Operating Theatre

Operating Theatre
Introduction
Surgical site infections (SSIs) are the second to
third most common site of health care
associated
infections
(HAIs).
These
complications of surgical procedures cause
considerable morbidity and, when these occur
deep at the site of the procedure, can carry
mortality as high as 77%. As illustrated below
there are several key steps or chains that have
to be connected to result in infection. However,
for SSIs, the initial introduction of microbial
pathogens occurs most often during the surgical procedure performed in the
Operating Theatre (OT).
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Fig. 8: Transmission cycle in OT

Susceptible Hosts

Reservoirs

Clients
Service providers
Ancillary Staff
Community members

People
Water and solutions
Instruments and other items
Equipment
Soil and air

Places of entry
Broken skin
Parasite
Puncture wound
Surgical site
Mucous membranes

Infectious Agents
Microorganisms such as
Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi

Modes of
transmission
Contact
Droplet
Vehicle
Airborne

94

Places of exit
Respiratory, genitourinary,
and vascular systems
Gastrointestinal tract
Skin
Mucous membranes
Placenta

Operating Theatre

Thus, to reduce the risk of SSI, a systematic but realistic approach must be
applied with the awareness that this risk is influenced by characteristics of the
patient, operation, personnel, and health care facility. For most SSIs, the source
of pathogens is the endogenous flora of the patients skin, mucous membranes,
or hollow viscera. When mucous membranes or skin is incised, the exposed
tissues are at risk for contamination with endogenous flora. These organisms are
usually aerobic gram-positive cocci (e.g., staphylococci), but may include fecal
flora (e.g., anaerobic bacteria and gram-negative aerobes) when incisions are
made near the perineum or groin. When a gastrointestinal organ is opened
during an operation gram-negative bacilli (e.g., E. coli), gram-positive organisms
(e.g., enterococci), and sometimes anaerobes (e.g., Bacillus fragilis) may
become typical SSI isolates.
Exogenous sources of SSI pathogens include surgical personnel (especially
members of the surgical team), the operating room environment (including air),
and all tools, instruments, and materials brought to the sterile field during an
operation. Exogenous flora are primarily aerobes, especially gram-positive
organisms (e.g., staphylococci and streptococci). Interventions to prevent SSIs
therefore are aimed at reducing or preventing microbial contamination of the
patients tissues or of sterile surgical instruments. Other interventions include
preoperative antibiotic prophylaxis, careful surgical technique, adequate
ventilation of the OT, etc. Of the variables involved in the equation of SSI,
operative characteristics such as preparation of the patients and health care
workers skin, appropriate timing of antibiotic prophylaxis, and preparation of the
OT are easier to control than patient risk factors such as presence of underlying
diabetes, age, smoking history, and obesity. Therefore the balance of this
chapter will focus on the operative characteristics associated with infection
prevention.

Infection Prevention in the Operating Theatre

Infection prevention in the operating room is achieved through prudent use of
aseptic techniques in order to: 15

Prevent contamination of the open wound.

Isolate the operative site from the surrounding unsterile physical
environment.

Create and maintain a sterile field in which surgery can be performed

safely.

Although all infection prevention practices contribute to this effort, aseptic

technique refers to those practices performed just before or during clinical
procedure including:

Properly preparing a client for clinical procedures

Handwashing
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Operating Theatre

Surgical hand scrub

Using barriers such as gloves and surgical attire
Maintaining a sterile field
Using good surgical technique
Maintaining a safe environment in the surgical/procedure area
Principles and maintenance of aseptic practices are imperative in the operating
room. Each facility should develop policies and procedures pertaining to aseptic
technique. 22
Table 9: Preoperative Care and Preparation of the Patient23

Preoperative

Instructions

processes
Assessment for
infection

Whenever possible, identify and treat all

infections remote to the surgical site before
elective operation and postpone elective
operations on patients with remote site
infections until the infection has resolved.

Adequately control serum blood glucose

levels in all diabetic patients and
particularlyarly avoid hyperglycemia
perioperatively.

Encourage tobacco cessation. At minimum,

instruct patients to abstain for at least 30
days before elective operation from smoking
cigarettes, cigars, pipes, or any other form of
tobacco consumption (e.g.,
chewing/dipping).

Do not withhold necessary blood products

from surgical patients as a means to prevent
SSI.
Deleted: or bathe with an
antiseptic agent
Deleted: antiseptic

Preoperative
showering

Require patients to shower on at least the

night before the operative day. (note: this
intervention has been shown to lower
concentration of skin flora but not frequency
of SSI.)

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Operating Theatre

Table 9: Preoperative Care and Preparation of the Patient23 (continued)

Preoperative

Instructions

processes
Preoperative hair
removal

Do not remove hair preoperatively unless the

hair at or around the incision site will
interfere with the operation.

