high security operations to be conventional manned check-in desks. Baggage that has been checked-in by high risk passengers should be clearly identified within the control system of the baggage handling system. The baggage handling systems should be able to link the profile data captured from check-in and provide this information to the baggage control system such that it will be possible to interface with the baggage security system effectively. A passenger's profile data should be presented to airport security, airport police and airport immigration services as soon as technically possible. The objective should be to share security data such that higher risk passengers are screened more rigorously while low risk passengers are permitted the normal rapid access, but still within the legislative requirements. Operational Process The operational process as described within clause 2.10.6 of this document should be referred to with the inclusion of the following additional process times: Step XI Passenger asked a series of security questions designed to ascertain level of terrorism threat potential. Step X2 Passenger responds to questions. Step X3 Hold baggage is bar coded as higher security baggage and referred to appropriate baggage screening area within baggage hall. Step X4 Passenger passport is verified either manually or automatically against immigration and national and international security databases. Step X5 Passenger is issued with coded boarding pass and identified as higher or normal risk passenger. Control System Logic The control system onhigh security check-in facilities would typically include the usual links to DCS
U2.11.4 Airport Remote Rail Head/Hotel Check-in

These facilities adopt the same processes and technology as check-in systems within the terminal complex whether it be standard conventional or high security check-in. The main difference with these facilities is that they are remote from the terminal complex and that hold baggage screening is normally only completed once the baggage has been collected and transferred to the terminal complex. Baggage checked which has been profiled and deemed to be very high risk can and should be removed before transfer to the terminal complex and dealt with locally and appropriately using appropriate secure protocols and equipment. This is not always practical since some remote areas include hotel complexes, which are not versed or equipped with the technicalities associated with baggage threat issues. Operational Process The operational processes are consistent with standard conventional, self service and high security check-in facilities. The major additional process is that of the following: Step X1 Collection from remote check-in area. Step X2 Transfer from remote facility to terminal complex. Process duration (5minut.es to 2 hours typically). Step X3 Unload baggage onto terminal complex in-feed. Control System Logic The remote check-in facilities can accommodate both DCS logic connection and bar code label printing facilities. Remote facilities rarely include EDS data links, because the connection time between remote and terminal complex locations are such that baggage screened at remote locations can be interfered with during steps X1 to X3.
U2.11.5 Transfer (Airside) Check-in

Transfer baggage check-in facilities are typically located airside. The primary objective is to enable passengers that are in transit on the airport complex to check-in for connecting flights without the necessity to go landside. In the context of the baggage system, the objective of the check-in facility is to confirm the connecting flight destination and inform the DCS of how to process the baggage in transfer which has been reclaimed by the passenger (from the previous flight or already within the baggage system). Please refer to Section U3, Transfer Systems, for further details. IMPORTANT: The DCS should be configured such that it can detect and identify baggage processed from check-in or from a transferring flight (where the transfer bag has been checked in locally and a new tag assigned) and the corresponding passenger boarding pass has to be correctly received at the gate with a complete alignment of data from the baggage label and the boarding pass. It is essential for the DCS to make this link. If a passenger has loaded a bag into a baggage system and has not boarded the aircraft by the flight closure time, the DCS must clearly make those passengers known to the airline baggage handlers, airline security and airport security. The airline and airport must remove any bag from the flight if the corresponding passenger cannot be located. Operational Process
Control System Logic The control system logic is consistent with standard, conventional, self service and high security check-in facilities. The transfer check-in desk commonly has links to the main terminal baggage hall DCS, and has the capability to print bar code labels. It is possible to map passenger biometric data to EDS bag content image data, though it is not commonplace at time of this printing. Transfer baggage system control logic should, in accordance with IATA resolution 709 and 1745, Baggage Transfer Messages (BTM's), be sent between airport/terminal DCS systems to permit the reconciliation of transfer passenger baggage inventories between connecting airports.
U2.11.6 Standard Concourse Check-in Facilities

This is the most commonplace check-in arrangement used within the departures concourse. The facilities often comprise the following components: 0) Check-in counter.
(ii) Desk control panel including CUTE displays. (iii) DCS display. (iv) Weighing conveyor, incorporating scales or stand alone scales. (v) Label conveyor. (vi) Dispatch conveyors. (vii) Label printing facilities. The desk is typically brought on-line when the key switch and password are entered by the checkin staff. Once energized, the desk is then able to accept baggage into the system via the collector belt. The baggage control system should identify those desks which have not been operating for more than 10 minutes. Any desk which has not been in operation for more than 10 minutes should be disabled from the main baggage system until such time as the password from an authorised checkin operator has been entered. It should not be possible to dispatch a bag into the main baggage system by an unauthorised person, either manually or automatically. Operational Process (Process description for Weight/Label/Dispatch configuration of conveyors) Step 1 Passenger desk. Process approaches duration check-in 3-5
Step 2 Passenger asked to provide flight ticket and passports Passenger provides documents. Staff update DCS system. Process duration 5-10 sees. Step 3 Passenger asked security baggage questions Passenger asked how many pieces of luggage to check-in. Label(s) are printed and DCS updated. Jump to step 8 if passenger has no baggage to check-in. Process duration 30 sees. Step 4 Passenger asked to load one bag onto weigh conveyor or scale check-in staff weigh bag. Process duration 10-15 sees. Step 5 Check-in staff press the weigh conveyor MOVE LOAD button on the control console. Bag on weigh conveyor gets conveyed to label conveyor assuming label conveyor is empty. Process sees. duration 5-10
Step 6
Passenger asked to load next bag of their belongings then repeat step 4 as necessary Jump to next step if only one bag per passenger evident. Process duration 5-10 sees. Check-in staff label the bag and press the label conveyor MOVE LOAD button on the control console. Bag on label conveyor gets conveyed to dispatch conveyor. Process duration 10-15 sees.
Step 7
Step 8
Process end.
Figure U2-17: Check-In Process

Standard Check-in Process XX |
x x|
Ste p3
Denotes Physical Action Denotes Communicati on
XX
x x || x x
Step 5
Step 1 &
XX XX
Ste p4
J XX1 11
___
Step
6
Control System Takes Over
Control System Logic
Ste p7
Ste p8
The control system is commonly linked to the DCS and BHS MIS displays. Biometric and passenger tracking databases are also linked when required, enabling passenger-to-bag tracking throughout the terminal if and where deemed required and appropriate. The latter is technically possible though not operationally commonplace.
IATA
U2.11.7 Collector Conveyor
The collector conveyor is the most important conveyor in the whole system. It resides beyond the dispatch conveyors and effectively sets the flow rate of the rest of the system. Excluding the cart based check-in systems there are essentially three types of collector conveyor options: Option 1 Collector Belt Window Allocation 1/1 to 1/X In this mode the collector belt is split into lengths known as windows. These are not real belt splits but are merely lengths of space on the conveying belt media which the control system recognizes are present in real time. The check-in desks inject baggage from the dispatch conveyors into the collector belt windows when they are available. As you progress down the length of the collector belt the probability of obtaining a free window progressively and linearly decreases see Fig U2-18 below. This is not the optimum configuration in terms of window allocation.
Figure U2-18: Collector Belt Controlled Event Discharge Opt 1

Standard Check-in Process Controlled Event Discharge Option 1 Collector Belt Window Allocation 1/1 to 1/X
[3] 3rd Bag In Sequence to be Checked-in (2] 2nd Bag In Sequence to be Checked-in [I] 1st Bag In Sequence to be Checked-in X - Denotes number of Check-in Desk Positions Bag Window Generator Position
Probability of Obtaining Dispatch Window
Option 2 Collector Belt Window Allocation 1/2 to 1/X/2) This operates with the same principle as Option 1, except in that as the windows are generated from the tail end of the collector conveyor in the control system, every other window is left clear. These clear, free windows or slots are then allocated to the second half of the collector belt. The advantage of this mode of operation is that the check-in desk wait times as you progress down the length of the collector belt from tail to head end are reduced considerably See Figure U2-19.
Desk Position j Relative to CED' Window Allocation
603

Figure U2-19: Collector Belt Controlled Event Discharge Opt 2
Standard Check-in Process Controlled Event Discharge Option 2 -Collector Belt Window Allocation 1/2 to l/(X/2)
Window []] 1st Bag In Sequence to be Checked-in X - Denotes number of Check-in Desk Positions NOTE: EVERY OTHER WINDOW IS KEPT FREE FOR SECOND BATCH OF CHECK-IN
[D 3rd Bag In Sequence to be Checked-in [H 2nd Bag In Sequence to be Checked-in
Bag Generator Position DESKS
-------N
Position! Option 3 Desk I
1/7 Probabilit y of Obtainin g tt- Dispatch Window
Relative to ; where there is no controlled event discharge, and baggage injection from the dispatch This CEDis conveyors to collector conveyors is controlled on a random basis rather than by calculating free space. Window Allocation Commonly, the collector belt is fitted with photocells before each check-in desk injection point so as to avoid baggage jams. When this cheaper solution of dispatch-to-collection-belt-injection is adopted, the check desks closest to the head end of the collector belt have unreasonable processing times when operating in busy periods. This is not a recommended solution.
U2.12.1 Primary Sortation
The primary sorter is used to ensure: (i) Baggage is moved to the correct zone in the building as quickly as possible. (ii) Baggage is sent to HBS equipment in the most effective manner (load sharing). (iii) Baggage which will dwell within the system for longer than 2 hours can be routed to an Early Baggage Store (EBS). (iv) Baggage is sent to a fast track router with HBS to enable rapid flight connections. The equipment used to achieve this functionality maybe a tilt tray sorter or a conventional conveyor fitted with either pushers or verti-sorters, or less commonly DCV equipment.
604
IATA

Primary sortation is optional, though recommended to provide greater flexibility of both equipment and operational resources particularly in larger airport operations. The primary sorter in smaller airports may be a conventional conveyor fitted with high speed pushers or high speed verti-sorters. It is possible to use certain DCV equipment even in small airports as part of a larger, longer term development strategy to use DCVs as airport traffic grows. The primary sorter in larger airports (See Fig U2-20) maybe a linear drive sorter or DCV. DCV equipment should be used in larger airports to take full advantage of the high speed connection times they provide. Fig U2-20 below incorporates a DCV terminal-wide system to both deliver departing baggage to aircraft and retrieve arriving and transferring baggage. The advantages of conveying baggage to and from the apron area using DCV technology directly are:
Airline costs for moving baggage to and from the aircraft would be considerably reduced. Airside traffic and management costs are dramatically reduced. Apron safety is dramatically improved. Baggage connection times are much more predictable.
Figure U2-20: Primary Sorter and DCV Distribution Schematic Diagram (REDUNDANCY NOT SHOWN)
ARRIVALS Large Airport Potential Configuration Shown with Automated Departures & Arrivals System DEPARTURES
N A
Final Transfer Destination Connection Reclaim Reclaim'
_U____U____L_L
Check-in Concourse
ID'.
Primary Sortation
DCV I Zone 6 North West Apron Make Up Zone 8 Transfer On-load
Zone 2 HBS
Zone 5 Core Baggage Sortation Bar Code or RF
Zone 3 North East Apron Make Up

Zone 4 South East Apron Make Up
Zone 7 South West Apron Make Up
605
U2.12.2 The Linear Drive Sorter

This unit can be used for primary HBS of secondary flight sortation purposes. The linear drive sorter should be the preferred option over chain driven variants. Due to their increased reliability and quieter operation. The availability of a single linear drive sorter should at least be 99.98% available with a MTBF of 2000 hours and a corresponding MTTR of no greater than 30 Minutes. These figures can be achieved by using modular components on a linear sorter which can be rapidly removed and replaced. The linear drive power inducement provides energy efficient movement of trays with low noise and reduced mechanical moving parts.
Figure U2-21: Linear Drive Sorter
Image courtesy of Fabricom Airport Systems Operational Process Linear drives and even chain driven variants should be provided with load detection monitoring software. This will ensure that operating current is provided at the correct level to ensure that the speed of the sorter is maintained at the same speed irrespective of how many actual bags (varying loads) are residing on the sorter. The benefit of this system is that when baggage flows are low the energy consumption of the sorter is reduced (as the load is reduced). The control logic should continually learn to improve its performance automatically by detecting load variations and recommending maintenance intervals to counter monitored negative variance in performance of the DCV equipment. Tilt Tray Sorter Induction Process The induction process should be designed to permit maximum throughput onto the sorter. It is important to place the induction units at the correct pitch as recommended by the manufacturer. This distance between consecutive induction units can vary from 3m to 7m according to manufacturer and type of placement. It is important to understand the perceived flow through each induction so as to ensure that all induction units have a realistic chance of injecting baggage onto the sorter. Do not expect too much from a sorter in terms of its ability to process multiple types of baggage. While it is possible to use a single sorter to process departures baggage and transfers baggage and even arrival baggage, this will push the sorter to the operational limits of its capabilities. Small variations in flow with a sorter with multiple induction units may restrict induction input considerably. It is better to have smaller separate sorters rather than one very larger sorter.
There are three types of title tray sorter induction: (I) Side 30 degree; (ii) Side 45 Degree; and (iii) Overhead. The most common is the 30 degree side induction and this is preferred technically since the dynamic forces of the bag on the induction conveyors more closely matches that of the sorter it is trying to merge with. Settings to remember when designing a tilt tray sorter system are:
Keep the distance between induction units aligned with manufactures recommendations.
Use the minimum possible number of induction assemblies whilst still achieving the desired level of system redundancy. Be realistic in terms of mixing flows of baggage and allocate a separate departures and transfer sorter rather than a single very large sorter for all flows. Where an Early Baggage Store is required try to provide a separate sorter for managing this flow. Keep inclines and declines as shallow as possible as this can induce premature mechanical wear.
Figure U2-22: Typical Side Induction Arrangement
Injection
Conveyor
Synchronisation Check Conveyor
Synchronisation Conveyor
Queue Conveyor #1 Queue Typical technical summary (variation according to manufacturer will occur):
Tray pitch 750mm=>1200mm. Bend radii min 2.3 metres. Totally enclosed track. Cable routing built into track design. Linear motor drive. Maximum single tray load 60kg. Maximum single tray size 900x750x900mm.
Conveyor #2
Minimum baggage size 75x75x25. Maximum linear speed 2m/sec. Maximum incline angle 150. Noise level 70dba measured from 3m from sorter. Induction angles 30 and 45
U2.12.3 Flight Sortation

Where a primary sorter is used, the flight sortation process is also known as the 'Secondary Sortation' process. Functionality: The flight sortation process should enable originating or transfer baggage which has been cleared through HBS to be routed automatically to the correct make-up, whether it be a flight chute, lateral or racetrack. The principle steps to flight sortation are straightforward: => Step 1 => Step 2 => Step 3 Identify the bag and its position within the baggage system via bar code or via radio frequency (RFID) tag. Monitor or track the bag through the system using a robust tracking philosophy. Dispatch or sort the tracked baggage to the correct flight make-up.
Sorter media maybe either a linear drive tilt tray linked sorter or DCV, or even conventional conveyor with high speed pushers or verti-sorters. Selection of sorting device is dependent upon:
Baggage flow. System reliability requirements. Baggage size and weight.
U2.12.3.1 Flight Identification Flight identification labels may be of the bar code or RFID label standard as defined by IATA resolutions 1740b and 1740c respectively. Bar code labels permit the airlines to both define and monitor useful data pertaining to the passenger and the flight. Their technology shows its limitations when compared to RFID systems, which are far superior in many regards. At this time RFID tags are more costly to produce and use than existing bar code labels, however RFID technology is more reliable than bar code reading equipment. The data programmed into an RFID tag is read more accurately via the RFID reader, the radiotransmission qualities of which allow secure and unique information transfer with far more available characters and subsequent combinations. The RFID label will ultimately prove its usefulness with the widespread introduction of biometric security measures. It will be possible to programme passenger biometric algorithms onto the RFID label within the optional fields on the RFID specification. RFID readers can be mounted on belt conveyors, tilt tray sorters and DCVs. The transmission between label and reader can penetrate the mechanics of conveying media. Bar code readers can be fitted to belt conveyors, though to achieve a 360 degree view of the label (which may or may not be in contact with the conveyor belt) the laser light arrays must be positioned between the rollers of adjacent
U2.12.3.2 Bag Tracking

Baggage tracking may be achieved by one of the following techniques: (i) Bar code or RFID tag readers 360 degree array bar code readers are both costly and less reliable than angular measurement tracking if the tracking system is designed correctly. No matter how accurate the tracking setup, the printed quality and presentation of bar coded labels (especially while in transit) will always present a degree of read-error. RFID readers are the most reliable mechanism for tracking baggage, and the actual reader hardware is very cheap when compared to similar bar code equipment. RFID readers are also more reliable than bar-code readers, since they do not incorporate equipment which requires high levels of maintenance, such as bar code reader tubes, which degrade in performance and require regular maintenance to achieve high levels of performance. (ii) Angular Measurement This is a cheaper way to ensure that the baggage has its position tracked successfully on the conveyor. If the conveyor route is as flat and straight as possible then the degree of certainty of the tracking is actually very good. It requires the use of angular measurement devices such as optical shaft encoders or star wheel encoders. In both cases the tracking is backed up by the use of photo electric cell (PEC) diodes to positively verify bag leading and trailing edge positions within the baggage control software.
U2.12.4 Destination Coded Vehicle Systems (DCV)

There are essentially 2 types of DCV systems:
1. Type 1 DCV with onboard dispensing conveyor (See Fig U2-23). 2. Type 2 DCV with dispensing tray (See Fig U2-24).
Both DCV types use linear motors to propel the DCV along the DCV track. DCVs are not connected to one another other than being confined to run on the same track. DCVs can be propelled at different rates and to different destinations to meet with operational requirements as programmed by the departures control system and sort allocation computer requirements. The track components of a typical DCV circuit might include:
Induction straight. High/Low speed straight (level/incline/decline). Higher/Low speed curves (level/incline/decline). Maintenance off-line positions. DCV buffer storage areas. Ejection straight.
The main advantages with a DCV are:
Higher cart speeds than tilt tray sorter units Type 1 DCVs ~5m/s Type 2 DCVs ~10m/s (Fast Straight locations) Greater system availability since individual DCV carts can be maintained independently without stopping the whole system. The control system places DCV carts into the track on a 'Need Cart' and 'Just In Time' basis. The control system can increase or decrease DCV speeds to meet different flight connecting times. Certain DCV cart maintenance can be completed in dedicated off-line tracks specifically designed for maintenance, while the rest of the system continues in operation. Energy efficient operating philosophy.
Note: DCV cart control management is a complicated issue at large airports. Designers are advised
to simulate DCV cart movements to understand the true characteristics of the DCV in system usage, storage and management. Selecting a DCV System over a Tilt Tray Sorter Any one of the following attributes may warrant the decision to select a DCV system over a tilt tray sorter system. In reality most if not all of the following factors need to be considered and evaluated:
If the terminal complex is fragmented and the fastest possible connection between facilities is required. If the distance between check-in desk and final destination make-up exceeds 0.75Km. If the baggage is to be delivered to and retrieved from the apron stand make-up position directly. If the total operating and maintenance forecast costs for the DCV are favourable. If the reliability of the DCV cart and track are favourable. If the capital cost of the DCV cart, track and controls are favourable.
The Type 1 DCV has a conveyor motor mounted on it which is activated when the DCV wants to receive a bag or when the DCV wants to eject a bag. The dispensing conveyor is retained in the horizontal position at all times. The conveyor mounted on the DCV cart is mounted perpendicular to the main direction of the DCV in transit. The conveyor is usually only powered when the DCV is stopped. The Type 1 DCV lends itself to the whole system configuration, where baggage is transferred from check-in onto the DCV and processed entirely throughout the baggage handling system (on DCV carts with the exception of the time spent within hold baggage screening, or within nearly static early baggage stores). The DCV system Type 1 (FIG. U2-23) has the capability to collect bags directly from a check-in desk, deliver them to security screening X-rays, collect the bags and then sort them to make up positions. With a capability of smooth acceleration, smooth de-acceleration and constant velocities of up to 5 m/s, the type 1 DCV systems are well suited for medium to long distance applications.
The Type 2 DCV The type 2 DCV system typically consists of one mainline loop which covers the complete piers and the baggage hall, and which serves loading stations, unloader areas, bypass lines, empty cart queues, a security area and a maintenance area. The type 1 and 2 DCV carts are driven by linear motors mounted at fixed locations between the track. The type 2 DCV system also has smooth high speed operation which is controlled by the baggage handling PCL system. This PLC system also manages handling functions such as loading and unloading, diverting and merging of tracks, curves, inclines and declines, sorting, as well as scan and check stations.
Figure U2-23: DCV Type 1
Figure U2-24: DCV Type 2
U2.12.5 Flight Make Up Static Calculations
Photo courtesy of Fabricom Airport System Vanderlande
Photo courtesy of
The BHS should be able to process the allocation of wide body aircraft proposed to be resident within the weekly flight schedules. Baggage from a wide body aircraft should be accommodated on no less than five discrete make-up positions potentially configured thus (IMPORTANT NOTE User variations will occur): Important Note: The performance of flight make up and the resultant length should be finalised using simulation of the flight schedule and associated inputs. Single Scheduled Wide Body Outbound 1 st Class Business Class Economy Class Single Charter Wide Body Outbound Single Class No of Make-up 5 Make-ups Length of Make-up 42 Meters No of Make-up Length of Make-up 7 Meters 14 Meters 21 Meters
1 Make-up 2 Make-ups 3 Make-ups

The BHS should be able to process the allocation of narrow body aircraft proposed to be resident within the weekly flight schedules. Baggage from narrow body aircraft shall be accommodated on no less than three discrete make-up positions potentially configured thus (IMPORTANT NOTE User variations will occur): Single Scheduled Narrow Body Outbound 1 st/Business Class Economy Class Single Charter Narrow Body Outbound Single Class No of Make-up 3 Make-ups Length of Make-up 28 Meters No of Make-up 1 Make-up 2 Make-ups Length of Make-up 7 Meters 21 Meters
Ergonomics: Where it is envisaged that excessively heavy baggage will be transferred from the BHS to awaiting containers, there should be the provision of heavy baggage lifting equipment at the correct locations. Baggage system interfaces with staff in the baggage hall should be ergonomically designed. Baggage off-load levels within the baggage halls should be designed to be ergonomically suited to the local workforce and should adopt best international working practices, such that the risk of off loading injuries should be minimised. Baggage which has been sorted by the baggage handling system may be sent to a variety of make up devices. The following devices and their locations are viable: Type Lateral Chute Inclined Racetrack Free roller Powered & Free Roller Location Baggage Hall Baggage Hall/Apron Baggage Hall Baggage Hall/Apron Baggage Hall Comments Laterals are usually conveyors. Can be used with free rollers. Used where secondary sort needed. Bag speed control required. Not preferred due to entrapment possibility.
IATA
Figure Length U2-25: Lateral

Presentation
Figure Length
U2-26:
Chutes
Presentation
FULL CHUTE PHOTOCE LL LOCATION
MAKE-UP LENGTH = X1 +X2 NOTEX2>1S m<3m
613

Figure Length U2-27: Racetrack Presentation
BAGGAGE HALL RACETRACK (INCLINED OR FLAT)

