TOWER MANUAL

COMDTINST M11000.4A
JANUARY 2002
 Commandant 2100 Second Street, S.W.
United States Coast Guard Washington, DC 20593-0001
Staff Symbol: G-S
Phone: (202) 267-6031
FAX: (202) 267-4219

COMDTINST M11000.4A
JAN 11 2002

COMMANDANT INSTRUCTION M11000.4A

Subj: TOWER MANUAL

1. PURPOSE. This Manual defines Coast Guard policy and criteria for the preservation of towers and
prescribes minimum inspection and maintenance standards for use as a guide in organizing and
managing a comprehensive tower inspection and maintenance program.

2. ACTION. Commanders of Maintenance and Logistics Commands shall ensure that the provisions
of this Manual are followed. Internet release is authorized.

3. DIRECTIVES AFFECTED. The Tower Manual, COMDTINST M11000.4, is cancelled.

4. DISCUSSION. The previous edition of the Tower Manual, COMDTINST M11000.4A, was written
in 1978 with the last changes made in 1982. Although much of the information in the manual was
applicable to the current tower program, the manual primarily addressed tall guyed towers,
specifically OMEGA and LORAN. The Coast Guard's tower inventory is growing annually and has
changed significantly over the past 20 years. The majority of Coast Guard towers today are small
towers under 300ft that received only cursory attention in the previous edition. Secondly, safety
requirements and equipment have also improved steadily and the most significant change to this
revision is in the tower safety chapter. Due to the large volume of new information and required
changes, the old Tower Manual, COMDTINST M11000.4, is cancelled in its entirety. The new
Tower Manual, COMDTINST M11000.4A, has been reorganized and streamlined for quicker and
easier access to information.

5. MAJOR CHANGES. Major changes from the previous version of the Manual include: new tower
definitions, more detailed requirements for tower safety, establishment of Tall Tower Coordination
Center, new recommended inspection routines and items, updated tower failure information,
incorporated portions of various unit level small tower handbooks, new information on antenna
installation and removal, eliminated dated information relating to OMEGA and ACTEUR towers,
new information on tower marking systems in accordance with latest FAA Advisory Circulars, new
information on alignment and twist methods, updated information on guy tension methods,

DISTRIBUTION – SDL No. 139

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
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B * 2 5 2 2 1 2 2 2 30 10 20 10
C 2 10* 2 2 5 2 1
D 5
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H
NON-STANDARD DISTRIBUTION: B:a G-S (5), G-O (5); C:g CEU OAKLAND (30)
COMDTINST M11000.4ACOMDTINST M11000.4A

established new recommended formats for tower inspection reports for both small and tall towers,
and updated information on LORAN base insulator replacements.

REQUEST FOR CHANGES. Units and individuals may recommend changes by writing via the chain
of command to Commandant (G-SEC), U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters, Washington, DC 20593-0001.

R. F. SILVA
ASSISTANT COMMANDANT FOR SYSTEMS
“CHIEF ENGINEER”

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................... i
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION.................................................. 1-1
A. Purpose and Scope.......................................... 1-1
B. Responsibilities........................................... 1-1
C. Inspection and Maintenance Standards and Costs............. 1-1
D. Revision of Manual......................................... 1-1
CHAPTER 2. TOWER SAFETY.................................................. 2-1
PART I. GENERAL CLIMBING SAFETY ................................. 2-1
A. Safety Policy and Requirements............................. 2-1
B. Buddy System............................................... 2-1
C. Climbing of Towers by Coast Guard Personnel................ 2-1
D. Minimum Requirements....................................... 2-2
E. Equipment.................................................. 2-2
F. Pre-Climb Safety........................................... 2-5
G. Conditioning and Mechanics of Climbing..................... 2-6
H. Rescue..................................................... 2-7
PART II. GENERAL TOWER SAFETY ................................... 2-8
A. Climbing of Towers by Contractor........................... 2-8
B. Work on Energized Towers................................... 2-8
C. Maintenance of Energized Towers............................ 2-9
D. Ladders and Safety Climbing Devices........................ 2-9
E. Protective Barriers and Warning Signs..................... 2-10
CHAPTER 3. INSPECTION GUIDELINES......................................... 3-1
A. General.................................................... 3-1
B. Inspection Categories...................................... 3-1
C. Inspection Objectives and Requirements..................... 3-2
D. Tower Failures............................................. 3-7
CHAPTER 4. MAINTENANCE GUIDELINES........................................ 4-1
A. Maintenance Objectives and Requirements.................... 4-1
B. Maintenance, Repair, and Modification...................... 4-3
C. General Inspection and Maintenance Problems................ 4-4
D. Common Abnormalities....................................... 4-8
E. Replacement of Structural Members......................... 4-11
CHAPTER 5. TOWER STRUCTURE............................................... 5-1
A. General.................................................... 5-1
B. Standard Tower Leg and Face Designations................... 5-1
C. Structural Members......................................... 5-1
D. Base Insulators........................................... 5-10
E. Tower Base................................................ 5-13
F. Ladder Safety Rail, and Rest Platforms.................... 5-16
G. Hoists and Elevators...................................... 5-16
H. Ground Systems............................................ 5-16
I. Tower Jacking Legs........................................ 5-17
J. Spare Parts............................................... 5-17
K. Antenna Installations..................................... 5-18
L. Antenna Removals.......................................... 5-18
CHAPTER 6. GUYS AND GUY ANCHORS.......................................... 6-1
A. General.................................................... 6-1
B. Standard Guys, Guy Anchor and Insulator Designations....... 6-1
C. Guy Cables and End Fittings................................ 6-3
D. Wire Strand and Rope....................................... 6-3
E. Galvanized Steel Cable..................................... 6-6
F. Aluminum Coated Steel Cable................................ 6-6

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 G. Reinforced Aluminum Conductors............................. 6-6
H. Copper Coated Steel Cable.................................. 6-7
I. Cable End Fittings......................................... 6-7
J. Inspection and Maintenance................................ 6-10
K. Guy Cable Hardware........................................ 6-13
L. Insulators................................................ 6-17
M. Gradient Cones and Arcing Rings........................... 6-25
N. Tower Anchors............................................. 6-26
O. Tower Guy Accessories..................................... 6-28
CHAPTER 7. TOWER PAINTING................................................ 7-1
A. General.................................................... 7-1
B. Maintenance of Tower Painting.............................. 7-2
C. Standard Tower Painting Systems............................ 7-3
D. Alternative Painting Systems............................... 7-4
E. Corrosion Protection of Unpainted Towers................... 7-4
F. Ladders and Safety Rails................................... 7-5
G. Application................................................ 7-5
H. Records.................................................... 7-5
CHAPTER 8. TOWER ERECTION, ALIGNMENT, TWIST, AND GUY TENSIONS............ 8-1
A. General.................................................... 8-1
B. General Tower Design Characteristics....................... 8-1
C. Analysis of Existing Towers................................ 8-2
D. Cause of Misalignment and Twist............................ 8-2
E. Alignment, Twist and Guy Tension Limitations............... 8-2
F. Conditions for Alignment, Twist, and Tension Measurements.. 8-3
G. Determination of Alignment and Twist....................... 8-4
H. Guy Tensions.............................................. 8-13
I. Correction of Alignment and Guy Tension................... 8-19
J. Frequency and Scope of Alignment and Tension Checks....... 8-20
CHAPTER 9. TOWER LIGHTING AND LIGHTNING PROTECTION....................... 9-1
A. General.................................................... 9-1
B. FAA Notification Requirements for Tower Lighting Failures.. 9-1
C. Tower Lighting System Components........................... 9-1
D. New Lighting System Requirements........................... 9-5
E. Lighting System Inspection and Maintenance................. 9-5
F. Lightning Protection....................................... 9-7
APPENDIX A. GLOSSARY........................................................ 1
APPENDIX B. INSPECTION FORMS................................................ 1
APPENDIX C. MANUFACTURER'S DATA FOR VARIOUS TOWER COMPONENTS................ 1
APPENDIX D. LORAN BASE INSULATOR REPLACEMENT................................ 1
APPENDIX E. SPECIAL EVOLUTIONS FOR LORAN TOWERS............................. 1

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

A. Purpose and Scope. This Manual defines Coast Guard policy and criteria
for the preservation of towers and prescribes minimum inspection and
maintenance standards for use as a guide in organizing and managing a
comprehensive tower inspection and maintenance program. The primary
objectives of such a program are to keep critical antenna and navigation
systems operational to the maximum possible extent, and to protect the
Government's investment by economically maintaining the towers. This
Manual shall be utilized for all Coast Guard towers to the maximum
feasible extent. Towers are defined as any permanent structure that is
more vertical than horizontal, that is energized or non-energized, guyed
or free standing, and exceeds 20 feet in height. Tall towers are those
300ft in height or greater. Small towers are those less than 300ft in
height. The safety requirements in Chapter Two of this Manual are
applicable to all towers and elevated structures including monopoles,
ATON structures, and communications support structures.

B. Responsibilities. Commanding Officers of Civil Engineering Units are

responsible for the establishment, administration, and direction of an
inspection and maintenance program for the towers under their
jurisdiction. To be effective, a sound inspection and maintenance
program requires delegation of responsibilities and the full and
continued support of all concerned. Therefore, a channel of clearly
fixed responsibility for tower inspection and maintenance shall be
established from the Civil Engineering Unit (CEU) to other commands in
the field. Civil Engineering Units shall ensure, through directives,
reports, etc., that the program is aggressively carried out at all levels
in a systematic and thoroughly acceptable manner. Towers shall be
periodically inspected by the various command levels to evaluate the
sufficiency and consistency of the overall inspection and maintenance
effort, and to verify attainment of the established standards of
maintenance.

C. Inspection and Maintenance Standards and Costs. Since differences in

tower designs, materials, age, local environment, and previous
maintenance are some of the factors of the inspection and maintenance
program, standards shall be established by the servicing CEU within the
latitude permitted by this Manual. These standards should be developed
to permit timely detection and correction of deficiencies in order to
preclude the necessity for major repairs or complete tower replacement.
The frequency and extent of inspection and maintenance activities will be
governed by the effort necessary to maintain the towers at the level of
these standards. The effort to keep energized antenna tower off-air time
to a minimum may necessitate increased costs for tower maintenance; a
responsible trade-off must be made between cost and operating time. In
general, CEUs should plan their inspections and maintenance of energized
towers so that cost is a factor that is of less importance than off-air
time. However, it is not intended that our structures be over-maintained
at undue cost; judgment must be exercised at all times. In most cases,
the final decision should be made by the servicing CEU, preferably within
field budget limitations.

D. Revision of Manual. This Manual will be updated periodically. Civil

Engineering Units and other tower units are encouraged to provide the

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Coast Guard Tower Program Coordination Center (CEU Oakland) with
information copies of all tower-related reports, correspondence, and
similar material which describe program improvements and practices of
potential use to other commands. Field input remains the primary source
of material for this Manual.

Figure 1-1 700ft energized Loran-C tower.

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Figure 1-2 90ft Self supporting Vessel Traffic System tower.

Figure 1-3 Self supporting microwave tower.

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Figure 1-4 60ft Self supporting communications tower.

Figure 1-5 Guyed rotatable antenna

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CHAPTER 2. TOWER SAFETY

This chapter is divided into two sections; Part I is General Climbing Safety.
Part II is General Tower Safety.

PART I. GENERAL CLIMBING SAFETY

A. Safety Policy and Requirements. Safety is a primary consideration to

which all Coast Guard personnel must devote their complete attention
whenever they are climbing a tower or are in the immediate vicinity of a
tower of any height. The elevation and potential electrical hazards
associated with tower inspection, maintenance, and repair require
adoption of extraordinary safety measures in order to protect the
climbers from avoidable accidents. Towers are classified as elevated
structures as defined by OSHA. All personnel engaging in construction,
maintenance, repair or inspection shall use fall protection when working
on any Coast Guard tower. Safety precautions also include the use of
appropriate protective clothing to include the wearing of safety helmets,
safety footwear, eye protection, and protective clothing to protect
personnel from injury while in the vicinity of a tower. A safety helmet
is required to be worn by any person within the tower drop zone, which is
an area whose radius is 1/2 the height of the tower and centered on the
tower axis. In addition, precautionary measures must be taken to protect
the tower structure itself from damage.

B. Buddy System. Climbers shall use the buddy system. When climbing to a
height of 150ft or less a safety observer is required on the ground. The
observer should be stationed a suitable distance away from the tower
base, preferably upwind, so that he or she always has a clear view of the
climber. The safety observer shall be a qualified climber who meets the
requirements of D below. The safety observer shall be completely
dressed with appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) including a
Personal Fall Arrest System (PFAS) and a complete safety ladder climbing
device. The safety observer shall have constant two-way communication
with the climber on the tower. When climbing towers greater than 150ft
in height the safety observer shall join the primary climber on the tower
and stay within 150ft of the primary climber at all times.

C. Climbing of Towers by Coast Guard Personnel. Coast Guard personnel must

be authorized in writing to climb towers and elevated structures. This
specifically includes all towers and elevated structures classified as
Aids to Navigation. The servicing CEU has the authority to administer
the Tower Climber Certification program for all units within its area of
responsibility (AOR). At a minimum, the prospective climber shall have
adequate knowledge of the following subjects:

1. Recognition and avoidance of dangers relating to encounters with

harmful substances and animal, insect, or plant life.

2. Use and inspection of personal fall-arrest equipment.

3. Procedures to be followed in emergency situations.

4. Rescue procedures.

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 5. First aid training including CPR - These requirements are not
specifically taught in a tower qualification course. The tower
program specifically relies on the PQS standards that require annual
basic first aid. CPR training is highly recommended for all
climbers.

D. Minimum Requirements. The following are the minimum requirements to

qualify an individual to climb elevated structures.

1. The climber must be a responsible volunteer.

2. The climber must be physically qualified and physically capable.

3. The unit commander must recommend the climber.

4. The climber must complete climbing certification training, which

includes a written test and a practical field test.

5. On the first climb the climber must be accompanied by a qualified

Coast Guard military or civilian engineer who has been certified to
instruct tower climbing and who is familiar with the safety
requirements and hazards outlined in this Manual.

6. The climber shall be issued a written qualification letter from the

servicing CEU. This letter will specify the maximum height of tower
that the individual is authorized to climb and whether the individual
is authorized to climb an energized or non-energized tower. This
letter remains in effect as long as the climber remains within the
AOR of the CEU that issued the letter.

E. Equipment. The equipment requirements are specifically referenced in

OSHA 1926.502(d).

1. The climber must use a complete Personal Fall Arrest System,(PFAS),

which consists at a minimum of a full body harness, deceleration
lanyard(s), and connecting device(s). In addition when using a ladder
for ascent or descent, the climber shall use a ladder safety climbing
device, as shown in Figure 2-3. Climbers shall be physically
connected to suitable anchorage on the structure at all times. See
Part II D of this chapter, and Figures 2-1 and 2-2.

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 Figure 2-1 Existing Coast Guard Harnesses (front and rear view).

Figure 2-2 Typical commercial harness meeting ANSI requirements.

2. All Personal Protective Equipment used must meet the standards of 29

CFR 1926.502, Fall Protection System Criteria and Practices, Subpart
M, Fall Protection.

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a. Personal Fall Arrest Systems consist at minimum of an anchorage,
full body harness, deceleration lanyard and connecting device.

(1) Anchorages are secure points of attachment for lifelines,

lanyards or deceleration devices, and are independent from the
means supporting the worker.

(2) Full body harness must meet ANSI Z359.1-1992 requirements and
must have a "D" ring which is centered in the wearer's upper
back. The harness must be sized to the individual. The full
body harness must be specifically rated for fall arrest (see
Figures 2-1 and 2-2).

(3) Connecting devices include deceleration lanyards, working

lanyards and ladder safety climbing device. Shock absorbing
fall restraint lanyards (also called deceleration lanyards)
must meet ANSI Z359.1-1992 and ANSI A10.14-1991. These devices
limit free-fall to 6 ft. The shock absorbing portion of the
lanyard must be attached closest to the wearer's body. The
overall length of the lanyard is limited to 6ft. Ropes,
straps and webbing used in lanyards, lifelines and strength
components of body harnesses shall be made from synthetic
fibers.

b. Connecting Hardware must have double-acting or 2-step safety

locks. Shackles, clevis, carabiners, and hooks are the four
common hardware connecting devices. All connecting hardware must
have a minimum tensile strength of 5000 pounds and shall be proof
tested to a minimum of 3600 pounds.

Figure 2-3 Typical ladder safety climbing device (Saf-T-Climb).

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 c. No part of a personal fall arrest system shall be used for other
than its intended purpose. Never use this equipment for hoisting
or towing. Do not use this equipment for recreational climbing.

d. Understand, know and follow the maximum weight limits for your
personal fall arrest safety equipment. These limits are stated in
the manufacturer's instructions. The working load limit is equal
to the combined person and tool weight. Generally, the working
load limit for a full body harness is 310 pounds.

e. All equipment, lines and hardware shall be rated for use. Each
piece of equipment shall be inspected for wear, damage, and other
deterioration before each use, and defective components shall be
immediately removed from service and destroyed.

F. Pre-Climb Safety. Pre-mobilization planning; Prior to any work on an

elevated structure the following shall be evaluated by the supervisor:

1. The skill and experience of each member of the crew assigned to

perform the work.

2. Any special equipment that will need to be acquired and any special
training or training reviews that must be performed before work
begins.

3. The type of equipment that will be required and the individual

worker's training and skill with that equipment.

4. Any special fabrication required for safety before work begins.

5. The emergency services available near the site and whether they could
find the site in a timely manner. Question rescue services to
establish that they have the equipment, skills and response time to
rescue a climber in the expected environment. These services should
be given directions to the site.

6. The location of the nearest medical facilities. Every member of the

crew should have access to a route map.

7. The phone numbers of emergency facilities, accessible to all members

of the crew. Work at remote locations will require use of cell
phones or a means of positive communications.

8. The familiarity of each climber regarding the location AND operation

of any rescue equipment and location of a first aid kit.

9. The tower should not be climbed in inclement weather, when electrical

storm activity is forecast, or when fog obscures that portion of the
tower to be climbed. In locations where fog is usually present and
where unacceptable delays would result while waiting for the fog to
dissipate, the tower may be climbed provided the climber and safety
observer are equipped with reliable two-way radios. Radio checks
should be initiated at least every 5 minutes.

