OPERATION THEATRE TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION
Surgical site infections are the second to third most common site of health care associated infections. These complications of surgical procedures cause considerable morbidity and, when these occur deep at the site of the procedure, can carry mortality as high as 77%. As illustrated below there are several key steps or chains that have to be connected to result in infection. However, for surgical site infections, the initial introduction of microbial pathogens occurs most often during the surgical procedure performed in the Operating Theatre (OT).

TRANSMISSION PROCESS IN OT

RESERVOIRS

PLACES OF ENTRY

SUSCEPTIBLE HOSTS

MODES OF TRANSMISSION

PLACES OF EXIT

RESERVOIRS
People Water and solutions Instruments and other items

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Equipment Soil and air

SUSCEPTIBLE HOSTS
Clients Service providers Ancillary Staff Community members

PLACES OF EXIT
Respiratory, genitourinary and vascular systems Gastrointestinal tract Skin Mucous membranes Placenta

MODES OF TRANSMISSION
Contact Droplet Vehicle Airborne

PLACES OF ENTRY
Broken skin Puncture wound Surgical site Mucous membranes Infectious Agents Microorganisms such as Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi

Thus, to reduce the risk of surgical site infections, a systematic but realistic approach must be applied with the awareness that this risk is influenced by characteristics of the patient, operation, personnel, and health care facility. For most surgical site infections, the source of pathogens is the endogenous flora of the patients skin, mucous membranes, or hollow viscera. When mucous membranes or skin is incised, the exposed tissues are at risk for contamination with endogenous flora. These organisms are usually aerobic gram-positive cocci (e.g. staphylococci), but may include fecal flora (e.g. anaerobic bacteria and gram-negative aerobes) when incisions are made near the perineum or groin. When a gastrointestinal organ is opened during an operation gram-

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negative bacilli (e.g. E. coli), gram-positive organisms (e.g., enterococci), and sometimes anaerobes (e.g. Bacillus fragilis) may become typical surgical site infections isolates. Exogenous sources of surgical site infections pathogens include surgical personnel (especially members of the surgical team), the operating room environment (including air), and all tools, instruments, and materials brought to the sterile field during an operation. Exogenous flora is primarily aerobes, especially gram-positive organisms (e.g. staphylococci and streptococci). Interventions to prevent surgical site infections therefore are aimed at reducing or preventing microbial contamination of the patients tissues or of sterile surgical instruments. Other interventions include pre-operative antibiotic prophylaxis, careful surgical technique, adequate ventilation of the OT, etc. Of the variables involved in the equation of surgical site infections, operative characteristics such as preparation of the patients and health care workers skin, appropriate timing of antibiotic prophylaxis, and preparation of the OT are easier to control than patient risk factors such as presence of underlying diabetes, age, smoking history, and obesity. Therefore the balance will focus on the operative characteristics associated with infection prevention.

DEFINITION
An operating room (OR), also called surgery center, is the unit of a hospital where surgical procedures are performed.

PURPOSE
An operating room may be designed and equipped to provide care to patients with a range of conditions, or it may be designed and equipped to provide specialized care to patients with specific conditions.

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INFECTION PREVENTION IN THE OPERATION THEATRE

Infection prevention in the operating room is achieved through prudent use of aseptic techniques in order to: Prevent contamination of the open wound. Isolate the operative site from the surrounding unsterile physical environment. Create and maintain a sterile field in which surgery can be performed safely. Although all infection prevention practices contribute to this effort, aseptic technique refers to those practices performed just before or during clinical procedure including: Properly preparing a client for clinical procedures Hand washing Surgical hand scrub Using barriers such as gloves and surgical attire Maintaining a sterile field Using good surgical technique Maintaining a safe environment in the surgical/procedure area Principles and maintenance of aseptic practices are imperative in the operating room. Each facility should develop policies and procedures pertaining to aseptic technique.

PREOPERATIVE CARE AND PREPARATION OF THE PATIENT

PREOPERATIVE PROCESSES INSTRUCTIONS

Assessment for infection

Whenever possible, identify and treat all infections remote to the surgical site before elective operation and postpone elective operations on patients with remote site infections until the infection has resolved.