X1
-4-
4-
MAKE-UP LENGTH = X 1 + X2 + X3 + X4 NOTE X1 OR X3 > 2M TO ACCOMMODATE DRIVE MECHANISM
Figure
U2-28:
Powered
&
Free
Plus
Free
Rollers
POWERED & FREE PLUS FREE ROLLERS
MAKE-UP LENGTH
614
IATA
U2.13 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS U2.IR1 Check-in System
Where there is a need to install back-to-back check-in facilities, then each check-in line should be fitted with its own dedicated collector belt(s). This requirement can be relaxed where passenger queue depths would be compromised with the installation of dual collector conveyors. Wherever possible the dual collector belts should be fitted with 2 x 90 degree belts at the tail end of the conveyors to aid system availability in the event of a collector belt failure. The recommended maximum length of collector belt in isolation or within a series should be no more than 15m. The maximum number of check-in desks in a single line feeding a single set of series collector belts should be 20. Where 20 check-in desks are provided in a single series line then these should be mated to no less than 4 series collector belts with reverse redundancy capability. Check-in desk and islands should be configured in accordance with FIG. U2-17, though the precise number of desks should be sized to the line throughput expectations. Each check-in desk should be fitted with three integrated conveyors to be entitled weigh/label/despatch, and as otherwise defined in clause U2.11.6. The weigh conveyor can be replaced by a weigh scale only where terminal throughput for the design life of the system is expected to be less than 5 million passengers per annum: The separate despatch conveyor can be replaced by a combined label/despatch conveyor where it can be demonstrated that that queue depth does not become compromised.
v.
U2.IR2 Collector System

At the point where each delivery line proceeds away from the check-in area the collector lines feed the distribution system. Each collector line should have the ability to reach the distribution system from a minimum of two separate feeds. This requirement can be relaxed where the passenger throughput in the terminal is less than 5 million passengers per annum for the design life of the equipment. The collector conveyors behind the check-in system should incorporate dual window allocation option 2 as defined within FIG. U2-19 where passenger throughput through the terminal exceeds 5 million passengers per pnnum.
U2.IR3 Distribution System

The baggage delivery system should run at the maximum permitted speed to ensure that baggage connecting times between check-in, the baggage hall and between connecting flights are minimised. The baggage delivery systems should incorporate energy efficient operating logic which ensures systems are both operationally available and consume the least amount of energy as possible.
615
U2.IR4 Departure and Arrival Systems Sortation and Redundancy Requirements System redundancy should be tiered according to the flow requirements and the type of conveying system being adopted, as well as the level of contingency planning provided by the airport. The sortation and redundancy requirements of Category A. B and baggage handling systems should be observed in accordance with clause U2.1 Aside Note: The failure of a single DCV cart shall not constitute a system failure as the DCV cart can be taken out of service while the DCV system is still in operation. If the DCV cart failure cannot be fixed off-line and consequently disables the DCV track system to extent that baggage flow is essentially stopped, then this would constitute a DCV system failure. U2.IR5 Baggage Make Up Preferences The airport users should be consulted via the ACC working groups to ascertain the baggage handling working preferences. The airlines should be provided with a list of the options together with an up-to-date heaith and safety report detailing the recommendations for loading and unloading baggage within the region of the airport. The health and safety report should be conducted by a specialist in manual handling regulations. The report should highlight the facts regarding the capabilities of the available space and availability of specialist equipment to aid lifting heavy baggage.
IATA
SECTION U3: TRANSFER SYSTEMS U3.1 TRANSFER BAGGAGE SYSTEMS OVERVIEW
The processing of transfer baggage is actually more complex than that of originating departures baggage. The dilemma confronted by baggage handling designers is that transfer baggage may be mixed with final destination arrivals baggage, and may also not have a readable tag. Airlines often load transfer baggage into aircraft in specifically dedicated containers, or within certain sections of the aircraft. This aids the identification of transfer baggage significantly by ground staff. A number of processes are required to be performed on transfer baggage before it can be connected with its outbound aircraft. These process requirements are defined within FIG. U3 -1 below. In practice, transfer baggage is off loaded from the aircraft as soon as possible and then processed in accordance with FIG. U3-1 below. Baggage which is sorted via an automatic sortation system will require bar-code/RFID labels to permit the automatic identification and sortation process. In addition to the labels it will also be necessary for the relevant information to be provided via DCS, Flight Scheduling Systems (operator input and international/domestic communication), etc.
Figure U3-1: Transfer Baggage Process Map Manual and Automatic Sortation
Containerized Single Connecting Flight - De-contalnerize Containerized Multj Early Bag Store
Make-up Flight Same Airline --------- As Inbound w
Containerize Bags to
Connecting Flights Noncontainerized Single Connecting Flight Noncontainerized Multi Connecting Flights
Aircraft
. iH
Automati c Sortation
Make-up Flight Different w Airline To Inbound
Loose Load Bags to Aircraft
Transfer Bags Arrivals Reclaim
Hold Bagga ge Scree ning Desk Transfer

Check-in
rti
Manual Sortatio n Denotes option to rescreen bags which have excessively dwelled within the Early Bag Slore Denotes option for Pax to collect bag from transfer reclaim and re-check-ln (Mandatory in some countries)
617
U3.2
TRANSFER BAGGAGE RECONCILIATION

Airport baggage handling systems and operational protocols should be designed to ensure that hold baggage should only be loaded into the hold if all of the following conditions are met: (i) Passengers have provided acceptable passport identification at the boarding gate checkpoint. (ii) Passenger hold baggage (if any) has been screened through a screening system which is in accordance with the principles and recommendations defined within Section U11. (iii) Passengers have provided a valid boarding pass. (iv) Optional: Passenger Risk Assessment status dictates passenger and his or her hold and hand baggage is suitable to be loaded onto the aircraft. FIG. U3-2 defines the high level data links and operational checks used in the processing of transfer passenger hold baggage.
Figure U3-2: Processing

INBOUND AIRCRAFT PAX. NAMES DESTINATION ID OR CONNECTING PAX. FLIGHT NO.S NO. OF BAGS/PAX
Transfer
Baggage
Data
and
Operational
OUTBOUND AIRCRAFT PAX. NAMES DESTINATION ID OR CONNECTING PAX. FLIGHT NO.S NO. OF BAGS/PAX
TRANSFE R CHECKIN [ PAX. NAME
AT GATE - PAX ACCEPTANCE POINT
PAX. NAME PASSPOR T CHECK BOARDING PASS VALIDATION PAX RISK STATUS
PAX. FLIGHT NO. NO. OF BAGS

PAX RISK
ASSESS
I
Departures Control System Messaging System
BAGGAGE
HALL
MANUAL CODING POINT BAGS INJECTED INTO BAGGAGE SYSTEM
PAX. PICKS UP TRANSFER BAGS FROM RECLAIM TAKES TO CHECK-IN BAGS INJECTED INTO BAGGAGE SYSTEM
3E
STAFF / PAX OPERATIONAL INTERFACES BAGGAGE HALL SITUATION Baggage Handler Manually: Reads Pax Name Reads Destination Flight No. Counts No. Of Bags Recede Baggage - NEW Tag Issued TRANSFER CHECK-IN Check-in Staff:Enter Pax Name Destination Flight No. ** Pax. Declares No. Of Bags In Transit OR " Pax Enters transfer bags from reclaim Boarding Pass Issued.
t
Gate Staff Check Boarding Pass Validity. Pax Name Destination Flight No. Total No. Of Bags In
IMPORTANT NOTE: BAG/PAX RECONCILIATION ' ACTUAL BAGS/PAX COUNT IN SYSTEM MUST TALLY WITH DCS BAG COUNT & BOARDING PASS IF NO PAX THEN NO BAG ON FLIGHT POLICY
In accordance with the Passenger Services Conference Resolution Manual, Resolution 739 Baggage Security Control (Expiry Indefinite) states that: "RESOLVED that, Members shall:
1. Endeavour to cooperate to develop common methods to ensure that for international flights
they do transport the baggage of passengers who are not on board the aircraft unless the baggage separated from passengers is subjected to other security control measures.
2. Ensure that their non-Member handling agents follow the methods developed above."
The specific airlines Departures Control Systems (DCS) should be configured to communicate as appropriate and as necessary between connecting airlines to promote the intent of IATA Resolution 739. The DCS should be used where possible with the baggage handling control system as a tool to determine if a passenger's baggage is authorized to be loaded and has been adequately screened. Where permitted, transfer passenger hold baggage may be processed entirely in the baggage hall or may be deposited onto a transfer baggage reclaim unit (where in some geographical locations it should then be reunited with the passenger). In this latter variant the passenger is then required to check-in their hold baggage again. All transfer baggage (international and domestic) should be processed through hold baggage screening equipment. Baggage is then sorted either manually or automatically to an early baggage store or to the flight chutes, laterals, or departures racetracks. Baggage is often loaded into the aircraft while passengers are being checked at the gate. It is therefore only at the point at which the flight is closed to passengers and baggage that full reconciliation of
Figure U3-3: DCS Data Table Example

Passenger Name Miss W MrX Mr Y Mrs Z DCS Passenger Boarded Status Yes No Yes Yes DCS Check-in Bag to Pax Count 0 1 2 2 DCS Baggage Hall Count Via Manual or Automatic Sortation Bar-code 0 1 2 3
Case Study Situation 1 Flight Still Open With reference to FIG. U3-3, and in the situation where the flight is still open, then only Mrs. Z will create a problem in that 3 bags have been allocated to her name in the DCS and could have been loaded while only 2 bags were checked-in. Too many bags are potentially within the aircraft hold and all of Mrs. Z's bags must be removed from the aircraft and validated to get the correct bag count and bags-per-passenger ratio. Mr. X may be somewhere within the terminal but has not boarded the aircraft, this is not a problem at this instance. The table is constantly checked by a computer program until the flight is technically closed and where a final full analysis is done. Case Study Situation 2 Flight Closed In this situation where the flight is now closed both Mrs. Z's and Mr. X's baggage should be removed from the aircraft.
U3.3
TRANSFER PROCESSING FACILITIES WITHIN THE BAGGAGE HALL

Where transfer baggage is processed within the baggage hall, it will need to have (where applicable in each case) adequate space for:
De-containerization. Manual coding. Manual sortation and flight make-up. Injection into the automatic flight sortation system.
It is recommended that, where injection into an automatic sortation system is required, conveyor speeds are not greater than 0.3m/s. This recommended injection rate will avoid aggressive bag snatching as bags are loaded onto the conveyor. The conveyor itself should have markings to denote the injection window size so that operators load within the correct injection window. This takes pressure
U3.4
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS U3JR1 Transfer Baggage Processing

Transfer baggage should be processed in accordance with clause U3.1 and FIG. U3-1. All transfer baggage should be receded and allocated/communicated to the connecting passenger data within the relevant Departures Control System(s).
U3.IR2 Transfer Baggage Hold Baggage Screening Status

Transfer baggage should only be loaded onto an aircraft if it has first been screened and subsequently cleared through a hold baggage screening system of a design which is in accordance with section U11. Transfer baggage which has a short connection time should given a priority route through the hold baggage screening system but should undergo normal screening processes.
be
U3.IR3 Transfer Baggage Reconciliation Once transfer baggage has been manually recoded it should then be 100% reconcilable to its passenger owner. The baggage handling system should provide concise, accurate inventories to staff operators at check-in, at the gate, and within the baggage hall, to ensure that only transfer baggage which is accompanied by its owner is loaded onto the aircraft. Designers should observe the requirements of IATA Resolution 739. The use of hand held mobile bag tag readers coupled to DCS data is recommended for use on the apron to aid identification of passenger baggage within the hold. Alternatively, active RFID bag tags and receivers can be used if these tags are used by the airtines in question. If a passenger fails to board a flight but his/her bag(s) have been loaded, then this status should be relayed to the ground staff at the gate and ultimately the pilot before pushback occurs. The unaccompanied bag should then be removed from the aircraft's hold. If a passenger(s) has boarded a flight but the aircraft's hold bag count is greater than the sum of each of the individuai passenger's bag counts from the DCS, then all of the suspectpassenger(s) baggage should be removed from the hold and the anomalies assessed and rectified. U3.IR4 Bilateral Screening Agreements IAT, promotes the development and use of bilateral screening agreements /protocols between nations. The bilateral screening agreement should ensure Compliance with the intent defined within ICAO Annex 17 Security Clause 4.3.2. Where a bilateral agreement is in place then the Airport Operators in both nations should have full confidence in the screening equipment, screening processes and screening protocols in place to ensure, to the greatest extent possible, that only non threat transfer hold baggage is loaded into an aircraft. Either the national governments and/or the airport operators of both nations should endeavor to validate the security integrity of the bilateral screening agreements annually.
621

SECTION U4: U4.1 EARLY BAGGAGE PROCESSES
EARLY BAGGAGE PROCESSING OVERVIEW

Early baggage arrives at airports from multiple sources. Typically early baggage processing is most commonly found in large international airports with large volumes of transfer flights. The dilemma for airlines and airports is how and where to systematically store baggage which has potentially arrived or has been checked in up-to 24 hours before the flight (airport specific statistic). Obviously, the airport and the airline would rather the passenger check their baggage within the usual 2 or 3 hour window prior to departure time to enable them to process baggage in a 'just in time' fashion. When bags are checked in early they occupy space and also engender an added security risk to the airport and to the airline in question. The instant the bag gets into the baggage system it is the responsibility of the airline, in partnership with the airport operator (owner of the baggage system), to ensure that the contents of the bag are kept secure and ultimately delivered appropriately. Obviously the longer the bag is in storage the more opportunity there is for a problem to arise with the bag. Also, the space occupied by the bag equates to a direct cost to provide that sortation/storage space. On the assumption that baggage must be stored in significant volumes for significant periods of time, the airport operator and the airlines are then confronted with the question of how best to store and process (sod) this 'early' baggage. The bulk of this early baggage will be transfer baggage which should be processed using the principles defined within Section U3. There are essentially two options available for processing early baggage and these are defined within subsequent clauses U4.2 and U4.3.
U4.2
MANUAL EARLY BAGGAGE STORAGE

Manual early baggage stores are used where early baggage input rates are < 250 bags/hour and where the total volume of early baggage is < 1000 bags in the storage area at any one time. Beyond this criteria automated early baggage systems should be seriously considered. Sortation is usually by flight number as manual sortation by flight time is difficult to manage.
U4.2.1 Typical Manual Early Baggage Store Layout

Figure U4-1 is typical of a manually operated, early baggage storage facility linked to a potentially larger automatic flight sortation system. Fig U4-1 shows a holding area with a capacity of < 1000 bags with the flexibility to move bags using conveying equipment between lanes A/B/C manually (though mechanically assisted) allowing flight or time sector selection as required. Fig U4-1 is a recommended solution layout for airports where input rates are < 250 bags/hour and where the total volume of early baggage is < 1000 bags in the storage area at any one time. Alternatively, and depending on the volume of early bags, it is also possible to manually sort baggage on an appropriately designed open platform. This is also often done as a temporary measure and is not recommended, as it can lead to the violation of screening protocols. Additionally, manual
622
IATA

Figure U4-1: Typical Manual Early Baggage Store
ST
On-load
Early Transfer In-bound Bags
HBS
Process/
Flight Tag ) Reader/
Bags to Open Flights Coded Early
Early Bags from Check-in
J
Notes:Denotes a Pusher manual!/ operated push button Unit via
Manual Coding Push Button Sort (Manual) A B C
No Reads
Number of flight make-^p loading lanes may vary according to flight schedule
Flight Make-up ^C^" Out-bound Bag Tugs and Dollies c) Flight Make-up"
Î n
t
U.............I - I TIME OR FLIGHT SORT I Secure (Flight 'B'|-^- Storage/ Holding Area Capacity (Flight 'CJ-<<1000Bags
RightA
Iff
r------
PLC System
^ 4I
I
Out-bound Bag Tugs and Dollies Flight Make-up

t
cj
Out-bound Bag Tugs and Dollies
U4.3
AUTOMATED EARLY BAGGAGE STORAGE

Automatic early baggage stores are used where early baggage input rates are > 250 bags/hour and/ or where the total volume of early baggage being stored is > 1000 bags in the storage area at any one time. Technically there is no limit to the amount of baggage that can be stored within an early baggage store, though it is uncommon for early baggage stores to exceed a 5000 bag storage capacity. A large, sophisticated early bag store will typically provide the following functionality:
Ability to sort early baggage automatically by flight number. Ability to sort early baggage automatically by time sector. Ability to route baggage to open flights on main sortation system. Ability to route baggage to Hold Baggage Screening where applicable. Provide adequate redundancy contingency in the event of single component failure.
The effective automatic early baggage store will be able to dynamically operate and switch between modes of sortation (by time and by flight) to maximize the effectiveness of the early baggage sortation equipment. IMPORTANT NOTE: It is important to ensure that if an early baggage system uses a tilt tray sorter to manage baggage flow, the sorter must be separate to any sorter used for true flight sortation. See
623
U4.4
TYPICAL AUTOMATIC EARLY BAGGAGE STORE LAYOUT

Figure U4-2 is typical (redundancy not shown) of an automatically operated early baggage storage linked to a large sortation system. The early baggage sorter can be either a linear drive unit (See Fig U2-21) or a Type 1 DCV (See Fig U2-23). DCV units are particularly useful as they can have on-board cart intelligence which permits them to be more easily tracked and sort by flight and time sector simultaneously.
Figure U4-2: Typical Automated Early Baggage Store
'
On-load
'
] HBS \_ iProcess'' Flight Tag Reader/ \
Early Transfer Bags^>
Early Bags from Check-In 1
^No No Reads Coded Early
Cleared Screened Open Flight Bags
Manual Coding
TIME Or FLIGHT SORT
Secure Storage / Holding Area Capacity is > 1000 Bags Flight 'A'jEarly Bag Sortation: Conveyors + Pushers Verti-sorters Or Conveyor + Verti-Sorters Or DCV Type 1+Conveyors Or DCV Type 1 Only Flighl 'BJFlight 'CJFlight 'DJFlight 'E'j. Flight 'F Lane Limit | Normally < 30 Lanes h-
To Open Flights: Chutes Or Laterals Or Racetracks
'L
Flight Sortation: Conveyor/Pusher Verti-sorter Or Tilt Tray Sorter Or DCV Type 1 Or DCV Type 2
Flight '?}
U4.4
U4.IR1 Manual Early Baggage Stores

Fig U4-1 is a genetically recommended early baggage system layout for airports where input rates are < 250bags/hour and where the total volume of early baggage is < 1000 bags in the storage area at any one time. Designers should consult with aidines for precise system functionality requirements and determine the number of flight make-up positions on the ground that maybe required.
U4.IR2 Fully Automatic Early Baggage Stores

Fig U4-2 is a genetically recommended early baggage system layout for airports where input rates are > 250bags/hour and where the total volume of early baggage is > 1000 bags in the storage area at any one time. Designers should consult with airlines for precise system functionality requirements and determine the number of flights and/or time sectors that maybe required to be controlled/sorted.
_______________________________________________,___________________________________________________________-
SECTION U5: ARRIVALS BAGGAGE SYSTEMS U5.1 ARRIVING BAGGAGE OVERVIEW

Inbound aircraft present arriving baggage which can be either final destination baggage only, transfer baggage only, or a combination thereof. Inbound aircraft will deliver arriving baggage which may also be containerized or un-containerized. Airports usually provide road infrastructure and arrival systems within the terminal which allows airlines to reunite arriving baggage with their respective passengers or permit the necessary connection of transfer baggage. Transfer baggage should be processed in accordance with the requirements and recommendations defined within Section U3. At the stand, the hold of the aircraft is opened as appropriate and the arriving bags are removed. The in-bound aircraft itinerary will usually identify sections within the hold which are attributed to mail, light cargo, final destination baggage and transfer baggage. This identification considerably improves (shortens) the connection time for transfer baggage without the need for manual sortation of baggage on or close to the stand. Arriving Baggage Destination Arrivals Baggage Processing. Processing Point Location Options Point B Mid Field Pier Injection Conveyor connected to DCV or Sorter. (Note this ultimately connects to Point C below). Point C Main Arrivals Terminal Carousels/Conveyors. Point B Mid Field Pier Transfer Flight Make-up Point connected to DCV or Sorter. (Note this ultimately connects to Point C below). Point C Departures Baggage Handling System Transfer Baggage Input Point. Aircraft to Processing Point Movement Technologies (i) Baggage Tug and Dollies; (ii) DCV Type 1 or Type 2; (iii) Tilt Tray Sorters/Conveyors (See Section U2)
Transfer Baggage Processing
(i) Baggage Tug and Dollies; (ii) DCV Type 1 or Type 2; (iii) Tilt Tray Sorters/ Conveyors (See Section U2)
The vehicular movement of arriving final destination and transfer baggage produces a high percentage of the total of airside traffic. Since this arriving and transfer baggage traffic is often completely funded and managed by the airlines, it is in their interests to seek either efficient vehicle routes and/or be provided with effective baggage handling equipment (which as an alternative can remove the need for the majority of these baggage movement vehicles). With reference to Fig U5 -1 and Fig U5-2, Mid Field Pier baggage injection points can, where economically justified, present a useful mechanism which ultimately can reduce the flow of baggage movement vehicles on the apron. The most common and simplistic approach is for arriving baggage to be transferred from Point A to Point C entirely by baggage tugs and dollies, though this not necessarily the best solution.
Figure
U5-1:
Arriving
Final
Destination
Baggage
Processing
Arrivals (Final Destination) Baggage Processing.
TERMI NAL BUILDI NG ARRIV ALS HALL
Processing Point Location Option:

Main Arrivals
'C
Terminal
Aircraft Processing Movement Technologies
to Point
(i) Baggage Tugs and Dollies OR (ii) DCV Type 1 or Type 2; OR
...4__
PIER
Aircraft Point A to Processing Point B Movement Technologies: (i) Baggage Tug Processing Point 'B' and DolliesOption: Location
Mid Field Pier CODED Baggage Injection Conveyors TO (ii) DCV Type 1 or Type 2 (iii) Tilt Tray Sorters/Conveyors
Aircraft Point A to Processing Point B Movement Technologies:

(i) Baggage Tug and Dollies
NOTE: Carousels are preferred Passenger Interface Unit
Processing Point 'C Location Option:

Main Arrivals Terminal Carousel
PIER
It is recommended that where a DCV system has been selected for the departures baggage handling systems, in accordance with Section U2, that the baggage handling designer should also consider the merits of the use of the same DCV hardware for the processing of arriving final destination or arriving transfer baggage between Points B to C. Alternatively tilt tray sorters leading to conveyors can be used between Points B and C where the case can be financially justified. The diagram in Fig. U5-2 defines the routes and processing options available for arriving transfer baggage. Refer to Section U3 for further details on the processing of transfer baggage within international airports.
MULTIP LE A/C STANDS
Figure
U5-2:
Arriving
Transfer
Baggage
Processing
Arriving Transfer Baggage Processing TERMINAL BUILDING DEPARTURES BAGGAGE HALL

Processing Point 'C Location Option: Departures Baggage Handling System Transfer Baggage Input Point. (Manual or Direct Input) Aircraft to Processing Point Movement Technologies: (0 Baggage Tugs and Dollies OR (ii) DCV Type 1 or Type 2; OR (iii) Tilt Tray Sorters/Conveyors
Aircraft Point A to Processing Point B Movement Technologies: (i) Baggage Tug and Dollies
DEPARTURES BAGGAGE HANDLING SYSTEM INCLUDING HBS/EBS (AS REQUIRED)
B
PIER
Processing Point 'B' Location Option: Mid Field Pier Transfer Flight Make-up Point CODED Baggage Injection Conveyors TO 00 DCV Type 1 or Type 2 (iii) TiH Trey Sorters/Conveyors Aircraft Point A to Processing Point B Movement Technologies: (I) Baggage Tug and Dollies
PIER MULTIPLE A/C STANDS