10. The tower shall be de-energized for mounting, climbing and

dismounting, except as noted in parts II.B.1 and II.B.2 of this

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 chapter. A deadman stick shall be used to positively ground the
tower.

11. A safety lanyard shall be attached to all tools and equipment on the
tower to prevent missile hazards.

12. Site Safety Meeting - Upon arrival at the site, all climbers shall
hold a pre-climb safety meeting. Ensure every climber knows where
emergency equipment is stored and where emergency medical facilities
are located. The length of these meetings is directly related to the
complexity and type of work to be performed.

a. Hazard Assessment: Review all possible hazards to include:

(1) Weather related, such as wind, snow, ice, moisture, lightning

and sunshine.

(2) Electrical dangers.

(3) Noise.

(4) Live hazards such as snakes, birds, insects, rodents, farm

animals and other humans.

(5) Other conditions, including non-standard structure hazards.

b. Perform individual pre-climb inspections to include route

inspection.

G. Conditioning and Mechanics of Climbing.

1. Personal condition is as important as the safety equipment. For

safety, you will need physical well-being, emotional conditioning, a
well-rested mind and body, self-confidence and freedom from drugs of
any type. Get plenty of sleep and eat sensibly. Keep your fluid
intake adequate. Never consume alcohol prior to or while climbing.

2. Ascending/Descending

a. Climbing is a physical process and requires practice to do it

correctly. CLIMB WITH YOUR LEGS, AND NOT YOUR ARMS. Climbing is
not a race. Your goal is to arrive at your work location
comfortable, relaxed and ready to work.

b. No one should stand around the base of a tower while a person is

ascending or descending or working.

c. Use of a safety climb device requires that you keep three points
of contact with the structure. Do not jump or hop.

(1) Climb with your legs, not your arms.

(2) On tapered towers climb on the high side or side that allows
the climber to naturally lean into the tower.

(3) Legs lead on the climb, arms lead on the descent.

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 (4) Rest often and use rest platforms when they are available.

(5) Keep body swing to a minimum.

(6) Be well rested, confident and drug-free.

d. Maneuvering- Climbing and maneuvering on communication towers

uses body mechanics that predominately involves the use of the
arms and legs. "Look before you leap". Before undertaking any
physical maneuver, consider carefully what you are doing. When
suspending or descending use approved descent equipment that is
designed to control your descent mechanically, not physically.
If you are in doubt as to how to reach a particular location on
the structure or how to perform the task in a location, consult
other team members and your supervisor. Consider different
physical actions and select the one that best suits your skill,
strength, condition and experience.

e. Crossing and Positioning - Before exiting a safe climb device,

you must determine the need for fall protection. You must be
continually aware of the location of other climbers and their
anchorage points. Pay particular attention to attaching to
diagonal structures or members. Remember that the connector will
slide down diagonal structures. During the cross to a work area
you must maintain 100% fall protection, which generally means
100% connection to the structure. The 100% connection rule is as
effective as your attitude. If you are tired or tense, stop and
connect with your lanyard and rest. Climbers are exerting
physical energy and can often become over fatigued. When you are
tired, cold, hungry, cramped or distracted, you are not safe.

f. Working on a Structure - Select a proper structure and wrap your

positioning lanyard around the structure so it allows movement of
your hands sufficient for the task. A rule of thumb is hold your
elbow at your waist and move your arm up and down from chin to
lap. If you do not contact the structure, the distance is
correct. Be sure that the lanyard is connected and properly
locked. NEVER TRUST THE SOUND OF THE HOOK OR CONNECTOR.
Visually sight your hardware and ensure that it has closed and is
locked. Do not attach safety lanyards to guard rails, hoists,
platform gratings, lighting equipment or any loose equipment on
the tower.

H. Rescue. There are five generally accepted rescue techniques. Each of

the below techniques requires specific training and equipment. These
techniques must be practiced on a recurring basis and as such are
considered an integral part of any tower training conducted.

1. Manual rescue: Reaching a fallen worker from the structure and

pulling him back to the safety of the structure.

2. Outside Services: Professional rescue services; These should be used

when available and if the response time is adequate.

3. Winch Rescue: If a winch is available and rigged, or can be rigged,

attach an injured worker to the winch line and lower the victim to

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 the ground.

4. Ascending/Descending Systems: These are manually operated devices

that are appropriate to many climbing environments and to one-rescuer
operation.

5. Approved suspension systems: This is an approved descent and

suspension device that can be used to reach a fallen climber and
assist the climber to the ground.

Credit: Much of the information contained in Part I of this Chapter was

taken directly from Tower Climbing Safety and Rescue, Second Edition,
published by ComTrain, 1999.

PART II. GENERAL TOWER SAFETY

A. Climbing of Towers by Contractor. Contractor personnel shall be bound by

all applicable OSHA regulations whenever a tower is to be climbed and
shall be familiar with the contents of this manual. In addition,
whenever a tower is to be climbed the following conditions apply:

1. The tower should not be climbed in inclement weather, when electrical

storm activity is forecast, or when fog obscures that portion of the
tower to be climbed.

2. The tower shall be de-energized for mounting, climbing, and

dismounting. Exceptions are noted in section B below.

B. Work on Energized Towers. Only LORAN-C towers may be climbed while

energized. NDGPS and DGPS shall not be climbed under any circumstances
while energized. All personnel working on or near energized Loran-C
towers should be familiar with Sections II and III of Appendix E. All
personnel working on energized Loran-C towers shall be qualified
climbers. Mounting and dismounting energized towers, and performing
maintenance outside the cross-section of energized towers should be the
exception rather than the rule. Work required on an energized LORAN-C the
tower can be accomplished with a minimum of RF exposure, if the personnel
remain within the tower structure and below the base of the top platform.
When the work is required above the base of the platform, it is
recommended that transmissions be secured as permissible exposure limit
(PEL) is exceeded approximately one foot above the platform base. When
work is to be accomplished within one foot of the feed point or feed wire
run, the transmitter should be secured.

1. Mounting and Dismounting. Loran-C towers may be mounted and

dismounted without de-energizing the tower provided the procedures
detailed in Appendix E are strictly followed, and when conditions
exist that do not permit the use of momentary off-air time. When work
is required while a LORAN-C tower is transmitting, it is recommended
that the tower access ladder be set in place by personnel other than
the actual tower climber. Upon ladder placement, personnel should
exit the area. The tower climber should then enter the PEL area,
climb the ladder and enter the tower as described in Appendix E.

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 2. Climbing Towers for Inspection, Painting, or Repair. Loran-C towers
may be climbed while they are energized. When climbing energized
Loran-C towers the following precautions should be taken:

a. The conditions of Part I.B or Part II.A of this chapter, as

appropriate, shall be met.

b. Because of the inherent danger of RF exposure, climbers must

remain inside the tower cross-section, extending hands and arms
only as necessary to reach lighting fixtures or other accessible
tower components, and extending the head only as necessary to
take twist readings by the leg sight method (see Ch.8 G.2.a), or
to visually inspect the outside faces of the tower. Exceptions
to this precaution are detailed in Appendix E, and apply only to
Loran-C towers not exceeding 1000 feet in height. For further
information or clarification, see the Electronics Manual,
COMDTINST M10550.25(series) or contact the CG Command and Control
Engineering Center (C2CEN).

c. Climbers should avoid extending any part of the body beyond the
corona shield/guard rail at the top of the tower.

C. Maintenance of Energized Towers. Maintenance of Loran-C towers that can

be performed with the maintenance personnel inside the tower cross-
section may be performed while the tower is energized provided the
provisions of Part II.B above are complied with. Tower maintenance
outside the tower cross-section and on the guy cables and insulators
should be done during periods of off-air time. Requesting off-air time
is an inherent part of scheduled recurring maintenance. It is the
preferred method for performing maintenance. Maintenance efforts that
require someone to be outside the tower cross-section may be performed on
energized Loran-C towers provided the provisions of Appendix E are
complied with and circumstances prevent the use of off-air time to
perform the maintenance.

D. Ladders and Safety Climbing Devices. It is Coast Guard policy to conform

to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Standards
with respect to ladders and fall protection. The following requirements
reflect the latest interpretation and adaptation of these standards for
Coast Guard towers:

1. All new towers shall be constructed with a fixed ladder equipped with
a ladder safety climbing device. Rigid rail safety climbing systems
which meet Federal Specification RR-S-001301 Type I are required. The
Saf-T-Climb system, manufactured by North Safety Products
(http://www.northsafety.com/) is the preferred rigid rail climbing
system. Existing towers that do not have fixed ladders shall, if
practical, have ladders with ladder safety climb devices installed
under the AFC-43 maintenance program.

2. All towers shall have a reasonable and safe means of ascending and
descending the structure. Loran-C, radar antenna support, and
similar tall towers should be equipped with fixed metal ladders
conforming to OSHA Standards 29CFR1910.27, "Fixed Ladders", Subpart D
and 1926.1053,Ladders, Subpart X. Even though the use of ladders is
not considered mandatory by OSHA, the use of ladders remains the most
practical and safe means of climbing towers. Towers, monopoles, and

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 all elevated structures shall have a safety climb system installed to
the extent it is possible and feasible. When the configuration of
the structure will not allow installation of a ladder with safety
climb system, alternative methods of providing fixed anchorage to
ensure climbers' safety is required. When modification to a tower to
include a heavy metal ladder is not structurally feasible or
economically justified, the original design is acceptable provided a
safety climbing system as described in D.1. above is installed.

3. Poles or similar non-lattice type structures which are not equipped

with authorized safety climbing devices and/or an adequate ladder or
climbing surface must be climbed only by contractor personnel or by
specially trained Coast Guard personnel.

E. Protective Barriers and Warning Signs. To protect the towers and anchors
from vehicular damage as well as to guard against injuries to personnel,
the following protective barriers and warning markers shall be provided:

1. A permanent, single gated fence, constructed of non-conductive

material shall be installed to completely enclose the immediate area
around the base of each transmitting antenna tower. "High Voltage"
warning signs should be conspicuously placed on the outside face of
each side of the fence and on the gate. The gate should be padlocked
at all times, except when authorized personnel are within the
enclosure or are on the tower.

2. Where access roadways are located under low-hanging guys, warning

signs that provide the clearance in feet and meters should be
installed on the lowest guy. Where perimeter fencing for an entire
antenna field or station is not provided, and where the public can
gain unrestricted access to the guy anchors, consideration should be
given to enclosing each anchor by a fence with a lockable gate.
Anchors not so enclosed should be marked in one of the following
ways:

a. Prominently placed wooden posts painted in alternating yellow and

black stripes to alert pedestrian and vehicular traffic. The
posts should be nominal 4"x4" in section, and should extend at
least 4 feet (1.2m) above ground level. The placement and number
of posts should be such that traffic is directed around the
anchors and away from the guys.

b. If the anchor concrete or steel is prominent and not liable to be

covered with vegetation, these anchor components may be painted
in alternating yellow and black stripes to alert traffic.

c. Retroreflective, brightly colored reflective guy guards, such as

those manufactured by the Preformed Line Products Co., may be
installed on the lower portion of the guys.

2-10
CHAPTER 3. INSPECTION GUIDELINES

A. General. Sources of technical and historical information on each tower

and guidelines and responsibilities for inspection and maintenance are
covered in this chapter.

1. Tower Manuals and Drawings. An erection manual, erection and

fabrication drawings, and, in some cases, maintenance manuals are
furnished with each tower. These materials are the only source of
specific data on the various components of each tower, and they
should always be readily available to personnel charged with tower
inspection and maintenance responsibilities. As tower modifications
are made, the drawings and manuals should be annotated with the date
and description of the modifications. The information contained in
this Manual does not duplicate the information contained in the tower
manuals and drawings furnished with each tower. Operational and
support commanders shall forward to the servicing Civil Engineering
Unit (CEU) and the Tall Tower Coordination Center updated drawings
whenever towers or antenna systems are modified.

2. Inspection and Maintenance Records. The servicing CEU should

maintain a complete file for each tower or antenna system containing:

a. Inspection reports.

b. Specifications used for inspection or maintenance.

c. Correspondence pertaining to the particular tower or antenna.

d. Records of all maintenance or modifications.

e. Updated inventory of tower spare parts.

f. Pertinent procurement documents.

B. Inspection Categories.

1. Tall Tower Coordination Center (TTCC) Level. This category of

responsibility includes policy development, technical assistance to
support CEUs, MLCs and other units involved with the tower program.
Periodic tower inspections may also be conducted by TTCC personnel.
Except in an emergency, the TTCC should also be invited to review
proposals for repair, modification, or replacement of major tall
tower system components. "Major components" are tower guys, anchors,
legs, horizontals, diagonals, foundations, and insulators.

2. Major Field Command Level. This is the primary level of

responsibility and rests with the CEU. Responsibilities at this
level include:

a. The administration and planning for all inspection and

maintenance activities.

3-1
 b. Providing technical assistance, contract services, materials, and
equipment as may be required to perform inspection and
maintenance activities.

c. Determination of inspection frequency as well as training and

designation of inspectors.

d. Determining which inspection and parts maintenance items are to

be performed by station and field personnel; and training the
station and field personnel to accomplish these tasks.

e. Determining major maintenance requirements, and seeking approval

for repair, modification, and/or replacement of major tower
system components (see B.1 above).

3. Intermediate Level. This intermediate level of responsibility, if

established, will consist of such responsibilities outlined in B.2
above as may be delegated by the CEU. Typically ESUs, Groups and some
elements of MLC staff fall into this category depending on the tower
function.

4. Unit/Field Level. Through years of experience, it has been

determined that unit and field personnel must play a very important
role in the inspection and maintenance program. A large number of
Coast Guard units with towers are located in remote areas, and the
attentive and properly trained eyes of field personnel are therefore
essential tools of the servicing CEU. In addition to certain routine
inspection responsibilities such as noted in C.3.a below, the field
unit or station shall conduct a visual check of tower alignment (see
Ch.8 G.) and the general tower condition (from the ground)
following each heavy storm, earthquake, or icing condition (see Fig.
3-1).

C. Inspection Objectives and Requirements. Inspection on a periodic basis

is the most effective way to protect the Coast Guard's investment in
towers. Major field commanders should consider it their first priority,
where the antenna system is concerned, to establish a sound inspection
program utilizing all of the expertise available. In this way it will be
possible to provide for the timely detection and correction of
deficiencies before major tower maintenance or repair become necessary.
With early detection and correction, both costs and off-air time will be
minimized.

1. Inspection Frequency and Effort. Because of seasonal storm cycles,

antenna systems should be carefully inspected about once per year,
making allowances for local conditions, expenses involved, expertise
availability, and the magnitude of the original capital investment.
The quality of an inspection is only as good as the personnel
performing the inspection. Almost complete reliance is placed on
visual inspection methods. The ability of the inspector to detect
potentially hazardous conditions and to recognize serious defects is
of paramount importance. A hurried or superficial inspection cannot
produce the desired result, regardless of the ability of the
inspector. Inspectors should be guided by detailed information
contained in this Manual.

3-2
Figure 3-1 625 ft Tower deflected due to heavy icing conditions.

3-3
2. Contract Inspections. Because contracting for inspection services is
usually expensive, efforts should be made to maintain an in-house
inspection capability. However, there are several major tower
inspection, manufacturing and erection firms providing these
services. In either case, it should be recognized that the
capabilities of the personnel offered by these firms can vary
considerably, and the inspection results will follow suit. Whenever
doubt exists as to individual capabilities, a thorough investigation
should precede selection of a particular contractor. CEUs should
develop lists of qualified firms.

a. Scope and Scheduling. To gain maximum benefits from contract

inspections, the scope of the inspection work should be clearly
and concisely defined and the inspection period should take full
consideration of weather conditions. Inspection items that
cannot be satisfactorily performed by Coast Guard personnel
should be included in the scope of work of inspection contracts.

b. Analysis and Evaluation. A Coast Guard representative should be

assigned to accompany the contract inspector. The representative
should have a technical background such that he may make
reasonable independent evaluations of the contractor's inspection
technique and recommendations. In every case, the findings and
recommendations of a contract inspector should be thoroughly
reviewed and analyzed in order to preclude unconditional
acceptance of his work. It may be necessary to inspect again or
to test components before a course of action should be planned.

3. Coast Guard Inspections. Most tower inspections can be adequately

performed by Coast Guard personnel familiar with general maintenance
requirements and practices. By accepting a substantial portion of
the inspection burden, the Coast Guard will produce a more effective
and less costly inspection and maintenance program. In-house
expertise is the best kind. All CEUs should concentrate on building
this expertise through training programs and the experience of their
staff personnel. Expertise known to be available in the staffs of
various field commands should be utilized by other commanders to the
maximum extent mutually acceptable.

a. Inspection by Station Personnel. Considering their full time

availability, station personnel should be used to the maximum
possible extent for ground level tower inspections. Station
personnel should not be required to perform routine inspections
on towers; however, they should not be prohibited from climbing
towers for non-routine maintenance (see Ch.4 A.3). During
visits to units, Coast Guard civil engineers and tower
specialists should take time to tour the tower site with the
station commanding officer and selected crew members in order to
point out and explain the various items to be checked in a unit
inspection. Such items include but are not limited to:

(1) Corrosion at particularly susceptible locations, including guy

pull-offs, bonding straps, leg flanges, anchor arms and any
tower metal in contact with soil or water.

(2) *Damaged or missing cotter pins.

3-4
 (3) *Slipped or unraveled guy-grip dead ends. (See Ch. 6 H.3)

(4) *Crossed guys in a face-guyed tower.

(5) *Chipped, cocked, or missing insulators.

(6) Operation of the lighting system. (See Ch. 9 E.)

(7) *Missing or inadequate safety wire on turnbuckles. (Ch. 6

I.2.)

(8) Cracked or shifted concrete.

(9) *Evidence of arcing on the guys or at the tower base.

(10) *Position of lightning ball gaps (Ch. 9 F).

(11) Damage to the ground radial system or grounding straps.

(12) *Damage to or oil loss from the base insulator.

(13) *Failed fiberglass rod insulators. (Ch. 6 J.2)

(14) Safety requirements. (See Chapter 2)

* - Guyed towers only

b. Inspection by Other Field Personnel. The majority of Coast Guard

towers are located in remote or unmanned locations and are
visited by contractors and technicians from intermediate level
units. CEUs should take advantage of these scheduled visits for
inspection of these unmanned tower sites. The intermediate level
personnel should be trained by CEUs to check basic inspection
items outlined in a.(1)-(14) above.

c. Inspection Routine for Manned Tower Sites. The following general

inspection routine is recommended for station personnel at manned
tower sites. CEUs should provide unit level commanding officers
with a more detailed routine, based on local considerations.