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Adequately control serum blood glucose levels in all diabetic patients and particularly avoid hyperglycemia pre-operatively. Encourage tobacco cessation. At minimum, instruct patients to abstain for at least 30 days before elective operation from smoking cigarettes, cigars, pipes, or any other form of tobacco consumption (e.g. chewing/dipping). Do not withhold necessary blood products from surgical patients as a means to prevent surgical site infections. Require patients to shower on at least the night before the operative day. Do not remove hair pre-operatively unless the hair at or around the incision site will interfere with the operation. If hair is removed, remove immediately before the operation, preferably with electric clippers. Only the incision area is cleared of hair. This is done in the anesthetic room. Shaving is not recommended.

Preoperative showering

Preoperative hair removal

Patient skin preparation in the operating room

Thoroughly wash and clean at and around the incision site to remove gross contamination before performing antiseptic skin preparation. Use an appropriate antiseptic agent for skin preparation).

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Apply preoperative antiseptic skin preparation in concentric circles moving toward the periphery. The prepared area must be large enough to extend the incision or create new incisions or drain sites, if necessary. Keep preoperative hospital stay as short as possible while allowing for adequate preoperative preparation of the patient.

Management of infected or colonized surgical personnel

Surgical personnel who have acute communicable infections or who are colonized with a pathogen that can be transmitted during surgery should be excluded from surgery until cured.

ANTISEPTICS FOR PRE-OPERATIVE PREPARATION OF SKIN AND HANDS

DEFINITION
An antiseptic is a substance that prevents or arrests the growth or action of Microorganisms, either by inhibiting their activity or by destroying them. The term is used especially for preparations applied topically to living tissue. Antiseptics are not meant to be used on inanimate objects, such as instruments and surfaces.

ANTISEPTICS ARE USED FOR:

Surgical hand antisepsis. Skin, cervical and vaginal preparation before a clinical procedure.

POINTS TO REMEMBER FOR ANTISEPTICS

Notes on Antiseptics: Antiseptic solutions should never be used to: Disinfect inanimate objects, such as instruments

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Clean surfaces, such as floors or countertops

Instruments and items such as pickups, scissors, scalpel blades, and suture needles should never be left soaking in an antiseptic solution; they should always be stored dry. In addition to the fact that antiseptic solutions are made for killing microorganisms on the skin and mucous membranes, and not on objects; microorganisms can live and multiply in antiseptic solutions and contaminate the instruments and other items, leading to infections.

COMMON ANTISEPTICS USED IN OT

1. ALCOHOL (60-90% ETHYL OR ISOPROPYL) ANTIMICROBIAL SPECTRUM Advantages Effective against a broad range of microorganisms e.g. bacteria, and mycobacteria, Rapidly active Effective in reducing vegetative microorganisms Effectiveness is only moderately reduced by blood or other organic material Non-staining Less expensive Has a drying effect on skin Cannot be used on mucous membranes Evaporates rapidly and makes contact time difficult to achieve. No prolonged activity however the reduction in skin flora is so pronounced that re-growth on the skin does not occur for several hours. Cannot be used when skin is dirty; area should be washed before applying. Must dry completely to be effective. The 60-90% strength is most effective. Very effective surgical hand antiseptic when used in waterless alcohol hand rub formula.

Disadvantages

Comments

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2. CHLORHEXIDINE GLUCONATE (4%) Antimicrobial spectrum Effective against a broad range of microorganisms, but less so against gram-negative bacteria and fungi and minimal efficacy against M. tuberculosis. Has a good, persistent effect; remains effective for at least 6 hours after being applied. Effectiveness is not reduced by blood or other organic material. It stains fabrics brown (in the presence of chlorine-based disinfectants). Effectiveness can be reduced by hard water, hand creams, and soaps. Recommended antiseptic for surgical hand antisepsis and skin preparation. Preparations without cetrimide are preferable to those with cetrimide. Caution: Savlon or Citiel products containing at least 4 % chlorhexidine are appropriate for use as antiseptics; Products containing less than 4 % chlorhexidine in an alcohol base are also adequate, but should not be used on mucous membranes. Chlorhexidine is relatively non-toxic. It must not be allowed to come into contact with the brain, meninges, eye or middle ear.