If hair is removed, remove immediately

before the operation, preferably with electric

clippers. Only the incision area is cleared of
hair. This is done in the anesthetic room.
Shaving is not recommended.

Patient skin
preparation in the
operating room

Thoroughly wash and clean at and around

the incision site to remove gross

contamination before performing antiseptic
skin preparation.

Use an appropriate antiseptic agent for skin

preparation (see below).

Apply preoperative antiseptic skin

preparation in concentric circles moving

toward the periphery. The prepared area
must be large enough to extend the incision
or create new incisions or drain sites, if
necessary.

Keep preoperative hospital stay as short as

possible while allowing for adequate
preoperative preparation of the patient.

Management of
infected or colonized
surgical personnel

Surgical personnel who have acute

communicable infections (see chapter on

Occupational Safety and Employee Health)
or who are colonized with a pathogen that
can be transmitted during surgery should be
excluded from surgery until cured.22

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Operating Theatre

Antiseptics For Preoperative Preparation of Skin and

Hands
Definition
An antiseptic is a substance that prevents or arrests the growth or action of
microorganisms, either by inhibiting their activity or by destroying them.24 The
term is used especially for preparations applied topically to living tissue.
Antiseptics are not meant to be used on inanimate objects, such as instruments
and surfaces.
Antiseptics are used for:

Surgical hand antisepsis.

Skin, cervical and vaginal preparation before a clinical procedure.
Notes on Antiseptics:
Antiseptic solutions should never be used to:
- Disinfect inanimate objects, such as instruments
- Clean surfaces, such as floors or countertops
Instruments and items such as pickups, scissors, scalpel blades, and suture
needles should never be left soaking in an antiseptic solution; they should
always be stored dry. In addition to the fact that antiseptic solutions are made
for killing microorganisms on the skin and mucous membranes, and not on
objects; microorganisms can live and multiply in antiseptic solutions and
contaminate the instruments and other items, leading to infections.
Table 10: Common antiseptics used in OT

1. Alcohol (60-90% ethyl or isopropyl)

Antimicrobial
Spectrum
Advantages

Disadvantages

Comments

Effective against a broad range of microorganisms e.g. bacteria,

and mycobacteria,
Rapidly active
Effective in reducing vegetative microorganisms
Effectiveness is only moderately reduced by blood or other
organic material
Non-staining
Less expensive
Has a drying effect on skin
Cannot be used on mucous membranes
Evaporates rapidly and makes contact time difficult to achieve
No prolonged activity however the reduction in skin flora is so
pronounced that regrowth on the skin does not occur for several
hours
Cannot be used when skin is dirty; area should be washed before
applying
Must dry completely to be effective
The 60-90% strength is most effective
Very effective surgical hand antiseptic when used in waterless
alcohol handrub formula

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Operating Theatre

2. Chlorhexidine gluconate (4%)

Antimicrobial
spectrum
Advantages

Disadvantages

Comments

Effective against a broad range of microorganisms, but less

so against gram-negative bacteria and fungi and minimal
efficacy against M. tuberculosis.

Has a good, persistent effect; remains effective for at least 6

hours after being applied.

Effectiveness is not reduced by blood or other organic material.

It stains fabrics brown (in the presence of chlorine-based

disinfectants).

Effectiveness can be reduced by hard water, hand creams,

and soaps.

Recommended antiseptic for surgical hand antisepsis and skin

preparation.

Preparations without cetrimide are preferable to those with

cetrimide.

Caution: Savlon or Citiel products containing at least 4 %

chlorhexidine are appropriate for use as antiseptics; Products
containing less than 4 % chlorhexidine in an alcohol base are
also adequate, but should not be used on mucous membranes.
Chlorhexidine is relatively non-toxic. It must not be allowed to
come into contact with the brain, meninges, eye or middle ear.

3. Iodine compounds, including tincture of iodine (iodine and alcohol)

Antimicrobial
spectrum
Advantages
Disadvantages

Comments

Effective against a broad range of microorganisms (same as

alcohol)

Fast-acting (tincture preparations only)

Effectiveness is markedly reduced by blood or other organic

material.

Less persistent activity.

Can cause contact dermatitis therefore has limited usefulness

as an OT hand antiseptic.

Because of the potential to cause skin irritation, when iodine is

used for preprocedure skin preparation, it must be allowed to
dry; then is removed from the skin with alcohol.

Can cause skin irritation.

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4. Iodophors
(Solutions such as povidone iodine (e.g., Betadine) that contains iodine in a complex
form, making them relatively nonirritating and nontoxic)25, 26
Effective against a broad range of microorganisms (mainly
gram +ve and gram ve bacteria. Less effective against
mycobacteria).

Antimicrobial
spectrum
Advantages

Disadvantages

Comments

Less irritating to the skin than iodine tincture.

Can be used on mucous membranes.