(1) DAILY - Visually check the lights after sunset unless

monitored by an automatic failure alarm system.

(2) WEEKLY - Visually check all guy assemblies and tower

structural members from two or more good vantage points on the
ground. For energized towers, check for visible or audible
corona or arcing on any antenna system components.

(3) MONTHLY - Visually check each anchor and the tower for
abnormal conditions (see C.3.a above). Visually check tower
alignment in accordance with Ch.8 G.1.a.

(4) ANNUAL - CEU and or contracted tower inspection for tall

towers.

3-5
 (5) TRIENNIAL - CEU and or contracted tower inspection for small
towers.

d. Inspection Routine for Unmanned Tower Sites. The following

general inspection routine is recommended for unmanned tower
sites. CEUs should provide field and support commands with a
more detailed routine, based on local considerations. CEUs and
other support commands should work closely to ensure unmanned
sites receive proper preventative maintenance and inspection.

(1) Preventative Maintenance Visits - Coast Guard personnel

visiting unmanned sites for routine preventative maintenance
should conduct the following using the small tower report
(format 1) in Appendix B as a guideline. Visually check the
lights in all modes of operation. Visually check all guy
assembly (where present) and all tower structural members from
two or more vantage points on the ground. For energized
towers, check for visible or audible corona or arcing on any
antenna system components. Visually check each anchor and the
tower for abnormal conditions. (see C.3.a above). Visually
check tower alignment in accordance with Ch.8 G.1.a.

(2) ANNUAL - CEU and or contracted tower inspection for tall

towers.

(3) TRIENNIAL - CEU and or contracted tower inspection for small

towers.

e. Inspection by Coast Guard Civil Engineer or Coast Guard Staff

Tower Engineer. The CEU Commanding Officer should ensure that
one or more members of the CEU staff is fully qualified to
perform tower inspections, including climbing of energized towers
where necessary and authorized (Ch.2 Part II.B.1). Selected
station personnel should accompany the inspector during the
entire inspection, to assist and to learn. In addition to the
items listed in C.3.a above, inspections by these staff members
should include the following:

(1) Measurement of alignment and twist.

(2) Measurement of guy tension where feasible.

(3) Inspection of the lighting system, and relamping.

(4) On-tower inspection for corrosion, paint condition, damaged

members, loose bolts, missing or damaged hardware, ladder and
safety rail condition, etc.

4. Inspection Reports. A simple procedure for reporting station level

inspections should be established by the servicing CEU, whereby only
exceptions to the norm are reported (see format 1 of Appendix B).
However, reports of inspections by Coast Guard civil engineers, tower
specialists, and contractors should be as detailed as possible; they
should contain, as appropriate, plots of alignment and twist, guy
tension readings, accurate descriptions of discrepancies and their
location, and good color photographs (see format 2 of Appendix B).

3-6
 Simplicity, brevity, and substance should be the attributes of the
narrative portions of inspection reports. Maximum use should be made
of color photographs to show normal, typical, and unusual conditions.
Copies of reports showing unusual conditions or procedures should be
forwarded to other field commands that are responsible for similar
towers.

D. Tower Failures.

1. Past Failures and Causes. Major tower failures have occurred over
the years, providing a number of "lessons learned" which are
reflected by certain sections of this Manual and in current
procurement specifications. These failures and their causes are:

a. LORSTA Carolina Beach - 1961 - A self-supporting 625-ft tower

buckled at 2/3 its height in a storm. Top-loaded radials had
been added to a tower originally designed for no radials, and
their presence overloaded the tower.

b. LORSTA Ejde - 1962 - A structural guy slipped through cable clips

securing the guy at the anchor end, resulting in the collapse of
a 625-ft tower.

c. LORSTA Iwo Jima - 1964 - A threaded eyebolt in a TLE insulator

failed, causing swing-in damage to tower members. During the
subsequent repair operation, the 1350-ft tower collapsed with
workmen aboard. The apparent cause of failure was the lack of
proper temporary bracing.

d. LORSTA Yap - 1964 - An error in procedure during erection caused

the collapse of a partially erected 1000-ft tower.

e. LORSTA Angissoq - 1964 – Fatigue failure of the eyebolt head in a

compression cone insulator on a structural guy caused the
collapse of the 1350-ft tower.

f. LORSTA Jan Mayen - 1980 - Improperly installed tensions in

combination with a heavy ice loading apparently caused this 625-
ft Stainless Model 1300 tower to collapse.

g. COMMSTA Miami – 1992 – Two 300-ft guyed communications towers

collapsed during Hurricane Andrew. The weak link appeared to be
the fiberglass-rod insulators that connected the guys to the
tower. Designed to function as axial-force members, these
insulators may have failed prematurely when forced into bending
due to twisting of the tower under the extreme wind load (see
Figure 3-2a). Had each insulator been attached to the tower
using a shackle as shown in Figure 3-2b, the collapse of these
structures might have been prevented.

h. LORSTA Cape Race – 1993 – A fatigue failure of an eyebolt head

occurred in a compression cone insulator (see Figure 3-3). The
remaining insulators on the severed structural guy caused
sufficient swing-in damage to the tower to collapse the
structure. The insulators on this tower incorporated a rocker
assembly that was designed to alleviate the cyclic bending
stresses on eyebolt heads that contributed to the Angissoq

3-7
 collapse of 1964 and failures of other non-Coast Guard towers.
While it is evident that the universal-ring assembly has
significantly reduced fatigue loading, this incident demonstrates
the continued susceptibility of eyebolt heads to fatigue failure.

i. LORSTA Kargaburun – 1993 – This 625-ft Stainless Model 1100

tower, which was inadequately designed for snow and ice loading,
collapsed during a significant snowstorm. Because of faulty
construction practices, the tower was erected with a built-in
twist of 3.0 degrees, exceeding the 1/2-degree design parameter
and further reducing the tower’s load capacity. In addition, the
TLE and structural guy foundation placement did not compensate
for the slope of the site, causing the horizontal guy forces on
the tower to be unbalanced. This may have further compromised
the stability characteristics of the tower.

2. Documentation of a Tower Collapse. Although there is every hope that

sound inspection and maintenance programs will preclude future tower
collapses, the following steps should be taken if a collapse occurs:

a. Notify the servicing Civil Engineering Unit and the CG Tall Tower
Coordination Center by message.

b. Mark each and every component as to its location in the antenna

system.

c. Photograph all fractured components; mark all photos with

identification of component, date, and name of photographer.

d. If feasible, take aerial photos of the collapsed tower from many

angles; mark all photos as in (3) above.

e. Make an accurate plan view diagram of the antenna in its

collapsed position, showing all components as accurately as
possible.

f. Dispose of all rubble as directed by the servicing CEU. If any

component is removed from the station for further examination,
ensure that it is not later misplaced. If it is to be
destructively tested, ensure that its "as received" condition is
adequately photographed and described.

g. Ensure that certified copies of all documents are filed in at

least three different cognizant offices.

3-8
a. Elevation view showing insulator b. Plan view showing insulator
connected directly to gusset plate. connected to gusset plate
Twisting of the tower could subject via a shackle creating a universal
insulator to bending loads. joint to alleviate bending.

Figure 3-2 Connecting Insulator Rods to Avoid Bending Loads.

Figure 3-3 Location of fatigue failure in compression cone insulator.

3-9
CHAPTER 4. MAINTENANCE GUIDELINES

A. Maintenance Objectives and Requirements. The primary purpose of

maintenance is to correct deficiencies in the early stages so that they
will not cause unnecessary off-air time or develop into costly repair
projects.

1. Maintenance Effort. The quality of tower maintenance is only as good

as the personnel, methods, and materials employed in the work.
Proper selection of these elements is a prerequisite to satisfactory
maintenance. Major forms of maintenance or repair, which require
slacking or removal of guys, structural component and insulator
replacements, heavy lifts, etc., should normally be accomplished by
contractor personnel. Coast Guard personnel should perform
substantial ground level component preventative maintenance and
emergency on-tower repairs to the maximum extent possible.

2. Contract Maintenance. Whenever the scope of required tower

maintenance dictates that the work be done by a commercial
contractor, only qualified tower erection or maintenance firms should
be considered. A firm may be considered "qualified" if it employs
key personnel (foreman, winch operators, riggers) who have had recent
successful experience in maintaining towers of similar height, and
which owns or has access to proper equipment necessary for the job.
Depending on the complexity of the tower maintenance a professional
engineer may need to be specified. Pre-award surveys should be
conducted, considering factors such as job supervision, percentage of
work subcontracted, method of accomplishing the work, potential to
minimize off-air time, and quality of manpower. Specifications
should include incentive and/or liquidated damages clauses as
appropriate. They should carefully spell out the available
government assistance, such as station personnel, lodging, messing,
transportation, tools, shop spaces, and other items which will
clarify the situation for bidders and which will tend to reduce
costs.

a. Scope, Scheduling, and Approval. Tower inspection reports should

be the source of the scope of work for most tower maintenance
contracts. Minor maintenance items such as lighting system
repairs, treatment of localized on-tower corrosion, etc. may be
included within the scope of a contract inspection if no major
maintenance is required. Work should be scheduled to take
advantage of optimum weather conditions and to minimize off-air
time. The servicing CEU should inform the Tall Tower
Coordination Center if conducting the following maintenance:

(1) Replacement or installation of any structural tower member,

including guy system components;

(2) The slackening or removal of any structural or radial guy;

(3) Replacement or installation of any component of the tower

lighting system, except for replacement in kind; or

4-1
 (4) Any modification to the grounding or lightning protection
system.

b. Review of Contractor's Plans. Whenever contract work calls for

slackening or removal of a structural guy or replacement of any
tower structural member, the specifications shall call for a
prior engineering review of the contractor's proposed procedures.
The shop drawings clause of FAR 52.236-21 should be used when
requiring submission of proposed rigging methods. See C.4 and
E below.

c. Insurance. Because of the high risk involved in working on

primary members or structural guys of these non-redundant
structures, insurance may be required when justifiable in
accordance with FAR 52.228-5. When insurance is to be required,
the contract file shall cite specific reasons for inclusion of
the provision, in sufficient detail to clearly establish that the
insurance is in the best interest of the government. The value
of such insurance shall be sufficient to include the cost of
repair and/or replacement of all government property which might
be damaged in a singular, massive tower collapse which could
occur due to improper performance of the work or associated
activities. This value shall be established in the invitation
for bid (IFB). However, the contractor should not be required to
list the cost of insurance separately in the bid. Insurance
should be considered for initial tower erection, whenever
replacing a primary tower shaft member and whenever a non-
redundant structural guy is disconnected from the tower or its
anchor.

d. CG Inspector. A Coast Guard representative should be assigned to

all tower maintenance, repair, or modification contracts as an
inspector on a full-time basis whenever feasible. The
representative should have a technical background such that
reasonable, independent evaluations of the contractor's methods
may be made, and to ensure that the work is accomplished in
accordance with the contract. If feasible it may be desirable to
employ the services of a contract inspector or tower consultant
when the degree or magnitude of tower work exceeds the
capabilities of available Coast Guard personnel. For minor work,
the station commanding officer may be delegated the
responsibilities of the contracting officer's representative.

3. Coast Guard Maintenance. Maintenance should be performed by Coast

Guard personnel to the maximum possible extent. Personnel familiar
with general equipment and electrical maintenance and repair
practices should be able to satisfactorily accomplish a substantial
portion of the preventive maintenance effort. This will greatly
reduce the costs of tower maintenance. Coast Guard station personnel
should be utilized as much as possible for preventive maintenance.

a. Maintenance by Station Personnel. Civil Engineering Units shall

promulgate lists of maintenance items for which the station
commanding officer is responsible. Repair of extinguished lights
is the only on-tower maintenance normally required of station
personnel. Except in extraordinary circumstances, this

4-2
 maintenance should be at the ground level only, including such
items as:

(1) Treatment of corrosion and corrosion control.

(2) Repair of the ground system.

(3) Repairs to the lighting system.

(4) Installation of safety wire at anchors.

(5) Renewal of non-structural components, such as cotter keys.

(6) Cleaning of insulators.

(7) Adjustment of ball gaps.

(8) Clearing of vegetation around the guy anchors and tower base.

b. Maintenance by Civil Engineering Units. In-house maintenance

capabilities vary widely throughout the Coast Guard. Types of
maintenance to be accomplished or supervised by personnel at this
level is best left to the discretion of the servicing CEU. At a
minimum, the CEU Commanding Officer should ensure that members of
his staff periodically inspect all maintenance performed by
station personnel, and that station personnel are trained in
proper methods.

B. Maintenance, Repair, and Modification. While an adequate tower

maintenance program will lengthen useful tower life, it cannot be
expected to entirely eliminate the eventual requirement for repair or
replacement due to damage, premature failures, or normal wear.

1. Replacement Materials. Materials and equipment used for repairs or

replacements will be of the same size and type as used in the
original design. Higher quality replacement materials which would
provide longer life may be substituted for the original materials
provided there is long-term economic justification.

2. Timely Corrective Repairs. The maintenance program should not only

be concerned with maintenance and repair of superficial failures or
damage, but with the timely correction of the basic cause of failure.
Some damage may be due to normal wear and weathering, but many
failures may be traced to other causes. Correction of these
underlying causes will be justified by decreased maintenance as well
as improved tower longevity and safety.

a. Causes of Failure. Premature failures of tower structural

components, materials, and other parts may be caused by one or
more of the following:

(1) Lack of proper maintenance.

(2) Defective materials or parts.

4-3
 (3) Incorrect installation or application.

(4) Failure of related, connected, or adjacent components.

(5) Unusual or extreme climatic conditions exceeding design

considerations.

(6) Faulty design.

(7) Damage done during construction or maintenance activities.

b. Investigation and Reporting of Failures. Component failures

should be carefully investigated and the basic defects corrected
before superficial repairs are accomplished. Prompt reporting of
failures to higher command authority should immediately follow
detection so that preventive measures can be taken on similar
towers. Major component failures should be reported to
Commandant (G-SEC) and the Tall Tower Coordination Center with a
detailed description of the circumstances and conclusions as to
the cause of the failure.

c. Technical Assistance. Unless the cause of a particular failure

is immediately discernable and corrective measures are not
complicated, a higher command level should be consulted for
advice on corrective action.

d. Tower Designer's Instructions. In the case of some specific

materials and equipment, the tower erection and maintenance
manual and/or original drawings may provide sufficient
information for corrective measures.

e. Tower Design Consultants. In vital structural matters or in

complex circumstances, consultation with qualified tower design
engineers may be necessary. If still available, the tower
manufacturer is normally a good source of information on design
questions.

3. Modifications. Any tower modification should be evaluated by a

structural engineer with specific knowledge in tower design and
construction. Additions of any antennas or appurtenances, beyond
those contemplated in the original tower design, must be evaluated by
a structural engineer. Specifically, requests from other government
agencies and commercial companies to place communications equipment
on CG property must comply with the application criteria as outlined
by MLC(t). If available, the tower manufacturer is an excellent
source of information. Proposed tower modifications such as
communication dishes, antennas, or a change to the structural
components must consider the types and compatibility of materials.
Modifications which will not economically extend tower life or reduce
the maintenance effort should be avoided. Modifications to towers of
any height will be reviewed by Tall Tower Coordination Center upon
request.

C. General Inspection and Maintenance Problems. Some components are readily

accessible and can be checked visually without difficulty. Others are
either inaccessible or hidden, making inspection difficult. Visually

4-4
detectable deficiencies should not present any inspection problem, but
hidden or latent defects are of great concern.

1. Accessible Tower Components. The entire tower structure, ground

level components, and guys, radials, guy insulators, and hardware in
near proximity to the tower and anchors are readily accessible for
close visual inspection. Consequently, it is very unusual for
visually detectable deficiencies in these areas to develop into major
structural problems.

2. Inaccessible and Hidden Components. The major portions of the tower

guys, radials, guy insulators, and hardware are not easily accessible
and in most cases the major portions of the tower base foundations,
anchors and anchor arms are hidden by ground cover. Regardless of
the inspection difficulties, the timely detection of deficiencies in
these areas is just as important to tower preservation as those in
the more accessible areas. In order to provide a means for the
visual detection of tower deficiencies and abnormalities on
inaccessible and hidden tower structural elements, several practical
inspection methods may be employed. For inaccessible areas, these
methods are: binocular or telescope examination, disconnection of
guys at their anchor points for examination from the ground and the
tower, and riding the guys; for subsurface areas, excavation of the
overburden is required.

3. Binocular/Telescope Inspection. This method cannot be expected to

produce the same results as a close visual examination, but it can
reveal conditions such as frayed guy cables, broken guy components,
contaminated insulators, evidence of corrosion, and similar physical
abnormalities. Observing the tower guys and associated insulators
and hardware from the ground and from the tower will substantially
increase the scope of visual inspections. Some units have been
furnished high-powered Questar telescopes to facilitate detailed
inspection from the ground. A special camera provided with the
Questar enables inspectors to photograph discrepancies for the
record. Use of other types of telescopes and binoculars is
acceptable. The use of this device is encouraged during inspections
by Coast Guard personnel.

4. Disconnection of Guys for Inspection and Maintenance. This provides

a means for conducting a close visual inspection of the guy system on
any tower regardless of height. It is practical for towers up to 700
feet in height, but is a most difficult and arduous task when applied
to towers in the 1000+ ft. range. Guys should be disconnected only
for urgent structural reasons, and then only by experienced and
qualified personnel. See A.2 above.

a. Lowering Structural Guys. Whenever a structural guy is slackened

to be walked in toward the tower or to be lowered completely to
the ground, a temporary guy must first be installed and the full
load transferred to this temporary guy. At the tower end, the
temporary guy is usually attached to the tower leg just above the
permanent guy pull-off. At the anchor end, the temporary guy is
usually attached to a come-along or suitable winching device,
which is in turn connected to a spare connection point on or
adjacent to the anchor. This procedure is discussed in Evolution
#6 of Appendix E.

4-5
 b. Maintenance of Structural Guy Anchor Hardware. One of the most
common reasons for disconnecting structural guys from their
anchors is for the maintenance or replacement of anchor-end
turnbuckles or thimbles, or to reposition the anchor-end Big-Grip
dead ends (always using new ones) to allow turnbuckle adjustment.
A come-along, winch, or other suitable pulling device, properly
attached to the existing guy far enough up the guy to allow the
work to be accomplished, and properly connected to a pulling
point adjacent to the existing connection is considered to be an
adequate temporary guy for the performance of this type of work.

c. Radial Guys. When a radial guy is slackened, temporary guying is

not required. However, the opposing radial should be slackened
in order to minimize deflection at the tower top. For 625-ft and
700-ft. Loran-C towers, procedures in Appendix E should be
followed, modified as necessary when the tower is de-energized.