U5.1.1 Assessing Manual vs. Automatic Option Costs
The table below lists the various descriptions of the costs for manually or automatically processing amvals baggage between Points B and C as seen within Fig.'s U5-1 and U5-2. It should be noted that the manual solution is often more expensive for airlines/ground handling agents to operate due to the increased staffing requirements. Provision Description Tugs Costs Cost of Dollies Cost to Provide Tug Drivers Tug Energy Costs (Diesel or Battery Charging Costs) Maintenance Costs for Tug and Dollies DCV or Tilt Tray Sorter CAPEX Costs DCV or Tilt Tray Sorter Maintenance Costs Baggage Handling Staff Costs Total Costs The costs associated with providing baggage handling staff, often on shift 20 hours a day, 365 days a year (airport specific observation), for 15 years can be substantial, as can the cost to provide and maintain DCV or Tilt Tray Sorter equipment for the same period. It will be essential to assess the true full costs taking into account not only the capital expenditure and running cost but also the operational costs of both manual and automatic solutions. The two main operational advantages with the automatic solution are that the baggage connection times are usually improved and the airside traffic volume is significantly reduced. MANUAL Baggage Tugs and Dollies Between Points A-C Applicable Applicable Applicable Applicable AUTOMATIC Baggage Tugs and Dollies Between Points A-B then DCV or Sorter to Point C. Applicable (Though Less Required because quicker turnaround) Applicable (Though Less Required because quicker turnaround) Applicable (Though Less Required because quicker turnaround) Applicable (Though Less Required because less vehicles) Applicable (Though Less Required because less vehicles) Applicable Applicable
Applicable Not Applicable Not Applicable
Applicable
Applicable (Though Less Required because quicker turnaround)
629

U5.2 ARRIVING BAGGAGE DCV OR TILT TRAY SORTER INJECTION
Although it is not currently common practice to use DCV or sorters for inbound baggage processing, the financial and operational merits of using this baggage movement technology warrant close inspection, as this is well proven technology. Arriving final destination and arriving transfer baggage can be transferred to the arrival reconciliation devices using either DCV or Tilt Tray Sorter baggage movement technology. A conveyor can be used to process inbound baggage, though this is not recommended for larger airports and the technology is very limited due to the tracking limitations of using a standard conveyor. Obviously to inject inbound baggage onto a DCV or sorter means that the inbound baggage must be digitally coded so that the DCV or Tilt Tray Sorter can allocate the correct destination for the inbound bag; i.e. arrivals baggage passenger reconciliation device see clause U5.3, or transfer processing locations. The most effective way to do this is to code baggage as it is loaded into the system at Point B, either in flight batches (preferred solution) or one by one as they are removed from the aircraft. The bags are not allocated a new tag but are merely injected onto sorters with corresponding inbound flight codes and tracked on the discrete DCV carts or sorter trays. The coded carts/trays then dump off the bags at the correct output, whether it be a passenger reclaim reconciliation device or a transfer processing point.
U5.3
ARRIVING BAGGAGE PASSENGER RECONCILIATION DEVICES

There are essentially two categories of devices available for the reconciliation of inbound passenger baggage, these are: (I) The Reclaim Unit The reclaim unit (See Fig. U5-3) is a closed loop conveyor running at a constant speed, which should be designed to function safely in the passenger environment with all the necessary mechanical and
IATA

Figure U5-3: Typical Reclaim Unit
PASSENGER RECLAIM UNIT (INCLINED OR FLAT)
Passenger Arrival - Final Destination / Transfer Baggage Pick Up Area
Processing Point 'C (i) Baggage Tugs and Dollies Input OR fjf) DCV Type 1 or Type 2 Input OR (iii) Tilt Tray Sorters/Conveyors Input

The required presentation length of the reclaim will be dependent on the following variables:
Passenger arrival profile from piers (function of stand distance and passenger travel speeds).
Baggage delivery profile from aircraft (function of stand distance and baggage movement technology and speed employed). Bags to passenger ratio witnessed. Reclaim velocity (recommend speed >0.15 <0.3m/sec). Ability of passengers to identify and retrieve passenger baggage. Aircraft Type and Flight(s) Serviced Passenger Reclaim Presentation Length (X4,X5,X6) > 70m < 90m Loader Staff Reclaim Bag Loading Length (X2) > 20m < 40m Com ments/Recom mendations
(1 Off) Wide Body Aircraft (1-2 Off) Narrow Body Aircraft
Upper limits should be used where the bag to passenger ratio are often > 1.5 Bags / Passenger Upper limits should be used where the bag to passenger ratios are often > 1.5 Bags / Passenger Upper limits should be used where two business type flights are allocated to a single reclaim.
> 40m < 70m
> 20m < 30m
In situations where more than two reclaim units are proposed, it is recommended that the arrivals reclaim area be simulated using passenger movement simulation software (See Section F9.10.6. Number of Baggage Claim Units). This will allow the presentation length to be fine tuned to the precise characteristics of the arriving passengers profile and the arriving baggage profile, which all have a part to play in the effective dynamics of the arrivals area. The number of reclaim units required at any one time will be a function of the arriving flight schedule and will likely vary according to the time of day and season.
632
IATA
(II) Free Roller Conveyor
The free roller conveyor is used for the processing of baggage at small airports, or at large airports alongside reclaim units, where the roller conveyor is used for the processing of sizable volumes of oversized baggage which needs to be reconciled with the passengers. These units are not favored by passengers or airports, as they are not the most effective use of space and require suitable entrapment guards and safety supervision when in use. Under no circumstances should powered rollers be used. The only merit with this device is that they are usual for accumulating smaller volumes of oversized baggage.
U5.4
ARRIVAL SYSTEMS CONTROL DESK

The arrivals reconciliation reclaims should be actively monitored and controlled by operational staff to ensure that reclaim units are energized and de-energized safely and correctly. The arrivals control desk should be able to see all reclaims adequately, either directly or via CCTV provision so that in busy times the safe operation of the reclaims can be maintained.
633

U5.5 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
U5.IR1 Use of DCVs for Arriving Baggage It is recommended that where a DCV system has been selected for the departures baggage handling system, in accordance with Section U2, that the baggage handling designer should also consider the merits of the use of the same DCV hardware for the processing of arriving final destination or arriving transfer baggage between Points B to C, as defined within Fig. 's U5-1 andU5-2.
V__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________J
U5.IR1 Reclaim Units And Free Roller Conveyors Passenger reclaim units are the recommended technical solution for the reconciliation of 'Standard Gauge' (refer to clause U1.2.2) baggage. Reclaim conveyors should have a velocity \ of between >0.15m/s to <0.3m/s. Oversized Baggage (OB) Conveyable (refer to clause U1.2.2) should be reconciled with passengers using straight free roller conveyors.
U5.IR1 Reclaim Area Simulations In situations where more than two reclaim units are proposed, it is recommended that the arrivals reclaim area be simulated using passenger movement simulation software (See Section F). This will enable the airport designer to fine tune the reclaim sizes, refine the architectural features
SECTION U6: CONTROL SYSTEMS U6.1 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION

In this context control systems are defined as the equipment and software that provides for the operational control of baggage handling equipment. This article details the factors of a control system design that are considered industry best practice.
U6.2
SYSTEM CONCEPT
U6.2.1 Hardware Choice

It is universally accepted that control systems should be based on the use of programmable logic controller (PLC) technology. PLCs provide a proven and reliable means of meeting control requirements across many industries, and baggage handling is no exception. At the onset, a decision needs to be made concerning the PLC system selection. A number of factors should influence this, such as:
Spares holding. Familiarity maintenance and supplier. Standardised software. Inter networking.
U6.2.2 Control Architecture

Having selected the PLC system, the control concept then needs to be selected. Increasingly a centralized control via distributed I/O has become best practice. In this way the advantages of a centralized co-ordination of control activities together with the advantages of a distributed
Figure U6-1: System
Schematic
Arrangement
of
Distributed
I/O
Main Panel
IATA

In this approach a PLC is selected to control a part of the system consistent with the control requirements, the PLC's capabilities, and the system availability. Local control panels containing motor controls, local operator controls and an I/O module are located adjacent to each piece of equipment. Vendor independent networking standards such as the Profibus Field Bus support this approach, with high speed robust communication supported by many vendors of PLC and I/O alike. This modular approach can be adapted to fit most standard control requirements, with a selection of as few as five different standard designs for a local control panel (all based on the same concept). One variant is illustrated in Fig. U6-2, below.
Figure U6-2: Sample Control Panel Configuration
PLC System
Area Contrai Panel
___E
Motor Contro l Profibu s I/O Profibus To RS232
DC
Field DevinQe Field Devices Con"Scan Controlle r
i cannery
tea Scanner fca| Scanner] Scanner [a| Scanner]

Sce
Scanner Scanner Scanner
pa| | [~|
This approach delivers advantages in terms of reduced installation time, since pre-assembly and wiring can be carried out before arriving at site (with site based activity only requiring network, power and a limited number of interlock connections). This approach also delivers a superior maintenance regime in that all required controls for maintenance purposes are located adjacent to the item of equipment. Finally, the approach is very modular in that the addition of new equipment requires only a new local control panel and limited interconnections. It also simplifies the addition of further control devices such as photo electric cells that may be required after the initial installation is completed. Due to vendor independence this emerging standard is also likely to facilitate vendor independence at the baggage equipment supplier level, providing a few standards are set such as the selected field bus.
636
U6.2.3 Software Approach

For similar reasons to the initiatives for a standardised concept in controls hardware, there is a similar drive towards standardisation of control software. Firstly, the IEC 1131 standard has emerged as a recognised standard for the way in which PLC software is written. Adhering to this standard means the PLC software follows more uniform concepts and becomes generally simpler to maintain for those other than the original developer. In addition, the best practice software approach has been to modularise software such that a reusable set of libraries is generated. This allows a new baggage control system software requirement to be generated primarily using standard, proven software modules. In this way only small amounts of software, necessary to link the individual functional modules as required by the particular system, need to written. This minimises implementation risk and again significantly aids the maintainability of the delivered system.
U6.3
COMMUNICATIONS
Although the primary purpose of a control system is obviously to control the equipment, in doing so significant amounts of data regarding the operation of the equipment or system is also generated. Such data may be instantaneous status or fault information, but may also be longer term data such as throughputs. These types of data needs to be communicated to systems other than the PLC systems, where it can be used effectively for operational support and decision making purposes. This requires support of communications standards to allow the data to be used elsewhere. The de facto standard across most industries is the TCP/IP protocol, which forms the backbone of the internet. Because of its very large vendor independent uptake it has come to form a standard supported by the vast majority of manufacturers. This is also true of PLC systems. Current best practice is clearly that the PLC systems which form a control system are networked together using TCP/IP over an ethernet network. Although it is still necessary to have implementations of vendor specific protocols to allow full communication, TCP/IP on ethernet commonly forms the interconnection basis for control systems and their supervisory IT systems.
U6.4
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS U6.IR1 The following summarizes th IATA recommendations from above
PLC Based Control System. Centralized Control with Distributed I/O architecture. Vendor Independent Field Bus Technology. IEC 1131 Compliant Software.
SECTION U7: U7.1
MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS (MIS)
INTRODUCTION
Management Information Systems or MIS for short is used to describe many widely and varied functions pertaining to baggage handling systems. This article aims to cover the specific functions which reside under the umbrella term MIS, together with some recommendations.
U7.2
MIS FUNCTIONS DEFINED

This section describes the basic components that generally form part of an MIS system.
U7.2.1 Maintenance Diagnostics System

The Maintenance Diagnostics System (MDS) has become the common term for a system which provides real time monitoring and display of the systems status and faults and usually allows supervisory control to the extent of allowing MIS operators to start and stop systems, make route selections etc. The generic software package used to build an application specific MDS has generally been known as a supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system. For these reasons MDS systems are often known as SCADA systems. Apart from collection of real time information, these systems will often collect historic and trend information that is useful for the management of the baggage
U7.2.2 Information System

The general term information system is used here to cover the varied ways that historic information about the baggage system, usually found in the MDS system, is collected stored and used. This level of data may be characterized as collecting information such as system throughputs, detailed fault statistics, and other system performance data. It's generally used to set key performance indicators in the form of defined measurements that allow the baggage system performance to be measured against meaningful targets. Flexible analysis of this type of data can also be a very useful tool in investigating performance related and other issues to allow further optimization of the system. Such data can vary widely depending on the make up of the baggage system, any service level agreements (SLAs), management methods, etc. For this reason there has generally not been a specific software package designed to meet these requirements; the most common solution is a database system of a level appropriate to the volumes of data and the required analysis methods.
U7.3
MIS FUNCTION CONSIDERATIONS

This section suggests some considerations when selecting MIS system requirements.
U7.3.1 Maintenance Diagnostics System

There are many well established software packages in the market place which define the system specific requirements for:
Data transfer with pics. Animated graphical system layouts based on PLC data. Logging of Historic Data. Display of fault messages. Drawing of data trends.
These represent the standard functions of a SCADA software package and allow non software engineers to configure an application using fill in the blank and simple drawing techniques. An application may require some specific features of a SCADA package in addition to the basic features that all such packages provide. Such additional requirements should be defined and should be one of the key considerations in selection of the package.
Figure U7-1: Schematic Arrangement of Multiple Systems MDS All Systems
MDS System A
MDS System B
MDS System C
It is often a requirement at larger airports, where there may be more than one distinct baggage facility, that the MDS systems can be linked together to provide the advantages of an overall supervision opportunity. This type of integration is generally far more easily achieved when the software package used for each area is the same, and should therefore be a significant factor in software selection. A strategy for enhanced system availability should also be considered. This would typically consist of a hot standby system which remains in operation, and which is capable of taking over automatically from a failed master system. There are however a number of means to achieve enhanced availability a number of which are package specific. All of this suggests that the requirement for back up in the event of failure needs to be considered and measured against the provisions of any selected software package. Many SCADA packages provide the means of adding additional user workstations to allow multiple personnel to access the MDS functions. These might range from additional full network workstations to some additional software to allow any computer to be used over a dial up or internet connection. Again, the requirements in this respect will give additional guidance in the selection of an optimum approach.

U7.3.2 Information System
The selection of the approach chosen for the information system will depend on many factors, such as:
Anticipated volume of data. Report generation capabilities required. Data manipulation requirements. Data integrity.
Solutions at this level vary from a simple spreadsheet through to a full relational database management system (RDBMS). Both are valid approaches depending on the requirements of the application. Generally the data that is sourced for an information system will come from the MDS system if it is baggage system operational data. Often data is also required to be sourced from the sort allocation computer (SAC) in order that baggage data can be added to system data. Other forms of input such as a manual interface with other systems may be required to complete the data set required for management information. The first step is obviously to define the data required in this respect and where it will come from. The selected approach for the information system must then account for its ability to interface with the defined data sources. The requirement to define standard reports which can be easily produced should be considered together with any need to have them automatically produced. This will be a factor in selection of the approach. It is often beneficial to have a tool which allows new ad hoc reports to be easily configured. This type of mechanism allows the larger volumes of data acquired to be processed to provide meaningful information without having to manually analyze large volumes of data. Data manipulation also impacts this selection criteria. Each potential approach is likely to offer tools for data manipulation; these need to be considered for their flexibility against the intended use. The availability of skilled resources also needs to be considered as some approaches do not require high degrees of computer literacy, whereas others, although probably more flexible, require significant computer knowledge. In view of the cost reduction over recent years, and the availability of such software for PC platforms, the relational database management system has become the most popular approach. This approach
IATA
U7.4 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
---------
U7.IR1 MIS Recommendations

The following defines the IATA recommendations for MIS. In Selecting an MDS System consider:
Required features. Software standardization. Integration with other facilities. Required availability.
s Number and format of displays
?T=
In selecting the information system approach consider:
Anticipated volume of data. Report generation capabilities required. Data manipulation requirements. Data integrity.
* Interiaces with other systems for data collection. Available resource skills. Consider RDBMS systems for information management and reporting.
________
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SECTION U8: OVERSIZED BAGGAGE U8.1 OVERVIEW

The quantity of oversized baggage at airports can be substantial, and therefore the systems that process them needs to be proportionally sized and correctly positioned. It is important to note that all baggage, including oversized baggage, should be screened in accordance with the requirements of Section U11. Oversized baggage comes in two distinct categories: (i) conveyable and (ii) Non conveyable. Refer to section U1 for terminal-specific baggage size clarification in this regard. The proportions of conveyable and non conveyable baggage will vary, and each airport operation will have its own profile which should be established before proceeding to design the oversized baggage facility. It is important to design flexibility and operational convenience into the oversized baggage system for the airlines and their passengers. A passenger will, in most cases, present themselves at the standard gauge check-in facility, even if there is clear signage close to the passenger queue to direct them to the oversized baggage checkin facility. The reality is that passengers with oversized baggage will likely queue in standard gauge passenger lines until directed to oversized baggage processing areas. Oversized baggage needs to be weighed and baggage tags (Bar-code/RFID) need to be affixed to oversized bag. It will be important for the oversized check-in desks to be fitted with computer peripherals which will allow each participating airline user to access their respective Departures Control System (DCS) software.
Figure U8-1: Oversized Baggage Processing
- Denotes Oversized Baggage Conveyor Route or Bag Walk Route
U8.2
MANUAL DEPARTING OVERSIZED BAGGAGE PROCESSING

Position of hardware: Having established the manual processing requirements for oversized baggage, the hardware identified below should be positioned within the concourse area such that each participating airline user can equally access the facility, and such that the distance to the facility from the participating airlines is equally distributed where practically possible. Please refer to FIG. U8-1. Hardware requirements: Check-in Desks with DCS Access/Bag Weigh Scales/Lifts (where level changes are required) / Tugs/Dollies/Oversized Hold Baggage Screening Area/Flight make-up Area.
U8.3
AUTOMATED DEPARTING OVERSIZED BAGGAGE PROCESSING

Position of hardware: Having established the automatic processing requirements for oversized baggage, the hardware identified below should be positioned within the concourse area such that each participating airline user can equally access the facility and that the distance to the facility from the participating airlines is equally distributed where practically possible. Please refer to FIG. U8-1. Characteristics of Oversized Baggage Conveyor Routes:
The conveyor routes should be designed such that they are as straight and as flat as possible. Belt Widths should be > 1.5m. General Maximum Conveyor Characteristics (unless specified within U8.3) should align with Clauses U2.2, U2.3 and U2.5. Where powered belt bends must be used they should have a bend radius of > 1.775m as defined within Clause U2.9.2. Inclines and declines should be < 16 Degrees for Oversized Baggage Routes.
Hardware requirements: Check-in Desks with DCS Access / Bag Weigh Scales/ Delivery Conveyors Between Check-in and Baggage Hall / Oversized Hold Baggage Screening Area/Flight make-up Area.
U8.4
ARRIVING OVERSIZED BAGGAGE

While the volume of arriving oversized baggage can be equally significant as departing oversized baggage, it is usually not practically feasible to provide automated arriving oversized baggage conveyor systems, though it can be done. The baggage designer should assess the advantages and disadvantages of providing an automated facility, and if applicable and desired by the airlines apply the requirements defined within Section U5. It should be noted that arriving oversized baggage

U8.5 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS U8.S1 Oversized Baggage Data Acquisition
The proportions of conveyable and non-conveyable baggage will vary, and each airport operation 'ill hw. itsyovm.dta profile which should be established and fully understood by pre baggage handling designer before proceeding to design the oversized baggage facility. 'till j|: U8.1R2 Automatic Oversized Baggage Proci Where the volume of oversized departing baggage is > !0%Wthe total volume of departing baggage being processed, then the airport should consider providing an automatic oversized iling system in line with clauses U8.3 and U8.4, ahd'with manual I
________________________________" __^y
IATA
SECTION U9: SORT ALLOCATION COMPUTER (SAC) U9.1 INTRODUCTION

Sort allocation (SAC) system is a generic term describing the various baggage IT systems associated with bag routing and tracking. It is based on the IATA baggage license plate and baggage messages. IATA recommended practices (RPs) 740 and 1745 respectively apply. This article provides some general operational description of such systems together with general good practice recommendations.
U9.2
SAC FUNCTIONS DEFINED

This section describes the basic functions that generally form part of an SAC system.
Figure U9-1: Sac Context Diagram

BSM LPC
Airiine tDCS MIS
^BS M BPM
RSM
Messagef Distributi
"BSM FLT
BPM\L Status
i
SAC
Transfers
k > Chute
PLC
s
Flight Informatio n Chutet Allocatio n
IIIIIHIII Mill
Screening Sorter
BP
J
Remote Bag Manage ment/ Reconci liation
IfllllllllllllMIII
The SAC system process starts when a passenger checks in. Through this process the check-in operator makes entries to the airline's departure control system (DCS). The DCS deals with many aspects of the check-in process, one of which is to produce a license plate code. The license plate code is a 10 digit number which is printed onto the baggage tag in the form of a human readable number and a bar code. This code is detailed in IATA recommended practice number 740. The DCS also generates a message known as the baggage source message (BSM), in accordance with IATA RP1745.
645
The BSM is passed onto the SAC system (among other systems). The BSM contains a selection of information, part of which is the flight number and the license plate code, which enable the SAC system to match a bag to a flight. The SAC system also requires some means of acquiring the flight schedule, such that it has details of all departing flights. In addition it needs a means to acquire or define an allocation of make up chutes or laterals within the baggage system to the departing flights. This mechanism allows the SAC system to translate the flight number which is gains from the BSM into a make up destination for the bag.
Figure U9-2: SAC Sorting Process

DCS/Message Flight Distribution Chute Information Allocation
The sorting process is therefore as shown above. A bag's license plate is read from the bag within the baggage system via a bar code reader (BCR). Generally the bar code reader would be connected to a PLC control system, which is responsible for conveyor control and bag tracking on the conveyors. The bag's license plate is therefore passed to the PLC. The PLC is in turn connected to the SAC system (the PLC therefore provides a license plate code to the SAC system). The SAC system, using the mechanisms described above, can then determine which make up the bag should go to and replies to the PLC with this destination. The PLC system can then route the bag accordingly. SAC systems are also often called upon to manage early bag stores with management methods determined to suit the form of store. As a minimum the SAC system is usually required to track bags within the early bag store (EBS) and determine when they should be retrieved from the store to go
U9.2.2 Message Distribution

BSM messages are generated by the airline DCS. In a terminal or airport it is usual to have many airlines operating. This will typically require that the SAC system interfaces with each airline's DCS in order for it to receive BSMs for the airlines bags and sort them on this basis. This situation can be further complicated by the variety of destinations that BPM messages may need to go to. A solution to this problem taken up by many airports is to use a message distribution system.
Figure U9-3: Message Distribution
The diagram above illustrates how the message distribution system can significantly simplify the required connectivity between SAC DCS and other systems. This situation gets more complicated when other baggage systems, at the same airport and with their own SAC, are considered. Message distribution systems simplify the interconnectivity between these systems. They also provide algorithms for filtering messages based on their contents to ensure that only the right messages get to the right place. When transfer systems are considered, the issue of filtering becomes even more important. If message filtering and routing is not implemented then each system is likely to need to handle significantly more messages than it actually needs. This is due to it receiving messages for bags that will never pass through the given facility. Message distribution is generally a function provided by another computer system outside the scope of the SAC system.
U9.3
SAC SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS

This section suggests some considerations when selecting SAC system requirements.
U9.3.1 Sorting Function

The sorting function appropriate to the airport must be considered to establish on which basis the sort will be conducted (i.e. simple flight number or more complex combinations). This will involve consideration of the number of planned make up positions and flight schedule considerations. Handling of early and late bags should be considered to determine whether different handling is required or appropriate. The speed of the sorting function within the SAC is often very important since bag bar codes are read while the bag is moving. There is generally a time between the bar code reading point and the first route decision within the sort process. The time the SAC system takes to process the license plate code is important. A general guide for this time would be a worst case of 1 to 2 seconds.
U9.4
------------------"-----------------w U9.IR1 The following defines the IATA recommendations for the instances that a SAC is required. Consider the implementation of the following points when planning and implementing a SAC system: >
Bag sorting function requirements. Bag tracking requirements. System availability. MIS system interace. Reports required. Chute allocation. Chute monitors. Manual bag coding.
\__________________________________________________t
________________.______________________:____________y
SECTION U10: U10.1
BAGGAGE HALL DESIGN
BAGGAGE HALL FUNCTIONS