Effectiveness is moderately reduced by blood or other organic

material.

Release of active ingredient, free iodine, takes relatively long

time therefore it needs to be applied to skin and left on for > 2
minutes prior to initiating procedure.

Less persistent antimicrobial activity compared to

chlorhexidine.

Recommended for surgical hand antisepsis and pre-operative

skin preparation.

Best antiseptic for use in the genital area, vagina, and cervix.

Becomes effective >2 minutes after application; for optimal

effectiveness, wait several minutes after application.

Most preparations should be used full strength; do not dilute.

Distinctly different from iodine but can be confused for iodine

tincture.
Note: If any antiseptic solution is received from the facilitys
pharmacy or central supply that is labeled simply iodine
the pharmacist or person in charge of supplies should be
asked what the solution contains. For example, if a brown
liquid in a bottle is received, a small amount has to be put
in hand and be rubbed. If it seems more sudsy than usual,
it is an iodophor, not iodine.

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Table 11: Antiseptics Appropriate for Use in Clinical Procedures

Antiseptic
Alcohol
Chlorhexidine
gluconate
with or without
cetrimide

Surgical
Hand
antiseptic
Yes
Yes

Hexachlorophene No

Use
Preprocedure
Mucous Membranes, e.g.,
Skin
Vagina and Cervix
Preparation
Yes
No
Yes
Yes. However, products
containing chlorhexidine
may not be the best
antiseptics to use in the
genital area because of the
small potential for irritation.
If an iodophor is not
available, a product
containing chlorhexidine is
the best alternative
No
No

Iodine, including
tincture of iodine
(iodine and
alcohol)

No

Yes

No

Iodophors

Yes

Yes

Yes

Note:
Avoid using the following:

Hydrogen peroxide is available in antiseptic preparations to prevent infections

due to minor cuts, burns and abrasions. These preparations are not
appropriate for use in surgical hand antiseptic and client/patient skin
preparation.

Products containing quaternary ammonium compounds, such as

benzalkonium chloride (e.g., Zephiran), are disinfectants, and should not be
used as antiseptics. These products are easily contaminated by common
bacteria, easily inactivated by cotton gauze, and incompatible with soap.

Compounds containing mercury (such as mercury laurel) should not be used

because they are highly toxic, cause blisters, and cause central nervous
system disturbances or death when inhaled. They also be absorbed through
the skin and can cause birth defects in a pregnant woman who is exposed to
small doses.

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Operating Theatre

Tips on using antiseptics:

Never leave cotton balls, cotton wool, or gauze sponges soaking in an

antiseptic.

Never dip cotton or gauze into the antiseptic container. Instead, pour some
antiseptic into a small container, dip the cotton or gauze into this small
container, and discard the unused antiseptic after patient preparation.

If an antiseptic is provided in a large container, small amounts (enough for

one shift) should be poured in small clean disinfected containers.

At the end of the shift, left over quantities should be discarded and the
container should be appropriately cleaned, disinfected and dried before
subsequent use.

Never leave antiseptic in opened containers.

Preoperative Antimicrobial Prophylaxis

Principles to maximize the benefits of antibiotic prophylaxis:
1. Giving antibiotics before a procedure to prevent infections is not a substitute
for good infection control practices and surgical technique.
2. Use antibiotics for procedures in which use has been shown to reduce
surgical site infections (SSI) or for patients for whom a surgical site infection
would be catastrophic.
3. Use antibiotic agents that are safe, inexpensive, and bactericidal with a
spectrum that covers the most probable intraoperative contaminants.
4. Administer the initial dose of antibiotics at the time of surgery.
5. Maintain therapeutic levels of the antimicrobial agent in both serum and
tissues throughout the operation and until a few hours after surgery. 22
6. Do not prolong prophylaxis through the postoperative period. There is no
evidence that prolonged use of antibiotics offers any advantage and instead
encourages development of antibiotic resistant microorganisms.
7. Randomized controlled trials of preoperative intranasal mupirocin have not
demonstrated efficacy in lowering frequency of SSIs but does decrease other
HAIs due to S. aureus if the patient is colonized with S. aureus. 27, 28
[For more information see Part I: Control and Prevention of Antimicrobial Resistant in
Health Care Facilities]

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Preoperative Skin Preparation of OT Personnel

Hand hygiene
Hand hygiene by OT personnel is one of the most effective ways to reduce the
risks of infections.
[For more details see Part I: Hand Hygiene]

Surgical hand wash

Definition

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Surgical hand wash or surgical handrub must be

performed preoperatively by surgical personnel to
eliminate transient and to reduce resident hand
flora. The warm, moist conditions inside surgical
gloves provide an ideal environment for the
growth of microorganisms. Surgical hand wash
with antiseptics before beginning surgical
procedures will help prevent this growth of
microorganisms for a period of time and will help
to reduce the risk of infections to the patient if the
gloves develop holes, tears, or nicks during the
procedure. Waterless alcohol handrubs have
more immediate activity after application and they
lower the quantity of skin flora to such an extent
that it takes several hours for regrowth.