5. Riding the Guys. This inspection method is only preferred for guy
and insulator inspections on towers greater than 1000ft in height
before disconnection of the guys is considered. A bosun's chair or
other device is rigged, and the inspector "rides the guy”, or next to
the guy, to the ground while examining all of the guy components.
While this method requires special skill and rigging, it does not
subject the tower to the risks inherent when a structural guy is
disconnected. Appendix E describes several methods. Specifications
for inspection by guy riding should be the "performance" type.
Actual contract documents should not incorporate procedures shown in
Appendix E, but the contractor may be allowed access to this
appendix.

6. Subsurface Inspections. The most important subsurface structural

element to be inspected is that portion of the steel anchor arm that
is in contact with the soil. However, it may be desirable to expose
the concrete portions of an anchor to check for deterioration. In
either case, careful excavation is necessary. This excavation should
be done only on one anchor at a time, and the excavation should
always be backfilled with properly compacted material before another
excavation is attempted. Up to two radial anchors of a 625-ft or
700-ft tower may be uncovered at a time provided they are opposing
anchors and both are exposed and the radial guy is slackened in each
case. Excavations should be restricted to the sides and backs of
anchors as much as possible, or to the immediate local area around
the protrusion of the anchor arm. Excavations should be done when
winds are as calm as possible and high winds are not forecast for the
work period.

4-6
 Figure 4-1 Excavation and inspection around anchor arm.

7. Corrosion from Within. The structural members of many towers are

thick-walled tubes that are crimped at the ends and then drilled to
provide connection holes. Tiny "drain holes" in the bottom or sides
have tended to admit moisture, sand, and salt air into these pipes.
Severe internal corrosion has been found on some towers with such
members. Inspection by tapping or scraping the undersides of the
members and by the use of ultrasonic devices has been attempted, with
limited results. Inspectors should be alert to the possibility of
this kind of hidden damage, and the Tall Tower Coordination Center
should be notified whenever a serious problem is suspected.

8. Latent Defects. Latent defects in structural materials such as

forging bursts can usually be detected only by special testing, most
of which requires removal of the particular tower component for field
or laboratory analysis. Microscopic structural defects can develop
into serious problems or even tower failure without the benefit of
any prior visual indication of abnormality. Whenever there is reason
to suspect the structural capacity of a particular tower component,
full advantage should be taken of any maintenance project which would
permit the removal and examination of the suspected part. It may be
advantageous to permanently replace the part so that it can be
subjected to a laboratory examination.

9. Analysis and Evaluation of Defects. Whenever a defect on the tower

is found, an overall evaluation of the tower should be conducted. As
an example, one or more tower diagonals may be found to be bowed.
Since diagonals are usually tension members, the bowing may indicate
that unacceptable compressive forces are acting on the diagonal and
that the cause of the condition lies elsewhere. (See Ch. 5
C.5.a(3)) As another example, tower misalignment may be caused by
several conditions such as settlement of the base pier, movement of
the guy anchors, stretching of the guy cables, loose bolts, broken
insulators, slippage of guy hardware, or damaged tower structural
members. Thus all detected abnormalities must be analyzed together
to determine the actual causes, in order to ensure that proper
corrective measures are taken.

4-7
D. Common Abnormalities. The most common conditions with which the
inspection process is concerned are tower misalignment, wear,
deformation, corrosion, improper guy tensions, and damaged structural
members.

1. Tower Misalignment. Guyed towers are designed to deflect when

subject to wind and ice loading conditions, and some degree of
misalignment can occur under normal service conditions. See Figure
3-1. This subject is discussed in Chapter 8.

2. Wear and Deformation. Some degree of mechanical wear of structural

elements such as guys, fittings, shear pins, turnbuckles, thimbles,
etc. can be expected under normal service conditions. This subject
is discussed in Chapters 5 and 6.

3. Corrosion. Since most Coast Guard towers are located in marine

environments, corrosion in the form of highly localized corrosion
cells will be most evident. Corrosion of anchor steel in direct
contact with the soil will vary over a wide range depending on the
corrosivity of the soil. The destruction by corrosion takes many
forms depending on the nature of the metal or alloy and the presence
of water, oxygen, and ions in the environment. In combination with
these essentials are the influences of numerous variables such as
temperature, stresses, area effects, and stray electrical currents.
In most cases visual inspection before cleaning of the corroded
components will provide valuable information leading to the solution
of a corrosion problem. Chapter 5 and 7 discuss this problem
further. The following references provide extensive information on
treatment of corrosion and its prevention as it relates to towers:

Annex J of Structural Standards for Steel Antenna Towers and Antenna

Supporting Structures, TIA/EIA-222-F, Electronic Industries
Association, Washington, D.C.

http://www.corrosionsource.com Corrosion Source Portal

"Understanding and Preventing Guyed Tower Failure Due to Anchor

Shaft Corrosion", Craig M. Snyder, Sioux Falls Tower Specialists
Inc. published in 1994 Broadcast Engineering Conference Proceedings,
available at http://www.anchorguard.com/reference_understand.cfm.

a. Atmospheric Corrosion is primarily due to the effects of moisture

and oxygen, accentuated by contaminants such as sulfur compounds
and salt. In a marine environment, sea salt particles are
carried by the wind and settle onto exposed surfaces. The
presence of moisture (rain, dew, condensation, or high humidity)
on contaminated surfaces triggers the corrosive effects. In the
absence of moisture, most contaminants would have little or no
corrosive effect. The shape of structural elements has an
important bearing on the life of metals exposed to the
atmosphere. Joints, pockets, cavities, crevices under bolt
heads, and other areas where good drainage is not provided can be
expected to develop intense localized corrosion. Salt
contamination decreases rapidly with distance from a saltwater
body, and is greatly affected by wind currents. Corrosion on the
windward side of tower elements can be expected to be more

4-8
 intense because of the erosion of the paint and galvanizing
caused by the wind-driven rain, salt and dust.

b. Galvanic Corrosion. The use of tower parts made of dissimilar

metals coupled together leads to the formation of galvanic cells
and results in corrosion at the point of contact. A galvanic
cell consists of two dissimilar metals in contact and a common
electrolyte. A galvanic couple is created where a portion of a
piece of metal is encased in concrete, such as tower anchor arms.
Bare steel is anodic to concrete-covered steel, and localized
corrosion of the bare portion can often result. The arrangement
of several metals according to their relative potentials in a
given environment has been termed the galvanic series. The
series shown in Table 3-1 has been developed for a marine
environment. When any two metals in this list are coupled in the
presence of an electrolyte the one with the lower number will
corrode. Also, the further apart the metals are in the list the
greater will be the corrosion rate.

Table 3-1 Galvanic Series

#1 Zinc #6 Lead
#2 Aluminum #7 Tin
#3 Steel #8 Copper
#4 Iron #9 Stainless Steel(passive)
#5 Stainless Steel(active)

Galvanic corrosion has beneficial applications, such as the

anodic protection of steel by coating it with zinc (galvanizing)
or aluminum. Where dissimilar metal contact cannot be avoided,
it is good practice to select materials as close as possible in
the galvanic series, to insulate dissimilar metals, and to
prevent moisture from reaching the contact area through the use
of impervious coatings.

c. Soil Corrosion. Soil is considered to be a good, but variable,

electrolyte and any metal in direct contact with soil is
considered to have a high potential for corrosion. The degree of
corrosion is influenced by the properties of the soil. This type
of corrosion can be expected on all portions of anchor arms which
are exposed directly to corrosive soils. Generally, poor
aeration and high acidity, electrical conductivity, salt, and
moisture, and sulfur content are characteristics of corrosive
soils. The zinc coating on anchor steel will protect the base
metal as long as a sufficient amount of the coating remains.
When the zinc coating is inadequate, corrosion of the base metal
will be accelerated. Protection of anchor steel in contact with
the soil should be considered. (i.e. Concrete or NO-OXIDE grease
can be used.)

d. Stray Current Corrosion occurs on sub surface metals. It differs

from all other forms of corrosion in that the electrical current
that causes the corrosion process has a source external to the
affected metal structure. This type of corrosion is generally
associated with direct current, which may be caused by generating
equipment, battery chargers, DC components from electronic
equipment, and lightning. The corrosion process results when

4-9
 current from these external sources flows on a metal, leaves the
metal, and enters the surrounding electrolyte. When stray
currents reach high amperages, metal removal can be extremely
rapid. It is important that guy anchors are grounded to help
avoid stray currents from entering the steel in the anchor.

e. Stress Corrosion Cracking is the development and propagation of

cracks in metals and alloys caused by the combined effects of
corrosion and static tensile stresses. The stress may be
residual, as from cold working or forming, or may result from
external loading. Neither the tensile stress nor the corrosion
acting alone will cause the cracking; both are necessary to
produce a stress-corrosion crack. Failure in this case is a
spontaneous brittle fracture of an otherwise ductile metal,
sometimes at stress levels considerably below the yield strength
of the material. Chloride ions are an almost universal
accelerator of stress corrosion in the atmosphere, affecting
stainless steels, aluminum, and magnesium alloys, but not
affecting most nickel-based alloys.

f. Corrosion Fatigue is a special case of stress corrosion. It is

defined as the reduction of fatigue resistance due to the
presence of a corrosive medium. Corrosion produces pits,
notches, or other starting points on the metal surface for the
concentration of stress and the initiation of fatigue cracks.
Under continuous cyclic stresses, these pits increase in
sharpness and depth, and become the origin of microscopic cracks
that propagate until one of the cracks progresses across the
entire section, causing failure. Localized corrosion at cracks
and pits in protective coatings such as zinc, or on structural
steel elements on the tower and guys, can be much more harmful
from the standpoint of the potential loss of the fatigue strength
of the member.

4. Breakage and Damage. Cracked, broken, bent, or otherwise damaged

structural components can occur from a variety of causes, such as
premature failures and foreign object damage. Most of these
conditions can be readily observed through a careful and thorough
visual inspection. Cracks propagating as a result of fatigue can
only be detected by non-destructive methods such as magnetic particle
(Magnafluxing), dye penetrant, ultrasonic, etc. Weld and bolt
connections are primary areas where visually detectable cracks or
breaks can be expected to occur. Broken or frayed guy strands will
more likely occur at the connection points of the end fittings or
mechanical clamps (see Figure 4-2). Cracks and breaks can also be
expected where there is an abrupt change in cross-section of a part.

4-10
 Figure 4-2 Broken strands on TLE.

5. Failures in a 625-ft or 700-ft. Loran-C Tower Radial Guy. Several

radial guy failures have occurred on 625-ft Loran-C towers. Most
failures are attributed to the hidden corrosion of the steel core of
ACSR cable. The following steps should be followed should such a
failure occur:

a. Failure in the grounded portion of the guy. Retension using any

suitable material as a temporary guy or as a splice near the
broken section. Attempt to achieve the original breakup
insulator pattern.

b. Failure in the TLE or at the lower, strain-insulator end of the

TLE. Lash the broken TLE to the tower and slacken the opposing
radial guy to a tension of a few hundred pounds. When lashing,
use nonconductive line to minimize arcing and wear. Before
lashing, bond the TLE to the tower in accordance with Evolution
#5 of Appendix E, or de-energize the tower. If repairs cannot be
effected soon, the opposing TLE should also be lashed to the
tower and the grounded portion of the guy disconnected.

c. Failure at tower end of TLE. Slacken the opposing radial to

bring the tower alignment to within 6 inches of plumb at the top.
If necessary, increase the tension in the two radial guys
adjacent to the failed guy to a maximum of 150% of the specified
initial tension. If a new Big-Grip location is necessary,
install a new grip rather than repositioning the existing grip.
As an alternative to these tension adjustments, the opposite TLE
may be lashed to the tower as described in paragraph b above.

E. Replacement of Structural Members. The decision to replace a major

structural component in lieu of repair is most difficult. Such decisions
should be made only after a thorough engineering evaluation of the
condition has been made and less expensive and less hazardous corrective

4-11
measures such as shoring or reinforcement have been fully explored.
Considerations when replacing tower members are:

1. A temporary member should always be installed before removal of the

permanent member.

2. Since most temporary members will be installed eccentrically, allow

for the abnormal stresses due to the eccentricity.

3. The temporary member must be designed to clear all obstructions, and

to permit removal of the permanent member.

4. The temporary member should be adjustable in length when installed,

to allow for removal of the shear load from the permanent bolts.

5. Permanent bolts should also be renewed.

6. If at all possible, bracing should be designed to permit installation

of the replacement member prior to removal of the old member.

7. An important element which should always be considered in reaching

the proper decision is the built-in safety factor of the particular
structural component. The residual strength of the component will
not only affect the decision, but in most cases will also determine
the urgency involved. Field or laboratory testing is recommended
whenever the structural integrity of the tower or its components is
uncertain. The following is an example of a testing program which
has provided a better understanding of tower conditions, has avoided
unnecessary maintenance, and has postponed off-air time: Several
fiberglass Insulator pairs on a 625-ft. tower were severely twisted.
Following some corrective action (see Ch. 6 J.2.a(5)), a few
insulators were removed for testing. The rods proved to be as strong
as originally specified, and the decision was made to keep the
existing previously-twisted rods in service.

4-12
CHAPTER 5. TOWER STRUCTURE

A. General. A wide variety of structural materials are used in the

fabrication of Coast Guard towers. Whenever possible, tower purchase
specifications are developed around those materials which provide the
highest degree of maintainability consistent with structural requirements
and economical costs. This Chapter is devoted to structural components
of the tower that are not associated with the guys or guy anchors. Such
components include vertical, horizontal, and diagonal members, fasteners,
foundations, and base insulators. It outlines their most important
characteristics and inspection and maintenance requirements. Steel
antenna towers and other supporting structures should be analyzed when
changes occur to the existing design or operational loading conditions.
This is required when any additional antenna or appurtenance is
contemplated which was not accounted for in the original design.
Additions of any antennas or appurtenances, beyond those contemplated in
the original tower design, must be evaluated by a structural engineer.
Specifically, requests from other government agencies and commercial
companies to place communications equipment on CG property must comply
with the application criteria as outlined by MLC. This chapter will also
provide instruction on the procedure for determining tower leg and face
designations.

B. Standard Tower Leg and Face Designations. The following conventions

shall be used to designate tower legs and faces. The use of these
conventions is very important to avoid confusion in inspection reports
and correspondence. This section provides information on the designation
of tower legs and faces only. Conventions for the designations of guy
lanes and guy levels are provided in Chapter 6 of this manual.

1. Tower Legs. When a ladder is mounted on or inside a tower leg, that

leg is leg “A”. When a ladder is mounted on or integral with a tower
face, the leg which is at the right hand of a climber on the outside
of the tower looking in through the tower framework is leg “A”.
Viewing the tower from above, the remaining legs are designated “B”
and “C” in a clockwise order (Figure 5-1).

2. Tower Faces. A tower face is designated “A”, “B” or “C” according to

the designation of the leg which precedes it in a clockwise order
when the tower is viewed from above (Figure 5-1).

3. Tower Sections. The leg joints/flanges define the beginning and end
of each “section”. Sections are designated by numbers “1”, “2”,
etc., beginning at the base of the tower (Figure 5-1).

4. Tower Panels. The portions of the tower between horizontal members

are called “panels”. They are numbered from the bottom upward in
each section. For example, panel 2-3 is the third panel upward from
the bottom of section 2 (Figure 5-1).

C. Structural Members.
Structural grade galvanized steels and aluminum alloys are used for tower
structural members. These materials are used in a variety of shapes and
sizes and they are selected for their strength, weldability, galvanizing
qualities, resistance to corrosion, general workability, and economy.

5-1
 Structural aluminum alloys in various shapes (usually extrusions) are
used for the smaller towers, generally up to 130 feet in height.
Structural steels are utilized for the taller towers. Stainless steels
are used for special purposes such as where greater corrosion-resistance
is required. For all applications, structures are designed with a safety
factor or allowable stress which allows for variances in the materials,
workmanship, handling, the uncertainties of the ultimate loading forces,
etc.

SECTION #5
PANEL 4-3

SECTION #4
LEG A
PANEL 4-2
FA

SECTION #4
EC

PANEL 4-1
CE
C

A
FA

LADDER PANEL 3-3

SECTION #3
LEG C FACE B LEG B

SECTION #3
LEG A SECTION #2
FA
EC

PANEL 2-2
CE
C

SECTION #2
FA

LADDER

LEG C FACE B LEG B PANEL 1-3

SECTION #1

LEG A PANEL 1-2

SECTION #1
LADDER
PANEL 1-1
FA
EC

CE
C
FA

TOWER WITH HORIZONTAL AND TOWER WITH ONLY DIAGONAL

DIAGONAL SECONDARY MEMBERS SECONDARY MEMBERS
LEG C FACE B LEG B
Figure 5-1

1. Galvanized Steels. Structural grade steels of solid shapes are

generally furnished to the American Society for Testing Materials
Specifications ASTM A36, a mild steel with good weldability. ASTM A7
steel has been used to some extent, but its specification has been
discontinued in favor of A36 steel. In addition many steel towers
are increasingly using 50ksi and other high-strength low alloy steels
including A572 Grade 50, A242, A588. Welded and seamless pipe is
generally furnished to ASTM A53 or A501 and for high strength A618,
or to American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) standard carbon steel
compositions, C1010, C1020, C1025, C1045, C1055. The properties of
most steels furnished under these and other generally accepted

5-2
 standards can be changed radically by subjecting the steel to various
heat treatment processes and manufacturing procedures. Considering
the wide variety of structural steels, it is of utmost importance to
know exactly what type of material is involved before reworking
(welding, heating, straightening, etc.) or replacing any structural
component.