The airport baggage handling hall can be located within the main departures terminal building or can be a remote facility linked by connecting conveyor/DCV/Tilt Tray sorter devices. Irrespective of where the baggage hall is it will need to accommodate key functions and have certain characteristics which will enable the baggage hall to operate both effectively and safely. The following functions should be accommodated by most baggage halls, though variations will occur depending on the size and complexity of the airport:

U10.2
Hold baggage screening (HBS) operations. Flight sortation equipment and operations. Flight sortation staff operations. CCTV provision where deemed necessary (HBS areas and manual interfaces). Tug charging operations (optional as separate facility). Tug/dollies/containers pending flight make-up. Tug/dollies/containers storage (optional as separate facility). Staff rest room and locker facilities. Sortation allocation control room facilities. Early baggage store where operationally required (optional as separate facility). Access control.
BAGGAGE HALL ENVIRONMENT

It will be important and indeed mandatory in most countries to create a safe working environment for authorized baggage hall staff. The following criteria should be used when designing baggage halls in the absence of national legislation. If national legislation does exist which may be different to the IATA standard listed below, then the higher more onerous standard should be adopted in areas of technical standard conflict or ambiguity. Lighting Levels: All baggage hall areas should be illuminated to achieve 500 LUX (loading dock as reference plane) with the exception of the bar-code reading stations, which should illuminated to achieve < 300 LUX (conveyor belt /sorter as the reference plane). Noise Levels: Baggage handling equipment and operations are inherently noisy. It is however possible to select baggage handling equipment which will run more quietly than other variants. Baggage handling designers should aim to select baggage handling equipment which runs as quietly as possible when balanced against operational objectives. The final installed facility should, when operational, have an ambient noise level of < 68 dB(A) over frequency range of 60-8000 Hz when measured at a point 1 m from any operational baggage handling conveyor/sorter/DCV device. The sound profiles from loading baggage from conveyors to dollies and the movement of tugs and dollies generally should not be considered in the measurement of the ambient noise level. Baggage handling equipment should be fitted with anti-vibration mountings to absorb and dissipate vibration and thus remove any resultant sound signatures.
Ventilation: Baggage handling equipment (conveyors, sorters, DCVs, vehicles, computing equipment, power distribution cabinets, X-ray machines, etc.) all dissipate heat, and so do all the workers that operate within the environment. This heat energy level needs to be controlled and comfortable with effective temperatures and ventilation rates achieved. The following recommended parameters should Internal Design Criteria Design Air Temperature C Summer Winter Humidity % Saturation Ventilation Rate Baggage Hall Volume Air Changes Per Hour >5 > 10 Depending on Tug Usage-Carbon Monoxide and Nitrous Oxide Levels to be made safe for Baggage Hall Staff
Baggage Hall (Battery Tugs) Baggage Hall (Diesel Tugs) DIESEL TUGS ARE NOT RECOMMENDED
24 24
18 18
60 60
U10.3
BAGGAGE HALL CLEARANCES

The baggage hall will need clearances for maintaining baggage handling and building equipment. The vehicles will also need clearances. The following tables define these recommended clearances in each case. Maintenance clearances should also be paid attention to, and the baggage handling conveyor/sorter/DCV equipment should wherever practically possible be accessible from both sides. See Fig. U10-1. The distances defined in the table below assume all guarding systems are fitted: Maintenance Personnel Clearance Description A) Conveyors Units Plan Width (M) (X1) > 1m < 1.5m Vertical Clearance (Y1) > 1.8m < 2.1m Comments
B) Sorters/DCV C) All Other Support Conveying Equipment Hardware.
> 1m < 2m > 1m < 2m (Refer to Equipment Specifications)
> 1.8m < 2.1m > 1.8m < 2.1m
1 m (X1) Clearance Is General Requirement Either Side Of Conveyors. 1.5m Recommended At Drive Locations On One Side Only Variations Will Occur See Manufacturer Specifications Variations Will Occur See Manufacturer Specifications
Vehicle Clearance DescriptionPlan Width (M)Vertical ClearanceCommentsPassing Lanes(X2) > 2.5m <3m (Unless Specified By Local Airline User Group)(Y5) > 2.43m (Unless Specified By Local Airline User Group)Passing Lanes Should Widen On BendsParking Lanes/Areas For Baggage Loading/Un-loading Activities(X3) > 2.5m < 3m (Unless Specified By Local Airline User Group)(Y6) Note: All Dimensions Should be Verified with > 3.2m (Rigid BiParticipating Airlines. Fold Containers Figure U10-1: Typical Cross Section Through Baggage Doors)Dimension (Y6) May Be Hall Relaxed To > 2.43m (with Mezzanine) Where ONLY fabric container doors are used.Make-Up Docks Where Containers Are Opened(X4) > 0.9m < 1.2m(Y2) > 0.1m < 0.2mDimension (Y2) Ideal Height Is 0.15m
U10.4 BAGGAGE HALL HEALTH AND SAFETY

Each airport and airline should assess the following criteria using a health and safety advisor when deciding if baggage movement mechanized device(s) maybe required:
Magnitude of the typical baggage loads being moved per baggage loader/un-loader. Frequency of actual baggage movements per baggage loader/un-loader. A measure of the typical ability of baggage loaders/un-loaders to be able to pick up the actual baggage.
It is essential that baggage is not lifted but is moved from an initial higher height to a lower final height (refer to dimensions Y3 and Y4 within Fig. U10-1), and that the human body is not performing a twist operation during the baggage moving process. The baggage Forces and Moments exerted on the human body during the typical baggage movement process can be substantial, it is for this reason that the distance between conveyors/laterals/chutes/racetracks and the containers needs to be controlled using loading/unloading docks (refer to dimensions X4 and Y2 within Fig. U10-1). Where Oversized Baggage is moved by baggage handlers, mechanized assisting baggage movement aids should be provided to a design and operational protocol approved and agreed by both the local health and safety advisor and airiine(s) heath and safety representative. Loading docks are also required as a protection device and should remove the possibility of baggage
U10.5
U10.IR1 Functional Requirements The baggage handling designer and Architect should consider and agree upon the functional requirements of the baggage hall with reference tp the '.*ser requirements brief defined within Section U1 and Section U10 Clause U10. 1 .
UiO.IRi Baggage H II Environment The baggage handling designer and Architect should adhere to -ggage <w environment requirements defined within Clause U10.2.
U10.IR3 Baggage Hall Clearances The baggage handling designer and Architect should adhere to the baggage hall clearances defined within Clause U10.3.
U10.IR4 Baggage Hall Health and Safety The baggage handling designer and Architect should adhere to the baggage hall heath and safety recommendations defined within Clause U10.4 plus any national legislation in this regard.
\^ -***---
;__________________________^____ ^
_________________
SECTION U11: U11.1
HOLD BAGGAGE SCREENING
ICAO POLICY
ICAO Annex 17, Security, and in particular Chapter 4 Clause 4.4 'Measures relating to hold baggage' defines the high level requirements for the screening of passenger hold baggage. The term Hold Baggage Screening is often referred to as HBS, and more recently has taken the form of 'EDS', though this actually means Explosive Detection Systems {which relates to the types of equipment used within HBS processes). There are two recommendations made by ICAO which relate to HBS processes, these include: ICAO paragraph 4.4.9 Each contracting state should establish measures to ensure that originating hold baggage intended to be carried in an aircraft engaged in international civil aviation operations is screened prior to be being loaded into the aircraft. ICAO paragraph 4.4.10 Each contracting state should take necessary measures to ensure that unidentified baggage is placed in a protected and isolated area until such time as it is ascertained that it does not contain any explosives or other dangerous device. It should be noted that ICAO Recommendation 4.4.9 will become a Standard on 1 January, 2006.
U11.2
IATA HBS POLICY

IATA endorses the use of the ICAO Annex 17 security standards and all recommendations. IATA recommends that the following categories of hold baggage should be 100% screened using the principles and equipment variants defined within clause U11.3 within this section:
Originating international departures hold baggage. Originating domestic departures hold baggage. Transfer international hold baggage. Transfer domestic hold baggage.
It is recommended that the process to screen all hold baggage should be made completely apparent to all departing passengers using appropriately positioned signage. The precise machine types, models and processes used in the HBS process should not be communicated to passengers or persons within the terminal in any way.
U11.3
RECOMMENDED HBS PROCESS FOR NEW HBS DEVELOPMENTS

There are various techniques and locations for screening hold baggage within airports. It is possible to screen baggage (i) on the concourse in sterile areas; (ii) within the check-in desks; (iii) immediately after check-in though still on the concourse level; (iv) within the terminal building voids leading to the baggage hall; (v) within the baggage hall; and (vi) at the gate, where screened baggage is then sent to the apron for local flight make-up. IATA recommends that all HBS activities (excluding Level 5 status baggage disposal) are completed within the confines of the baggage hall in centralised screening facilities.
1)113.1 Recommended 5 Level HBS Process

IATA recommends the use of a 5 Level HBS process for the screening of all baggage types as defined within clause U11.2. The following matrix explains the definitions of the screening levels and the alternative routes available upon exit from the various levels of screening. It is envisaged that at a busy international airport 1 in 50 million bags processed will require bomb disposal services. This 1 bag in 50 million bags indeed may not contain an explosive device but must be processed as if it does
HBS LEVEL # Definition of Screening Within Level 1 Fully Automatic Explosive Detection System (EDS) inline X-ray Machine. Staff Operated X-ray Screening image Processor workstation using enhanced Image Processing software. (Notes Level 2 images are obtained at Level 1 EDS CT X-Ray Machine Or Staff Operated Electronic Trace Detection (ETD) System. (NOTE Level 2 reject Image replicated at Level 3 position Reconciliation of Threat Baggage with Passenger (Pax and Bag Brought to Special Area) Passenger asked to account for threat image and ETD trace presence concern. Passenger asked to Open Bag Bomb Disposal Unit Called to Dispose of Baggage which cannot be reunited with Passenger Cleared Baggage Directed to: (Target % of Baggage) Automatic or Manual Baggage Sortation System (70% of Total Automatic or Flow) Manual Baggage Sortation System (25% of Total Flow) Reject Baggage Directed to: HBS Level 2 (30% of Total Flow) HBS Level 3 (5% of Total Flow)
Automatic or Manual Baggage Sortation System (4.8% of Total Flow)
Reconciliation of Higher Threat Status Baggage with Passenger (0.2% Of Total Flow)
Automatic or Manual Baggage Sortation System (0.19999998% of Total Flow)
Very High threat Baggage Sent to Baggage Bomb Disposal Unit. (0.00000002% of Total Flow)
5 (TERMINAL EVACUATION LIKELY)
Bag Destroyed (0.00000002% of Total Flow)
N/A
U11.3.2 Recommended Equipment Configurations

It can be seen from Fig.'s U11-1, 2 and 3 that there are numerous arrangements possible for the integration of 100% Hold Baggage Screening equipment. Fig.'s U11-1, 2 and 3 clarify the recommended high level flow filtration principle to be adopted for the various sizes of international airports. The fundamental design philosophy to adopt when designing hold baggage screening systems is denoted by the following design stages: Stage 1 Confirm Peak Hour Rate for baggage to be screened in final design year for facility. Stage 2 Select correct number of EDS/CT/ETD equipment to cope with Peak Hour Rate. Stage 3 Add route and EDS machine capability (redundancy) to cope with planned or unplanned EDS equipment maintenance and compliance of Service Level Agreements (SLAs) negotiated between airlines and the airport operator. Stage 4 Ensure that input and output routes from the HBS facility meet with the User Requirements
Figure U11-1: Small Airport Typical HBS Layout

A Typical Small Airport HBS Layout From Check-in
X-Ray
Q>\
L1 Rejected
Ciparecl
Ba&gagc
1
L2 Cleared Baggage
To So rtati on L3 Cle are d Ba gga ge L3 XRa y Stan dby L3 ETD
Den otes Verti A" Denotes [DPI) Sorte Decision r Point RedundancyDynamic switching L2 Redundancy
W/Stn
lil/Xl
2L R eje cte dB agg age
From Check-in
L1 Reject ed Bagga ge L11 1L' ClturJXRay1Sagrjarje
Process Map Courtesy of Norman Shanks Associates Where the passenger traffic is less than 1 MPPA the principle to adopt is shown in Fig U11 -1. It should be noted that the precise number of X-ray machines used should be determined by the peak hour rate witnessed. With this principle baggage rejected at Level 1 is diverted to a separate Level 2 line which would incorporate an adequate number of queuing conveyor so that the workstation operatives have sufficient time for off-line review of the Level 2 baggage.
IATA

Figure U11-2: Typical Medium to Large Airport HBS Layout
A Typical Medium - Large Airport HBS Layout In-Line Level 2
L1 Load Share VertiSorter

Denotes Verti-Sorter Denotes Decision Point
L2 W/Stn #1 L2 W/Stn #3
L2 W/Stn #2 L2 W/Stn #N
Potentially Remote Networked Level 2 Workstations
Rej ect L3
Stan dby L3 ETD
Process Map Courtesy of Norman Shanks Associates Where the passenger flow is greater than 1 MPPA but less than 25MPPA, the principle to adopt for the HBS arrangement is shown within Fig U11-2.
1 decision point. All baggage within this critical section should be accurately tracked to ensure validity
With this principle Level 1 cleared baggage is mixed with Level 1 rejected baggage after the Level
of bag position and security status. Level 2 bag images are analysed while in transit to the Level 2 decision point using a matrix arrangement of Level 2 workstations (see Fig U11-4). At the Level 2 decision point the bag is then cleared for sortation or is rejected at Level 2 and declared a Level 3 bag and sent to the Level 3 centralized area. It is important to note that the Level 1 process should be fully automatic and reliant on internal Level 1 software to decide if baggage should be rejected and sent to Level 2. Level 2 inspection should be done by an operator using enhanced reprocessed and re-manipulated images obtained from Level 1 equipment. Each Level 2 image should be capable of being manually inspected by an operator for at least 5 seconds before being timed out. If a Level 2 decision has not been made by a Level 2 operator then the default condition should be to automatically default to Level 3 for that bag. Operators at Level 3 should be provided with the final image produced at Level 2 to support the detection process at Level 3.
656
IATA

Figure U11-3: Typical Large Airport HBS Layout
A Typical Large Airport HBS Layout Level 1 Load Presort - InLine Level 2
From Check-in
From Check-in lIV-|||
Level 1 Presorter Load istrlbulion Optimisation

k
L1 XRa y #3 L1
XRay #N
Denotes Verti-Sorter Denotes Decision Point
L1 Clea red L1 Reje cted Bagg age Mix L2L2W/Stn W/Stn#1#2L2L2 W/Stn,. (..W/Stn#3#NPot entially Remote NetworkedLevel 2 Workstations
Standb y L3 ETD
Process Map Courtesy of Norman Shanks Associates Where the flow of passengers using a terminal exceeds 25MPPA, then the HBS configuration seen within Fig. U11-3 should be seriously considered. The Level 1 pre-sorterwill aid distribution of baggage to the minimum possible number of available Level 1 machines. All other performance attributes of this arrangement are as defined within Fig. U11-2 and its subsequent supporting text defined above.
657
U11.3.3 Useful HBS Equipment Types

The following table highlights the specific recommended uses for HBS equipment categorized by Detection, Sortation and Tracking usage. In each case, and where applicable, the usage location and corresponding design rates for the various types of equipment is given as a guide to HBS designers. Variations in technology and performance will be evident between manufacturers of HBS and conveyor sorting equipment.
Equipment Type Recommended Usage (Likely equipment rates to be used for pre-tender design stages)
Detection: EDS X-ray Detection: Level 2 Workstation (Networked) Detection: CT-X-ray Detection: Explosive Trace Detection (ETD) Sortation: Tilt-tray Pre-Sorters Sortation: DCV's (Type 1) Sortation: Verti-Sorters Tracking: Bar Code Readers
Level 1 Screening Process (20-23Bags/Min) Level 2 Screening Process (12Bags/Min) Level 3 Screening Process (3-6Bags/Min) Level 3 Screening Process (3 Bags/Min)
Level 1 Pre-sortation (Large Installations Only (60Bags/Min) Level 1 Pre-sortation (Large Installations Only (5m/s cart speed) Any Location where line flow must be dynamically split or merged. (25/40Bags/Min) Not recommended but in limited applications will aid
Tracking: Optical Shaft Encoders or Star Wheel Encoders
tracking of Level 2 Baggage. High unit CAPEX and running costs prohibit common usage. Marginal increase in tracking reliability. RFID Dynamic Tracking between decision point 1 and decision point 2. optical Shaft encoder is more accurate than star wheel.
Figure U11-4: EDS Workstation Image
Image courtesy of L3 Communications
Figure U11-5: Typical CT Machines
Photo courtesy of Reveal CT80 See Note (i)

(correct at time of going to press).
Photo courtesy of L3 CommunicationseXmnr 3DX 6000
(i) Reveal CT80 model: TSA explosives detection certification process planned for March 2004 Notes: (ii) TSA certified CT manufacturers models include: InVision CTX5000 and CTX9000 and L3 Communications eXmnr 3DX 6000 (correct at time of going to press). (iii) Images shown above are not at comparative scales.
U11.4
U11.IR1 IATA HBS Policy Designers should adhere to the recommended IATA HBS Policy defined within Clause U11.2 of this section.
U11.IR2 Screening Process New airport baggage systems or existing baggage systems incorporating HBS for the first time should be designed with an in-line 5 level HBS process, as defined within clause U11.3.1 of this section.
U11 .IR3 Airport System Configurations Designers should review the three options defined within clause U11.3.2 of this section and select the correct layout principle which best matches the passenger flow expectation of the airport. The selected principle should then be developed to suit the precise requirements of the airport operation needs.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ "= - - -.
U11.IR4 National HBS Legislation Variations Airport designers should consult national transport government organizations to seek guidance on specific legal codes of practice pertaining to HBS process and equipment procedures. Where a national standard does not exist the standard defined within the section should be adopted. Where a national standard does exist then it is recommended that a comparison of this standard and the national standard be conducted and the most onerous screening solution selected adopted provided that the final solutions meets with national legislation.
U11.IR5 Bilateral Screening Agreements IATA promotes the development and use of bilateral screening agreements / protocols between nations. The bilateral screening agreement should comply with the intent defined within ICAO Annex 17 Security Clause 4.4.9. Where a bilateral agreement is in place then the Airport Operators in both nations should have full confidence in the screening equipment, screening processes and screening protocols in place to ensure, to the greatest extent possible, that only non threat departures hold baggage is loaded into an aircraft. Either the national governments and/or the airport operators of both nations should endeavor to validate the security integrity of the bilateral screening agreements annually. v______________________________________________________________________________ J
SECTION U12: U12.1
PASSENGER & HAND BAGGAGE SCREENING
ICAO PASSENGER AND HAND BAGGAGE SCREENING POLICY

There are three standards required to be met by ICAO which relate to passenger and hand baggage screening processes as indicated in clause 4.3 Measures relating to passengers and their cabin baggage, contained within Chapter 4 (Preventative Security Measures) of ICAO Annex 17, Security. These include: ICAO paragraph "4.3.1 Each contracting state shall establish measures to ensure that originating passengers and their cabin baggage are screened prior to boarding an aircraft engaged in international civil aviation operations." ICAO paragraph "4.3.2 Each contracting state shall ensure that transfer and transit passengers and their cabin baggage are subjected to adequate security controls to prevent unauthorized articles from being taken on board aircraft engaged in international civil aviation operations." ICAO paragraph "4.3.3 Each contracting state shall ensure that there is no possibility of mixing or contact between passengers subjected to security control and other persons not subjected to such control after the security screening points at airports serving international civil aviation have been passed; if mixing or contact does take place, the passengers concerned and their cabin baggage shall be re-screened before boarding an aircraft."
U12.2 IATA PASSENGER AND HAND BAGGAGE SCREENING POLICY

IATA endorses the use of the ICAO Annex 17 security standards and all recommendations. IATA recommends that the following categories of passengers and their cabin baggage should be 100% screened using the principles defined within subsequent clauses U12.3 and U12.5 within this section:

U12.3
Departures Passengers. Transfer (in transit) Passengers.
RECOMMENDED PASSENGER SCREENING PROCESS

Departing and transfer international and domestic passengers should be processed using the following high level and low level processes defined within Figures U12.1 and U12.2 respectively. IATA recommends the optional use of Passenger Risk Assessment (PRA) techniques at the locations defined within figure U12-1 and figure U12-2. PRA allows the airport to assign the correct proportion of security scrutiny to those passengers which have been identified to be of higher risk, while the majority of passengers will experience normal levels of adequate pre-board security. Although the overall passenger processing time marginally increases for all passengers using this method, the increase in security performance is substantial and focused on where the risk is evaluated to potentially reside. The use of random 5% and 10% searches for passengers and their hand baggage is commonly
U123.1 Departures and Transfer Passenger Screening

Figure U12-1 defines a typical and recommended high level departures and transfer passenger screening process map. It can be seen from this process map that arriving (terminal exit and transfer) passengers and departing passengers must not be mixed or be permitted to exchange goods items on their person within the airside environment in accordance with ICAO paragraph 4.3.3. It is recommended that segregation of these groups of passengers should be enforced at all times by the use of dedicated passenger routes where flows of passengers are carefully and constantly monitored. Transfer passenger screening must be in accordance and compliant with ICAO paragraph 4.3.2. It can be seen in figure U12-1 and figure U12-2 that the grey diamond denotes the position of potential passenger risk assessment points which are optional. At these junctions the airport security staff can ask selected questions to all passengers which will be designed to ascertain the level of risk of the passenger. The security staff can then direct the passenger and any hand baggage to appropriate passenger and hand baggage screening.
Figure U12-2 shows a typical departures and transfer passenger screening process map at a low, much more detailed level, where all of the inter-relationships between the process steps are clearly shown. It can also be seen that once the passenger and their hand baggage has been screened, the task of reunification becomes quite complex. It is very important that staff and passengers have adequate space and passengers have clear instructions on where they should go. It is recommended that the security operation is covered by high resolution, digital closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras. Security staff should be able to review the last 24 hours of media on demand in the security screening control room. This ability to review historic passenger movements within the security area
is particularly useful when trying to resolve situations where a passenger has picked up a wrong bag by genuine mistake or when a theft has occurred. One practical and simple solution to aid the correct connection between passenger and their corresponding bag is to give the passenger a numbered token which relates to a correspondingly numbered goods tray. It is also extremely useful for ongoing security training purposes.
Figure U12-2: Typical Departures and Transfer Passenger Screening Process "Low Level"
Pax. & Hand Baggage Screening Process ] LANDSIDE | AIRSIDE ^

CCTV Coverage Recommended
PAX Rejected @ AMD - Search Needed With Hand Held Detector
PAX found with Prohibited items Restrained
> PAX Cleared AMD PAX Boarding Pass & Flight Ticket Verification' Optional: PAX. Risk Assessment Position Recommend: Automated Separation Conveyor Cleared Baggage Pick-up Rollers
PAX - No BAG Exits Central Security Search
>
Rejected Baggage' Reunited with PAX. & Searched
PAX & Bag Exists istsV Central Security Search
Optional HIGH RISK PAX. Separation Following PAX. Risk Assessment Exercise
1. Capability 2.
Optional Enhanced Equipment Route AMD with Particle Analysis EDS / CT / Plus ETD
Process Map Courtesy of Norman Shanks Associates
U12.4
RECOMMENDED PASSENGER AND HAND BAGGAGE SCREENING EQUIPMENT