Advantages

Disadvantages

Comments

3. IODINE COMPOUNDS, INCLUDING TINCTURE OF IODINE (IODINE AND ALCOHOL) Antimicrobial spectrum Advantages Disadvantages Effective against a broad range of microorganisms (same as alcohol) Fast-acting (tincture preparations only) Can cause skin irritation. Effectiveness is markedly reduced by blood or other organic material. Less persistent activity. Can cause contact dermatitis therefore have limited usefulness as an OT hand antiseptic. Because of the potential to cause skin irritation, when iodine

Comments

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is used for pre-procedure skin preparation, it must be allowed to dry; then is removed from the skin with alcohol.

4. IODOPHORS (Solutions such as povidone iodine (e.g., Betadine) that contains iodine in a complex form, making them relatively nonirritating and nontoxic) Antimicrobial spectrum Effective against a broad range of microorganisms (mainly gram +ve and gram ve bacteria. Less effective against mycobacteria). Less irritating to the skin than iodine tincture. Can be used on mucous membranes. Effectiveness is moderately reduced by blood or other organic material. Release of active ingredient, free iodine, takes relatively long time therefore it needs to be applied to skin and left on for > 2 minutes prior to initiating procedure. Less persistent antimicrobial activity compared to chlorhexidine. Recommended for surgical hand antisepsis and preoperative skin preparation. Best antiseptic for use in the genital area, vagina, and cervix. Becomes effective >2 minutes after application; for optimal effectiveness, wait several minutes after application. Most preparations should be used full strength; do not dilute. Distinctly different from iodine but can be confused for iodine tincture. Note: If any antiseptic solution is received from the facilitys pharmacy or central supply that is labeled simply iodine the pharmacist or person in charge of supplies should be asked what the solution contains. For example, if a brown liquid in a bottle is received, a small amount has to be put in hand and be rubbed. If it seems more sudsy than usual, it is an iodophor, not iodine.

Advantages

Disadvantages

Comments

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ANTISEPTICS APPROPRIATE FOR USE IN CLINICAL PROCEDURES

ANTISEPTIC SURGICAL HAND ANTISEPTIC USE PREPROCEDURE SKIN PREPARATION MUCOUS MEMBRANES, e.g. VAGINA AND CERVIX No Yes. However, products containing chlorhexidine may not be the best antiseptics to use in the genital area because of the small potential for irritation. If an iodophor is not available, a product containing chlorhexidine is the best alternative No No

Alcohol Chlorhexidine gluconate with or without cetrimide

Yes Yes

Yes Yes

Hexachlorophene Iodine, including tincture of iodine (iodine and alcohol) Iodophors

No No

No Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

NOTE: Avoid using the following: Hydrogen peroxide is available in antiseptic preparations to prevent infections due to minor cuts, burns and abrasions. These preparations are not appropriate for use in surgical hand antiseptic and client/patient skin preparation.

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 Products containing quaternary ammonium compounds, such as benzalkonium chloride (e.g., Zephiran), are disinfectants, and should not be used as antiseptics. These products are easily contaminated by common bacteria, easily inactivated by cotton gauze, and incompatible with soap. Compounds containing mercury (such as mercury laurel) should not be used because they are highly toxic, cause blisters, and cause central nervous system disturbances or death when inhaled. They also be absorbed through the skin and can cause birth defects in a pregnant woman who is exposed to small doses. Never leave cotton balls, cotton wool, or gauze sponges soaking in an antiseptic. Never dip cotton or gauze into the antiseptic container. Instead, pour some antiseptic into a small container, dip the cotton or gauze into this small container, and discard the unused antiseptic after patient preparation. If an antiseptic is provided in a large container, small amounts (enough for one shift) should be poured in small clean disinfected containers. At the end of the shift, left over quantities should be discarded and the container should be appropriately cleaned, disinfected and dried before subsequent use. Never leave antiseptic in opened containers.

PREOPERATIVE ANTIMICROBIAL PROPHYLAXIS

PRINCIPLES TO MAXIMIZE THE BENEFITS OF ANTIBIOTIC PROPHYLAXIS
1. Giving antibiotics before a procedure to prevent infections is not a substitute for good infection control practices and surgical technique. 2. Use antibiotics for procedures in which use has been shown to reduce surgical site infections (SSI) or for patients for whom a surgical site infection would be catastrophic. 3. Use antibiotic agents that are safe, inexpensive, and bactericidal with a spectrum that covers the most probable intra-operative contaminants. 4. Administer the initial dose of antibiotics at the time of surgery. 5. Maintain therapeutic levels of the antimicrobial agent in both serum and tissues throughout the operation and until a few hours after surgery.