Fig. 9: Surgical hand wash

facility

Indications of surgical hand wash

Surgical hand wash is needed for any invasive surgical procedure. All personnel
(e.g., doctors, anesthesiologists, and nurses) should perform surgical hand
antisepsis before any procedure.

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Operating Theatre

Steps for surgical hand wash:

Fig. 10: Steps for Surgical

hand wash

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1. Remove all jewelry on hands and wrists.

2. Adjust water to a warm temperature and thoroughly
hands and forearms to 5 cm above the elbows in
order to remove dirt and transient flora.
3. Clean under each fingernail and around the nail bed
with a nail cleaner prior to performing the first
surgical scrub of the day.
Keep nails short and do not wear artificial nails or fingernail
polish.
4. Holding hands up above the level of the elbow, apply
antimicrobial agent to hands and forearms up to the
elbows. Using a circular motion, begin at the
fingertips of one hand and lather and wash between
the fingers, continuing from fingertip to 5 cm above
the elbow. Repeat this process for the other hand
and arm. Continue rubbing for 3-5 minutes.
5. Rinse each arm separately, fingertips first, holding
hands above the level of the elbow.

6. Using a sterile towel, dry the fingertips to 5 cm above

the elbow. Use one side of the towel to dry the first
hand and the other side of the towel to dry the
second hand.
7. Keep hands above the level of the waist and do not
touch anything before putting on sterile gown and
surgical gloves. 29

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Steps for Alcohol-Based Surgical Handrub:

1. At the beginning of the list of cases for the day follow the wash
procedure above using plain soap.
2. Make sure hands are dried completely and then apply 5 ml of alcohol
handrub into palm of one hand.
3. Rub into the hand making sure to rub the alcohol product under the
nails and up the forearm. Continue rubbing till alcohol is dry.
4. Repeat for the other hand and forearm.
5. Put on sterile gloves.
Surgical hand scrub tips
Brushing: Recent studies have shown that using a brush during surgical scrub
provides no greater reduction of microorganisms on the hands than washing with
antiseptic soap alone. Surgical hand antisepsis wash may be performed using
either a soft brush or sponge or using an antiseptic alone. Avoid using a hard
brush, which is not necessary and which may irritate the skin.
The brush should be single use and should be discarded (if disposable) or sent
for autoclaving (if reusable). Do not share brushes between personnel.
Allergy. When surgical staff develop sensitivity to the available antiseptic
solutions or when antiseptics are not available, then perform a surgical scrub with
soap and water followed by an alcohol handrub:
- Perform a surgical hand wash with plain soap and warm, running water
and then dry hands thoroughly.
- Apply 3-5 ml of alcohol or of alcohol handrub solution.
- Rub hands together until they are dry.
Note: An alcohol handrub does not remove soil or organic material such as
blood. If gloves are torn or punctured or if there is blood or other body fluids on
your hands after you remove your gloves, a surgical scrub should be performed.
Water temperature: Warm water makes antiseptics work more effectively.
Avoid using hot water, which removes protective oils from the skin.
Care of hands: Persons who perform surgical procedures should:
- Keep fingernails short.
- Keep hands above their elbows during and after scrubbing.
- Avoid using a hard brush during scrubbing. 29

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Protective Clothing for Use in the Operating

Theatre
The use of barriers minimizes a patients exposure to
microorganisms that might be shed from the skin,
mucous membranes, or hair of surgical team members
as well as protects surgical team members from
exposure to blood and to blood-borne pathogens.
Surgical attire can include such as items as sterile
gloves, caps, masks, gowns or waterproof aprons, and
protective eyewear.

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Issues Related to Surgical Attire

Fig. 11: Protective

Barriers in OT

Masks: Standard surgical masks are sufficient for OT personnel. Except for the
need to protect the mucous membrane of HCP there is some controversy on
whether masks play any role in prevention of SSI. 30 Masks should cover the
mouth and nose at all times. The mask should not be worn hanging around the
neck or be put in pockets to be reused. Masks should be changed frequently,
when they become moist, and in between cases. Cotton masks are not
considered protective. High efficiency masks should be available for surgical
procedures on patients with suspected or proven active disease caused by M.
tuberculosis.
Gowns: Gowns and waterproof aprons prevent contamination of the OT
personnels arms, chest, and clothing with blood and body fluids. They also
minimize shedding of microorganisms from the personnel thus protecting the
patient. Sterile gowns should be worn by all personnel in the operating suite.
Sterile drapes: Sterile drapes are used to create a barrier between the surgical
field and the potential sources of bacteria. These are placed over the patient.
Scrub suits: Surgical members often wear a uniform called a scrub suit or
theater suit or clothes that consists of pants and a shirt. This should be viewed
as a uniform over which a sterile gown or apron is worn. There is no evidence
that scrub attire worn by personnel prevents SSI. If available, scrub suits are
convenient for personnel to change in the event there is penetration of blood or
body fluids through the surgical gown. Scrub suits should be changed when they
become visibly soiled.
Surgical caps/hoods: Hair on the face and head must be covered completely
either by disposable or recyclable coverings. Coverings reduce contamination of