2. Protective Zinc Coating. All tower structural steel members are

galvanized to ASTM A123 that specifies a hot-dip process. The zinc
coating is applied by immersing a completely fabricated structural
member in a bath of molten zinc for a controlled period of time and
at a temperature between 830 and 860°F. This process develops a
layer of iron-zinc alloy next to the steel and an outer layer of
relatively pure zinc. The galvanizing layer on steel can last from
10 to 40 years depending on the severity of the environment and the
quality of the original construction. With few exceptions, galvanized
surfaces have a common method of failure that is usually
characterizied by color and general appearance. When malleable iron
or low carbon-steel galvanized structures are new, the galvanizing is
a light, bright metallic color, sometimes with the characteristic
spangled effect readily apparent. After about a year or more of
normal weathering, this brightness usually disappears and the steel
takes on a more uniform, dull grayish appearance which it maintains
for many years. Just prior to failure, a severe darkening of color
may be noted. This will probably first be observed on the sharp
edges where the zinc film is the thinnest, on the upper portion of
horizontal members, and on the windward face of those towers
subjected to a prevailing wind. If this blackening change is noted
on the structure in general, it is a good indication that the useful
life of the galvanizing has been expended. This condition is the
forerunner to active rusting. If painting is accomplished at this
stage, very little surface preparation will be required and the
galvanizing layer will function as an integral part of the
maintenance paint system. Corrosion of the base metal is readily
identified by rusting. Another type of common galvanizing failure is
attributed primarily to the sandblast effect (erosion) of wind driven
particles such as sand and water. Where steel is exposed to strong
winds, the abrasive actions of these particles eat away at the softer
zinc metal and do not allow time for the customary darkening action
and more graceful type of failure. Under these exposures, the steel
surfaces take on a reddish stained appearance indicative of minute
pinhole damages, where corrosion may already be started to a very
light degree. When this type of failure occurs, it is important to
get a coat of paint on the tower as soon as possible to prevent the
spread of such corrosion and the accelerated breakdown of the
galvanized coating.

3. Structural Aluminum Alloys. A wide variety of aluminum alloys are

available. Their strength, resistance to corrosion, weldability, and
formability are developed by varying the chemical compositions and
tempering processes. Structural aluminum alloys currently in use are
ANSI Alloy designations 6061-T6 or 6063-T6. These types of aluminum
alloys are heat treated, artificially aged, and have the desirable
characteristics of light weight as well as high corrosion-resistance,
weldability, and strength. Type 2024 Aluminum has been used in the
past with very poor results and should not be used. As in the case
of structural steels, it is of the utmost importance to know the

5-3
 exact type of aluminum alloy involved before any reworking or
replacement is accomplished.

a. Self-Protection. The exposure of aluminum alloys to the

atmosphere causes an almost immediate formation of a thin
invisible oxide film. This film tends to protect the metal from
further oxidation by preventing corrosion from penetrating deeper
into the metal itself. Where corrosion occurs, it is usually in
the form of localized pitting and the rate of corrosion generally
falls off with an increase in exposure time. Despite the high
degree of corrosion resistance, aluminum alloys are considered
one of the most active of the structural metals used for tower
construction and they can decompose rapidly when in contact with
other metals due to galvanic action. (Figure 5-2 is a good
example of this kind of problem, where galvanized steel guy pull-
off plates were fastened directly to the 6063-T6 aluminum leg of
a 129 foot Loran-A tower.) Some aluminum alloys can be anodized
at the factory to improve the surface resistance to corrosion.
Other protective coatings such as paint are not normally applied
to aluminum structures unless the structure is installed in a
highly corrosive environment (see Chapter 7).

4. Stainless Steels. Corrosion-resisting (stainless) steels are alloys

with varying compositions of chromium, nickel and copper. These
steels are available in a wide range of physical characteristics and
are furnished to AISI composition ratio designations. The two
important characteristics which differentiate stainless steels from
ordinary carbon steels are coefficient of thermal expansion and
resistance to corrosion. Generally, the expansion and contraction of
structural stainless steels is 35 to 60 percent greater than carbon
steels. Despite the high degree of general corrosion-resistance,
stainless steels are subject to corrosion from galvanic action.
However, the damage from such action is only about one-third that of
ordinary steel subjected to the same conditions. As in the case of
aluminum alloys, stainless steels obtain their corrosion-resistance
properties by the formation of a very thin transparent surface film
that develops naturally when the steel is exposed to the atmosphere.
When corrosion occurs, it can be expected to be in the form of
localized pitting similar to that which is characteristic of aluminum
alloys. It is again emphasized that the exact type of stainless
steel must be known before reworking or replacing a structural
component. The benefits of the corrosion-resistance properties of
stainless steels must be weighted against the relatively high cost of
such material compared to other metals. Even where the combined
factors of corrosion resistance, strength, and low maintenance makes
the use of stainless steel a sound investment, the higher cost is
normally justified only for cotter pins, safety rails, gradient
rings, and, in some cases, bolts and nuts. Type 304 stainless steel
is commonly specified. Type 316 offers higher resistance to marine
atmospheric corrosion, but its greater cost is not normally
justified. Special high tensile strength stainless steels are used
for the rocker assemblies in the large compression cone insulators on
the 1350-foot towers (see Ch. 6 J.1.b(1)).

5-4
 Figure 5-2 Galvanic corrosion on aluminum leg of 129ft tower.

5. Structural Applications. Generally, all structural components on

taller towers are made of galvanized steel. They include leg
members, diagonals, girts, gusset plates, etc. in various shapes such
as solid rounds, pipe, angles, channels, and plates. Galvanized high
strength steel bolts and nuts are used for connecting the assemblies
of prefabricated welded parts. The structural components on the
smaller towers are generally made of aluminum alloys. The structural
members of these smaller towers are generally made of extruded angle
shapes and tubing.

6. Inspection and Maintenance. Inspection and maintenance of structural

metals will be concerned with corrosion, wear, deformation, and

5-5
premature failures. Corrosion control normally requires the most
attention.

a. Galvanized Steels. Protection of the galvanizing by maintaining

the protective coating system over the galvanizing should be the
thrust of the corrosion control effort for galvanized steels. In
cold marine environments, corrosion of galvanized steels is a
slow process and very little, if any, effort is required to
protect the zinc. However, in tropical marine environments with
prevailing winds, protection of the zinc requires a considerable
effort. Experience has shown that once corrosion of the steel
has begun in such a severe environment, it cannot be stopped
without a surface preparation that removes the rust completely.
This requires intensive grinding (which is discouraged) or
abrasive blasting. Efforts to slow the corrosion process by
accepting a surface preparation method which removes only the
worst rust are very costly over time and the success of these
efforts is questionable at best. Failure of the protective
coating over the galvanizing is discussed in Chapter 7. The
galvanized surface will first show signs of corrosion by the
formation of a bulky white substance. The next stage will be the
formation of a bright yellow product resulting from corrosion of
the zinc-iron alloy layer formed on the surface of the base
metal. Since most galvanized surfaces are painted, the loss of
the galvanized coating and the occurrence of rust because of an
improperly maintained protective coating system over the
galvanizing may not be apparent. If there is a fracture of
sufficient size in the paint coating, the rust will appear at the
surface. Where the paint film appears to be intact, but is
minutely cracked, rusting can occur beneath the paint film. This
condition can be detected by the appearance of blistering or
buckling of the paint surface. Since this condition can also be
caused by the loss of adhesion of the paint film, the coating
should be scraped off to the extent necessary to determine if
rusting is taking place. Dissimilar metal contact points should
always be closely examined. On some 625-foot towers and many
small towers, leg members are made of pipe that is galvanized
inside and outside. The accumulation of dirt and other foreign
matter inside hollow members is a good breeding ground for
corrosion. In some cases, open-end members have been sealed
after tower erection. Depending on the quality of the seal, this
effort may eliminate the cause of internal corrosion. As a means
of determining if there is a reduction in wall thickness due to
internal corrosion, leg member inspections should call for random
sounding, particularly in the vicinity of the flanges, by means
of a hammer or wrench. Admittedly, tapping with a hammer or
wrench is not a very reliable method of determining wall
thickness. However, the proven method of sample replacement of
suspect members for internal inspection is not practical for
structural members other than diagonals and horizontals.
Ultrasonic testing has proven to be just as unreliable as member
tapping for the small-diameter 625 foot tower members, and is
much more expensive to perform. Corrective treatment for exposed
surface areas should be accomplished as described in Chapter 7.
When internal corrosion is detected in horizontal or diagonal
members, full-scale member replacement is recommended. If

5-6
 internal corrosion is detected in tower legs, notify the
servicing CEU.

b. Aluminum and Stainless Steels. Corrosion of aluminum alloys and

stainless steels can initially be identified by pitting of the
metal surfaces. Severe corrosion of aluminum alloys can be
exhibited by pronounced exfoliation of the material in which the
corrosion product expands, causing a laminated and flaked
surface. With proper controls, this degree of corrosion will not
occur. As in the case of galvanized pipe sections, inspection
should require random sounding, or where practical, random
replacement and sampling of aluminum tubing structural members in
an effort to detect internal corrosion. When pitting of aluminum
metals becomes severe, corrective treatment should be
accomplished as described in Chapter 7. Stainless steels should
not require a great deal of maintenance, but they should
nevertheless receive periodic inspection. A build-up of dirt and
other contaminates can cause corrosion in the form of pits or
staining. Cleaning such surfaces should be all the maintenance
that stainless steels will require. However, if severe forms of
corrosion are found, a coating of paint as described in Chapter 6
for aluminum surfaces should be applied, except that working and
bearing surfaces should remain uncoated. Since both aluminum and
stainless steels are subject to galvanic corrosion, contact
points with dissimilar metals should always receive special
attention.

c. Wear, Deformation, and Failures. Most forms of wear,

deformation, and failures of parts and welds can usually be
detected through close examination during periodic tower
inspections.

(1) Wear. Wear or abrasion on major tower structural members will

rarely be a problem. This condition can occur at bolted
connections where the bolts are not properly tightened and at
the guy connection points. Where this condition is found at
bolted connections, the bolts should be renewed. Minor
wearing at guy shackle connections can be expected due to
movement of the guys and should not require action unless the
condition becomes progressively worse (see Ch. 6 I.3).

(2) Deformation. Permanent deformation of a structural member

indicates that it has been stressed beyond the elastic limit;
if this deformation is significant, the tower may be in
jeopardy. Deformations of this kind may or may not be
detectable through an instrument check or binocular
inspection. When bends are observed, a straightedge should be
placed parallel to the affected member and the amount of
deflection measured as accurately as possible. Subsequent
straightedge checks should then be periodically performed in
order to determine the degree of any further deflection. If
the deflection is found to be progressive, immediate
corrective action must be taken.

(3) Bowed Diagonals. In tall towers with tension-only diagonals,

bowing of these diagonals is fairly common and is not normally
a cause for concern. Bowed diagonals are usually a result of

5-7
 built-in dimension tolerances of fractions of an inch which
are sufficient to cause a bow off-set of an inch or more.
Some diagonals slip in their bolt holes while under a tensile
load and then cannot return to their original position because
of their high slenderness ratio. If bowing of diagonals in a
particular tower is widespread, or if serious defects or
overloading is suspected, the situation should be reported to
the servicing CEU and to the Tall Tower Coordination Center.

(4) Deformation in Plates. Deformed plates are often the result

of fabrication errors or damage during erection. Replacement
of plates is usually impractical because most plates are
welded to larger structural members on the tower. Attempts to
straighten bent plates by hammering or other means should not
be made. Deformation may also occur in pinned or bolted areas
of plates if the yield strength is exceeded. This can be
noted only by a very thorough inspection. If deformation
induced by service loads is suspected, the situation should be
reported to the servicing CEU and to the Tall Tower
Coordination Center.

(5) Cracks. Cracks, unless microscopic, can be detected by close

examination. With the exception of aluminum towers,
structural components are usually prefabricated by welding.
Fillet welds are the most common in tower fabrication. Cracks
can occur in any portion of a weld, but are most likely along
the line of contact with the joined members. Cracks in pinned
and bolted plates can occur if the stresses at a hole exceed
the ultimate strength of the plate material. Immediate
corrective action must be taken when cracks are found, and
proper and safe repair techniques must be applied.

7. Structural Steel Bolts and Nuts. High strength steel bolts and nuts
conforming to ASTM A325 are generally used for the final assembly of
steel and aluminum tower components. These fasteners are made of
medium carbon steel and are galvanized to ASTM Standard A153. Under
certain conditions, hardened washers are also used. Interference-
body interrupted-rib bolts, which must be hammer-driven to achieve
proper positioning, have been used on several of the taller towers.
Special conditions may exist which justify installation of these
bolts (see C.5.c(3) above). Jam nuts are thin nuts that are used
under full sized nuts to develop the locking action through
deformation of the jam nut. They are frequently applied to the wrong
side of the main nut, where their usefulness as a locknut is
decreased. PAL nuts are a common type of self-locking nut that are
frequently used on Coast Guard towers manufactured by ROHN
Industries. Unlike jam nuts, PAL nuts and other self-locking nuts
are installed on top of the full sized nut. The most common type of
self-locking nut is the ANCO locknut, which achieves its locking
characteristic by an integral steel locking pin. The pin engages the
bolt thread as the nut is tightened and acts to hold the nut in its
final tightened position. Self-locking nuts are reusable, and should
be installed in lieu of jam nuts on new structures or when
replacement is required.

a. Bolt Tensioning Methods. All bolted structural connections on a

tower are subjected to dynamic forces that may cause the

5-8
 fasteners to loosen. Where the main nut is in contact with the
structural surface, proper tensioning of the bolt helps prevent
loosening. Tensioning of high strength bolts is accomplished by
two methods accepted by the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC): the calibrated wrench method and the turn-
of-the-nut method. Unfortunately, there is no correlation
between these methods. A discussion of the differences between,
and the philosophies behind these three methods is beyond the
scope of this Manual: AISC specifications and commentaries should
be consulted for a greater detailed discussion. General Coast
Guard policy in the past has required turn-of-the-nut method.
New bolts installed in existing towers shall use the turn-of-the-
nut method. Construction of new towers may use either the turn-
of-the-nut method or calibrated torque wrench method as approved
by AISC.

b. Inspection and Maintenance. Bolt tension checks have little

apparent value. On painted towers, cracking or peeling of the
paint will tend to indicate movement or loosening of the bolt,
and tapping the bolt with a small hammer or wrench is a very good
indicator of looseness. The bolted joints in nearly all towers
are bearing-type connections. While the performance of bolts in
bearing is not dependent upon high tension, loose bolts are
clearly not desirable. Overall, visual and tapping inspections
are adequate for checking bolts. The following is the current
policy for inspection and maintenance of high strength bolts:

(1) Periodically check tower bolts visually and manually, but not
by torquing.

(2) If a bolt is loose, replace it in kind. Use an ANCO self-

locking nut. The threads should be on the outer face of the
tower structure or on the upper face of leg flanges.

(3) If it is desirable to inspect a bolt or connection by

loosening the nut or removing it, do not reuse the bolt. Do
not remove more than one bolt from a connection at any one
time. The bolts in a single-bolt connection shall not be
removed except as described in Chapter 4 E.

8. Aluminum Bolts and Nuts. Aluminum bolts and nuts provide optimum
material compatibility with aluminum structures, and may be used for
aluminum towers. Bolts are usually made of 2024-T4 alloy. However,
the low corrosion resistance property of 2024 aluminum in marine
environments justifies the slight additional expense of using 6061-T6
or the stronger 7075-T73 alloy fasteners. The clamping load
developed in an aluminum bolt at a given torque value or at a given
rotation of the bolt head or nut can vary widely depending on bolt
and nut materials, thread fit, condition of the bearing surface under
the part being turned, the grip and makeup of the joint, and
lubrication. Over-torqued aluminum fasteners are highly susceptible
to stress corrosion, especially if the fastener has been loosened and
retightened. It is therefore very important that aluminum fasteners
be properly torqued during erection, and controls established to
avoid over-tightening during tower maintenance or inspections.
Experience has shown that torque or rotating values for a particular
application are best established through trial on the job site or by

5-9
 means of pilot models. One method often implemented is to tighten
several bolts to the breaking point, under the same conditions as
will be encountered on the job, and then use 70 to 80 percent of the
lowest torque obtained for tightening all bolts. Lubricating the
aluminum fastener will enable clamping loads within 5 to 10 percent
of the tensile strength of the bolt. A good petroleum based
lubricant will also ensure consistent results, regardless of the
tightening method used. In a bolt and nut combination where the nut
is to be turned, a thorough lubrication of all the surfaces of the
nut is usually all that is necessary to attain the advantage offered
by the lubricant.

9. U-Bolts. U-Bolts are typically installed on tower ladders and at

diagonal crossing points. When galvanized, they are usually very
quick to corrode. Stainless steel U-Bolts should always be used as
replacements.

D. Base Insulators. Loran and other towers that are radiating antennae are
insulated from the supporting base pier by a base insulator. The types
of base insulators in use on Coast Guard towers employ a hollow porcelain
dielectric in various forms. These insulating elements are supported by
attached steel caps and plates that distribute the compressive loads to
the ceramic. A safety factor of 3 is used as a basis for selecting the
size of these base insulators.

1. Compression Cone Type. Single cone-shaped base insulators are

generally used for the smaller guyed towers. See Figure 5-3. Double
inverted cone insulators that provide higher electrical
characteristics are used to support some 625-foot towers. See Figure
5-4. The porcelain elements are smooth surfaced and either straight
or curve sided for these applications. They provide the high
compressive strength necessary for tower support (the curve side
being the stronger) as well as the required electrical
characteristics. These types of insulators are long lead-time
delivery items.

Figure 5-3 Cone shaped base insulator.

5-10
 Figure 5-4 Double cone base insulator.

2. Single and Multiple Cylinder Types. Single cylinder insulators are

used for support of some 625 and 700 foot towers. See Figure 5-5.
They are filled with oil, and some of them contain isolation
transformers for tower obstruction lighting. The porcelain element
surfaces are smooth and the ends are cemented to steel end plates.
Multiple cylinder base insulators are used for 625 and 1350 foot
towers. The number of cylinders in this type of insulator varies
from 5 for 625 foot towers to 21 for the 1350 foot Loran-C towers.
See Figure 5-6. The construction of these insulators is unusual in
that the hollow cylinders are set in gasket seals and are held in
position between a top and bottom steel bearing plate by compression
alone. Prior to placement in service, load is applied and held by
tension rods connected between the two bearing plates. After tower
erection, the tie rods are removed and the tower provides the
compressive load that keeps the cylinders in their proper position.
The cylinders are normally oil-filled with Volt-Esso #35 or any good
transformer oil, and air vents and drains are provided in each
cylinder through nipples screwed into the sides of the bearing
plates. They are made to special order and are long lead-time
delivery items.