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6. Do not prolong prophylaxis through the postoperative period. There is no evidence that prolonged use of antibiotics offers any advantage and instead encourages development of antibiotic resistant microorganisms.

PREOPERATIVE SKIN PREPARATION OF OT PERSONNEL HAND HYGIENE

Hand hygiene by OT personnel is one of the most effective ways to reduce the risks of infections.

SURGICAL HAND WASH

DEFINITION
Surgical hand wash or surgical hand rub must be performed preoperatively by surgical personnel to eliminate transient and to reduce resident hand flora. The warm, moist conditions inside surgical gloves provide an ideal environment for the growth of microorganisms. Surgical hand wash with antiseptics before beginning surgical procedures will help prevent this growth of microorganisms for a period of time and will help to reduce the risk of infections to the patient if the gloves develop holes, tears, or nicks during the procedure. Waterless alcohol hand rubs have more immediate activity after application and they lower the quantity of skin flora to such an extent that it takes several hours for re-growth.

INDICATIONS OF SURGICAL HAND WASH

Surgical hand wash is needed for any invasive surgical procedure. All personnel (e.g. doctors, anesthesiologists, and nurses) should perform surgical hand antisepsis before any procedure.

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STEPS FOR SURGICAL HAND WASH 1. Remove all jewelry on hands and wrists .

2. Adjust water to a warm temperature and thoroughly hands and forearms to 5 cm above the elbows in order to remove dirt and transient flora.

3. Clean under each fingernail and around the nail bed with a nail cleaner prior to performing the first surgical scrub of the day. Keep nails short and do not wear artificial nails or fingernail polish.

4. Holding hands up above the level of the elbow, apply antimicrobial agent to hands and forearms up to the elbows. Using a circular motion, begin at the fingertips of one hand and lather and wash between the fingers, continuing from fingertip to 5 cm above the elbow. Repeat this process for the other hand and arm. Continue rubbing for 3-5 minutes.

5. Rinse each arm separately, fingertips first, holding hands above the level of the elbow.

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6. Using a sterile towel, dry the fingertips to 5 cm above the elbow. Use one side of the towel to dry the first hand and the other side of the towel to dry the second hand.

7. Keep hands above the level of the waist and do not touch anything before putting on sterile gown and surgical gloves.

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STEPS FOR ALCOHOL-BASED SURGICAL HAND RUB

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1. At the beginning of the list of cases for the day follow the wash procedure above using plain soap. 2. Make sure hands are dried completely and then apply 5 ml of alcohol hand rub into palm of one hand. 3. Rub into the hand making sure to rub the alcohol product under the nails and up the forearm. Continue rubbing till alcohol is dry. 4. Repeat for the other hand and forearm. 5. Put on sterile gloves.

SURGICAL HAND SCRUB TIPS scrub tips

BRUSHING: Recent studies have shown that using a brush during surgical scrub provides no greater reduction of microorganisms on the hands than washing with antiseptic soap alone. Surgical hand antisepsis wash may be performed using either a soft brush or sponge or using an antiseptic alone. Avoid using a hard brush, which is not necessary and which may irritate the skin. The brush should be single use and should be discarded (if disposable) or sent for autoclaving (if reusable). Do not share brushes between personnel. ALLERGY: When surgical staff develops sensitivity to the available antiseptic solutions or when antiseptics are not available, then perform a surgical scrub with soap and water followed by an alcohol hand rub: Perform a surgical hand wash with plain soap and warm, running water and then dry hands thoroughly. Apply 3-5 ml of alcohol or of alcohol hand rub solution. Rub hands together until they are dry. Note: An alcohol hand rub does not remove soil or organic material such as blood. If gloves are torn or punctured or if there is blood or other body fluids on your hands after you remove your gloves, a surgical scrub should be performed. WATER TEMPERATURE: Warm water makes antiseptics work more effectively. Avoid using hot water, which removes protective oils from the skin. CARE OF HANDS: Persons who perform surgical procedures should: o Keep fingernails short. o Keep hands above their elbows during and after scrubbing. o Avoid using a hard brush during scrubbing.