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the surgical field by organisms shed from the hair and from the scalp. Hair
covering is donned first in order that hair does not fall onto clean scrub clothing.
Veiled personnel should remove their veils and put on a sterile cover.
Eye protection and face shields: Eye protection and/or face shields should be
worn to protect OT personnels eyes, nose, and mouth from splashes of blood or
other fluids.
Footwear: A change of footwear while in the operating theatre is recommended.
Surgeons dealing with heavy blood or body fluids contamination are advised to
wear boots that are adequately covered by the plastic apron in order to avoid
fluid from going into the shoes/boots.29 Shoe covers have not been shown to
prevent SSIs.

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Surgical gloves:
Well fitting latex sterile
surgical gloves should be worn by all OT
personnel involved in a surgical procedure in
order to minimize the transmission of
microorganisms from the hands of OT personnel
to patients and to prevent contamination of team
members hands with patients blood and body
fluids. Gloves must be changed if they become
contaminated
or
if
their
integrity
is
compromised. Wearing two pairs of gloves has
been shown to reduce skin contact with blood or
body fluids from the patient especially during
complicated or involved procedures.

Fig. 12: Sterile surgical gloves

Putting on and removing surgical gloves

Surgical gloves are cuffed to make it easier to put them on without
contamination. The outside of the glove package is not sterile and should be
opened prior to performance of a surgical scrub.
Steps for putting on surgical gloves
1. Prepare a large, clean, dry area for opening the
package of gloves. Perform surgical antisepsis and ask
someone (e.g., circulating nurse) to open the package of
gloves.
2. Open the inner glove wrapper, exposing the cuffed
gloves with the palms up.

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Fig. 13: Steps for

putting on surgical
gloves

Operating Theatre

3. Pick up the first glove by the cuff, touching only the

inside portion of the cuff (the inside is the side that will be
touching your skin when the glove is on).
4. While holding the cuff in one hand, slip your other hand
into the glove. (Pointing the fingers of the glove toward the
floor will keep the fingers open). Be careful not to touch
anything, and hold the gloves above your waist level.
5. Pick up the second glove by sliding the fingers of the
gloved hand under the cuff of the second glove. Be careful
not to contaminate the gloved hand with the ungloved
hand.
6. Put the second glove on the ungloved hand by
maintaining a steady pull through the cuff. Adjust the glove
fingers and cuffs until the gloves fit comfortably. 31

Fig. 14: Steps for

removing surgical
gloves

Steps for removing surgical gloves

1. Grasp on glove near the cuff and pull it partway off. The
glove will turn inside out. Keep the first glove partially on
before removing the second one to protect you from
touching the outside of a glove with your bare hand.
2. Leaving the first glove over your fingers, grasp the
second glove near the cuff and pull it partway off. Keep the
second glove partially on.
3. Pull off the two gloves at the same time, being careful to
touch only the inside surface of the gloves with your bare
hand and make sure not to result in splashes in the
environment.
4. Gloves are disposed immediately. Wash hands
immediately after gloves are removed. 31

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Surgical glove tips

Preparation for gloving: The outside of the glove package is not sterile. Have
another member of the OT team open it for you, e.g. the circulating nurse.
Change gloves:

When gloves become contaminated;

After touching the outside of gloves with a bare hand;

After touching anything that is not sterile or high level disinfected;

When gloves develop holes, tears, or punctures.29

OT Personnel - Practices to Prevent SSI

Establishing and Maintaining a Sterile Field
A sterile field must be established and maintained in order to reduce the risk of
contaminating the surgical/procedure site. The sterile field is created by placing
sterile towels and/or surgical drapes around the surgical/procedure site.
Additional sterile fields may also be established, such as on the stand that will
hold instruments and other items that are needed during the procedure.29

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A sterile field is maintained

by:

Fig. 15: Sterile field (a)

Placing only sterile items

Sterile
Not Sterile

within the sterile field;

Opening, dispensing, or

transferring sterile items

without contaminating them;

Considering items located

below the level of the draped

client to be unsterile;

Not allowing sterile

personnel to reach across

unsterile areas or vice versa
or to touch unsterile items;

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Fig. 16: Sterile field (b)

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Sterile
Not Sterile

Recognizing and maintaining

theservice providers sterile area.
When gowned this area extends
from chest to the level of the
sterile field; sleeves are sterile
from 5 cm above the elbow to the
cuff. The neckline, shoulders, and
back are considered to be
unsterile areas of the gown.