The following equipment functions and rates should be considered appropriate for passenger and hand baggage screening. The rates should be used by designers in determining the static throughput requirements for security search areas.
Equipment Type Archway Metal Detector Function Screening of passengers for metal based items Capacity 12 PAX./Min Comments Used where Passenger Risk Assessment (PRA) is defined to be LOW risk where risk evaluation has occurred. (90%-100% passengers (PAX) Will use this route) Used where the PRA is defined to be LOW risk where risk evaluation has occurred. (90%-100% PAX hand baggage will use this route) Used where PRA is defined to be HIGHER risk where risk evaluation has occurred. (5%-10% PAX will use this route) Used where the PRA is defined to be HIGHER risk where risk evaluation has occurred. (5%-10% PAX hand baggage will use this route) Rarely used for this function.
Conventional XRay 1 Image Reviewer Operator Archway Metal Detector with Particle Analysis Capability EDS X-Ray 1 Image Reviewer Operator multi reviewer possible CT-X-Ray 1 Image Reviewer Operator ETD
Screening of Passenger hand baggage and Staff work goods Screening of passengers for metal based items. Analysis of drug and Screening of Passenger hand baggage and Staff work goods Screening of passenger hand baggage and staff work goods Analysis of explosive particles on passenger person or on their baggage
10-12 Bags/ Min Restriction based on all images inspected and 5 second maximum per image 7 PAXVMin
15 Bags/MinRestriction based on reject images only inspected and 5 second maximum per image 3-6 Bags/Min
3 Bags/Min
Commonly used as final arbiter device. Small space needed/lower cost favors use IMPORTANT NOTE ETD should never be used as the sole screening device always in combination with AMD, HHMD, X-ray. Possible exception when there is equipment failure,
Figure
U12-3:
Advanced
Automated
Hand
Baggage
Screening
Mechanized Clear / Reject Separation Conveyor "Knife EdgeDesign
Reject hand baggage search table area. Optional to have reject image replicated at search point.
Glazed screen to protect passenger from conveyors though allow visibility of bag routes and permit correct level of passenger access to various baggage status.
Photo courtesy of Fabricom Airport Systems UK

U12.5 PASSENGER SEARCHES
U1Z5.1 Able Bodied Passenger Searches

When planning the detailed layout of the search area is it recommended that the following search sequence for passengers is observed: Step 1 Step 1a Step 2 Step 2a capability. Step 3 Step 3a detector. Step 3b Step 3c Step 3d Step 3e Step 4 Passenger enters security search area. Optional: Passenger Risk Assessment (PRA) questioning at landside/airside barrier. Passenger metallic object scan using AMD unit. Optional: Higher risk passengers scanned using AMD with particle analysis Passengers cleared at AMD permitted to pick up cleared hand baggage or review contents of rejected baggage. Passengers rejected by AMD should then be scanned using hand held metal Passengers cleared by hand held metal detector permitted to pick up cleared hand baggage or review contents of rejected baggage. Passengers rejected by hand held metal detector referred to Electronic Trace Detection (ETD) equipment. Passengers cleared by Electronic Trace Detection (ETD) equipment; permitted to pick up cleared hand baggage or review contents of rejected baggage. Passengers rejected by Electronic Trace Detection (ETD) equipment; referred to Police and Security. Passengers exit security search area.
IMPORTANT NOTE: Where random searches of passengers are required then security staff should be instructed by means of an illuminated 'reject passenger' light which should be driven by either
Figure U12-4: Modern Passenger Hand Baggage X-Ray
Photo courtesy COMMUNICATIONS
of
L3
IATA
U1252 Disabled Passenger Searches
Passengers who are blind or unable to walk should not be processed through archway metal detectors. These disabled passengers should be scanned using hand held metal detectors and then processed from stage 3a onward as defined in clause U 12.5.1 above. All other categories of disabled passengers should be searched using the total process steps 1 to 4 inclusive as defined in U12.4.1 above.
U125.3 Infants and Infant Buggies

Infants under the age of 2 should be held by their parent/guardian and then processed using the total process steps 1 to 4 inclusive as defined in U 12.4.1 above. Buggies should be screened using Electronic Trace Detection Equipment. Able bodied infants that are over 2 years are assumed to be able to walk and should be treated as adult passengers, though search of infants must always be conducted with either their parents or guardian present. Infants should not be subjected to optional
U12.6 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS U12.IR1 Passenger Risk Assessment and IATA Policy
Passenger Risk Assessment questioning is recommended at the entry point of the security search area. Normal and higher risk passengers should be screened using the appropriate type of technology as defined within clause U12.5 inclusive which should be configured with reference to Fig.'s U12-1 and U12-2. Designers should observe the IATA policy requirements of clause U12.2. The official current IATA/GASAG position on Passenger Risk Assessment is defined to be:
Carefully defined individual passenger assessments as an element of risk analysis, based on internationally accepted'standards as incorporated into national legislation, to facilitate the identification of individuals who may pose a threat to safety and security of civil aviation.
The development of programs designed to facilitate the movement of passengers who, through appropriate risk assessment, are deemed to pose no risk to safety and security and thus permit more effective targeting of resources. These programs must be designed in such a way that under normal circumstances, no more than 10 % of passengers are selected for additional enhanced security screening.
Systems that are effectively designed in order to avoid the need for additional random checks of passengers. The exchange of relevant information between appropriate organizations to assist in
U12.IR2 Passenger Screening Using Random Sampling

If random sample screening of a fixed percentage of passengers is used as a technique, then a computer program should be used as the tool to randomly select passengers. The 'random' sample of searched passengers and their baggage should be taken over a 24hour repeating cycle and should not be unnaturally biased toward any one particular part of the operational day.
v_______________________________________________________________________y
667
U12.IR3 Passenger Screening Process Passengers should be screened using the process steps defined within clause U12.5 inclusive.
U12.IR4 Security Search Provision
Designers should use the table defined within clause U12.4 when statically calculating the throughput capabilities of security search area designs.
IATA
Chapter V IATA Airport Project Process Section V1: Concept/Feasibility/Detail Design/Commissioning/Handover V1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... V1.2 Problem Identification ............................................................................ V1.3 Assessment of Existing Conditions and Inventory................................... V1.4 Forecasting Traffic Demand ................................................................... V1.5 Existing Facilities: Meeting the Forecasted Traffic Demand.................... V1.6 Identify Issue Requirements................................................................... V1.7 Compile Project Brief (High Level).......................................................... V1.8 Consultations / Review........................................................................... V1.9 Decision to Redevelop or Build a New Facility........................................ V1.10 New Facility ........................................................................................... V1.11 Redevelopment / Expansion ................................................................. V1.12 Review/Redefine Project Brief................................................................ V1.13 Concept Option Development ................................................................ V1.14 Value Examine Concept Options ............................................................ V1.15 Feasibility Designs.................................................................................. V1.16 Value Examine Feasibility Options........................................................... V1.17 Consultations / Review........................................................................... V1.18 Select Feasibility Design for Tender ...................................................... V1.19 Invite Tenders: Detail Design ................................................................ V1.20 Evaluation of Tender Returns ................................................................ V1.21 Construction.......................................................................................... V1.22 Commissioning ...................................................................................... V1.23 IATA Recommendations.......................................................................... Section V2: Project Cost Management V2.1 Introduction/Guidelines ........................................................................ V2.2 Business Plan ......................................................................................... V2.3 Concept Cost Estimates.......................................................................... V2.4 Feasibility Cost Estimates ...................................................................... 677 678 679 679
669 670 670 671 671 671 671 672 672 672 673 673 673 674 674 674 674 674 675 675 675 675 676
669

V2.5 Financing Plan ....................................................................................... V2.6 Consultations / Review........................................................................... V2.7 Detail Design Cost Estimates................................................................. V2.8 Consultations / Review........................................................................... V2.9 Award Tender......................................................................................... V2.10 Construction Cost Monitoring ................................................................ V2.11 Diagnostic of the Project Process .......................................................... V2.12 Capital Expenditure Plan ....................................................................... V2.13 IATA Recommendations......................................................................... 679 679 679 680 680 680 680 680 681
670
CHAPTER V IATA AIRPORT PROJECT PROCESS

SECTION CONCEPT/FEASIBILITY/DETAIL DESIGN/COMMISSIONING/ IATA V1: HANDOVER V1.1 INTRODUCTION
Joint participation by the airport authority and the airlines in the initial stages of the planning process is indispensable to the development of a successful design programme. Early evaluations of airport projects will reduce the number of changes to the final programme and thereby minimize increased design costs. Such action will also contribute to the probability of meeting scheduled completion dates. The ultimate cost of any new or expanded facility, both in terms of capital expenditure and resulting annual user charges, will depend to a large extent on the size of the facility and the complexity of the project to deliver it; it is important that an accurate assessment of the required dimensions is made in the early planning stages, and suggested that planners should review the IATA APEM document methodology which defines detailed recommended project management activities for airport development projects.
Figure V1-1: Typical Airport Project Planning Process

Problem Identificatio n Assess existing conditions Forecast traffic demand Concept Dplion development Value examine Concept -Mm Identity issues/ requirements Compile project brief Redevelopment
/Redevelopment existing facility or build \ new facility?
YES
Can \NO y^xiflting facilities functions N. to forecast with a new N^perstjonal process?.
/Cost estimate/ \ level "D" \
Implement corrective operational process
Create Feasibility designs Mutm-Value examine Feasibility options ~~t_% Consu nations/ review Select Feasibility option Invite lenders ''cost estimate/ \ level "C" \
End
New Facility
Role in airport system Strategic Plan
Internal consultations Review historic master plan
Evaluation of ? Cost tender returns estimate/ \ level "B" \ t\__V Consultations/ review Award tender
Review/redefin e project brief
Cost estimate/ \ level "A" \
Detail design solutions contractor

mis-
construction
Commissioning
671
V1.2
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
An existing and diligent airport operation will continuously be looking closely at the capabilities of its infrastructure and its ability to process passengers, freight and mail. Due to the nature of flight schedules it is quite straightforward to foresee if a capacity problem is going to manifest itself at some point in the future. Once identified, these problems could result in expansion projects, new terminal builds, or as a first choice the improvement of an operational process which resolves the problem without the need to build a new facility. It will be essential for airport operators to examine the true origins of any identified operational or capacity problem and then solve the underlying problem, assessing the perceived longevity of the problem and ensuring that best practice is adhered to at all times.
V1.3
ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING CONDITIONS AND INVENTORY

The initial stage in correcting any issue is to reflect upon existing conditions and inventory. This stage enables the planner to assess the starting point of the programme that will be initiated to correct the stated issue or problem.
V1.3.1 Physical Facilities

The most obvious step is an inventory of the physical facilities currently constructed. Depending on the identified problem this inventory may include the number of gates, processing facilities (i.e. checkin facilities and security), the size of arrivals hall and their resultant processing capability, etc.
V1.3.2 Operational Systems

Equally as important as the physical characteristics of the building and its infrastructure, a good understanding and appreciation of how the systems operate within the limits of these physical structures is also required. Operational data and other elements such as passenger flows and operational procedures should be fully understood. Airports should request information from airlines and tenants who can provide good statistical data that will indicate levels of past performance.
V1.3.3 Constraints
A preliminary listing of the constraints on the system should be identified at this stage. Constraints are to be investigated on two levels: the first being restrictions that may limit the extent of any future development and the second being issues that are currently constraining the airport capacity. Identifying these issues will allow a more focused concept development programme, as limits will have already been set by this constraint investigation exercise.
V1.3.4 Simulation
When assessing operational 'dynamic' systems/airport processes, simulation tools such as lATA's Total AirportSim should be used to optimise existing facilities, evaluating saturation conditions when interaction between subsystems and overflow conditions are likely. With simulation packages and studies the 'What if scenarios can be effectively simulated and subsequently assessed, the results
IATA
V1.4 FORECASTING TRAFFIC DEMAND
IATA Airport Project Process
Successful airport planning investigations will use proven and effective forecasting methods to evaluate and predict future events as realistically as possible. Airport traffic forecast studies use a combination of trend analysis, data extrapolation, expectation surveys and professional statistical judgement. Various forecasting methodologies exist (please refer to Section C2: Forecasting), all of which aim to achieve the objectives of: (i) providing an accurate forecast to assist in capacity planning issues and (ii) to provide an insight into the financial and cost benefits of the study if implemented. There are essentially three parameters that are covered in a forecast: passenger and baggage volumes, cargo volumes and aircraft movements.
V1.5
EXISTING FACILITIES: MEETING THE FORECASTED TRAFFIC DEMAND

A complete review of the existing operational processes should be undertaken. On numerous occasions an updated or new operational process can alleviate the situation without the need to provide addition or modified infrastructure. If a revised process meets the operational brief requirements, then following successful simulations this should be the recommended course of action (it is often the most cost effective solution). Facilities should be utilized to their maximum prior to any new development.
V1.6
IDENTIFY ISSUE REQUIREMENTS

This project process stage should be used to confirm whether a new facility should be built or an existing facility redeveloped. Following discussion with the various stakeholders and assessment of all of the facts presented by the various professional groups, the operational and functional issues relating to the problem should be identified and used in the subsequent High Level development brief defined within clause V1.7 that follows. The key output from this stage will be the decision to follow only one of the following design routes (please also refer to clause V1.9 for further guidance):

V1.7
Option 1: Redevelopment/ Expansion. Option 2: New Airport/Facility.
COMPILE PROJECT BRIEF (HIGH LEVEL)

In situations where a new or expanded facility is necessary, it will be appropriate to compile a high level project brief. This high level brief should explain the intent of the client and its ambition to resolve a current or future operational problem by modifying or constructing new infrastructure. The high level project brief should indicate the primary objectives of the project and will be the basis of the far more detailed feasibility/concept study brief. Documented elements within the initial project brief will include but are not limited to:
A statement of needs.
673

V1.8 CONSULTATIONS / REVIEW
An essential element of any planning process is the inclusion of meaningful and adequate consultations with all stakeholders. Consultation should be a continuous process that is initiated prior to any sizeable planning initiative. lATA's Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) is the primary forum to facilitate an effective and mutually beneficial consultation between the airlines and the airport authority in question. The objective of an ACC is to consolidate airline views and to provide a focal point for consultation concerning the planning of major airport expansion or new airports in order to input airline functional requirements. See Section B1, Major Planning Processes for further details.
V1.9
DECISION TO REDEVELOP OR BUILD A NEW FACILITY

The decision to redevelop or build a new facility is often a difficult conclusion to make. Airport operators will need to balance the operational objectives set in part by the airline and handling agents requirements with the long term aspirations of the airport operator. It will be necessary to ascertain what solution represents the best value for all the interested parties. The following questions should be raised when deciding to either redevelop an existing facility or build new or replace infrastructure:
How long would a process or equipment improvement last using the existing infrastructure before the facility becomes in need of redesign or processing review again? What new building improvement can be afforded? Does the new build option fit the master plan objectives for the airport?
In addition to these, many other similar questions will need to be raised and answered before a decision can be ultimately made. V1 .10
NEW FACILITY
V1.10.1 Role in Airport System

A new airport will most certainly have regional implications and large scale airports will extend beyond See Section B2.1, National Planning Considerations for details. V1 .10 .2 Strategic Plan The strategic plan guides the direction of the master plan with respect to what the ultimate vision, goals and objectives are for the airport. The master plan translates this strategic plan by allocation of the components and processes that are required to achieve the strategic goals.
674

V1.10.3 Master Plan
The master plan ensures maximization of land use in order to optimize runway capacity and to allocate the space to achieve overall process and systems balance. A master plan is required so that all air-side, land-side and airport support facilities can develop, expand and improve the operational flexibility and efficiency of their businesses in a structured, orderly fashion, without adversely impacting on the business of their neighbours that are on or adjacent to the airport. See Section C1, Principles Master Planning for details.
V1.11
REDEVELOPMENT / EXPANSION
V1.11.1 Review Existing Master Plan

Project goals and objectives: in this stage the planners set out the direction and scope of the project and try to align the project expectations to the overall requirements set within the existing master plan, if possible. The general criteria and policy objectives should be stated. It should be noted that unforeseen changes in airport business and operational needs can arise which may legitimately change the master plan requirements. Deviation from the master plan requirements should be carefully assessed and communicated if deemed to be appropriate.
V1.12
REVIEW/REDEFINE PROJECT BRIEF

Having decided to either retain the existing facility or build new infrastructure, a more focused project brief should be compiled. This more detailed brief should concentrate on the selected design route; e.g. modification of the airport process OR building of a new replacement facility/process only. In situations where it has been decided to build new infrastructure, the project brief is likely to be a very detailed and a precise document, which again should align with the master plan requirements wherever possible. The functional and business requirements should be detailed enough to help clearly steer the design team to the most appropriate solutions for development in subsequent concept and feasibility design investigation stages.
V1.13
CONCEPT OPTION DEVELOPMENT

The concept design stage should produce solutions which fundamentally ensure that:
The master plan expectation is partly or completely met or complemented. The solutions meet the project design brief (See Clause V1.12). The solutions are technically and commercially viable. The solutions are financially acceptable to the stakeholders.
For all developments the financial analysis involves an evaluation of the associated operational cost benefits to the various stakeholders, as well as an assessment of the cost of providing the development. The benefits usually consist of those generated over many years (payback period or Internal Rate of Return period) after the undertaking of the project, whereas the planning, design and construction
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V1.14 VALUE EXAMINE CONCEPT OPTIONS
The concept designs should be technically and commercially assessed and the benefits evaluated using a like for like solution comparison technique. Technical Consideration: Obviously there are many types of projects which can take place within an airport, and designers should look to experts to identify the advantages and the disadvantages associated with specific technical solutions, whether they be civil infrastructure solutions or IT solutions or building systems. Financial considerations: Quantity surveyors should work with airport design engineers to determine both the capital cost for infrastructure and the running costs year on year so that solutions can be effectively assessed. The value examination of the concept designs should result in no more than three concept solution options being taken forward for further development as formal feasibility studies.
V1.15
FEASIBILITY DESIGNS
At the feasibility design stage, initial space requirements are set out, general characteristics of the complex are established and other essential planning decisions are taken as to the physical and operational capability of the solution proposed. The components proposed are given general sizes, as well as accurate location within the facility. The established processing capability of the solution is also refined to provide a technically competent and totally deliverable or 'feasible' solution. The functional relationships between the components and processes are also analysed. Computer simulation tools such as, lATA's Total AirportSim, amongst others, are extremely valuable in allowing modifications and varying scenarios to be tested and evaluated.
V1.16
VALUE EXAMINE FEASIBILITY OPTIONS

The value examination of the feasibility options should again include a technical and financial review of a much more detailed series of design solutions. The operational cost implications of the various solutions should be very clearly defined and aligned to the requirements explained within Section V2 of this Chapter. All feasibility solutions should assessed using a like for like comparison technique.
V1.17
CONSULTATIONS / REVIEW
A formal consultation forum with all interested parties should be established, with decisions documented to review the feasibility designs. Input from the sessions should be used as weighting factors in the selection process for the feasibility design assessment.
VI.18
SELECT FEASIBILITY DESIGN FOR TENDER

Upon completion of a thorough review of all submitted feasibility solutions, and taking into consideration the inputs from the consultations, a single feasibility solution should be selected.
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IATA
V1.19 INVITE TENDERS: DETAIL DESIGN
The bidding process allows formal competitive bids to be submitted by interested parties. A tender timetable should be outlined with procedures to follow. The tendering process may in most instances need to be aligned to either national or European legislation mandates. The deadline for submission, as well as the timeline for notification to the winner of the contract and all the tendering participants should also be stated in the tender notice documentation. The feasibility solution selected is then significantly refined into a detailed design proposal by the selected contractors. The subsequent detail design should be completely owned by the contractor in all regards. Any feasibility design principle concerns should be highlighted prior to contract placement. Exact sizing of the components and their location are established during detail designs, therefore establishing the size and cost of the whole facility very accurately. The tender documentation should explain what the airport is technically and operationally looking for within the tender returns and the subsequent points awarded for key attributes should be clearly communicated to the tendering participants.
V1.20
EVALUATION OF TENDER RETURNS

All tenders should be evaluated using an appropriate technical skill base and consistent evaluation model. The evaluation process and model should at least assess the following tender return attributes at the highest level:

V1.21
Technical skills of resources to be employed. Technically proven competence of the product or service to be purchased. Proven history of producing successful similar projects. Capital and running cost of the proposed solution.
CONSTRUCTION
It will be necessary to have a quality monitoring system in place while the design and (very importantly) the construction phases are in progress. Active and effective project design and construction control methods are essential to completion within the designated time and within the set budget. A reporting and documentation system should be in place to allow progress and any variations to be monitored and assessed. Routine meetings with stakeholders should be held at milestones to review
V1.22
COMMISSIONING
Most airport projects involve numerous systems working simultaneously to be fully operational. As a consequence, a review and operational readiness check of each system must be conducted prior to opening the new facility through formal commissioning initiatives. The contractor and the design consultants will be required to produce a commissioning proposal which will need to be submitted to the client for approval. See Section R1, Checklist for the Successful Opening of a New Airport.
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V1 .23
V1.IR1 IATA Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) Involvement Adequate and meaningful consultations with stakeholders should be undertaken beginning early on in the process and continuing throughout the design planning process. V1 .IR2 Master Planning Master Planning clauses as stipulated in Chapter C: Master Planning should be followed.
" g
V1.IR3 Simulation Simulations should be used to optimize existing facilities, when saturation, interaction between subsystems and overlow conditions are expected. The use of simulations is also recommended to validate design concept for new or expanded facilities. V1 .IR4 Airport Commissioning Airport Commissioning clauses as stipulated in Chapter R. Airport Commissioning should be observed.
V1 .IRS ICAO Procedures and Recommendations ICAO Doc 9184-AN/902 Airport Planning Manual, Pari 1 Master Planning should be observed.