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR USE IN THE OPERATING THEATRE

The use of barriers minimizes a patients exposure to microorganisms that might be shed from the skin, mucous membranes, or hair of surgical team members as well as protects surgical team members from exposure to blood and to blood-borne pathogens.

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Surgical attire can include such as items as sterile gloves, caps, masks, gowns or waterproof aprons, and protective eyewear.

ISSUES RELATED TO SURGICAL ATTIRE

MASKS: Standard surgical masks are sufficient for OT personnel. Except for the need to protect the mucous membrane of HCP there is some controversy on whether masks play any role in prevention of SSI. 30 Masks should cover the mouth and nose at all times. The mask should not be worn hanging around the neck or be put in pockets to be reused. Masks should be changed frequently, when they become moist, and in between cases. Cotton masks are not considered protective. High efficiency masks should be available for surgical procedures on patients with suspected or proven active disease caused by M. tuberculosis. GOWNS: Gowns and waterproof aprons prevent contamination of the OT personnels arms, chest, and clothing with blood and body fluids. They also minimize shedding of microorganisms from the personnel thus protecting the patient. Sterile gowns should be worn by all personnel in the operating suite. STERILE DRAPES: Sterile drapes are used to create a barrier between the surgical field and the potential sources of bacteria. These are placed over the patient.

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SCRUB SUITS: Surgical members often wear a uniform called a scrub suit or theater suit or clothes that consists of pants and a shirt. This should be viewed as a uniform over which a sterile gown or apron is worn. There is no evidence that scrub attire worn by personnel prevents SSI. If available, scrub suits are convenient for personnel to change in the event there is penetration of blood or body fluids through the surgical gown. Scrub suits should be changed when they become visibly soiled. SURGICAL CAPS/HOODS: Hair on the face and head must be covered completely either by disposable or recyclable coverings. Coverings reduce contamination of the surgical field by organisms shed from the hair and from the scalp. Hair covering is donned first in order that hair does not fall onto clean scrub clothing. Veiled personnel should remove their veils and put on a sterile cover. EYE PROTECTION AND FACE SHIELDS: Eye protection and/or face shields should be worn to protect OT personnels eyes, nose, and mouth from splashes of blood or other fluids. FOOTWEAR: A change of footwear while in the operating theatre is recommended. Surgeons dealing with heavy blood or body fluids contamination are advised to wear boots that are adequately covered by the plastic apron in order to avoid fluid from going into the shoes/boots.29 Shoe covers have not been shown to prevent SSIs.

SURGICAL GLOVES

Well fitting latex sterile surgical gloves should be worn by all OT personnel involved in a surgical procedure in order to minimize the transmission of microorganisms from the hands of OT personnel to patients and to prevent contamination of team members

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hands with patients blood and body fluids. Gloves must be changed if they become contaminated or if their integrity is compromised. Wearing two pairs of gloves has been shown to reduce skin contact with blood or body fluids from the patient especially during complicated or involved procedures. PUTTING ON AND REMOVING SURGICAL GLOVES Surgical gloves are cuffed to make it easier to put them on without contamination. The outside of the glove package is not sterile and should be opened prior to performance of a surgical scrub. STEPS FOR PUTTING ON SURGICAL GLOVES 1. Prepare a large, clean, dry area for opening the package of gloves. Perform surgical antisepsis and ask someone (e.g., circulating nurse) to open the package of gloves. 2. Open the inner glove wrapper, exposing the cuffed gloves with the palms up. Steps for putting on surgical gloves

3. Pick up the first glove by the cuff, touching only the inside portion of the cuff (the inside is the side that will be touching your skin when the glove is on).

4. While holding the cuff in one hand, slip your other hand into the glove. (Pointing the fingers of the glove toward the floor will keep the fingers open). Be careful not to touch anything, and hold the gloves above your waist level.

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5. Pick up the second glove by sliding the fingers of the gloved hand under the cuff of the second glove. Be careful not to contaminate the gloved hand with the ungloved hand.