Recognizing that the edges of a

package containing a sterile item
are considered unsterile;

Recognizing that a sterile barrier

that has been penetrated (wet,
cut, or torn) is considered
contaminated;

Being conscious of where your

body is at all times and moving
within or around the sterile field in
a way that maintains sterility;

Not placing sterile items near

open windows or doors. 29

Note!
When in doubt about the sterility or high-level disinfection of an item or an area,
consider it contaminated.
Some recommendations are:
Sterile drapes should be used to establish a sterile field.

Items used within a sterile field should be sterile.

All items introduced into a sterile field should be opened, dispensed, and
transferred by methods that maintain sterility and integrity.

A sterile field should be constantly monitored and maintained.

Moisture in the sterile field should be avoided. If a solution soaks through a

drape, then it should be covered with another sterile drape.

All personnel moving within or around a sterile field should do so in a manner

to maintain the integrity of the sterile field.

Policies and procedures for basic aseptic technique should be written,

reviewed annually, and readily available within the practice setting.32

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Using Good Surgical Technique

Post-procedure infections are more likely to occur:

In tissue that has been damaged due to rough or extensive

manipulation during surgery. In addition, damaged tissue heals more

slowly. This increases the time that it remains more susceptible to
infections.

When excessive bleeding occurs. The tissue is more susceptible to

invasion by microorganisms after excessive bleeding.

Therefore, paying meticulous attention to controlling bleeding and to gentle tissue

handling during surgery can reduce the risk of infections. 29

Environmental Control and Design for the

Prevention of SSI
Maintaining a Safer Environment in the Surgical
Procedure Area
Specific rooms should be designated for performing surgical/clinical procedures
and for processing instruments and other items. It is important to control traffic
and activities in these areas since the number of people and the amount of
activity influence the number of microorganisms that are present and therefore
influence the risk of infection.

Location of the Operating Theatre Suites

Operating theatres may be located in either purpose-built units or in converted
hospital accommodation. They are busy units and therefore they require
considerable planning and discussion before they are built in order to prevent
expensive mistakes. They should be:

Separated from the main flow of hospital traffic and from the main

corridors; however, it should be easily accessible from surgical wards

and emergency rooms.

Ideally, the floor should be covered with antistatic material, and the

walls should be painted with impervious, antistatic paint. This reduces

the dust levels and allows for frequent cleaning. The surfaces must
withstand frequent cleaning and decontamination with disinfectant.

Layout of the Operating Theatre

The operating theatre should be zoned and access to these zones should be
under control of OT personnel. Aseptic and clean areas should be separated
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Operating Theatre

from the outer areas. This is easier to achieve in purpose-built units. Physical
barriers may be needed in order to restrict access and to maintain unidirectional
movement of air in converted theatre units.
Note:
No one should enter the theatre complex without changing into a fresh theatre
suit, shoes and cap.

The outer zone

This zone should contain:

A main access door;

An accessible area for the removal of waste;
A sluice;
Storage for medical and surgical supplies;
An entrance to the changing facilities.

The clean or semi-restricted zone

This zone contains:

The sterile supplies store;

An anesthetic room;
A recovery area;
A scrub-up area;
A clean corridor;
Rest rooms for the staff.
Staff must change into theatre clothes and shoes before entering this area, but
there is no need for a mask, gloves, or a gown. There should be unidirectional
access from this area to the aseptic area (operating theater), preferably via the
scrub-up area. The operating theatre should be restricted to just the personnel
involved in the actual operation. In principle the clean zone should require exiting
through the outer zone.

Aseptic or restricted area

This area should be restricted to the working team. It includes:

The operating theatre;

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The sterile preparation room (preparation of sterile surgical instruments

and equipment)

Staff working in this area should change into theatre clothes, should wear masks
and gowns, and, where necessary, should wear sterile gloves.
Table 12: A Suggested Layout for an Operating Theatre Complex
Zone

Barrier

Areas included

Dirty/outside Physical

Sluice, storage, waste disposal, outside

corridor, changing rooms

Clean

Partial

Supply store, scrub area, anesthetic room,

recovery room

Aseptic

Operating
theatre

Sterile preparation, autoclave access

Remember:
Clean and sterile supplies should be taken to the operating room from a
reprocessing or supply area outside of the suite on a covered cart. The dust
cover over the cart is removed when the cart enters the surgical suite.

Supplies entering the suite should be removed from their shipping or transport
containers prior to transport to the OT.

Soiled items should travel in covered containers from the operating room
through the clean zone to a decontamination area where soiled items are
stored until they are transported to the reprocessing area.

All soiled items should be contained and not stored in the same area with
clean or sterile items.