3. Inspection and Maintenance. Insulators require periodic inspection

for cracks, broken elements, corrosion of their metal parts, and
contamination of the glazed surfaces of the porcelain elements.
Generally, corrosion and contamination control will require the most
inspection and maintenance attention.

a. Inspection. The porcelain insulator elements in current use have

provided reliable structural service even after they have
developed cracks or become chipped. Such condition may, however,
reduce the dielectric strength of the insulator. Therefore,
cracks or other structural damage to the porcelain elements
should always be considered serious and inspection should strive
for their early detection. Statifluxing the surface of base
insulators will highlight hairline cracks that may not otherwise

5-11
be visible. See Figure 5-7. Statifluxing is more fully
described in Appendix E. The truncated porcelain cones of base
insulators should be checked for signs of fracturing and
spalling, particularly around the joint with the metal cap on the
small end. Similar failures in cylindrical porcelain elements
will generally occur as longitudinal fractures. Spalling may
also occur where their ends contact the supporting bearing
plates. Evidence of arc-over can be an indication of cracks in
the porcelain elements. In oil-filled insulators, oil leaks can
also be indicative of cracks in the elements.

Figure 5-5 Oil filled cylindrical base insulator.

Figure 5-6 Oil-filled multiple cylinder base insulator.

5-12
 b. Maintenance. Porcelain insulator elements will require little,
if any, structural maintenance. Cracked or otherwise seriously
damaged single element base insulators must be replaced as soon
as possible after detection. A similar condition in an element
of a multiple element base insulator may not require replacement
of the insulator depending on the location and severity of the
damage. Any such damage to base insulators should be immediately
reported to the servicing CEU for determination of corrective
action. The elements of this type of insulator cannot be
replaced in the field since the ends of the porcelain cylinders
must be ground to close tolerances to provide necessary support
in combination with the other elements. Metal parts of insulators
should be maintained as indicated under paragraph C.5.a above.
Contamination on insulator porcelains should be washed or wiped
whenever arcing across the insulators becomes objectionable.
Buffing the porcelain surfaces after an application of a very
thin coat of silicone grease has been found to be effective in
preventing contamination flashovers in some areas.

Figure 5-7 Statifluxing an oil-filled base insulator.

c. Base Insulator Replacement. Most insulated guyed towers between

280 and 1350 feet in height have been designed with jacking
plates under the tower legs for the purpose of base insulator
replacement. Base pier jacking plates and jacking legs have been
furnished with some towers. In most cases, jacking procedures of
these towers are contained in the manuals provided by the tower
designers. Base insulator replacement is discussed in detail in
Appendix D.

E. Tower Base. The tower base foundations are normally constructed of

reinforced 3,000psi concrete and are designed to support the vertical and
horizontal (if self supporting tower) forces imposed by the tower. The
two major elements of tower base foundations and guy anchors are

5-13
discussed below. Concrete is considered to be a permanent structural
material and when properly designed, mixed, and placed, should last
indefinitely. To fully serve its purpose in foundations and encasements,
concrete must be of high quality and of sufficient cover over the
embedded anchor bolts and reinforcing steel to protect them from
corrosion. Only high quality concrete can withstand continued exposure
to water, freezing and thawing, and other adverse conditions.
Considering the locations of various towers and the conditions under
which they were erected, it should not be taken for granted that all
foundation and encasement concrete is high quality and fulfilling its
intended purposes.

1. Inspection of Components. Inspection of the tower base foundation

presents a difficult problem in that the major elements of these
structures are concealed. The means for accomplishing subsurface
inspections are discussed under Ch. 4 C.6. Inspections of exposed
and exposable galvanized steel should be guided by the discussion in
C.5.a above. The timing or frequency of inspections should be
determined by the major field commander based on the soil conditions,
corrosive environment and history involved. The inspection should
note and record the surface condition of anchor bolts and exposed
steel. In the event a substantial loss of cross-section or other
structural deficiency, the servicing CEU should be consulted as to
proper corrective action before proceeding further. Structural and
encasement concrete should be checked for cracks and spalls,
mechanical damage, and erosion. When subsurface concrete is exposed,
the surfaces should be tapped and probed with a chisel or screwdriver
to check for soundness and integrity of the concrete. Cracking and
spalling, with or without surface indications of rust, can be caused
by mechanical damage, expansion pressure resulting from rusting of
embedded steel, or expansion of salt and ice crystals in the pores of
low quality porous concrete. Erosion of concrete can be caused by
surface or subsurface water action.

2. General Above-Ground Inspections. The tower base foundation piers

should be checked periodically for settlement or lateral movement.
Slight vertical and horizontal movements cannot be detected with the
unaided eye, but movements of serious proportions can be visually
detected. Such inspections should look for evidence of mounding or
folding of the soil at the sides of the foundation with an
accompanying crevice on the other side. Such a condition would be
indicative of differential settlement of the tower base pier. Where
there is reason to suspect pier movement, periodic instrument checks
should be conducted.

3. Maintenance. Whenever normally hidden foundation elements are

exposed for inspection, preparations should be made to accomplish
anticipated maintenance at the same time. The most common form of
maintenance will consist of patching cracks and spalled areas in the
surface and subsurface concrete elements.

4. Drainage and Landscaping. In order to preserve the original design

conditions, the soil surrounding the base pier must be maintained in
a stable and well compacted condition with the ground surfaces sloped
away from the piers to provide adequate drainage. Ponding of water
should never be allowed, since the structural stability of the pier

5-14
 can be diminished and settlement or lateral movement may occur.
Landscaping or the installation of surface or subsurface drains
should be provided where ponding is a problem. Vegetation should not
be permitted to grow in the vicinity of the tower base pier.

5. Ground Straps. At many towers, the base insulator rests on top of

copper ground straps that are bonded to the ground system. This
arrangement has caused severe galvanic corrosion of the steel base
insulator plates. It has been established that the only bonding
connection which is necessary between the base plate of the insulator
and the grounding system is a single #8 AWG conductor. The most
acceptable grounding arrangement at the base of a Loran-C tower is
shown in Figure 5-8. The 6 inch ground strap can be installed around
the top or side of the foundation pedestal in order to reach all
ground-end ball gap arms. Existing straps beneath the base insulator
may then be cut flush with the insulator plate, and corrosion may be
arrested by cleaning the area and sealing it with a petroleum-based
coating. It is necessary to ensure that the transmitter ground lead
is connected to a portion of the ground radial system and not to the
base insulator plate. However, if the grounded rod of the ball gaps
is mounted on the base insulator plate, a larger conductor between
the base insulator and the ground system is required; its size is
computed as follows:

Figure 5-8 Grounding and lightning protection details at the base of an

energized tower.

5-15
 a. Compute the projected area of one of the balls of the ball gap,
in square inches. Call the numerical value of this area "M".

b. Choose a conductor whose perimeter, when viewed in cross-section,

is equal to or greater than "M" when expressed in inches. The
minimum recommended strap thickness is 16 gage.

c. For example, consider 1-1/2 inch diameter balls on a tower's ball

gaps. The projected area is π/4 x (1-1/2)2 or 1.77 square inches.
"M" = 1.77. Select a one-inch wide stainless steel strap as the
base-insulator-to-ground-system conductor; viewed in cross-
section, it perimeter is 1" + 1" + 2 x (strap thickness), whose
numerical value is more than "M".

d. The stainless steel strap should then be bonded to the copper

ground strap(s) a suitable distance from the base insulator where
inspection and maintenance of this connection can be readily
accomplished.

F. Ladder Safety Rail, and Rest Platforms. These features require

particular attention because of their relationship to the safety of
climbers. The safety rail, ladder, rest platforms, and all associated
connections should be carefully inspected for corrosion, breaks,
looseness, etc. The safety rail should be inspected to ensure that the
rail sections have been installed right-side up (that the notches are at
the bottom of the tapered cuts rather than at the top) and for worn,
broken or defective notches. Replace defective rail sections as soon as
possible. Ensure that Safety Rail (or any fixed ladder safety system) is
properly supported and fastened at the minimum intervals specified by the
manufacturer. Climbing devices should be visually inspected for cracks
before each use. Safety rails should not be painted unless corrosion is
a serious problem. The use of stainless steel safety rails is
recommended in corrosive environments to reduce maintenance. Paint or
coatings applied to ladder rungs should not have a smooth or glossy
finish in order to reduce the possibility of slipping while climbing.
The clamps, studs, bolts, and nuts used to secure the safety climbing
rail should be inspected for corrosion, looseness, and breakage, and
should be repaired or renewed as appropriate. Replacement studs, nuts
and bolts should be stainless steel.

G. Hoists and Elevators. Originally, many 625 and 1350 foot towers were
furnished with hoists, and several 1350 foot towers were furnished with
elevators. Due to their infrequent use and the high degree of inspection
and maintenance required to keep them safely operable, they are no longer
specified for new towers. Although most of the hoists, motors, controls,
and elevators have been removed from existing towers, some elements of
the system such as pulleys, fair leads, cab rails, and platforms have
been retained to facilitate inspection and maintenance.

H. Ground Systems. Most antenna towers and antenna support structures must
be properly grounded to maintain proper electrical and counterpoise
characteristics for the antenna. Loran tower ground systems consist of
copper wire radials bonded to tubing or screen and extending outward from
the tower base toward the tower guy or radial anchors. Depending on the
type of antenna and the type of soil conditions involved, radial ground
wires will be required every 1 to 4 degrees in a full circle around the
tower base. The ends of the ground wires may be brazed to individual

5-16
 ground rods, which are embedded into the earth to prescribed depths. The
tower base pier is normally grounded as are the guy anchor arms.
Ideally, the radial ground system should be shallowly buried for
electrical stability and to prevent damage from vehicles and equipment.
In many locations, however, ground systems have been placed above ground,
and fastened at various intervals with stakes or pins to keep the wires
in place. Ground wires, leads, and connections should be maintained in
their design condition. Wires above grade should be inspected for breaks
or looseness, and repaired by brazing or by splicing in new sections as
appropriate. Exothermic welding of ground connections provides a better
bond, but is not very practical except during initial installation of the
ground system. Special mechanical fasteners are available for ground
connections and will give satisfactory results if they are properly sized
and installed.

I. Tower Jacking Legs. Jacking leg or frames have been provided for some
towers for use in connection with initial erection and with replacement
of the base insulators. These items should be inspected periodically and
maintained in good condition to permit their use when required.

J. Spare Parts. Whether through initial outfitting or subsequent

procurement, a variety of structural and electrical spare parts are
available for each tower or antenna system. Typical parts are hardware
or expendable items such as turnbuckles, Big-Grips, light bulbs, nuts,
bolts, mercury switches, and johnny-ball insulators; sometimes major
items such as tower members and base insulators are stored at the
station.

1. Identification. All tower spare parts must be carefully identified

and maintained in like-new condition. The servicing CEU should
ensure that station personnel can accurately identify each spare part
by attaching tags, providing detailed descriptions, or whatever other
method may be most appropriate. Any item that is in questionable
condition should be discarded.

2. Inventory. An accurate inventory of all tower spares should be

available at the station and in the office of the servicing CEU. This
inventory should be updated periodically by responsible station
personnel. Local experience should dictate detailed spare parts
requirements, based on station isolation, long lead-time items, and
probability of failures.

3. Storage. Tower spare parts should be stored in a specially

designated location at every station, and access to this area should
be strictly limited. Items which may be adversely affected by
exposure to weather should be stored indoors. A central storage
area, within the servicing CEUs jurisdiction, may be justified for
common heavy or expensive tower spares.

4. Procurement. It is recommended that all major tower part

procurements be coordinated by the servicing CEU. The station may be
made responsible for procuring minor electrical system items such as
lamps and mercury switches. Certain long lead-time items such as
isolation transformers may be in Coast Guard stock. However, many
older base insulators are no longer manufactured. As a result,
replacements for older base insulators may require custom fabrication
by the manufacturer. In cases where custom fabrication of older base

5-17
 insulators is not possible, a tower engineer should determine which
base insulator currently being manufactured is appropriate to replace
the older insulator.

K. Antenna Installations. The installation of antennas, mounting brackets,

and feed lines on towers add to the sail area of the structure. For
every tower, there is a limit to the amount of sail area that can be
placed on a tower to avoid overloading it in high wind or ice conditions.
This allowable limit shall be checked prior to the installation of
antennas on towers. Consult the servicing CEU for verification that it
is safe to install the proposed equipment. At a minimum the following
information is required:

1. Tower Model and height.

2. Existing antenna configuration with flat plate equivalent areas and

surface areas for existing antennas and mounting brackets. The flat
plate equivalent area and surface area are typically available from
manufacturer's technical data.

3. Manufacturer's technical data for the proposed installation including

the antenna, mounting bracket, feed line and location on the tower.

L. Antenna Removals. The removal of existing antennas that are no longer

needed is required to minimize loads on towers during storm conditions.
The removal should include the antenna, mounting bracket, and
transmission line. Notify the servicing CEU and the cognizant ESU in the
event of an antenna removal.

5-18
CHAPTER 6. GUYS AND GUY ANCHORS

A. General. A wide variety of materials are used in guy supports for

towers. This chapter is devoted to hardware specific to guyed towers
including, guy cable, guy hardware, insulators, and anchors. It outlines
their most important characteristics and inspection and maintenance
requirements. This chapter will also provide instruction on the
procedure for designating guy lanes, guy levels, and anchors.

B. Standard Guys, Guy Anchor and Insulator Designations. The following

conventions shall be used to designate tower guy anchors, guy lanes, guy
levels, and guy insulators. The use of these conventions is very
important to avoid confusion in inspection reports and correspondence.
This section provides information on guy and anchor designations only.
Conventions for the designation of tower legs and faces are provided in
Chapter 5 of this manual.

1. Guy Lanes. Guy lanes are designated “1”, “2”, and “3” starting with
the first lane clockwise from the North. There are normally three
structural guy lanes for a guyed tower and up to 24 lanes when
designating top loading radials of some Loran-C towers (Figure 6-1).

2. Guy Anchors. Anchors are designated by a letter and number. The

anchors nearest the tower are designated “A”, the next farthest “B”,
and so on. Anchors are also designated by the “guy lane” that they
are in (Figure 6-2).

3. Guy Levels. Guys are designated by a number according to the tower

attachment level and a letter if the tower is faced-guyed. Tower
attachment levels are numbered consecutively from the lowest level
up. The letter used for face-guyed towers is either “A” if it is the
left hand guy when looking at the tower from the anchor, or “B” if it
is the right hand guy (Figure 6-2). Top loading radial guys receive
the same designation as their anchors, since only one guy is attached
to each anchor and there can be no confusion. For example:

a. “4-B2” is the guy leading from the 4th guy level attachment point
to anchor B in guy lane 2, on a corner-guyed tower.

b. “3B-A1” is the right hand guy leading from the 3rd guy level
attachment point to anchor A in guy lane 1, on a face-guyed
tower.

c. "C13" is a radial guy that is the 13th such guy clockwise from
North. Note that "C13" is also the proper anchor designation.

4. Multi-Tower Antennae.

a. SLT Antennae. View the antenna field in plan, and consider the
feed point as the center of the system. The first tower
clockwise from North is "Tower #1", the next clockwise is "Tower
#2", etc. SLT antenna panels are designated by two digits
according to their support tower numbers; for example Antenna
Panel 2-3 is supported by towers #2 and #3. "Antenna Panels"
refer to the energized antenna wire arrays, and should not be

6-1
 confused with "Tower Panels" discussed in Chapter 5 B.4.

(1) SLT and TIP Guys do not follow the convention established in
B.3 above for their designations. Guy lanes are designated
"A", "B", or "Cl", depending on their position relative to the
antenna system, rather than in reference to North:
Lane B

Lane A To Antenna Panel Lane C

(2) Each guy is then designated by (a) pull-off elevation, (b)

lane, and (c) tower number. For example, guy "7-B-TWR#2" is
the seventh-level guy in lane "B" at Tower #2.

(3) SLT and TIP Anchors. The anchors nearest the tower are
designated "A", the next farthest "B", etc. This letter, plus
the lane designation, plus the tower number will identify a
particular anchor. To avoid confusion, the word "lane" should
be used with the lane designation. For example, "B-lane C -
TWR#3 is the anchor second farthest from tower #3 in lane C.

b. Log-Periodic Antennae (LPA). In an LPA, the Northernmost tower

is "Tower #1", the Southernmost tower is "Tower #2". Where there
is more than one LPA at a particular station, local practice
should be used to designate each LPA. Guys and anchors of LPAs
should be given designations in accordance with Section B above.

5. Guy Insulators and Segments.

a. 1350-ft. Loran-C Towers. These towers have insulators in a

"cluster" at the tower connection points (designated "CL") and
distributed along their guys as "break-up" insulators (designated
"BU"). The insulators are numbered from the tower downward,
beginning with "1CL" for the first cluster insulator and "1BU" -
for the first break-up insulator. Thus, "3-B2-4CL" is the 4th
insulator in the cluster in guy 3-B2.

b. Strain Insulators. Ceramic and fiberglass insulators whose

insulating element is in tension are generally known as "strain
insulators". Since there is usually only one strain insulator
per guy, the designation is "Strain Insulator, Guy _".

c. All other insulators are numbered from the tower downward

(ignoring the presence of strain insulators), and designated
according to this number and the guy in which they are located.
Thus, "3A-B3-4" is the 4th insulator down from the tower in guy
3A-B3.

d. Guy Segments. Guy segments are designated according to the guy

in which they are located and are numbered from the strain

6-2
 insulator downward. Thus, "3A-B3-4" is the 4th segment down from
the strain insulator in guy 3A-B3. It is also an insulator
designation (see previous paragraph), but the context of the
message, report, etc. should make it clear that it is a segment
being discussed. Top-loading elements above the strain insulator
are designated "TLE (guy #).

C. Guy Cables and End Fittings. Steel cable used for tower guys and top
loading elements are zinc-, aluminum-, or copper-coated wire arranged in
the form of strand or rope. Guy cables serve to provide lateral support
for the tower and are an integral element in the structural system.
Cables are selected on the basis of their rated breaking strengths. In
accordance with EIA/EIA-222-(series), for structures under 700 ft in
height, the safety factor of guys and their connections shall be not less
than 2.0. For structures 1200 ft or greater in height, the safety factor
of guys and their connections shall not be less than 2.5. For structures
between 700 ft and 1200 ft in height, the minimum safety factor of guys
and their connections shall be determined by linear interpolation between
2.0 and 2.5 (Note: A 1/3 increase in stress for wind-loading conditions
does not apply to the published breaking strength of guys and their
connections. In addition, cables used as antenna elements are selected
for electrical characteristics. When specified, cable and end fittings
are proof-tested and pre-stressed before being placed in service. Pre-
stressing is normally a requirement for larger cable sizes used on taller
towers in order to remove constructional looseness.