6. Put the second glove on the ungloved hand by maintaining a steady pull through the cuff. Adjust the glove fingers and cuffs until the gloves fit comfortably.

STEPS FOR REMOVING SURGICAL GLOVES 1. Grasp on glove near the cuff and pull it partway off. The glove will turn inside out. Keep the first glove partially on before removing the second one to protect you from touching the outside of a glove with your bare hand. 2. Leaving the first glove over your fingers, grasp the second glove near the cuff and pull it partway off. Keep the second glove partially on.

3. Pull off the two gloves at the same time, being careful to touch only the inside surface of the gloves with your bare hand and make sure not to result in splashes in the environment.

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4. Gloves are disposed immediately. Wash hands immediately after gloves are removed.

SURGICAL GLOVE TIPS

PREPARATION FOR GLOVING: The outside of the glove package is not sterile. Have another member of the OT team open it for you, e.g. the circulating nurse. CHANGE GLOVES: When gloves become contaminated; After touching the outside of gloves with a bare hand; After touching anything that is not sterile or high level disinfected; When gloves develop holes, tears, or punctures.29

OT PERSONNEL - PRACTICES TO PREVENT SSI ESTABLISHING AND MAINTAINING A STERILE FIELD

A sterile field must be established and maintained in order to reduce the risk of contaminating the surgical/procedure site. The sterile field is created by placing sterile towels and/or surgical drapes around the surgical/procedure site. Additional sterile fields may also be established, such as on the stand that will hold instruments and other items that are needed during the procedure.

A STERILE FIELD IS MAINTAINED BY:

Placing only sterile items within the sterile field. Opening, dispensing, or transferring sterile items without contaminating them. Considering items located below the level of the draped client to be unsterile. Not allowing sterile personnel to reach across unsterile areas or vice versa or to touch unsterile items.

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 Sterile drapes should be used to establish a sterile field. Items used within a sterile field should be sterile. All items introduced into a sterile field should be opened, dispensed, and transferred by methods that maintain sterility and integrity.

A sterile field should be constantly monitored and maintained. Moisture in the sterile field should be avoided. If a solution soaks through a drape, then it should be covered with another sterile drape. All personnel moving within or around a sterile field should do so in a manner to maintain the integrity of the sterile field. Policies and procedures for basic aseptic technique should be written, reviewed annually, and readily available within the practice setting.

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 Recognizing and maintaining the service providers sterile area. When gowned this area extends from chest to the level of the sterile field; sleeves are sterile from 5 cm above the elbow to the cuff. The neckline, shoulders, and back is considered to be unsterile areas of the gown. Recognizing that the edges of a package containing a sterile item are considered unsterile. Recognizing that a sterile barrier that has been penetrated (wet, cut, or torn) is considered contaminated. Being conscious of where your body is at all times and moving within or around the sterile field in a way that maintains sterility. Not placing sterile items near open windows or doors. NOTE: When in doubt about the sterility or high-level disinfection of an item or an area, consider it contaminated.

USING GOOD SURGICAL TECHNIQUE

POST-PROCEDURE INFECTIONS ARE MORE LIKELY TO OCCUR:
In tissue that has been damaged due to rough or extensive manipulation during surgery. In addition, damaged tissue heals more slowly. This increases the time that it remains more susceptible to infections.

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 When excessive bleeding occurs. The tissue is more susceptible to invasion by microorganisms after excessive bleeding. Therefore, paying meticulous attention to controlling bleeding and to gentle tissue handling during surgery can reduce the risk of infections.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL AND DESIGN FOR THE PREVENTION OF SSI

MAINTAINING A SAFER ENVIRONMENT IN THE SURGICAL PROCEDURE AREA
Specific rooms should be designated for performing surgical/clinical procedures and for processing instruments and other items. It is important to control traffic and activities in these areas since the number of people and the amount of activity influence the number of microorganisms that are present and therefore influence the risk of infection.

LOCATION OF THE OPERATING THEATRE SUITES

Operating theatres may be located in either purpose-built units or in converted hospital accommodation. They are busy units and therefore they require considerable planning and discussion before they are built in order to prevent expensive mistakes. They should be: o Separated from the main flow of hospital traffic and from the main corridors; however, it should be easily accessible from surgical wards and emergency rooms. o Ideally, the floor should be covered with antistatic material, and the walls should be painted with impervious, antistatic paint. This reduces the dust levels and allows for frequent cleaning. The surfaces must withstand frequent cleaning and decontamination with disinfectant.