Temperature and Humidity

The temperature and the humidity (not less than 55%) play a very important role
in maintaining staff and patient comfort. They must be carefully regulated and
monitored. In low humidity there is a danger of the production of electrostatic
sparks.
Ideally, the operating room should be 1C cooler than the outer area. This aids in
the outward movement of air because the warmer air in the outer area rises and
the cooler air from within the operating theatre moves to replace it.

Ideal Air Ventilation System: Air Supply and Exhaust

Positive pressure ventilation with respect to the corridors and adjacent areas in
the operating theatre where surgical procedures are performed should be
maintained. The number of operating theatres supplied by air handling units
(AHUs) should be consistent with the number specified by the AHU
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manufacturer. Also, there should be routine maintenance of the AHUs and these
units should not be turned off unless being serviced.

Design features
Parameters to have in place if possible based on available resources are:

Air changes
Maintainance of 15-20 air changes per hour, of which at least 3 should
be fresh air from outside.

Filtration
Filter all air with appropriate pre filters (e.g. filtration efficiency of 30%)
followed by final filter (e.g. 90%)

Air supply
Air should enter at the ceiling and be exhausted near the floor
(important: furniture or other portable items placed against a wall
exhaust at floor level will inhibit the air changeover in a theatre and
therefore should be monitored and abated).

Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation (UVGI)

Do not use UVGI in the operating theatre to prevent SSI.

Doors
Keep OT doors closed except as needed for passage of equipment,
personnel and the patient.

Traffic
Limit the number of personnel entering the OT to only those necessary
for the surgical procedure. The microbial level in the OT is directly
proportional to the number of people moving about in the theatre.

Laminar flow & ultraclean air

Laminar airflow is designed to move particle free air over the aseptic
operating field in one direction. It can be designed to flow vertically or
horizontally and is usually combined with high efficiency particulate air
(HEPA) filters. HEPA filters remove particles > 0.3 micron in diameter
with an efficiency of 99.97%. Ultraclean air can reduce the incidence of
SSIs especially for orthopedic implant operations; however, some
studies suggest that other interventions such as appropriate timing of
preoperative antibiotics and good OT practices such as limiting
nonessential traffic can also lower incidence. Therefore, if resources
are limited, laminar flow with HEPA filtration is not required for high
quality surgical care.

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Types of air supply

Air is supplied to the operating theatre by:
1. Plenum Ventilation: This is the most frequently used system in generalpurpose operating rooms. The bacterial counts at the wound site should
be no more than 50 -500 colony forming units (cfu) per cubic meter.
2. Laminar Flow Ventilation (Ultra Clean Ventilation): This system is
unidirectional and delivers air flow over the operating table of 300 air
changes per hour. A bacterial count of 10 cfu or less per cubic meter at
the wound site is achieved. 33
3. Wall Mounted Air Conditioners: These are installed in some tropical
countries more for comfort than for clean air delivery. They should not be
used as air delivery systems. The units are usually mounted on the hot
outside wall and the air is directed down and back onto the unit itself
(towards the wall). The operating table does not receive any significant air
changes and the bacterial counts remain unaffected.
4. Free-standing Air Conditioners: These are cooling units with no filtration
of air and therefore do not fulfill the criteria for air delivery systems,
especially for an OT.
Remember:
Windows should remain closed.

The operating theatre should maintain at positive pressure.

Air should be introduced at the ceiling and should be exhausted near the floor
in order to prevent bacterial contamination in the operative field.32

Air changes should be at least 20 changes per hour.

Air should first pass through a series of dust filters and then enter the room
through a HEPA filter. Split-unit air conditioning is not allowed.

Humidity should be controlled and maintained between 50-55%.

Temperature should be controlled and maintained between 18-24 degrees

Celsius.

Equipment
Equipment such as suction apparatus and ventilators must be fitted with bacterial
filters in order to prevent contamination of the machines. Used instruments
should be counted, handled minimally, and then sent to the Theatre Sterile
Services Unit (TSSU) for sterilization. 15
[For more details see Part I: Cleaning, Disinfection and Sterilization of Medical
Equipment]

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Waste and Linen

Waste should always be disposed of with minimal handling because
there is a risk of blood-borne pathogen transmission (HIV, hepatitis B
and C).

Body fluids can be disposed of in the sluice by staff with appropriate

protective clothing such as gloves, aprons, and eye protection.

Equipment should not be rinsed before sending to the TSSU. Standard

precautions should be used by OT and TSSU personnel as history and
diagnosis cannot reliably predict those patients with possible bloodborne pathogens.

Used linen should be contained in hampers or in soiled laundry bags at

the point of use. Linen that is saturated with body fluids should be
placed in fluid proof bags.

Other contaminated waste should be handled and disposed of

according to the facilitys medical waste process.