D. Wire Strand and Rope. Wire strand is composed of individual wires laid
helically about an axis or center wire that produces a symmetrical cross-
section. Wire rope consists of strands (each made up of several wires)
laid helically around a center strand. The direction of rotation or
helix of either the wires in a strand or the strands in a rope is termed
“lay”. Wires spiraling towards the left or right are denoted as left
hand lay and right hand lay, respectively. Strand is less flexible than
wire rope, has a higher modulus of elasticity, and size for size is
stronger by about 30 percent. That strand is less expensive than rope
accounts in part for its extensive use for tower guys. There are also
major differences in the types of wire strand and wire rope. Primary
classifications for strand are Steel Strand and Bridge Strand, and for
rope are Wire Rope and Bridge Rope. Appendix C provides cable data
including tabulations of sizes, grades, and strengths.

6-3
 GUY LANE #1

GUY LANE #3

GUY LANE #2

CORNER GUYED TOWER

A B
GUY LANE #3 GUY LANE #1

B A N

A B
GUY LANE #2

FACE GUYED TOWER

TOWER GUY LANE DESIGNATIONS

Figure 6-1

6-4
 NOTES:
1. GUY ATTACHMENT LEVELS ARE NUMBERED FROM THE LOWEST LEVEL UP.
GUY 2. GUY ANCHORS ARE INDICATED BY A LETTER STARTING WITH "A" CLOSEST
4-B1 TO THE TOWER AND PROCEEDING OUTWARD.

3. GUY LANE DESIGNATIONS ARE DEPENDANT UPON THE DIRECTION OF TRUE

NORTH. LANE #1 IS THE FIRST LANE CLOCKWISE FROM NORTH.

4. IN THE ILLUSTRATION, ASSUME THAT GUY LANE #1 ON A CORNER GUYED

TOWER IS SHOWN.

CORNER GUYED TOWER:

GUY GUY 3 - B 1
3-B1
GUY LANE
ANCHOR
GUY ATTACHMENT LEVEL

FACE GUYED TOWER:

GUY GUY 3 A - B 1
2-A1
GUY LANE
ANCHOR
LEFT/RIGHT DESIGNATION
GUY ATTACHMENT LEVEL
GUY
1-A1

ANCHOR "A" ANCHOR "B"

TOWER GUY AND ANCHOR DESIGNATION

Figure 6-2

6-5
E. Galvanized Steel Cable. The individual steel wires are coated with zinc,
which is either applied electrolytically or by the hot-dip process in
accordance with ASTM A475 or A586. As in the case of galvanized steel
shapes, the purpose of the coating is to provide corrosion protection of
the steel wires. The weight of the zinc coating is specified as Class A,
B, or C, which designates the coating weight in ounces per square foot of
uncoated wire surface. A hot-dip process results in a Class A coating
thickness. Class B and C coatings are applied electrolytically and have
double and triple the mil thickness of a Class A coating, respectively.
The catalog breaking strength of bridge strand and rope is usually based
on a Class A coating of the individual wires. It is standard
manufacturing practice to provide galvanized cable with all wires having
either a Class A, Class B, or Class C coating on the outer wires and a
Class A coating on the inner wires. The theory of applying a thinner
coating of zinc on the inner wires is that they are protected from the
corrosive elements by the outer wires of the cable. As the thickness of
the zinc coating on the individual wires increases from Class A to Class
C, the diameter of steel wires which make up the cable decreases to
compensate for the addition of the peripheral zinc coating so as to
maintain the standard catalog nominal diameter of the strand or rope.
For corrosive environments, Coast Guard practice is to call for Class C
galvanizing on all inside and outside wires. When other than Class A
galvanizing for the inside and outside wires is required, the
manufacturer must be consulted on the adjusted minimum breaking strength
of the cable.

F. Aluminum Coated Steel Cable. This type of cable is made up of high

strength steel wires covered by a coating of aluminum. The wires are
arranged in the form of a single multi-wire strand. The coating is
applied by either the hot-dip method (ASTM A474) or by a powder
metallurgical process (ASTM B415 and B416). “Alumoweld” is a common
cable manufactured to these specifications. The advantages of aluminum
coated steel cable are its high degree of corrosion resistance and its
high strength to weight ratio. However, the use of this type cable may
be limited because of size limitations.

G. Reinforced Aluminum Conductors. This type of cable is furnished in the

form of multi-layered strand in which the inner core wires are made of
either galvanized steel or aluminum coated steel with the outer wires
made of solid bare aluminum wire. This strand is often confused with
aluminum coated strand such as Alumoweld. The basic application for this
cable is as open wire conductors where the combination of strength and
conductivity are required. It has been used extensively for the top
loading elements of Loran-C towers. The galvanized steel wire for the
core of aluminum conductor, steel reinforced (ACSR) strand is furnished
to ASTM B498, which covers various weights of the zinc coating, such as
Class A, B, or C. The aluminum conductor is furnished to ASTM B230 and
the completed strand to ASTM B232. Cable with a core of aluminum-coated
steel wires is known as ACSR/AW. Another somewhat stronger variation of
ACSR cable is Alumoweld-Aluminum Conductor (AWAC). A specially designed
Big-Grip type connector is usually specified for all these cables.
Several problems have occurred, however. The ACSR solid aluminum outer
conductors have broken at the press fittings which in some cases led to
slippage and loss of a top-loading element. Brittle and/or stress
failure of the solid aluminum wires has occurred and can be expected to
occur with time. For these and associated reasons, ACSR, ACSR/AW, AWAC
or any other type of strand which consist, in part, of solid aluminum

6-6
 wires are no longer recommended for Coast Guard use. Whenever
replacement of existing guy or antenna cables of this type is indicated
or required, Alumoweld cable should be used.

H. Copper Coated Steel Cable. This type of cable is made up of steel wires
covered by a coating of copper and arranged in the form of a multi-wire
strand. The strand is available in a wide range of sizes, strengths and
degrees of conductivity. The coating process is achieved by pouring
molten copper into a mold containing a heated steel billet, which unites
the copper and steel. The resultant product is then hot-rolled to rod
size and then cold-drawn into finished wire sizes. The thickness of the
copper coating varies with the size of the wire. The coated wire is
furnished to ASTM B227 and the completed strand is furnished to ASTM
B228. Copper coated steel wire strand has slightly less strength than an
equally sized strand made up of aluminum coated steel wire, and is also
more expensive. This type of cable has been used for structural guying
on 625-ft. towers. The copper coating provides excellent corrosion
protection because of its nobility. However, if the coating is nicked or
scratched to the extent that the underlying steel is exposed, the steel
will sacrifice itself to protect the more noble copper coating (in much
the same way that zinc will sacrifice itself to protect steel), resulting
in the loss of the structural cross section of the cable. This
disadvantage is inherent in the use of copper-coated steel cable for
tower structural guys, and more frequent corrosion control inspections
are required. This type cable is not recommended for Coast Guard use.

I. Cable End Fittings. Terminals for the various types of guy cables
previously discussed are factory applied compression (press type)
fittings, sockets, and pre-formed Big-Grip dead-ends. These end fittings
are designed to have a holding efficiency equal to or greater than the
catalog rated strength of the cable to which they are applied. Cable
clips are less efficient, and consequently are not authorized for any new
structural application. See Appendix C for illustrations of end
fittings.

1. Compression Fittings. Compression or press type fittings are

generally applied to guy cables under one inch in diameter. They are
normally applied by the tower fabricator. They consist of a sleeve
that is applied to the live and dead ends of a cable looped around
guy strain insulators or thimbles. These fittings are generally made
of copper, aluminum or stainless steel alloys compatible with the
surface material of the cable to which they are applied. Compression
end fittings having a forged clevis or eye for connection purposes
(in lieu of forming a loop as described above) are referred to as
swaged fittings. These are commonly used on smaller antenna arrays,
mostly with stainless steel cable.

2. Socket End Fittings. Open and closed end sockets are used for the
larger cable sizes (usually over one-inch in diameter), particularly
on bridge strand and rope where high strength end fittings are
required. These sockets are usually made of galvanized carbon steel
and are forged and machined. The open socket has a clevis pin
connection, whereas the closed socket has an eye pin connection.
Socketing is accomplished by inserting the separated strand or rope
wires into the cone shaped basket of the socket. The socket is then
heated and molten zinc is poured into the basket to form the high
strength connection. This type of socket end fitting is also

6-7
 referred to as a potted fitting. In recent years, epoxy has been
used to fill the socket basket in lieu of zinc. This method allows
for socketing in the field in emergency situations where a molten
zinc pot is not available. Although this method is also used by the
cable manufacturers upon request, the process requires much more
quality control than zinc filling and is not recommended when zinc
filling can be performed.

3. Preformed Line Products Big-Grip® Dead-Ends (BGDEs). BGDEs (often

referred to as a PLP's or dead-ends) are a commonly used end
connector. BGDEs is a proprietary product manufactured by the
Preformed Line Products Company. The BGDE is helically laid over the
main cable; the greater the pull the tighter the clamping action of
the dead-end. See Appendix C for product information. The inside of
the BGDE is coated with an abrasive that is suited to the material of
the cable being gripped. The dead-ends are made of the same material
as the strand or cable to which they are applied, including high
strength steel wires that are coated with aluminum, zinc, or copper
depending on the coating of the main cable. The lay of the BGDE must
match the lay of the main cable. When ordering any Preformed Dead-
End, it is very important to specify the type, size, and lay of the
main cable, and the intended use of the dead-end if not as an end
grip or as noted in H.3.a below. If it is to be used with open or
closed end porcelain insulators (johnny-ball), the type and size of
insulator should also be carefully specified. Similar preformed
products in use on Coast Guard antennae are “splices”, for connecting
two cables end-to-end, “armor rods” for protection of an area of a
cable or for building up cable diameter.

a. Big-Grip® Dead-Ends for ACSR, AWAC, and ACSR/AW. Special double

BGDEs are used for end connections of ACSR type cable. First the
outer aluminum layers of the cable are cut back to expose the
inner core wires. A small BGDE is then applied to grip these
core wires. Armor rod is then applied (if necessary) over the
smaller BGDE to build up the cross-section to that of the
original main cable. Finally, a large BGDE is applied over the
armor rod and extended over a few feet of the main cable beyond
the cut-back point. The BGDE loops are then fitted with a single
thimble, and the connection is ready.

b. Dead-end Installation. During the original installation of a

dead-end on a cable, the BGDE may be applied up to three times in
order to achieve proper positioning. If the proper positioning
cannot be achieved in three applications, the BGDE must be
discarded. If removal is necessary after a BGDE has been
installed under load for a period greater than 3 months, the
dead-end shall be replaced with a new one.

c. Use as a Pulling Grip. The use of BGDEs as an auxiliary grip for

hauling a cable or removing the load from the permanent end
connection is authorized, provided that the provisions in H.3.b
above are complied with.

d. End Sleeves. Instances of BGDEs unraveling have occurred. After

testing and analysis by the manufacturer, it was determined that
icing and misapplication of the Big-Grips were the causes of

6-8
 unraveling. Unraveling tends to occur only on BGDEs at the lower
ends of guys, due to ice sliding down onto the BGDE legs. The
effect of guy galloping and vibration was also studied, but
results were inconclusive. As a preventive measure, the
manufacturer developed a special "end sleeve”, as shown in Figure
6-3, and suggested that these end sleeves be installed on all
BGDEs. The end sleeve ensures that the Big-Grip remains properly
applied as they prevent unraveling, discourage tampering, and
break up and deflect any ice that may travel down the guy cable.
When ordering end sleeves, carefully specify the part number of
the dead-end, type of coating, and size of the main cable. A
common sleeve design works with either lay. In an emergency,
available sleeves of the wrong size may be used by crimping
oversized sleeves or spreading undersized sleeves. It is Coast
Guard policy to install end sleeves in the following situations:

Figure 6-3 End sleeve installed on guy-grip dead end.

(1) Where the cable connected by dead-end extends for 200 feet or
more without interruption, in either an upward or downward
direction, where icing can occur.

(2) On ground level BGDEs at remote, unmanned sites.

(3) On any dead-end which, in the opinion of the servicing CEU,

requires this added safety precaution.

e. Unraveling. If unraveling of a dead-end, splice, or similar

connector is observed, the urgency of replacement may depend on
the position of the grip along the guy, the location of the
tower, and the resulting cost and scope of work. Any unraveling
should be reported to the servicing CEU. The following table
gives estimates of the remaining strength in unraveled dead-ends
and should be considered when scheduling repair:

# of pitches unraveled % of rated strength remaining

1 98
2 88
3 73

6-9
 4 48

f. Restriction in Use of End Fittings. Cable clip, U-bolts, line

taps or similar manually applied hardware are less efficient than
the aforementioned fittings and require frequent checking for
tightness. They have been used in the past to some extent for
dead ending guy cables on towers up to 625 feet in height.
However, they are no longer specified for use in any structural
application on tower guys. Their use is restricted to reducing
the cable bight size around guy insulators when the cable is held
by factory applied compression fittings, or for special,
temporary purposes (such as in a splice or as shown in Figure 6-
4) until a permanent fix is made.

Figure 6-4 "Sister Wire" consisting of shackles, turnbuckles, wire

rope segment with preformed eye, reinforcing a TLE on a Loran tower.

J. Inspection and Maintenance. Corrosion control is the most common and

continuing inspection and maintenance problem for guy cable and end
fittings. However, abrasion and complete breaks in the cables
(particularly at the connection points of end fittings) can also occur.
Structural guys have a built-in safety factor to compensate for loss of
cross-sectional area of the steel wires of the cable. The amount of
permissible loss and residual cable strength is impossible to determine
when corrosion is the reducing agent. However, fairly accurate estimates
can be made when one or more of the cable wires are broken.

1. Inspection. Tower guy cables are, for the most part, inaccessible
and difficult to inspect. With the exception of bulging outer cable
wires due to interior wire corrosion, the extent of any damage to the
interior wires of the cable is practically impossible to detect
without removing the cable from service. However, bulging of the

6-10
outer cable wires is difficult to detect and in many cases is not
present. Wind induced vibration and rain frequently "washes away"
the corrosion as it develops reducing the likelihood of bulging in
the cable. However, staining can occur on the cable indicative of
this type of corrosive action. The only known practical method
(short of destructive testing) for determining the condition of any
type of installed guy cable is by visual inspection of the outside of
the cable. Indicators of cable condition are abrasion of the outside
wires, broken outside wires (Figure 3-4), and corrosion. In extreme
cases, a marked decrease in cable diameter can be an indication of
severe abrasion of the outside wires and/or corrosion of the inside
wires. Previous inspection reports and as-built drawings should be
carefully consulted prior to taking action on any cables or wires
evaluated solely on changes in diameter. If surface examination does
not show evidence of corrosion, broken wires or abrasion, but the
cable diameter is markedly reduced, a condition of internal
deterioration or material failure may have taken place. In all such
extreme cases, immediate corrective action is required. A reasonable
guide to overall guy cable condition is a close examination of the
guy cables that are accessible, such as the ground level. As a rule,
examination of the exposed surfaces of guy cables will provide a
fairly accurate indication of the cable’s condition and the
importance of periodic inspection is emphasized. Since guy cables
are subjected to changes in stress, bending, abrasion and corrosion,
any one of which can ultimately reduce strength, their condition can
be expected to change. It is necessary, therefore to watch for these
changes and maintain a record of cable condition so that any adverse
trends can be determined. Whenever a broken cable wire is found,
replacement or bracing of the involved guy segment must be
considered. See Figure 6-4. The seriousness of such a condition is
considered as being dependent on the number of sound wires left in
the cable. In cases of this kind, the cause of the break should be
determined, and the area of the break closely examined to see if
there is any evidence of a pending failure of the other cable wires,
such as necking down of the wire (reduction in section due to
overstressing) or corrosion. If corrosion is found to be the cause,
the chances are that the adjacent wires have been subjected to some
degree of the same corrosion process (except in the case of
“Copperweld”), and complete failure of the cable could be very close
at hand. During tower inspections, the cables should always be
closely examined at the end fittings, as it is at these points where
abrasion, breaks, and corrosion of the wires will most likely occur.
Any evidence of cable pullout or slippage of the end fittings should
be carefully noted. The end fittings with their associated shear
pins and cotter pins should also receive reasonable inspection
coverage for corrosion, deformation, cracks and other signs of
distress. The guidelines presented in Chapter 4 should be consulted
for a discussion of the various techniques that may be employed to
perform cable and end fitting inspections.

a. Galvanized and Aluminum Coated Steel Cables. Zinc and aluminum

coated steel cable will exhibit corrosion in much the same manner
as galvanized steel and aluminum structural shapes. Chapter 5 C
should be referred to for a discussion of the corrosion process
as it pertains to zinc and aluminum. Special attention must be
paid to ACSR cable, especially at the factory applied press end
fittings where slippage or failure of the outer aluminum

6-11
 conductors has been prevalent (see F above). A small mirror
mounted on a short stick or pole will help to examine the lower
portions of the end fittings at the tower end of the guys and
TLE’s. Another characteristic of ACSR cable is a tendency for
the inner galvanized core wires to corrode, causing a bulging
(“birdcaging”) in the cable. Replacement should be considered if
the bulging increases or the inner strands show significant wear
or breakage. Sample testing to breaking load, if practical and
feasible, may help to determine if and when replacement is
justified.

b. Copper Coated Steel Cable. Corrosion of copper coated steel wire

cable presents a much different and more difficult problem than
does corrosion of zinc and aluminum protective coatings. Copper
is a noble metal and is not a sacrificial coating as is the case
of zinc and aluminum. It has a high degree of resistance to
atmospheric attack. After exposure to the atmosphere, the copper
coating oxidizes and slowly develops a thin, sometimes brittle,
green to brown coating called patina. This coating is a copper
sulfate and after many years of exposure becomes stabilized and
undergoes no further change. This coating is more likely to
develop on the copper surface in industrial and seacoast areas,
and it serves as a protective coating. Since steel is anodic to
the more noble copper, a fracture or pit in the copper coating
which exposes the underlying steel will cause corrosion of the
steel because the steel will sacrifice itself to protect the
copper. Copper coatings provide a higher degree of protection
against corrosion than is afforded by zinc and aluminum coatings,
but only as long as the copper coating remains completely intact.
Also, sometime after exposure, the copper coating may dull and
approach the color of rust and it then becomes very difficult to
distinguish the copper patina from any steel corrosion that may
be present. Furthermore, if rusting is detected at the surface
of the coating, the full extent of corrosion of the steel core
cannot be visually determined. Inspection of copper coated steel
wire cable should be directed to those portions where tensioning
clamps, “come-alongs” etc., have been used, at the end fittings,
and other areas where abrasion and wear may have occurred.
During this inspection, the individual wires should be checked
for surface irregularities such as pits, scratches, nicks, and
loss of cross-section.