SECTION V2: V2.1 PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION/GUIDELINES
Joint participation by the airport authority and the airlines in the initial stages of the planning process will greatly assist the development of a successful cost management programme. Early evaluations reduce the number of changes to the final programme and minimise increased design costs. Such actions also contribute to the meeting of scheduled completion dates. The ultimate cost of any facility, both in terms of capital expenditure and annual user charges, will depend to a large extent on its size; it is important that an accurate assessment of the required dimensions is made in the early planning stages. With respect to IATA and the airlines, any cost evaluation must be carried out in two separate and distinct phases, related directly to the quality and quantity of the information and the data that has to be obtained. The first phase should consist of a broad cost evaluation to be carried out almost immediately after the ACC technical assessment on demand and facility requirements has been carried out. The second phase should be completed immediately after plans and cost details become available to the airlines for analysis and comment. It is hoped that early assessments will establish the level of costs to the airlines.
Figure V2- 1: Typical Project Cost Management Process

Business Plan
Concept cost estimate
<
Uoi1 ahTiata / level -D" \
Expert estimates input Costing experts input________
Feasibility cost eslimales Financing plan
/ COBI esUrrale \ level 'C
/ \
Review
Detail design
cosi es!imole
<
Coil latirnite / level -B" \
Cons ultatio ns/ Revie w Cons Lrxictl on Cost Monito Oisgnostic ring. of
Process
CoalesUrrale / level -A- \
Capi tal Expe nditure Plan

Note: Level A, B, C & D are cost estimates stages only and are not related to Level of Service
requirements.
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The aggregate cost of an airport development process is derived by totalling the project construction, development and implementation budgets. Airlines and handling agents often inherit the project results once they have been delivered and run the systems that get developed. It is important that the processes and systems provided by the project are assessed by the facility users prior to delivery, and at the relevant consultation stages described. This will help determine if the processes and systems provide a solution which is commercially viable from an operational standpoint.
V2.2
BUSINESS PLAN
It will be important to correctly time the various phases of the airport development programme such that they do not impair the operational integrity of the airlines, handling agents or airport operators. Certain periods during the operational year will be sensitive to higher passenger throughput pressures (e.g. national or religious holidays). The project delivery programme included in the business plan should address these periods and suggest viable operational solutions. In many instances the project programme may need to be phased to work around such sensitive periods altogether so as to ensure undisrupted business continuity. Often there are two main results following a major project being provided by an airport, these are:
The terminal's capacity and ability to process passengers, planes, baggage, etc., dramatically increases. This improvement often will diminish though as the systems age following natural passenger traffic growth. The user charges increase to pay for the projects (please refer to Chapter D for further clarification in this regard).
It can be seen that large investments in airport infrastructure, by their very nature, deliver peaky capacity results and have the tendency to produce a 'step by step' climb in capacity. Unit costs will increase sharply and decrease again over time as traffic builds up and the facilities are better utilized. To keep unit costs low, or at reasonable level, some airports may be inclined to hold off development plans until such time that increased facility usage is guaranteed. A detailed business plan should be created as part of the airport development programme, which should contain financial projections and forecasts detailing future airline and handling agent usage activity at the airport. The basic elements that should be included in such a business plan are:
Forecast and composition of air traffic demand. Scope of and business case for the airport development programme. Feasibility analysis; i.e. will the airport's overall financial performance be acceptable; can the airport manage the additional cash flow requirement; will the proposed program produce an acceptable return on investment; etc. Financial analysis of costs and revenues, including: an operating budget; a financing plan; cash flow forecasts; a debt servicing schedule; pro forma balance sheets and income statements; financial ratio analysis; etc. Risk mitigation assessment, the primary areas of risk being: technical risk relating to construction completion; commercial risk relating to changes in traffic demand; cost risk relating to changes in construction, capital or operational costs; and financial risk relating to currency exchange, inflation and interest rate changes, etc.
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IATA
V2.3 CONCEPT COST ESTIMATES
This is a first stage, broad evaluation of the cost of the identified facility requirements, e.g.; new pier = 1500 USD/ sqm.; surface parking = 1800-2000 USD/space. The accuracy of the cost estimates at this stage should be in the plus/minus (+/-) 30 % range (a 'Level D' cost estimate).
V2.4
FEASIBILITY COST ESTIMATES

This is based on similar work and a preliminary design. The accuracy of the feasibility cost estimates should be narrowed to plus/minus (+/-) 20 % range (a 'Level C cost estimate). For each alternative the following capital costs and annual variable costs must be determined. Capital costs include: site acquisition costs; building construction and site work costs order of magnitude (e.g. cost per unit); and various equipment costs (e.g. passenger boarding bridges, baggage handling equipment, etc.). Variable costs include maintenance and operating costs for operational systems (e.g. loading bridge, baggage system and other costs associated with each feasibility solution must be calculated
V2.5
FINANCING PLAN
For investment purposes, the next step is to develop a financing plan. Critical to this plan is an analysis of the airport's ability to generate sufficient revenues to make the required payments for operating and maintenance expenses, debt service, and other funding requirements that may be required by bond holders or other creditors. Input is required by experts including quantity surveyors, financiers, economists, etc.
V2.6
Consultations between the airport authority and the airlines is an essential part of effective project cost management. From an airline perspective, once the ACC's technical assessment on demand and facility requirement is completed (see section V1 project process), a review of the initial cost estimates, taking into account the inputs provided by the airlines, should be obtained. The financial project data should be made available to the ACC during the planning process or at an early stage discussed with the airlines through the User Charges Panel (UCP). The UCP is responsible for representing IATA Member airlines in negotiations with airport authorities regarding the charges for the use of the airport including, but not limited to, landing fees, terminal building charges, passenger-related elements, lighting charges, air traffic control and monopolytype user charges. It is therefore very important that the activities of ACCs and the UCP are closely coordinated so that the UCP is fully aware of costs emerging from ACC discussions. See Section B1.2, Airport Consultative Committee for details.
V2.7
DETAIL DESIGN COST ESTIMATES

After the selection of the feasibility design and the subsequent development of the detailed design, a revised project detail design delivery cost should be evaluated. This new detail design cost should include but not be limited to: capital expenditure for the project installation; annual fixed charges; project maintenance; operation and administrative costs; projected non-airline revenues; annual cost
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The detail design cost should be a very accurate cost assessment that should be in the range of {+/-) 5%, and is referred to as a 'Level B' cost estimate.
V2.8
The updated Level B cost estimate should be made available to the airlines for analysis and comment. The Level B cost estimate should be a natural progression from the Level C cost estimate and within the financial limits of the previous Level C cost estimate. The ACC and the UCP should manage negotiations with the airport authority regarding the potential resultant user charges.
V2.9
AWARD TENDER
When a contract has been awarded the project cost should be fixed, allowing only a slight variation (within a limit of 5%) for contingencies. This is normal for most projects. This final cost is referred to as a 'Level A' cost. Today's numerous variations of airport ownership and management has initiated a multitude of contracting arrangements. Some examples include Turn Key Operations, Lump Sum Contract, Open Book, Build Operate Transfer (BOT), Build Own Operate Transfer (BOOT), etc. Please see Section D, Airport Economics for details.
V2.10
CONSTRUCTION COST MONITORING

A critical component of effective project budgeting is to monitor the cash flow during the entire project construction period. Construction milestones or deliverables should be identified prior to commencement of any work. These milestones can be used to verify and measure if the
V2.11
DIAGNOSTIC OF THE PROJECT PROCESS

At the completion of the project process the project should be assessed to evaluate the good and bad points that have been experienced throughout its course. The following attributes should be typically reviewed during the diagnostic exercise: Effectiveness of the project team. Operational issues. Construction issues. Quality of equipment or infrastructure supply. Health and safety throughout. Commissioning issues. Effectiveness of the project process steps.
V2.12
CAPITAL EXPENDITURE PLAN

Existing airports should develop a 10-year Capital Expenditure Plan that should show the intended programme of works over two consecutive 5-year periods. The programme should be re-assessed annually after consultation with the airline/IATA airport development specialists and should dovetail into the long term master plan aspirations for the airport. The resultant impact of the development programme on user charges should be discussed and agreed with lATA's UCP.
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IATA
V2.13 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS V2.IR1 IATA ACC Involvement
The ACC and the airport authority should, during the period of the project, monitor and mutually agree on the project programme for any cost variations and any recommended connective action, as deemed necessary as the project evolves.
V2.IR2 IATA UCP Involvement

The UCP should be involved early on in the economic evaluation procedure and throughout the development of the project.
V2.IR3 Cost Monitoring Programme

An effective cost monitoring system should be established and implemented during the proj* construction phase.
V2.IR4 Capital Expenditure Plan

A Capital Expenditure Plan should be produced by all airports, in line with requirements defined within Clause V2.13.
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IATA
Chapter W Anti-Terrorism and Police Facilities
Section W1: Terminal Building Considerations W1.1 Terrorist Threat to Airport Terminal Buildings....................................... W1.2 Risk Evaluation and Risk Mitigation....................................................... W1.3 Unattended Luggage & Waste Bins....................................................... W1A Internal Balconies ................................................................................... W1.5 Spectator Areas..................................................................................... W1.6 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) ........................................................... W1.7 IATA Recommendations......................................................................... Section W2: Pier Area Considerations W2.1 The Terrorist Threat Within Airport Piers ............................................. W2.2 Risk Evaluation and Risk Mitigation....................................................... W2.3 IATA Recommendations......................................................................... Section W3: Airfield Area Considerations W3.1 Terrorist Threat to Airport Airfield Areas .............................................. W3.2 Risk Evaluation and Risk Mitigation & Response.................................... W3.3 Hijacked Aircraft Stands ........................................................................ W3.4 IATA Recommendations......................................................................... Section W4: Airport Police Facilities W4.1 Airport Police Facilities Overview...................................................... W4.2 Police Facilities...................................................................................... W4.3 Police Offices......................................................................................... W4.4 Police Facility Physical Infrastructure..................................................... W4.5 Law Enforcement Parking ..................................................................... W4.6 Remote Police Facility Sites Within Terminal Complex.......................... W4.7 Speciality Squad Requirements ............................................................. W4.8 Communications Dispatch..................................................................... W4.9 Police Facility Size Considerations ........................................................ W4.10 IATA Recommendations......................................................................... 692 692 692 692 693 693 693 693 694 694 690 690 691 691 688 689 689 685 685 686 686 687 687 687
685
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CHAPTER W ANTI-TERRORISM AND POLICE FACILITIES SECTION W1: TERMINAL BUILDING CONSIDERATIONS W1.1 TERRORIST THREAT TO AIRPORT TERMINAL BUILDINGS
The potential for terrorist activity at airports is very real and airport designers should consider the implications of such attacks on terminal buildings and terminal support infrastructure. It is important to understand what the risks are to an airport and how they may manifest themselves, however rarely. Airports should provide both covert and high profile counter measures as appropriate, which should align with national and international legislation such as ICAO Security Annex 17 Safeguading International Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Intervention. Terrorist acts have been conducted against the civil aviation industry in various forms. During the design phase of terminal buildings, designers should assess the potential risks that could occur and should design structures and infrastructure which will limit the abilities of terrorist groups. With respect to the structural integrity and materials utilized within airport buildings, designers should refer to the general text and IATA Recommendations detailed within Section H and in particular Clause H2 of this manual.
W1.2
RISK EVALUATION AND RISK MITIGATION

Having agreed that most if not all airports have the potential to be used or targeted by terrorists in one manner or another, it will be necessary to evaluate the risks that exist and try to practically resolve them in a structured and a coordinated manner. It is extremely difficult and very costly, not to mention almost impossible to counter every conceivable terrorist act that might occur at an airport. There are however some very straightforward methods which if implemented can significantly improve the outcome of a terrorist act upon an airport. The following staged approach should be adopted by airports on a continual basis. Stage 1 Establish the potential threats evaluate threat impact / prioritize threats. Stage 2 Perform a security audit on the airport. Stage 3 Develop and implement a threat management strategy. Stage 4 Review /update/change/alternate threat counter measures.
W1.2.1 Stage 1 Establish The Potential Threats

The threats to the outside of the terminal building could be more structurally significant than the threats posed to the inside of the building, though this is heavily dependent on the number/size of any explosive devices and their subsequent placement. Airport designers should consider the structural implications of the use of car or lorry bombs, suicide attacks and the use of rocket propelled devices upon the building facade. Designers should carefully plan the road systems and structural columns and beams such that in the unlikely event of a vehicle packed with explosives approaching the terminal building, the resulting explosion will not cause widespread catastrophic failure of the structure. Refer to Section H2 of this manual for further details in this regard. In addition to the threat of explosives, the use of biological weapons or more widely accessible dangerous chemicals also poses a threat, especially where ventilation shafts can be used as
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Inside the terminal building the threats might include the use of smaller Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs)/hand weapons (assault rifles/machine guns/hand guns/hand grenades) and biological warfare agents. The delivery of such weapons could vary depending on the intent of the individual(s) and their resultant ability to escape the scene once they have completed their attack. Although very rare in most parts of the world, suicide attack activity does occur as well as guerillas style attacks on airports. It is important that airports and their users appreciate that threats can change over time and that threat assessments need to be regularly reviewed. Changes in national or international political policies can give rise to a need to review threats. It is recommended that airports and the airport users review the risks posed by terrorism at least every 3 months and that special risk evaluations are carried out more regularly during periods of local, national or international heightened threat.
W1.2.2 Stage 2 Perform A Security Audit On The Airport

A team of experienced engineers needs to review all aspects of the airport's security defence and surveillance systems to ascertain the appropriateness of the systems, the operational protocols and their ability to mitigate the risks identified within Stage 1.
W1.2.3 Stage 3 Develop And Implement A Risk Strategy

Where it has been identified that risks are evident, airports need to prioritize those risks and put in place programmes to mitigate the risks over a reasonable and diligent time period. The greatest threats identified in Stage 1 should be solved first.
W1.2.4 Stage 4 Review /Update/Change/Alternate Risk Counter Measures

Airports need to review risks and risk counter measures on a regular basis. It will be essential to alternate proven protocols and even proven technology, so that terrorist groups are unable to establish the current security provision.
W1.3
UNATTENDED LUGGAGE & WASTE BINS

Unattended luggage represents a significant security risk. Airports should monitor terminal areas using security walk through patrols and by security CCTV surveillance of the areas on a regular and frequent basis. Public waste bins are normally required in large numbers throughout most terminal buildings. The placement of waste bins within the terminal building passenger areas should be very carefully controlled. Waste bins have been used in the past to hold lEDs which have successfully detonated. It is prudent to place waste bins away from concentrated passenger areas and critical structural members of the building. 688
W1.4
INTERNAL BALCONIES
Within multi-story terminal buildings, landside balconies overlooking check-in areas must not provide the terrorist a line of fire or the facility to throw grenades. There is a need to protect designated checkin operations and general expanses of terminal space frequented by passengers and staff against
IATA
W1.5
Anti-Terrorism and Police Facilities

SPECTATOR AREAS
Public spectator areas should be monitored, or else the access should be controlled to ensure that dangerous goods or fire arms, etc., are not used in these areas or directed against aircraft or infrastructure on the apron.
W1.6
CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION (CCTV)

It is vital that airport operators use CCTV systems to identify and help prevent criminal acts of terrorism on civil aviation within the confines of the airport perimeter. Airport CCTV system designers should assess the risk areas as defined within clause W1.2.1: Stage 1 Establish The Potential Threats. The CCTV cameras should then be placed at critical areas according to the threat potential identified. The on-line data collated from the CCTV cameras should be capable of being communicated to a variety of airport operational functions namely:
Airport security management. Airport operational duty managers. Immigration management. Customs management.
Airport CCTV system designers and integrators should work with immigration, customs and police departments to confirm the level of CCTV intelligence that they require access to. W1.7
W1.IR1 Risk Evaluations It is recommended that airports and airport users review terrorist risks at least every 3 months, and that special risk evaluations are carried out more regularly during periods of national or international heightened threat.
________________________________________________________________
W1.IR2 Location of Waste Bins Waste bins have been used it% the past to hold lED's which have successfully detonated. Waste bins should be placed away from concentrated passenger areas and critical structural members of the building.
J0W------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------O.VO I - " . - : -------------------------------------------------------" ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
W1.IR3 CCTV Camera Positioning CCTV surveillance cameras should be placed at critical high risk areas within the terminal building and within the airport perimeter according to the threat potential identified. Airport CCTV system designers and integrators should work with immigration, customs and police departments to confirm the level of CCTV intelligence that they require access to.
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SECTION W2: W2.1 PIER AREA CONSIDERATIONS
THE TERRORIST THREAT WITHIN AIRPORT PIERS

Airport piers consist of a building frame supplied with usual building services which will be occupied by arriving, transfer and originating departing passengers and staff. Often beneath or adjacent to the piers will be airside roads containing airside vehicles which contain sometimes fuel and/or passenger baggage and or cargo. Potentially there are two main high threats to piers: (1) This will be associated with the mixing of inbound passengers and outbound passengers and (2) The end to end processing of transfer passengers will present its own security concerns. Example (1) A departing high risk flight passenger who is located within a pier would most likely have cleared central security. An inbound (non terrorist targeted) flight might contain a transfer passenger concealing a weapon and/or an Improvised Explosive Device (IED) within their personal belongings which might have been carried onto the flight from an airport with perhaps less than adequate airport security. It will be vital that these collaborating individuals do not mix for obvious reasons. Please refer to Section K3 clause K3.2 for further clarification on passenger separation. Example (2) An inbound (non terrorist targeted) flight might contain a transfer passenger concealing a weapon and/or an IED within their personal belongings which might have been carried onto the flight from an airport with perhaps less than adequate airport security and who is connecting with a targeted outbound connecting flight. In both examples the only way to totally mitigate this risk is to security screen the relevant departing passengers at a centralized screen check point or if necessary at the gate lounge. This can be very costly and creates delays. It will important for airport operators and designers to assess this risk very
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IATA
W2.2
RISK EVALUATION AND RISK MITIGATION

The four stage risk evaluation and mitigation process described within Section W1 Clause W1.2 should be similarly adopted for the evaluation of all potential risks residing within or around airport pier areas. The following tables lists some of the potential risks that may reside within or around pier areas though others may exist: Risk Ref: Risk/Threat Description (Assumes All Originating Departures Passengers Within the Piers Have Cleared Central Security) Handover of dangerous items (e.g. weapons/IED's etc) from an inbound arriving passenger to an out-bound departing passenger within pier. Transfer passenger arrives from poor quality security airport (weapon or IED on their person) and targets their connecting flight for terrorist crime. Possible Risk Mitigation Strategy
Option 1: Separation of arriving and departing passengers. Option 2: Secondary screening of passengers at centralized checkpoints or if necessary at the gates(s). Option 1: Secondary screening of passengers at centralized checkpoints or if necessary at the gates(s). Option 2: Confirm / monitor / manage satisfactory security quality of transfer passengers. Originating airport plus ensure separation of transfer passengers from other flight arrival passengers. Option 1: (Preferred option) ensure all pier to apron exists/entrances have suitable permitted access control systems guarding as well. Option 2: Provision of CCTV at exits/ entrances communicated to airport security and airport police. Option 1: Armed police presence resulting in attack suppression. Option 2: Piers are zoned carefully evacuated and closed off in an emergency situation, Thereby limiting collateral damage/injuries. This needs to manually managed very carefully to ensure that zones are not closed off too prematurely and that fire exit routes are not compromised.
Passengers with weapon or IED obtains access to the apron via the pier.
Arriving passengers uses weapon within passenger or staff areas.
W2.3
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS W2.IR1 Pier Risk Evaluations

The risks and the possible risk mitigation strategies identified within the table in clause W2.2 691 should assessed and considered and necessary infrastructure and operational protocols put in place. The intent of ICAO Annex 17 Standard 4.3.2 must be observed. J
V_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION W3: AIRFIELD AREA CONSIDERATIONS W3.1 TERRORIST THREAT TO AIRPORT AIRFIELD AREAS
The airfield area is complex, both in terms of its diversity of terrain and operational equipment provisions. Often there will be numerous aircraft and vehicular movements and a large range of support equipment hardware (radar/runway ground lighting systems, etc.) functioning simultaneously. The combination of simultaneous processes in operation along with variations in weather conditions and wildlife within the perimeter make the airfield a difficult zone to protect. Intruders would need to gain access to the airfield via: (i) fencing systems; (ii) unauthorized access via terminal buildings or similar structures/support facilities; (iii) unauthorized access via staff/commercial access gates; (iv) aircraft or (v) below ground service tunnels, water ways, etc. For information on perimeter and airfield security systems please refer to Section H2 Clause H2.12.
W3.2
RISK EVALUATION AND RISK MITIGATION & RESPONSE

The four stage risk evaluation and mitigation process described within Section W1 Clause W1.2 should be similarly adopted for the evaluation of all potential risks/threats residing within or around the airport airfield areas. The following table has been compiled to help identify the potential high Risk Ref: Risk/Threat Description (other risks will/may exist) Possible Risk Mitigation Strategy (order of notifications and precise requirements may vary from country to country designers should review with national authorities) ATC special protocols to put in place. Airport security alerted and special airport protocols put in place. Fire station alerted. Ambulance services alerted. Airport police/anti-terrorist police alerted. Cleared apron where possible. 2 Aircraft on apron has been hijacked
Aircraft landing has been hijacked
ATC notified. Airport security alerted and special airport protocols put in place. Fire station alerted. Ambulance services alerted. Airport police/anti-terrorist police alerted. Cleared apron where possible. ATC notified. Airport security alerted and special airport protocols put in place. Fire station alerted. Ambulance services alerted. Airport police / anti-terrorist police alerted. Cleared apron where possible.
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Individual(s) with weapons (mortar or missiles or rocket propelled grenades, etc.) located inside/ outside & close to airport perimeter, (includes un-authorized use of vehicles on the apron)
IATA
Risk Ref:
Risk/Threat Description (other risks will/may exist) Tampering with approach lighting systems or ground radar.
Possible Risk Mitigation Strategy (order of notifications and precise requirements may vary from country to country designers should review with national authorities)___________________ CCTV fitted to review equipment. Anti-tamper devices fitted. ATC notified. Airport security alerted and special airport protocols put in place. Fire station alerted. Ambulance services alerted. Airport police / anti-terrorist police alerted.
Fuel Farm Attack
CCTV fitted to review fuel farm area/equipment. Anti-tamper devices fitted. Access control systems installed. Fuel farm and fuel distribution shut down instigated. ATC notified. Airport security alerted and special airport protocols put in place. Fire station alerted. Ambulance services alerted. Airport police / anti-terrorist police alerted. Cleared apron where possible._______________
W3.3
HIJACKED AIRCRAFT STANDS

Airports that have been designated capable of accepting delivery of hijacked aircraft should provide aircraft stands which will require special features. Please refer to Security Section H2 Clause H2.3 which clarifies the general requirements of Isolated Aircraft Parking Positions. These special stands should aid the anti-terrorist police force and reduce the risk of potential injury to passengers resulting from deliberate unlawful action upon the aircraft and its passengers and crew.
W3.4
W3..R1 Apron Risk Evaluations Airport planners and designers should assess the potential risks that may exist within and/o, close to the apron and its perimeter. Designers should refer initially to the risks identified within the table listed within Clause W3.2. Risks should be mitigated wherever possible using appropriate infrastructure.
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SECTION W4: AIRPORT POLICE FACILITIES W4.1 AIRPORT POLICE FACILITIES OVERVIEW
Airport Police can have a range of roles within an airport, ranging from a significant ant-terrorist role, to screening, to in some cases border control functions. When they are not the primary provider of these specialised services they almost invariably play a major backup role. The basic role performed by police in the airport setting is keeping the peace. This requires, depending on the relative size of the airport, all the traditional policing responsibilities, ranging from patrol, investigation, detention, communications and emergency response. What makes their peacekeeping mission different from other policing environments is that a large portion of the airport population is exclusively transient. With respect to more serious criminal behaviour, some airport police have also observed that airports may attract better and more organized illegal activity because of the inherent complexity that comes from multiple systems operating at higher than normal speeds. Airport police facilities, when well designed, integrate themselves on a functional basis with the overall security operations of the airport. They must first and foremost contribute to the specific operational roles played by the airport police within the localised airport security environment. This may vary substantially from facility to facility.
W4.2
POLICE FACILITIES
Most modern airports provide for on-site operational police facilities in order to support their primary responsibilities for landside and airside security. The airport police facility functions primarily as the operational headquarters for the geographical area comprising the airport property. Unless it operates as a satellite office, with ready access to additional off-site detention facilities or criminal investigation functions, it should ideally be designed to function as a self sufficient unit, capable of responding to the normal range of police operations in a similarly-sized adjacent community. It must also satisfy the additional requirement that it be capable of performing, where operational requirements dictate and where anti-terrorism protocols require them, emergency response capabilities.
W4.3
POLICE OFFICES
Office space for airport security or law enforcement personnel should be provided in or near the terminal building, and be sized after thorough discussions with police officials. In the terminal complex, police facilities should be designed to permit public access to a controlled greeting area, one that is protected in such a way as to mitigate the effect of an explosive device and/or small arms fire. This could be planned to employ ballistic materials, laminates, window tinting, concrete bollards and/or planters to prevent vehicular penetration. To reduce vulnerability to a single point of attack, police facilities can be distributed in a non-centralised manner throughout the terminal complex.
W4.4
POLICE FACILITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE

An airport police facility's physical infrastructure should take into account the provision of adequate space for the following functions: (i) Closed offices for management personnel: post commander, shift commander or duty officer.
(ii) Briefing/work room for general duty constables.
IATA
(vii) General storage areas. (viii) Secured arms storage.
(vi) Physical fitness area in conjunction with lockers, showers, and restrooms.
W4.5
LAW ENFORCEMENT PARKING

Providing quickly accessible parking for law enforcement is invaluable to improving response capabilities. Parking must be secure to prevent police vehicles from themselves becoming targets of criminal activities. Parking for all law enforcement vehicles should be provided with dedicated spaces and have direct landside/airside access. When applicable, consideration could be given to identifying helicopter pads to be located in secure roof or site areas.
W4.6
REMOTE POLICE FACILITY SITES WITHIN TERMINAL COMPLEX

Where response time is a critical concern, consideration can be given to providing remote locations that are secure and equipped with communications and emergency equipment. This may also be a consideration in larger facilities to ensure optimal resource utilisation. If police personnel are deployed to outdoor locations, adequate shelter should be provided against the elements. Shelters, however, must provide maximum visibility over the immediate area as well as easy access. Where the terminal building itself is larger (over 300,000 square feet of public area or with large open distances of 2,000 feet or more), storage areas for tactical supplies and equipment should be located in tactically
W4.7.1 Explosives Detection

The administrative area should also have secured storage for live or dummy explosives tests and training items; these areas should be co-ordinated with any domestic regulatory requirements for the storage of explosives, dangerous goods or hazardous materials.
W4.7.2 Canine Teams and Facilities

When an airport has canine teams in residence, appropriate accommodations for the dogs and handlers must be provided, dependent to a certain degree on local weather conditions, number of dogs, and airport layout. This would require indoor pens with access to fenced outdoor runs, as well as separate drainage and plumbing with fresh air circulation. As dogs spend substantial time waiting to be introduced into detection activities, these design considerations are critical to the effective use of this investment. Isolation from airport noise, odours and fumes is essential to keep the dog's sense of smell uncontaminated.
W4.8
COMMUNICATIONS DISPATCH
Centralized communications and dispatch facilities, along with supporting equipment repair areas, should be considered core support functions and be isolated from primary high threat areas. Depending on the overall security plan for the airport, provision of emergency backup communications services should be considered for police facilities. This should include secure electronic, fibre optic, wireless
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W4.9 POLICE FACILITY SIZE CONSIDERATIONS
The size of an airport's overall police facility or facilities is dependent on the completion of an Airport Security Risk profile which may include the following factors: (i) Airport service hours.
(ii) Resident airport population. (iii) Volume of enplaning and deplaning passengers. (iv) Volume of cargo. (v) Comparison with adjacent police service standards. (vi) Proximity to urban development. (vii) Range of services provided (viii) Number of access points. Many urban populations use a ratio of one officer for every 500-700 residents. This ratio is used where services are to be provided over a 24 hour period, and with at least two officers on duty at any given time. Airport police facility planning should consider using a similar ratio based upon the factors identified above and then match peaks of airport activity against the requirement for on site airport police personnel. The size of facilities should be based upon a realistic assessment of what both the constant and peak demands for police services will be, however the items and associated functions listed in section W4.4 (above) should be considered as the mandatory minimum requirements of any properly designed police facility, independent of staffing levels.
W4.10 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS W4.I11 Police Facilities

Airport designers embarking on the design of policing facilities should refer to the polk areas defined within clauses W4.2 to W4.8 inclusive. Designers should also refer to the police wjfacilitv sizing requirements defined within clause W4.9.
^....,....._......_______________. . ^.HSJlHli
___________________________________J
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Chapter X Airport Fire Services
Section X1: Fire Response Category X1.1 Fire Services Overview ........................................................................... X1.2 Airport Category and Level of Protection................................................... X1.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section X2: Fire Response Services & Equipment X2.1 Response Time and Airport Fire Station Location ................................... X2.2 Training Personal and Equipment Provision .............................................. X2.3 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 699 700 701 697 697 698
697
698
ff,
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CHAPTER X AIRPORT FIRE SERVICES SECTION XI: X1.1 FIRE RESPONSE CATEGORY
FIRE SERVICES OVERVIEW

The main objective of rescue and fire fighting services is to extinguish fire and rescue people within the confines of the airport boundary where the risk of an aircraft accident is the greatest. The rescue and fire fighting service should be under administrative control of the airport management, which should be responsible for ensuring that the service is organized, equipped, staffed, and trained appropriately. The airport rescue services will be called upon to emergency situations involving aircraft incidents and terminal building as well as support building incidents. Particularly in the situation of aircraft incidents, the most important factors bearing on effective rescue in a survivable aircraft accident are: the training received, the effectiveness of the equipment and the speed with which the personnel and equipment can be put into use. The rescue and fire fighting services will typically also perform other important tasks such as handling of hazardous materials, vehicular incidents and respond to any other type of emergency that threatens life, safety, property loss or environmental protection. The fire services can also be active in different programs such as fire and safety prevention and education, life safety & building code enforcement.
X1.2
AIRPORT CATEGORY AND LEVEL OF PROTECTION Figure XI-1: ICAO Annex 14, Table 9.1 Airport Category Fire Services
Airport Category 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Aeroplane overall length 0 m up to but not including 9 m 9 m up to but not including 12 m 12 m up to but not including 18 m 18 m up to but not including 24 m 24 m up to but not including 28 m 28 m up to but not including 39 m 39 m up to but not including 49 m 49 m up to but not including 61 m 61 m up to but not including 76 m 76 m up to but not including 90 m Maximum fuselage width 2m 2m 3m 4m 4m 5m 5m 7m 7m 8m
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Having established fire requirement and corresponding category of airport it is then necessary to establish the fundamental equipment requirements. This can be done in accordance with ICAO Annex 14, Table 9-1, where the minimum number of rescue and fire fighting vehicles provided should be in accordance with the following tabulation:
Figure X1-2: ICAO Annex 14, Tabulation In clause 9.2.33

Airport Category 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Number of Vehicles 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3
X1.3
X1.fi1 Establish Airport Fire Services Category Airport designers should establish the aircraft type usage for the airport facility in question and then refer the table in Fig X1-1 to establish the corresponding airport fire sendees category rating. The airport designer should then cross reference this airport category rating using the table in Fig. X1-2 and establish the minimum fire services vehicle requirement. Airport planners should refer to Section X2 of this manual plus ICAO Annex 14 for details pertaining to the recommended type of fire fighting equipment to be provided as a minimum.
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SECTION X2: X2.1 FIRE RESPONSE SERVICES & EQUIPMENT
Airport Fire Services
RESPONSE TIME AND AIRPORT FIRE STATION LOCATION

ICAO Annex 14, Chapter 9.2.19, sets the operational objectives of the rescue and fire fighting services resident on the airport, those being to achieve a response times of less than two minutes and not exceeding three minutes to the end of each runway, as well as to any other part of the movement area, in optimum conditions of visibility and surface condition. The response time is considered to be the time between the initial call to the rescue and fire fighting service and the time when the first responding vehicle is in position to apply the right extinguishing agent. The fire station should be located in a centralized area so that the access to the runway system is direct and clear, requiring a minimum of turns. Satellite fire stations should (where required) be provided whenever the response time cannot be achieved from a single fire station. To achieve the recommended response time, the airport should have emergency access roads capable of supporting the heaviest vehicles where terrain condition permits, and be equipped with suitable rescue and service vehicles where areas to be covered includes water surface, swamps, or other difficult environments that cannot be fully served by conventional wheeled vehicles. A co-ordination program between the rescue and fire fighting services at an airport and the local public emergency agencies, such as the local fire brigade, police force, coast guard and hospital is also a key element in the success of a rescue mission. Every link of communication should be built in place to provide quick and direct access into the airport grounds by the local and other external emergency services. Airport planners should consider the implementation of permitted vehicle access cards which can be fitted to selected local fire brigade vehicles, ambulances, etc. Access to these types of vehicles should only be permitted in situations when the external emergency services have
Figure X2-1: Fire Station Position for Category 9 Airport Gatwick Airport
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X2.2
TRAINING PERSONAL AND EQUIPMENT PROVISION

All rescue and fire fighting personnel should be properly trained and equipped to respond quickly and perform efficiently in an emergency. Suitable training facilities should be provided so the personnel can perform live fire drills commensurate with the types of aircraft and the types of rescue and fire fighting equipment in use at the airport. Suitable rescue equipment and services should be available at an airport where the area to be covered includes water, swamps, or other difficult environments that cannot be fully served by conventional wheeled vehicles. The airport must select the right vehicles types to suit their need and airfield topography. Rescue and fire fighting vehicle types may range from conventional wheeled trucks to boats and helicopters. The fire fighting vehicles should be equipped with and capable of delivering the principal or complementary extinguishing agents, where the principal agent should be a mixture of foam and/or water according to ICAO Annex 14, Chapter 9, Table 9.2, and the complementary agents should be C02, dry chemical powders or halogenated hydrocarbons (halons). Dry chemical powders and halons are normally considered more efficient than C02 for aircraft rescue and fire fighting operations. Airport Planners should assess the airport specific fire and emergency specialist equipment requirements. This should be done in consultation with local fire brigades using specialist advisors. All equipment and infrastructure should be adequately positioned and protected within apron-based fire stations. Fire stations should permit rapid vehicular access in situations of emergency. The planning for the provision of the following fire and emergency services equipment should considered by airport planners, architects and engineers:
Apron fire tenders provision suitable for the terrain(s). Airside and landside airport building fire tender provision. Breathing and cutting equipment provision. Aircraft and building access equipment. Emergency services staff accommodation area. Power isolation equipment provision. Fire drill training equipment (mock-up aircraft). Gas isolation equipment provision. Aviation fuel isolation equipment provision. Communications equipment and infrastructure.
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X2.3
X2.1 IR1 Apron Fire Station Planning Requirements Airport Planners should refer to the recommendations made within ICAO Annex 14, Chapter 9.2 when assessing the most appropriate location for apron-based fire stations.
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X2.2 IR2 Planning The Provision Of Fire Services Equipment
Airport Fire Services
Airport Planners should refer to ICAO Annex 14 and work with local fire brigades and with specialist fire services advisors to establish the precise equipment requirements for the specific airport.
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Chapter
Y Networks
705 707 708 709
Section Y1: Frontline Operational and Security Y1.1 General Use of Networks ........................................................................ Y1.2 Airport Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems......... Y1.3 Security Networks..................................................................................... Y1.4 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ Section Y2: Building Services Y2.1 Heating and Cooling Systems: Introduction............................................. Y2.2 Building Fabrics and Design ..................................................................... Y2.3 Airconditioning and Ventilation ................................................................. Y2.4 Lighting Systems ..................................................................................... Y2.5 Fire Alarm and Fire Suppression Systems ................................................ Y2.6 IATA Recommendations............................................................................ 710 711 711 713 713 714
CHAPTER Y NETWORKS
SECTION Y1: Y1.1 FRONTLINE OPERATIONAL AND SECURITY
GENERAL USE OF NETWORKS

Networks are the hidden systems within airports which are all too often underestimated when planning new or expanding existing airport facilities. It has been difficult during the past 20 years to focus on any one networking system which could solve all of an airport's operational requirements, and in reality there are few networks and systems which come close to allowing homogeneous system interaction. The reason for this is:
1. The pace of computing technology advancement. 1. The fact that programmer and network designer preferences have been influenced by the
changing abilities of new and better computer platforms as they arrive into the market place. In the early 1990s the widespread introduction of Microsoft products gave rise to the need to interface with this now well known and understood peripheral interface software. Smaller systems are often developed on this platform and as computing power has become cheaper the capabilities of personal computing equipment has become more formidable and useful. Fire alarm systems and building management systems are likely to use software developed for relatively cheap personal computers, yet are linked via comprehensive networks to industrial processors and programmable logic controller (PLC) devices or emulating PLC personal computers. PLCs were developed and are still widely used because the logic is said to be easier to understand and because it facilitates program functions. There are essentially 2 types of network:
Local Areas Networks (LAN's) Intranet. Wide Area Networks (WAN's) Dedicated Infrastructure or Internet.
Fibre optic is by far the more commonplace communication medium nationally because of the
Table Y1-1: Network Types, Ranges and Communications

Network Type Communication Medium
LAN - Internal Office LAN - Airport Wide
Copper Core Cables Fibre Optic Copper Core Cables Fibre Optic Microwave Fibre Optic Microwave
Communication Distance/Provider
<250m Provider: Airport
>251m < 5000m Provider: Airport >3000m Provider: Some Airports: National Communication Provider e.g. British Telecom / AT&T, etc. National Communication Provider e.g. British Telecom / AT&T, etc.
WAN - National
WAN - Global
Satellite Above Mixture + Satellite
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Y1.1.1 Redundancy Requirements of Networks
The use of Internet type WANS has the added benefit of providing a multiple redundancy capability in the event of critical system component failure. The principle of the internet and its structural philosophy provides limited functional damage in the event of physical damage to a single component in the communications architecture. Network planners should aim to build in redundancy of cabling and repeater systems that run through the terminal infrastructure and on the apron and perimeter. The design should consider the operational impacts as a minimum of the following potential incidents. Systems should not be rendered inoperable in anyway in the result of these occurrences:
Single communication cabling and support equipment malfunction. Extraordinarily high communications traffic demand. Terrorist interference at no more than two locations within the airport perimeter. Aircraft accident within the airport perimeter.
Where networks are routed across and beneath the apron they should be placed in tunnels which can be serviced appropriately. These service tunnels should be secure to permit only authorized entry. Network service tunnels should be fitted with CCTV and back indicated to the centralized maintenance and control room.
Y1.1.2 Building In Network Expansion Capacity

Planners should develop networks such that they can accommodate the anticipated growth rate in traffic and interconnections with a factor of safety as a contingency for unexpected growth. The following contingency factors should be accounted for when providing new network services. It should be noted that the contingency factor will effect ultimate cable sizing and spare capacity as well as trunking and network service route sizes.
Table Y1-2: Safety Communications In Service Time

Expectation for Network
< 5 Years
Contigency
Type Of Network
Factors
for
Network
Contingency Factor 1.25 1.5 2-3
LAN LAN WAN
< 10 Years < 10 Years Equation to determine network sizing provision:
Network Provision = Final Year "X" Demand Requirement x Contingency Factor
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Y1.2 AIRPORT SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION (SCADA) SYSTEMS
Networks
With SCADA systems it is possible to monitor and dynamically control previously independent and stand alone systems. It is possible to supervise typically more than 30,000 real-world inputs-outputs which can be typically distributed among more than 500 discrete control panel locations. These in turn can be spread out over several kilometres of airport infrastructure. SCADA systems are particularly useful because they are designed with the sole purpose of integrating often traditionally stand alone systems. The airport user benefits because control can be centralised and cost reductions made. It also allows the control rooms to have a global appreciation of what is physically happening within the terminal complex, roads and airport apron areas. The SCADA solution takes individual systems and then links them via a custom platform which can deal with multiple input and output system software languages. Typically SCADA programmers will analyse software interface protocols between discrete systems and then map them to the abilities of the SCADA system software which provides common graphical controls. Typical functions of a SCADA system would include but are not limited to: Valve control (water/steam/gases).
CCTV monitor power movement zoom control. Perimeter intruder detection systems. Fire alarm monitoring and control.
Internal airport signage and messaging and control. Road traffic control signage and messaging and control. Electrical switch gear and isolation control. Ventilation and heating systems control. Ground lighting systems. Asset management and maintenance control systems. Fault reporting. Airport operations database monitoring and control. High security risk management reporting links to biometric database systems. Water drainage and manage monitoring and control.
The true usefulness of a SCADA system is its ability, through custom programming, to link the numerous system software languages and protocols through a common backbone network architecture, coupled to easy-to-use graphics tailored for the airport user environment. SCADA systems are a well-proven technology and application which lend themselves to medium and large airport operations. New smaller airports should consider the use of SCADA systems only if the passenger traffic exceeds 1 MPPA during the first 5 years of operation.
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Y1.3
SECURITY NETWORKS
The use of security networks has become more commonplace. Centralized security networks can be Airport Development Reference Manual used by numerous users within the airport in an effort to provide up-to the minute knowledge on passenger status and movement within the airport building. These security systems are in addition to the national security systems provided by the Police, Customs and Immigration services but can be linked often by SCADA systems. The following independent systems would typically be included and attached to a security network: Check-in profiling questioning result logging.
IATA
Biometric systems. Access control systems. Id pass production systems. Baggage screening (hold and hand luggage) passenger / baggage status records and reconciliation data provision. Intruder detection systems. CCTV infra-red security thermal imaging airport wide. Car park number plate recognition systems. Passenger and staff security displays.
The use of biometric readers and databases allows the airport security network to link passenger biometric data to that of any of the data listed above. For instance it's possible to link facial data captured at check-in or in car parks, along with license plate details, to the bar code data allocated to checked-in baggage. Then if a bag is screened and found to be suspect and in need of reconciliation with the passenger, the security network can relay the biometric data of the owner of the suspect bag to the passenger and staff security displays throughout the terminal. The use of fully integrated security networks is promoted by IATA for medium to large airport applications as a minimum.
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Y1.4
IATA RECOMMENDATIONS Y1 .IR1 Network Redundancy
IATA
Networks
Netwoi-k planners should build-in redundancy of cabling and repeater systems that run through the terminal infrastructure and on the apron and perimeter. The design should consider the operational impacts as a minimum of the following potential incidents. Systems should not be rendered inoperable in anyway as the result of these occurrences:
Single communication cabling and support equipment malfunction. Extraordinary high communications traffic demand. Terrorist interference at no more than two locations on the airport. Aircraft accident within the airport perimeter.
Y1.IS1 SCADA Systems The usefulness and appropriateness of SCADA systems should be considered for medium sized airports. Fully integrated SCADA systems should be provided at large airports
Y1.IR3 Security Network Systems

The use of fully integrated security networks is promoted by IATA for medium to large airport applications as a minimum.
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SECTION Y2: Y2.1
BUILDING SERVICES
HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS: INTRODUCTION

The general standards of heating and cooling systems are usually stipulated by national statutes and regulations found in publications that define the insulation properties and mandatory requirements of building environmental conditions. These standards vary from country to country and often account for local weather conditions and materials availability. The airport designer should in the first instance review the national standard and then compare the general international standard defined within this section, selecting the most appropriate course. Certain aspects of the heating and cooling systems are defined within the IATA recommendation clauses which airport designers are recommended to adhere to. It is important that the building fabric and architectural design, while important in its design form, should also function effectively within the climate that it will be operating in over the design life of the building (up to 50 years). Building insulation, conductivity and fabric design should be integrated into the approach adopted for the selection of the heating and cooling systems. The operational efficiency of the building and it's capability to be able to heat and cool itself during the annual cycle of weather conditions is a major factor, especially since the cost to heat and cool vast open airport terminal building spaces can be immense. Architects and engineers should balance the requirements of form and functionality and aim to achieve optimum design performance through better design and use of space. Architects and engineers are urged to simulate the effects of varying weather conditions and the need to maintain effective nominal internal building environments. The use of computational fluid dynamic software should be explored to ascertain the affects of sun, cloud, wind and rain on the outside fabric temperature and the resulting internal building temperatures, humidity and efficiency.
Y2.1.2 Methods of Heating and Cooling

The methods of heating may depend on fuel supply and capital costs of equipment and fuel supply. Designers should assess the unit costs for fuel supply in whole-life cost assessments of the running charges associated within system selection. Large consumers of fuels such as airports are often able
Table
Y2-1:
Heating
and
Cooling
Systems
Operated
at
Types of Equipment
Airport Locations Used
Centralized or Local Energy Conversion Plant/ Units Centralized Plant Small Temporary Building Local Units Centralized Plant Centralized Plant
Forced Heated or Cooled Air Radiators Using Water
Terminal Pier and Office Spaces Baggage Hall Spaces Terminal Pier and Office Spaces Baggage Hall Spaces Terminal Pier and Office Spaces
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Chilled Beams
In the case of large and medium sized airports the use of centralized heating and cooling systems is the favored choice, as monitoring is easier and small changes to the operational conditions often yield large cost savings to the airport operation.
Y2.2
BUILDING FABRICS AND DESIGN

Building fabrics do not necessarily need to be passive in their ability to aid the performance of the building. The properties of the material and their ability to both better retain heat in colder climates and lose or reflect heat gains in hotter climates should be explored.
IATA
Networks
The roof space of terminals can be extensive, and use of active materials to generate energy should be explored. The running costs of terminals can be dramatically reduced in some locations of the world if reusable energy from the sun is explored and utilized.
Y2.3
AIRCONDITIONING AND VENTILATION

The objective of air conditioning is to create an internal thermal environment which possesses the correct balance of air and radiant temperatures, humidity and rate of ventilation. In glass-faced structures the heat gains and losses can be extremely high, both in winter and summer, where heating and cooling is required. The need to maintain ventilation in airport passenger and staff buildings is mainly concerned with the replacement of air vitiated by exhalation and gases resulting from cooking and even vehicles in some cases. Special consideration is required for staff areas such as baggage halls and apron areas, which must be extremely well ventilated, and filtration of these areas achieved such that combustible materials are not unduly collated in filters. Filtration systems should be back-indicated to advise maintenance teams of the need to service filters. The following table details the generally recommended parameters for temperature humidity and ventilation rates within the various facilities of the terminal complex. Special consideration should be given to baggage halls, which in some locations use tugs powered by fossil fuels. Dedicated areas
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Internal Design Criteria Facility (outdoor alr)[2]Design air [1] temperature oCHumidity % saturationVentilation rate SummerWinter Check-in area to Gate Room Inclusive232160 max8Circulation and queuing area242060 max8Airbridge Fixed Link-12--232160 max8AtTiva! corridor2420-0.8 l/s/m2Immigration hall232160 max8Baggage reclaimReclaim carousel242060 max8Customs hali232160 max8Public toilets242015 air changes per hourBabycare232160 max5 air changes per hourSmoking fes232160 maxSpecial Consideration RequiredPlay areas f23218Staff toilets242010 air changes per hourRest rooms no smoking232160 max8Rest rooms smoking allowed232160 max24Control rooms222160 max8Computer rooms [3]241960 max8lnfeg areas (no smoking)232160 max8[Workshops-19-8Service corridors and stairs-19--Storage aress-19--Baggage handling areasSee Section U10
[1 ] The appropriate air temperature for an equivalent dry resultant temperature should be used for the design of radiant cooling or heating systems. _______________________________________________________________ Where air movement could cause discomfort the equivalent dry resultant temperature should be
used for design. [2] Ventilation rates may be increased if this results in a reduction in energy consumption. [3] Computer rooms for specific purposes should be designed to comply with equipment manufacturers
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IATA LIGHTING SYSTEMS Y2.4
Networks
The lighting systems within terminals should be designed to provide appropriate levels of light according to the function and use of the building space. Architectural considerations should be balanced against the functional requirements of the passengers and staff using the facility. It is essential that operators are able to work and function in a pleasant environment and that LUX levels and UV levels for high intensity lighting systems are both balanced and safe. The airport designer should call upon the services of lighting systems specialists to advise in this complex area. Their services will ensure that the effects of proposed lighting schemes can be understood and developed before the terminal development opens. The table below outlines the necessary parameters to consider with respect to lux levels and permissible glare indices. National standards may vary and should be adhered to in the first instance. Area Within the Terminal Check-in Retail Escalators/Stairs Departures Entrance Immigration Desks Piers Reclaim Units Arrivals Channel Airbridges Lux Level Range 100-300 100-200 200 200 500 200 500 200 150 Reference Plane Floor Floor Treads/Steps Floor Desk Floor Belt Floor Floor Limiting Glare Index 22 22 22 22 19 22 19 22 22
Y2.5
FIRE ALARM AND FIRE SUPPRESSION SYSTEMS