Environmental Cleaning of the OT

There should be a simple, clear, cleaning policy that can be adhered to easily.
The cleaning equipment for the operating room must be dedicated and kept
separate from the outer zone.
Table 14: Example of a cleaning schedule for a high risk area: Operating room34 15
[For more details see Part I: Environmental Cleaning]

Frequency
At the
beginning
of the day

Tasks

Clean floors and all horizontal surfaces-

operating/procedure tables, examination couches, chairs,

trolley tops or Mayo stands, lamps, counters, and office
furniture with a cloth dampened with water to remove
dust and lint that have accumulated over night.

Clean operating/procedure tables, examination couches,

Between
patients

trolley tops or Mayo stands, lamps, counters, and any

other potentially contaminated surfaces in operating
theatres and procedure rooms with a cloth dampened
with a disinfectant solution.

Immediately clean spills of blood or other body fluids with

a chlorine solution.

Clean visibly soiled areas of the floor, walls, or ceiling

with a mop or cloth dampened with a disinfectant
solution.

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Table 13: Example of a cleaning schedule for a high risk area: Operating room34 15
(Continued)

Frequency

Tasks

Discard waste when plastic bags of waste containers are

full.

Discard safety (sharps disposal) boxes, when they are

Between
patients
(continued)

full.

Do not perform special cleaning or closing of the

operating theatres after contaminated or dirty operations.

Thorough, routine cleaning is sufficient to provide a safe
environment for subsequent cases given the high
frequency of air changes in the well designed OT.

Clean all surfaces including counters, tables, sink,

lights, door handles with detergent , water and low level

disinfectant then dry. Pay particular attention to
operating/procedure tables, making sure to clean the
sides, base, and legs thoroughly.

Deleted: /plates, and walls

Deleted: Wipe walls to head

height (2.5 3 meters) every
day

.
At the end
of each
clinic
session or
day

Clean sluice with warm water and detergent.

Wipe over non-metallic surfaces and equipment.
Clean the floors with a mop soaked in a disinfectant
solution.

Check safety boxes and remove and replace them if they

are full.

Remove medical or hazardous chemical waste. Make

sure to discard it properly and as soon as possible in
order to limit contact with potentially infectious waste.

Clean non-clinical equipment, and containers.

Clean all the areas inside the operating theatre complex
Each
week

with warm water and detergent. Dry.

Empty the storage shelves, wipe them, dry them, and

then restack.

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Maintenance in the OT15

Equipment should be checked every week (or at least every fortnight).
Ventilation (e.g. pressure relationship, air changes/hour) should be

checked periodically (e.g. each quarter) and the filters should be

changed as required (usually annually).

The IC-Team should be notified whenever the air delivery system for

the OT has been shut down for maintenance or malfunction. The ICteam in conjunction with facility engineers will assist with determination
of need for any environmental monitoring needed once the ventilation
system is re-established. At a minimum positive pressure, inspection of
filters and air changes per hour should be verified prior to use of the
affected OT after interruption. The theatre should be used only after
clearance from the IC team.15

It is advisable to have back-up theatre facilities so that theatre

sessions are not interrupted by maintenance.

Environmental microbiologic sampling in the OT

Routine microbiologic sampling of the OT air or surfaces is not recommended
because the results obtained are only valid for the time period and for the
location sampled. Instead, such studies should be limited to recommendations
from the IC-Team, investigations of clusters or outbreaks of infection, or to
validate changes in the ventilation system (e.g. installation of new AHU). Specific
methods for sampling surfaces and air have been described and input from
scientists with expertise in environmental microbiology are recommended prior to
use as most clinical microbiology laboratories do not have this expertise.

Verification of air flow

Air flows can be examined using an innocuous smoke-producing substance such
as titanium chloride:

A swab is held under the inlet grill and the air movements are followed
around the operating theatre and out through the doors.

The floor seals and the baffle outlets should be checked.

The air flows are then followed to the outer zone and to the extract
ventilators and grills.

Any reversal of air flow, particularly from the outer zone inwards,
should be recorded and corrected.

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Air exchanges
The engineers should perform tests to check that new filters have not decreased
the air changes. Any alteration should be corrected immediately.

Theatre sterile services unit (TTSU)

The TSSU is usually under the control of the operating theatre

manager, but it may be incorporated into a larger central unit. In some

units all of the sterilization takes place within the theatre complex.

The supply of surgical instruments should be sufficient to maintain an

adequate supply for concurrent operations and sterilizations.

On-site sterilization is feasible only if the TSSU possesses autoclaves

and if there are proper facilities for washing and for processing
contaminated instruments. In order to ensure proper quality control, it
may be more sensible to centralize the service.

If TSSU services are available, the only facilities needed in the

operating theatre are those required for rapid sterilization of dropped

instruments (134 C for 3-4 minutes) and for the decontamination of
fiber optics.

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