LAYOUT OF THE OPERATING THEATRE

The operating theatre should be zoned and access to these zones should be under control of OT personnel. Aseptic and clean areas should be separated from the outer areas. This is easier to achieve in purpose-built units. Physical barriers may be needed in order to restrict access and to maintain unidirectional movement of air in converted theatre units. No one should enter the theatre complex without changing into a fresh theatre suit, shoes and cap.

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THE OUTER ZONE This zone should contain: A main access door An accessible area for the removal of waste A sluice Storage for medical and surgical supplies An entrance to the changing facilities.

THE CLEAN OR SEMI-RESTRICTED ZONE This zone contains: The sterile supplies store An anesthetic room A recovery area A scrub-up area A clean corridor Rest rooms for the staff

Staff must change into theatre clothes and shoes before entering this area, but there is no need for a mask, gloves, or a gown. There should be unidirectional access from this area to the aseptic area (operating theater), preferably via the scrub-up area. The operating theatre should be restricted to just the personnel involved in the actual operation. In principle the clean zone should require exiting through the outer zone. ASEPTIC OR RESTRICTED AREA This area should be restricted to the working team. It includes: The operating theatre The sterile preparation room (preparation of sterile surgical instruments and equipment)

Staff working in this area should change into theatre clothes, should wear masks and gowns, and, where necessary, should wear sterile gloves. Remember Clean and sterile supplies should be taken to the operating room from a reprocessing or supply area outside of the suite on a covered cart. The dust cover over the cart is removed when the cart enters the surgical suite. Supplies entering the suite should be removed from their shipping or transport containers prior to transport to the OT.

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 Soiled items should travel in covered containers from the operating room through the clean zone to a decontamination area where soiled items are stored until they are transported to the reprocessing area. All soiled items should be contained and not stored in the same area with clean or sterile items. TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY The temperature and the humidity (not less than 55%) play a very important role in maintaining staff and patient comfort. They must be carefully regulated and monitored. In low humidity there is a danger of the production of electrostatic sparks. Ideally, the operating room should be 1C cooler than the outer area. This aids in the outward movement of air because the warmer air in the outer area rises and the cooler air from within the operating theatre moves to replace it. IDEAL AIR VENTILATION SYSTEM: AIR SUPPLY AND EXHAUST Positive pressure ventilation with respect to the corridors and adjacent areas in the operating theatre where surgical procedures are performed should be maintained. The number of operating theatres supplied by air handling units (AHUs) should be consistent with the number specified by the AHU manufacturer. Also, there should be routine maintenance of the AHUs and these units should not be turned off unless being serviced.

EQUIPMENT
Equipment such as suction apparatus and ventilators must be fitted with bacterial filters in order to prevent contamination of the machines. Used instruments should be counted, handled minimally, and then sent to the Theatre Sterile Services Unit (TSSU) for sterilization.

WASTE AND LINEN

Waste should always be disposed of with minimal handling because there is a risk of blood-borne pathogen transmission (HIV, hepatitis B and C). Body fluids can be disposed of in the sluice by staff with appropriate protective clothing such as gloves, aprons, and eye protection. Equipment should not be rinsed before sending to the TSSU. Standard precautions should be used by OT and TSSU personnel as history and diagnosis cannot reliably predict those patients with possible blood borne pathogens.

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 Used linen should be contained in hampers or in soiled laundry bags at the point of use. Linen that is saturated with body fluids should be placed in fluid proof bags. Other contaminated waste should be handled and disposed of according to the facilitys medical waste process.