Heat sensitive and smoke detectors are usually mounted in the ceiling of airport terminal complexes and sensor status should be back indicated to the airport control rooms and fire brigade services. Sprinkler systems should be zoned to extinguish potential fires in the zone they occur. Each zone should be fitted with CCTV systems to establish the status of the building in the event of fire or evacuation. Particular attention should be placed as to the positioning of sprinklers and the effects they would have on the building operation should they be operated, particularly in the context of the use of electrical equipment at ground level (check-in equipment, conveyors, etc.) and elevated levels (signage and FIDS). The designer should seek expert guidance and should conform to the national standard on the use, maintenance and operation of fire alarm and fire suppression systems and equipment in the first instance.
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Y2.6
IATA Airport Development Reference Manual Y2.iR1 Simulating the Internal Building Environment
The use of computational fiuid dynamic software should be explored to ascertain the effects of sun, cloud, wind and rain on the outside fabric temperature and the resulting internal building temperatures, humidity and efficiency.
Y2.IR2 Selection of Heating and Cooling System

in the case of large and medium sized airports, the use of centralised heating and cooling systems is the recommended choice. Particular attention should be paid (c temperature and humidity control systems. Active monitoring processes and protocols should be used/adopted to avoid the presence and contamination of dangerous bacteria created by heating and ventilation systems such as but not limited to legionella pneumophila, otherwise known as Legionnaires Disease.
Y2.IR3 Ventilation Systems

Baggage halts must be extremely well ventilated and filtration of these areas achieved such that combustible materials are not unduly collated in filters.
Y2.IR4 Lighting Lux Levels

It is essential that operators are able to work and function in a pleasant environmem and that lux and UV levels for high intensity lighting systems are both balanced and safe. The airport designer should refer to the table listed in clause Y2.4 in the absence of-local national standards.
V _ _ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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GLOSSARY
air bridge See passenger boarding bridge. Air Transport Action Group (ATAG) A coalition of organisations from the air transport industry, formed to press for economically beneficial aviation capacity improvements. ATAG is a leading proponent of aviation infrastructure development, advocating the economic benefits of air transport, the industry's excellent environmental performance, and the need for major improvements in airport surface access and air traffic management capacity. aircraft, combi An aircraft capable of transporting both passengers and freight/mail. aircraft movement An aircraft takeoff or landing at an airport. For airport traffic purposes, one arrival and one departure is counted as two movements. Afofe; The term international aircraft movements refers to all flights of national or foreign aircraft whose origin or destination is located in the territory of a State other than that in which the airport being reported on is located, whereas the term domestic aircraft movements refers to all flights of national or foreign aircraft in which all the airports are located in the territory of the same State. In both cases, the flight shall be considered as consisting of the total of its flight stages (i.e., from takeoff to its next landing; technical stops are not taken into account (ICAO ATREPF-Form I). airfield The network of runways and taxiways at a given airport, the configuration of which is selected based on a wide range of criteria, including future development considerations, the direction of prevailing winds, average monthly temperatures, altitude from sea level, natural obstacles, local surface transportation networks, neighbouring airport facilities, etc. Airline Operators Committees (AOC) Committees concerned with the day-to-day operation of the airport for which they are established. Usually, information concerning a proposed airport development is first received from the airport authority at AOC meetings. See Section B-1. Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) A committee developed by IATA in the event of an airport expansion proposal or new airport development. The purpose of the ACC is to consolidate the views of those airlines who use or will make use of the facility in question and provide a focal point for consultation with the airport authority. See Section B-1. airside The aircraft movement area of an airport, including adjacent terrain and buildings or portions thereof, access to which is restricted to operational employees and (in specific enplaning and deplaning areas) members of the travelling public. apron A defined airport area intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading or unloading passengers, baggage, mail or cargo, fueling, parking or maintenance (ICAO Annex 2, 4, 11, 14, Vol. I, PANS-ATM). Synonymous with ramp and tarmac. available seat-kilometers/miles (ASK)/(ASM) A seat-kilometer or seat-mile is available when a seat is flown over the distance of one kilometer or one statute mile. Available seat-kilometers/miles are equal to the sum of the products obtained by multiplying the number of passenger seats available for sale on each flight stage by the stage distance expressed in kilometers or statute miles, based on airport-to-airport great circle distances. Seats not actually available for the carriage of passengers because of the weight of fuel or other load should be excluded in the calculations. Synonymous with capacity passenger-kilometers/miles (CPK)/(CPM) and seatkilometers/miles available (SKAj/SMA). available tonne-kilometers/miles (ATK)/(ATM) A metric tonne of available payload space flown over the distance of one kilometer or one statute mile. Available tonne-kilometers/miles are equal to the sum of the products obtained by multiplying the number of metric tonnes of capacity available for the carriage of revenue load, i.e., passengers, baggage, freight and mail, on each flight stage by the stage distance expressed in kilometers or statute miles, based on airport-to-airport great circle distances. The same method of calculating available payload capacity is used for both scheduled and charter flights for statistical reporting purposes.
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azimuth In surveying, the horizontal angle of the observer's bearing, measured clockwise from a referenced direction (usually north), or from a referenced celestial body (usually Polaris). baggage, cabin (CBBG) Baggage which the aircraft passenger retains custody of (IATA RP 1008). This covers personal belongings, such as briefcases, handbags and other non-bulky baggage conforming to specified dimensions, to permit stowage aboard the aircraft. Synonymous with carry-on baggage. baggage check Those portions of a ticket which provide for the carriage of a passenger's checked baggage and which are issued by the carrier as a receipt for same (IATA RP 1008). baggage, checked Baggage of which the carrier takes sole custody and for which the carrier has issued a baggage check (IATA RP 1724). biometrics The systems and ideologies associated with a form of passenger identification which utilises the measurement of exclusively self-identifying physical attributes. Examples of biometric devices and systems include but are not limited to facial recognition devices, fingerprint scanners, iris scanners, and the software programs developed for same. Any one of these types of systems may be used alone or in conjunction with other forms of biometric, electronic or documentary identification for purposes of passenger security and customs screening and/or passenger facilitation. bluesea See Greenfield/bluesea airports. Board of Airline Representatives (BAR) IATA recommends that a Board of Airline Representatives be established in every country where civil aviation is an important part of the nation's social and especially economic viability. These boards represent the interests of their countries' main servicing carriers and keep their member airlines up-to-date on emerging industrial, technological and regulatory developments pertinent to their national situation. busy day (Forecasting measure) A typical 'busy day' is the second busiest day in an average week during the peak month. An average weekly pattern of passenger traffic is calculated for that month, and peaks associated with special events such as religious festivals, trade fairs, conventions and sport events are excluded. The busy day should be representative of a frequently occurring 'model' busy period, indicative of a realistic day within a weekly schedule. capacity The variable measurement of a specific airport system or subsystem's throughput, or the system's capability to accommodate a designated level of demand. Comprehensive capacity assessments are based on five fundamental measurements: Dynamic Capacity; Static Capacity; Sustained Capacity; Maximum Capacity; and Declared Capacity. See Section F2 for comprehensive definitions of these specific terms. Capital Expenditure Plan The long-term financing and expenditure plan pertaining to the acquisition, construction, or improvement of fixed assets such as land and buildings. charter services Flights performed for remuneration on an irregular basis, including empty flight stages related thereto and inclusive tours other than those reported under scheduled services. combi aircraft See aircraft, combi common use terminal equipment (CUTE) CUTE is a generic term (not to be related to certain vendors' products and services) for a system of shared or common IT infrastructure which allows individual airlines to access their host computer(s), undertake all their data processing functions, make the same entries and obtain the same responses as they otherwise would through a proprietary terminal network. The basic CUTE concept is to enable airlines at an airport to share passenger terminal handling facilities, including such areas as checkin and boarding gate counters, on a common-use basis, and thus eliminate the need for individual airlines to install their own equipment. CUTE facilities also enable airlines to use their own host applications for departure control, reservations, ticketing, seat allocation, boarding pass and baggage tag issuance, etc., at such counters, as well as in their on-site administrative offices. curbside That area of an airport terminal facility dedicated to the safe and efficient transfer of passengers and meeters/greeters to and from road-based surface transport systems (cars, buses and taxis). de/anti-icing De-icing is the process which removes ice, snow, slush or frost from airplane surfaces for flight safety purposes. Anti-icing is a precautionary measure which prevents frost, ice or snow from forming or
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IAT A
Glossary
facilitation (FAL) A general term reflecting the action being taken by governments, airlines, airports and other organizations involved in civil aviation to standardize, simplify and reduce government-imposed formalities and procedures at airports. The main objectives are to improve efficiencies and services to passengers and users of cargo services, and to reduce relevant waiting times and costs. Flight Information Display System (FIDS) A computerized airport, airline and baggage claim information display. freight Includes express and diplomatic bags but not a passenger's checked baggage. gate The point where an aircraft is parked for passengers enplaning or deplaning and for loading and unloading baggage, cargo, mail, galley units and other supplies. Synonymous with arrival gate and departure gate. Global Airport Monitor An IATA information product which provides comparative airport service performance indicators for major international airports from Europe, North America and Asia Pacific. greenfield/bluesea airports 'Greenfield' or 'bluesea' are terms used to describe what most planners would consider to be 'ideal' airports or (alternately) airport locations. In general, greenfield or bluesea airports are mega facilities that have benefited from planning decisions whereby designers and ACCs have opted to create large, modern facilities incorporating many of the latest 'best-practice' airport planning guidelines. Current greenfield/bluesea airports include facilities such as CLK in Hong Kong, Denver International Airport, Kuala Lumpur KLIA, and Seoul NSIA, which all became operational between 1995 and 2000. These new airports are generally sized in the 400,000 sqm range and have operating capacities upwards of 30 mppa. They're usually designed to be hub facilities, are capable of adapting to service currently-envisioned larger aircraft, and incorporate a detailed master plan that will allow them to grow in a modular fashion to capacities up to 100 mppa. hub Any airport having numerous inbound and outbound flights and a high percentage of connecting traffic. In the context of scheduling and marketing from a hub-operating carrier's perspective, hub denotes an airport where many of its inbound and outbound schedules are coordinated with the aim of producing the most convenient connections and/or trans-shipment for passengers, freight and/or mail. The same airport may serve as a hub for more than one air carrier although this is exceptional. Currently, most hubs have been designed for passenger traffic but the concept is also used for the development of cargo and mail traffic. Hub Definitions The following specialized terms and their definitions, commonly used to describe the different types of hub airports, are contained in the ICAO Manual on the Regulation of International Air Transport (Doc 9626):
cargo hub An airport where facilities are provided for easy and fast connections and transshipment of air
cargo traffic.
interline hub An airport at which connections or transferring of traffic are chiefly made between flights of
different carriers.
intermodel or multimodel hub An airport that enables convenient connections or transshipment of traffic
from one mode of transport to another, for example, surface to air on a sea-air routing.
ma/7 or postal hub An airport which serves as a transit center for mail or postal shipments. major hub An airport with a large volume of connecting traffic, usually a centrally located airport served
by more than one airline with long-haul connections.
mega- or super-hub A very large airport. mini-hub A secondary airport set up by a carrier. online hub An airport at which connections or transferring of traffic are mostly made between different
flights of the same airline.
regional hub An airport that serves a region of a State or a region comprising more than one State. second country hubAn airport set up by an air carrier in a foreign country, typically to allow it to
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International Industry Working Group (IIWG) IIWGs bring together IATA, Airports Council International (ACI) and the International Coordinating Council of Aerospace Industries Associations (ICCAIA). The IIWG was founded in 1970 and its main goal is to review airport/aircraft compatibility issues which might improve the development of the air transport system. landside Those areas of an airport to which the non-travelling public has free access. Sometimes referred to as the public side. load factor, passenger Passenger-kilometers/miles expressed as a percentage of available seat-kilometers/ miles. Alternatively, the number of passenger seats occupied expressed as a percentage of the total seat capacity of an aircraft. long-haul Operating distances of >5,000 km non-stop, presuming an aircraft with a full payload at normal cruising conditions and with an adequate fuel reserve to reach an alternate airport. mail Refers to correspondence and other objects tendered by and intended for delivery to postal administrations. master plan, airport A presentation of the airport planner's conception of the ultimate development capacity of a specific airport, created so that all air-side, land-side and airport support facilities can develop, expand and improve the operational flexibility and efficiency of their businesses in a structured, balanced and orderly fashion without adversely impacting on the business of their neighbours on or adjacent to an airport site. Master plans are applied to the modernization and expansion of existing airports and to the construction of new airports, regardless of their size or functional role. See Section C-1. medium-haul Operating distances of >1,000 km and <5,000 km non-stop, presuming an aircraft with a full payload at normal cruising conditions and with an adequate fuel reserve to reach an alternate airport. noise zones Areas surrounding an airport which are established to protect nearby residents from excess noise and which also protect the airport from community encroachment. The establishment of noise zones is an important step when determining future land-use, and the factors used to ascertain them will vary depending upon local/national standards. Noise zones should be calculated and based on the ultimate achievable throughput of the airport; i.e. when the. runway is saturated, such that long term development flexibility is ensured. operations area The designation given to the area occupied by airlines and ground handling, catering, etc., personnel who handle the aircraft while it is on the ground. It is usually located near the apron and includes the area required for the flight crew and flight attendants as well as airline and ground handling personnel assigned to ground service operations. Certain amenities for personnel; e.g. wash rooms, lunchrooms, locker rooms, together with support areas for stores, are also located in this area. passenger, connecting See passenger, transfer passenger, destination With respect to a specific airport, a destination passenger is one who's final section of carriage, including aircraft disembarkation, baggage claim, etc., takes place at said facility. Synonymous with terminating or arrivals passenger. passenger, originating With respect to a specific airport, an originating passenger is one who's first section of carriage, including check-in, aircraft embarkation, etc, takes place at said facility. Synonymous with departures passengers passenger, terminating See passenger, destination. passenger, transfer A passenger making a direct connection between two flights (i.e., using different aircraft and flight numbers operated by the same or another airline), or a passenger arriving at an airport of a State and whose journey continues on another flight at the same or another airport of that State (ICAO Airport Economics Manual Doc 9562). Synonymous with connecting passenger.
IAT A
peak day The second busiest day in the busiest or second busiest week of normal airport traffic.
Glossary
peak period, typical The typical peak is the maximum level of traffic, lower than the absolute peak, reached in busy periods of a typical busy day (see busy day). ramp See apron. Regional Airports Steering Groups (RASGs) Multi-disciplinary IATA bodies of airline representatives established in Europe and Asia/Pacific. They meet twice a year to review airport developments within their regions. Schengen/non-Schengen The name Schengen refers to a treaty signed in March 1995 by seven European Union countries. The purpose of the treaty was to end internal border checkpoints and controls, and an additional eight European countries have signed the treaty since it came into effect. The 15 Schengen countries are: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Greece, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain and Sweden. All these countries except Norway and Iceland are European Union members. short-haul Operating distances of <1,000 km non-stop, presuming an aircraft with a full payload at normal cruising conditions and with an adequate fuel reserve to reach an alternate airport. stand, aircraft A designated area on an apron intended to be used for parking an aircraft (ICAO Annex 4, 14, Vol. I). stopway (SWY) A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of takeoff run available prepared as a suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an abandoned takeoff (ICAO Annex 4, 14 Vol. I, PANS-ABC, PANS-ATM). taxilane a route bounded on either one or both sides by aircraft parking positions, and by which aircraft can only gain access to these parking positions. taxiway A defined path on an airfield established for the taxiing of aircraft and intended to provide a link between one part of the airport and another, including: aircraft stand taxilane A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to provide access to aircraft stands only. apron taxiway A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to provide a through taxi route across the apron. rapid exit taxiway (RET) A taxiway connected to a runway at an acute angle and designed to allow landing airplanes to turn off at higher speeds than are achieved on other exit taxiways and thereby minimizing runway occupancy times (ICAO Annex 2,4,14 Vol. I, PANS-ATM). Synonymous with high-speed exit taxiway. traffic, direct transit Traffic which both arrives and departs the point (transits the point) as part of a continuous movement under a single air ticket or waybill, without a stopover, on the same or different aircraft identified by the same airline designator and flight number (ICAO Manual on the Regulation of International Air Transport Doc 9626). traffic, true origin and destination Traffic with the origin being the first point named on the transportation document and the destination being the last point on a one-way movement or the point located furthest from the point of origin on a return (round trip) movement (ICAO Manual on the Regulation of International Air Transport Doc 9626). User Charges Panel (UCP) The User Charges Panel is responsible for representing IATA airlines in negotiations with airport authorities regarding the charges for the use of the airport, including but not limited to landing fees, terminal building charges, passenger-related elements, lighting charges, air traffic control and monopoly-type user charges.
ACRONYMS
a/c
ACFT ACC ACI AMD AOC AODB APASG AHM APM ARP API APU A-SMGS ATA ATB ATC ATFM ATM BAR BHS BMS BOT BOOT BRS BTO CAA CAPEX CCTV CDA CFC CHP CIP CT CTA CUTE DCS DCV ECAC EDS EDTS EIS ETD ETV EU FAA FBO
Aircraft Aircraft Airport Consultative Committee Airports Council International Archway metal detector (pax and hand baggage screening) Airline Operators Committees IATA Airport and Obstacle Database or Airport Operational Database Asia Pacific Airports Steering Group Airport Handling Manual Automated people mover Airport reference point, with latitude and longitude to the nearest second based on the WGS84 (world geodetic system). Advance passenger information Auxiliary power units Advanced surface movement guidance and control system Air Transport Association (American) Automated ticket and boarding pass Air traffic control Air traffic flow management Air traffic movement Board of Airline Representatives Baggage handling system Building management system build-operate-transfer (leasing term) build-own-operate-transfer (leasing term) Baggage reconciliation system build-transfer-operate (leasing term) Civil Aviation Authority Capital expenditure(s) Closed-circuit television Continuous descent approach Chlorofluorocarbon Combined heat and power Commercially important passenger or Capital investment programme Computed tomography imaging Cargo terminal area or Central terminal area Common use terminal equipment Departures control system Destination Coded Vehicle European Civil Aviation Conference Explosive detection system Explosive detection tomography system Environmental impact statement Electronic trace detection Elevating transfer vehicle European Union Federal Aviation Administration Fixed base operator
IATA
FEGP FFL FIDS GPU GPS GSE HBS HIRO HHMD
Fixed electrical ground power Finished floor level Flight information display system Ground power unit Global positioning system Ground service equipment Hold baggage screening High intensity runway operation Hand-held metal detectors (pax
and
hand
baggage
screening)
HSR HVAC IED IATA ICAO IFR ILS IIWG JAA JAR LAT LDA LDA MARS mppa MCO MCT MIS MLW MQT MRI MRTD MTBF MTOW MTTR Mvts/annum NASP NB NGLA NLA NM O&D OFZ OPEX ORAT OTS PAPI PAR PAX PBB PCI
High speed rail Heating, ventilation and air conditioning Improvised explosive device International Air Transport Association International Civil Aviation Organization Instrument flight rule Instrument landing system International Industry Working Group Joint Aviation Authorities Joint Aviation Requirements Latest check-in acceptance time Localizer directional aid Landing distance available Multi-aircraft ramp system Million passengers per annum Miscellaneous charge order Minimum connecting time Management information system Maximum landing weight Maximum queuing time Magnetic resonance imaging Machine readable travel documents Mean time before failure (re: system maintenance) Maximum take-off weight Mean time to repair (re: system maintenance) Aircraft movements per annum National airport system plan Narrow body aircraft New generation large aircraft New large aircraft Nautical miles Origin and destination Obstacle free zone Operating expenditure(s) Operations readiness and airport transition Optimal turn-off segment Precision approach path indicator Precision approach radar Passenger(s) Passenger boarding bridge Pavement condition index
PCN PHP PRA PRM PTB QFE QNH RA RASG RAT RCG RET RF RFID RFP RTD RTP RWY SID SIDS SMGCS SOIA STAR STARS STD STOL TCA TCAS TDZ TPHP TTS TIPO TMA TOD TOR TWR TWY UC UCP ULD URS VASIS VIP VFR VMC VOR WB W/G
Pavement classification number Peak hour passenger Passenger risk assessment Precision runway monitor Passenger terminal bridge Atmospheric pressure at airport elevation (or at runway threshold) (ICAO) Altimeter subscale setting to obtain elevation when on the ground (ICAO) Resolution advisory Regional Airports Steering Group Rapid access taxiway Regional Co-ordinating Group Rapid exit taxiway Radio frequency (tags) Radio frequency identification Request for proposals Regional Technical Director Regional Technical Panel Runway Standard instrument departure Standard instrument departure system Surface movement guidance control system Simultaneous offset instrument approaches Standard arrival route Standard arrival system Standard time of departure Short takeoff and landing Terminal control area Traffic alert and collision avoidance system Touchdown zone Typical peak hour period Tracked transit systems Taxi in, push out Terminal maneuvering area (now commonly called terminal control area) Takeoff distance Terms of reference Tower Taxiway User charges User Charges Panel Unit load device User requirement specification (baggage) Visual approach slope indicator system (ICAO) Very important person Visual flight rules Visual meteorological condition Very high frequency omnirange radio Wide body

IATA - Airport Development Reference Manual - JAN 2004

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Airport Development Reference Manual

International Air Transport Association

NOTICE DISCLAIMER. The information contained in this

Chapter C Master Planning

Chapter D Airport Economics

Chapter E Environmental Issues

Chapter F Airport Capacity

Airport Development Reference Manual

Chapter G Airport Flight Operations Issues

Chapter H Airport Security

Chapter I Airport Access

Chapter J Passenger Terminal

Chapter K Passenger Facilitation

Chapter L Aircraft Parking Aprons

Chapter M Aviation Fuel Systems

Chapter N Contingency Management

Chapter O Cargo & Separate Express Facilities Terminal

Chapter P Airport Support/Ancillary Facilities

Chapter Q Landside Facilities

Chapter R Airport Commissioning

Chapter S Future Technologies & Miscellaneous

Airport Development Reference Manual

Chapter T Airport Processes

Chapter U Airport Baggage Handling

Chapter V IATA Airport Project Process

Chapter W Anti-Terrorism and Police Facilities

Chapter X Airport Fire Services

Airport Development Reference Manual

Airport Development Reference Manual

IATA AIRPORTS ACTIVITIES

A1.2.1 Airport Consultative Committees

Airport Development Reference Manual

A1.2.2 Airport Consultancy Services

A1.2.3 International Industry Working Group

OTHER IATA AIRPORTS ACTIVITIES

Consulting enquiries should be addressed to: [email protected]

SECTION A2: A2.1

SCOPE OF THE AIRPORT DEVELOPMENT REFERENCE MANUAL

Airport Development Reference Manual

Airport Development Reference Manual

Airport Development Reference Manual

AIRPORT CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE (ACC)

B1.2.1 ACC Objective

Airport Development Reference Manual

B1.2.2 ACC Formation

B1.2.3 ACC Membership

B1.2.4 ACC Scope

ACCs will concentrate on achieving a rational balance between:

Airport Development Reference Manual

B1.2.5 ACC Method of Operation

B1.2.6 Regional Airports Steering Groups (RASG)

B1.2.7 Co-ordination with Other Groups

KEY PLANNING ITEMS

Airport Development Reference Manual

B1.3.2 Access to the Passenger Terminal

B1.3.3 Basic Considerations of Terminal Design

B1.3.4 Check-in Hall

Airport Development Reference Manual

B1.3.5 CUTE (Common Use Terminal Equipment)