ENVIRONMENTAL CLEANING OF THE OT

There should be a simple, clear, cleaning policy that can be adhered to easily. The cleaning equipment for the operating room must be dedicated and kept separate from the outer zone. FREQUENCY At the beginning of the day TASKS Clean floors and all horizontal surfaces operating/ procedure tables, examination couches, chairs, trolley tops or Mayo stands, lamps, counters, and office furniture with a cloth dampened with water to remove dust and lint that have accumulated over night. Clean operating/procedure tables, examination couches, trolley tops or Mayo stands, lamps, counters, and any other potentially contaminated surfaces in operating theatres and procedure rooms with a cloth dampened with a disinfectant solution. Immediately clean spills of blood or other body fluids with a chlorine solution. Clean visibly soiled areas of the floor, walls, or ceiling with a mop or cloth dampened with a disinfectant solution. Discard waste when plastic bags of waste containers are full. Discard safety (sharps disposal) boxes, when they are full. Do not perform special cleaning or closing of the operating theatres after contaminated or dirty operations. Thorough, routine cleaning is sufficient to provide a safe environment for subsequent cases given the high frequency of air changes in the well designed OT. Clean all surfaces including counters, tables, sink, lights, door handles with detergent, water and low level disinfectant then dry. Pay particular attention to operating/procedure tables, making sure to clean the sides, base, and legs thoroughly. Clean sluice with warm water and detergent. Wipe over non-metallic surfaces and equipment. Clean the floors with a mop soaked in a disinfectant solution. Check safety boxes and remove and replace them if they are full. Remove medical or hazardous chemical waste. Make sure to discard

Between patients

At the end of each clinic session or day

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it properly and as soon as possible in order to limit contact with potentially infectious waste. Clean non-clinical equipment, and containers. Each week Clean all the areas inside the operating theatre complex with warm water and detergent. Dry. Empty the storage shelves, wipe them, dry them, and then restack.

MAINTENANCE IN THE OT
Equipment should be checked every week (or at least every fortnight). Ventilation (e.g. pressure relationship, air changes/hour) should be checked periodically (e.g. each quarter) and the filters should be changed as required (usually annually). The IC-Team should be notified whenever the air delivery system for the OT has been shut down for maintenance or malfunction. The IC team in conjunction with facility engineers will assist with determination of need for any environmental monitoring needed once the ventilation system is re-established. At a minimum positive pressure, inspection of filters and air changes per hour should be verified prior to use of the affected OT after interruption. The theatre should be used only after clearance from the IC team. It is advisable to have back-up theatre facilities so that theatre sessions are not interrupted by maintenance.

RESEARCHES
1) Effectiveness of the hands-free technique in reducing operating theatre injuries Background: Operating theatre personnel are at increased risk for transmission of blood borne pathogens when passing sharp instruments. The hands-free technique, whereby a tray or other means are used to eliminate simultaneous handling of sharp instruments, has been recommended. Aims: To prospectively evaluate the effectiveness of the hands-free technique in reducing the incidence of percutaneous injuries, contaminations, and glove tears arising from handling sharp instruments.

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Methods: For each of 3765 operations carried out in main and surgical day care operating theatres in a large urban hospital, over six months, circulating nurses recorded the proportion of use of the hands-free technique during each operation, as well as other features of the operation. The hands-free technique, considered to be used when 75% or more of the passes in an operation were done in this way, was used in 42% of operations. The relative rate of incidents (percutaneous injuries, contaminations, and glove tears) in operations where the hands-free technique was used and not used, with adjustment via multiple logistic regressions for the different risk profiles of the two sets of operations, was calculated. Results: A total of 143 incidents (40 percutaneous injuries, 51 contaminations, and 52 glove tears) were reported. In operations with greater than 100 ml blood loss, the incident rate was 4% (18/486) when the hands-free technique was used and 10% (90/880) when it was not, approximately 60% less. When adjusted for differences in type and duration of surgery, emergency status, noisiness, time of day, and number present for 75% of the operation, the reduction in the rate was 59% (95% CI 23% to 72%). In operations with less than 100 ml blood loss, the corresponding rates were 1.4% (15/1051) when the hands-free technique was used and 1.5% (19/1259) when it was not used. Adjustment for differences in risk factors did not alter the difference. Conclusions: Although not effective in all operations, use of the hands-free technique was effective in operations with more substantial blood loss.

REFERENCES
http://www.ems.org.eg/esic_home/data/giued_part2/Operating%20Theatre.pdf http://oem.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/59/10/703 http://www.answers.com/topic/operating-room Dixon Eileen Theatre Techniques 5th Edition 2003 N.R Brothers Publishers.

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