2. Maintenance. Maintenance of tower guy cables and end fittings is a

difficult task, primarily from the standpoint of accessibility. This
problem is discussed under Ch. 4 C.2 along with several suggested
means of reaching the inaccessible portions of the guys. The most
important guy cable maintenance item will be corrosion control.

a. Galvanized and Aluminum Coated Steel Cable. When rusting of zinc

and aluminum coated steel wires or end fittings is detected, the
affected areas should be reconditioned in accordance with the
protective treatment procedures described in Ch. 7 E.3. This
corrective action should always be taken as soon as possible
after detection to minimize future inspection and maintenance
attention. In certain instances, it may not be immediately
possible to accomplish the necessary reconditioning. When this

6-12
 happens, a delay can generally be permitted under two conditions:
(1) where the extent of corrosion is limited to small and
scattered rust spots (because they will continue to receive
protection from the adjacent protective coating of zinc or
aluminum); and (2) provided that frequent checks (including
close-up color photographs if possible) are conducted to monitor
the progression of the corrosion process. When a perceptible
progression is detected, the protective treatment should be
applied as soon as practical. There should be no delay in
reconditioning rusted areas on cable or fittings that are readily
accessible.

b. Copper Coated Steel Cable. Maintenance of copper-coated steel

cable and end fittings is not anticipated and is not recommended
due to the inherent characteristics of this type of cable as
discussed in paragraph I.1.b above. Repair in the form of cable
and end-fitting replacement is the only reasonable recommendation
that can be made. Any such replacement should be a different
type of cable, preferably with aluminum coated steel wire.

K. Guy Cable Hardware. Guy hardware items such as thimbles, turnbuckles,

take up U-bolts (hairpins), link bars, and shackles with associated pins
are important structural accessories which must receive the same degree
of inspection and maintenance that is given to other guy structural
components. See Figure 6-5. Guy hardware items are selected for their
efficiency and reliability in the same manner as other structural
components. Their factor of safety is commonly 4 to 5 (ultimate breaking
strength/design load). Most hardware items are made of galvanized carbon
steel.

Figure 6-5 Structural guy anchor on a 625ft Loran-C tower.

6-13
1. Thimbles. Steel thimbles provide a supporting grooved bed of ample
radius and length to accommodate the cable and protect it from
abrasion and distortion when placed under tension. Due to the
importance of maintaining adequate cable loop radius, only heavy-duty
type thimbles should be used for any guy application. Thimbles should
be inspected for wear, deformation and corrosion at the same time the
guys are inspected. Since galvanized steel thimbles are commonly
used in conjunction with copper-coated steel cable, the areas of such
dissimilar metal contact should be closely inspected and maintained.
Evidence of wear and deformation should be carefully noted; extreme
cases of either condition can cause the cable or Big-Grip to bend in
a reduced radius which in turn can cause serious wear and fatigue
problems at the area of contact between the hardware and cable or
Big-Grip. Maintenance of thimbles will be limited to corrosion
control. When wear or deformation of the thimbles occurs,
replacement is recommended.

2. Turnbuckles and Take-up U-bolts. Turnbuckles are extensively used at

the anchor end of the guy cables of towers up to 700 feet in height,
and also at the anchor ends of the radial guys on some taller towers.
Where higher strengths and versatility are required, take-up U-bolts
(hairpins) are provided for use with closed end bridge sockets.
These high strength-adjusting devices are installed at the anchor
ends of all structural guys on some 280 to 300 foot single-guy-level
tower guys. These devices are installed for the primary purpose of
adjusting guy tension. They have extensive threaded areas that are
highly susceptible to corrosion and damage. These hardware items
should be inspected at the same time the associated guys are
inspected. Evidence of wear, cracks, and deformation should be
closely noted. To simplify minor guy tension adjustments, turnbuckles
should be set with a 40-60% take-up during initial installation, guy
replacement or whenever they are disconnected from the turnbuckle.
Full opening or closing of turnbuckles should be avoided. For
example, at least two or three threads of each threaded end should be
visible within the body of the turnbuckle when open. Turnbuckles
should be secured with safety wiring, locknuts, or other means to
prevent rotation. Acceptable methods of safety wire installation are
shown in Figures 6-6a and 6-6b. Lock nuts are used to prevent
loosening of take-up U-bolts, and are the preferred securing device.
The tightness of these devices should be regularly inspected. The
jaws should be examined for deformation and cotter pins and other
hardware should be checked for condition. The threaded portions of
these hardware items should be maintained in such a condition that
adjustments can be made as required. This can be accomplished by
keeping the threads lubricated and corrosion free. When the
turnbuckles or take-up U-bolts are found to be deformed, cracked, or
in otherwise questionable condition, they should be replaced.

6-14
 Figure 6-6a

Figure 6-6b

3. Shackles and Pins. Galvanized steel shackles are used extensively on

towers up to 700 feet for connecting guy end fittings and fiberglass
insulator yokes to tower leg pull-off plates. They are usually
forged from carbon steel and are formed with eyes at the ends of the
legs for inserting a pin or bolt. Round pins held in place by cotter
pins are most commonly used. Safety shackles are fitted with a
threaded bolt, which is secured and held in place with a nut and
cotter pin. Safety type shackles are preferred and should always be
specified when shackles are replaced, especially at connections where
vibration can accentuate pin movement. Shackle pin-to-turnbuckle pin
connections should be avoided. Screw pin shackles in which the pin
is screwed into a tapped eye of the shackle body are not recommended
because of the lack of any positive locking feature. If used, they
should be moused with safety wire to prevent loosening. All shackle
elements including the body, pin, nuts and cotter pins, should be
inspected at the same time as the other guy elements. Attention
should be given to the shackle pin to make sure it is in proper
position and that the cotter pin is providing the required locking
action. For unthreaded shackle pins, whenever possible, ensure that
the shackle pin head is snug against the shackle as this will
eliminate cotter pin chafing. Any evidence of wear, deformation, and
corrosion should be noted. Excessive wear and any degree of
deformation are cause for immediate replacement. See Figure 6-7.
Excessively corroded elements should be replaced promptly. Type 304

6-15
 stainless steel cotter pins should be used on all shackles and shear
pins. Galvanized or aluminum cotter pins normally corrode, wear, or
break much sooner than stainless steel cotter pins. Standard
shackles and other fittings usually come with galvanized cotter pins.
Orders for new hardware should specify stainless steel cotter pins.

4. Bonding Hardware. In some cases, bonding straps have been installed

across guy end fittings, shackles, etc., to provide electrical
continuity and eliminate arcing. The straps are usually made of
braided or solid copper or aluminum and are attached to guy cables,
insulator yokes and tower members with various types of copper,
aluminum and galvanized connectors. The use of metals with different
potentials is sometimes unavoidable and a galvanic couple usually
results. Aluminum-to-zinc couples do not present a galvanic problem,
whereas copper to zinc or aluminum can be expected to cause varying
degrees of galvanic corrosion. The materials involved can be readily
identified and the zinc or aluminum metals in contact with copper
should be closely inspected for evidence of corrosion during every
guy inspection. Due to winds and vibration, the bonding straps may
be broken at their connections and cause arcing.

6-16
 Figure 6-7 Wear of cotter pins.

L. Insulators. Loran and other towers that are radiating antennae are
insulated from the structural guys with various types of insulators. The
radiating top loading elements of Loran-C towers are insulated from their
supporting guys. The support guys of these towers are divided into
segments by what are called break-up insulators, to minimize RF noise.
The insulating elements of the antenna and guy insulators are made of
porcelain and or fiberglass. Some antenna and guy insulators are made up

6-17
entirely of porcelain, and others incorporate hot-dip galvanized steel
supporting elements. Some antenna and guy insulators include gradient
cones and arcing rings (see L below).

1. Porcelain Insulators. For Coast Guard use, porcelain insulators are

manufactured by the wet process in which wetted clay is shaped by
hand machine and then fired and glazed. Porcelain has extremely high
compression strength (eight to ten times its strength in tension)
and, consequently, most porcelain insulators are loaded in
compression. Porcelain, however, is sometimes used in direct tension
for the strain insulators at the ends of top loading elements where
their tensile strength is adequate.

a. Open and Closed End Insulators. These types of guy insulators are
used on towers up to 1350 feet in height where their mechanical
and electrical properties are adequate. They are furnished in a
wide range of shapes and sizes, and are commonly known as “johnny
balls”. See Figure 6-8a and 6-8b. They are made entirely of
porcelain with holes or grooves at right angles to each other
through which guy cables are looped in an interlocking fashion.
Interlocking of the guy cable loops provides a fail-safe feature.
The units with holes are called closed end insulators and the
grooved units are called open-end insulators. Closed end
insulators can be furnished with a rated mechanical strength up
to 33,000 pounds and open-end insulators up to 140,000 pounds.
Open-end insulators are stronger than closed end insulators for a
given cable size, but have lower flashover ratings. Therefore,
the flashover rating as well as the structural strength must be
considered when interchanging one type for another during
replacement or modification. These insulators have a small
unglazed surface which, although watertight, is liable to collect
contaminants and is therefore installed facing down the guy so
that the insulator will stay clean. When ordering, two coats of
varnish or weather resistant enamel should be specified to cover
the unglazed portions. The glazing color should be specified
brown to facilitate visual inspection. These types of insulators
are normally selected on the basis of the same safety factor as
the guy. Although they are a standard commercial product,
procurement lead times of six months or more are normal.

b. Compression Cone Guy Insulators. This type insulator is designed

to take advantage of the high compressive strength of porcelain.
They are furnished in several different designs but basic
features are similar. The major portion of the insulator
consists of a cast steel open frame with a clevis connection
formed at the top; a steel-capped, hollow truncated-cone-shaped
porcelain dielectric is cemented to a circular seat formed at the
bottom of the frame. Sometimes the porcelain cone surface is
grooved to increase the leakage distance. See Figure 6-9. To
complete the insulator assembly, the top end of an eyebolt is
inserted through the porcelain cone where it is secured at the
steel cap by split rings or a half round ball nut, depending on
whether the top of the eyebolt has an upset head or threaded
stub. The assembled insulator is connected to the guys through
the clevis connection at the top of the frame and the eye of the
eyebolt on the bottom. This type of insulator has a designed
fail-safe feature in that the round steel cap on top of the

6-18
porcelain cone is larger in diameter than the circular opening at
the bottom of the frame. Should the porcelain cone break, the
metal cap and frame will engage to provide structural continuity
in the guy system. The fail-safe feature of this type of
insulator has not been fully tested either while in service or
under laboratory conditions. In addition, the single solid
eyebolt shaft is not fail-safe and, should the eyebolt fail, the
guy will separate. Use of compression cone insulators is not
recommended. In 1964, two 1350 foot Loran-C antenna towers
collapsed either directly or indirectly as a result of eyebolt
failures. Compression cone insulators used in the guy system of
the replacement towers had special stainless steel rocker
assemblies installed between the eyebolt head and the insulator
cap to reduce the eyebolt bending stresses at the head-shank
transition. See Figure 6-9. Precipitation hardened stainless
steel (17-4PH) was employed for the towers at Cape Race, Sandur,
Port Clarence, and Marcus, whereas AISI type 420 stainless steel
was used for the rockers on the Yap and Iwo Jima towers. In 1966,
cracks were discovered in the rockers on the Yap and Iwo Jima
towers. An extensive study by Battelle Memorial Institute (BMI)
led to the replacement of the 75 rocker assemblies in the upper
three structural guy levels of the Iwo Jima tower. The BMI study
recommended a new rocker material, inconel alloy 718, because of
its higher resistance to stress corrosion cracking. In 1976, the
rocker assemblies on the radial guys and on the 1st and 2nd guy
levels of the Iwo Jima tower were replaced with inconel alloy 718
rocker assemblies. Special attention must be given to these
eyebolts and rocker assemblies during inspection. Riding of
selected guys on towers with eyebolt and rocker assemblies is not
recommended because a guy could fail at any time without warning.
The Tall Tower Coordination Center should be contacted before any
repair or procurement action is taken relative to eyebolts and/or
rocker assemblies to ensure that current design standards and
optimum replacement materials are used.

Figure 6-8a Open end johnny ball insulator.

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 Figure 6-8b Closed end johnny ball insulator.

Figure 6-9 Compression cone insulator.

c. Porcelain Strain Insulators. This type of insulator uses

porcelain in tension. It consists of a solid porcelain rod with
metal caps cemented to each end. Guy cables are connected to an
eye or clevis fitting formed on the metal cap. The diameter of
the rod determines the tensile strength of the insulator and the
rod length determines its electrical properties. To satisfy the
electrical requirements, the rod may be grooved at regular
intervals to form skirts or petticoats that increase the leakage
distance along the length of the insulator. Because of the large
size of porcelain required, the insulator is furnished in three
segments, each with cemented metal caps for connecting the
elements together and for attaching the guy cables to each end of

6-20
 the assembly. These insulators do not have a fail-safe feature
and consequently are designed with a safety factor of 2.5 or
more. This type insulator is furnished by special order, and is
not a readily available commercial line product.

d. Fiberglass Loop Strain Insulators. This type of insulator uses a

multi-filament continuous fiberglass loop in tension. A ceramic
shell covers the fiberglass loop to provide protection from
ultraviolet rays. The void between the ceramic and fiberglass is
filled with insulating oil to prevent lightning from puncturing
the ceramic. (If the void contained air rather than oil,
lightning would tend to puncture the ceramic shell and follow the
path of least resistance along the inside of the shell.) The oil
is contained by a number of cork and neoprene seals and gaskets
that are held in place by a spring. The fail-safe features of
this insulator are the multi-filament loops. A fabrication
effort of six months can be expected.

e. Inspection and Maintenance of Porcelain Insulators. Insulators

require periodic inspection for cracks, broken elements,
corrosion of their metal parts, and contamination of the glazed
surfaces of the porcelain elements. Generally, corrosion and
contamination control will require the most inspection and
maintenance attention. Most guy insulators are difficult to
inspect and maintain because of their location. The guidelines
presented in Chapters 3 and 4 should be consulted for a
discussion of the various methods to follow in performing
inspection and maintenance of guy insulators.

(1) Inspection. The porcelain insulator elements in current use

have provided reliable structural service even after they have
developed cracks or become chipped. Such conditions may,
however, reduce the dielectric effectiveness of the insulator.
Cracks or other structural damage to the porcelain elements
should always be considered serious and inspection should
strive for their early detection. Evidence of arc-over can be
an indication of cracks in the porcelain elements. In oil
filled insulators, oil leaks can also be indicative of cracks
in the elements. Strain type porcelain insulators should be
checked for any substantial loss of cross-section due to chip
outs, The joints between the porcelain and end fittings should
be checked for tightness. The bolted connections of multiple
element strain insulators should be checked for loose bolts
and nuts. The metal parts of the insulators should be
inspected for corrosion and evidence of wear, deformation and
other signs of distress in accordance with Ch.5 C.5. The
porcelain elements should always be inspected for surface
contamination. The ends of johnny-ball insulators near cable
loops should be checked for chipping and fractures. Arc-over,
particularly during moist conditions, can be indicative of
surface contamination of the porcelain elements.
Deterioration of the porcelain surface glaze can occur in some
atmospheres and a dulling of the porcelain surfaces should be
noted during inspections; such a condition will probably be
progressive and ultimately result in a loss of dielectric
efficiency.

6-21
 (2) Maintenance. Porcelain insulator elements will require
little, if any, structural maintenance. Chipped (but
otherwise structurally adequate) guy insulator porcelains can
be continued in service as long as there is no electrical
problem. The chipped areas should be ground with an abrasive
stone to remove all sharp edges and the affected areas should
then be painted with weather-resisting gloss enamel. Whenever
the cross-sectional area of a guy strain (tension) porcelain
insulator is substantially reduced due to damage, prompt
replacement is required. Metal parts of insulators should be
maintained as indicated in Ch.5 C.5. Contamination on
insulator porcelains should be washed or wiped whenever arcing
across the insulators becomes problematic. Buffing the
porcelain surfaces after an application of a very thin coat of
silicone grease has been found to be effective in preventing
contamination flashovers in some areas. A solution for
extreme cases is to install insulators with higher flashover
values.

2. Fiberglass Insulators and Non-Metallic Guys. Fiberglass rod

insulators have been used extensively on 625-ft. Loran-C towers since
1961, and more recently on 700-ft. towers and multi-tower antennae.
The long, thin rods have high dielectric strength and give good
electrical performance; they are very strong in proportion to their
weight and therefore desirable as structural members. Fiberglass
rods are used where a radiating element must be connected with a
grounded guy or tower. The rods are usually about 15 feet long, are
installed in yoked pairs, and they are designed to a factor of safety
of 5. Their structural capacity is limited by the bond strength of
the end fittings (clevis). Other Coast Guard applications of
synthetics include Phillystran support guys for several smaller
towers, and stranded fiberglass rope for antenna support components
and side catenaries on log periodic antennae. Use of synthetic cable
material on a tower previously guyed by metallic guys substantially
affects tower response. Prior to the use of synthetic guys, the
tower and guy manufacturer should be consulted. Specifications held
by the Tall Tower Coordination Center should be used when procuring
new or replacement fiberglass rods.

a. Preventing Bending in Fiberglass Insulators. Two 300-ft towers

at Communication Station Miami collapsed during a hurricane in
1992. On these towers the clevis end of the fiberglass rod
insulator was attached directly to the pull-off plate. It is
suspected that these towers experienced large lateral guy motion,
possibly combined with opposing twisting motion of the mast. It
is likely that this motion combined with the fact that the clevis
was attached directly to the pull-off plate caused the tension
rod insulator to experience bending forces and break. To prevent
this, it is recommended that a shackle be installed between the
clevis end of the rod insulator and the pull-off plate to provide
for a “universal joint” at the tower connection.

b. Characteristics of Fiberglass Rods.

(1) Creep and Fatigue Resistance. Creep is a measure of long-term

behavior under constant load. Fatigue resistance is a measure

6-22
 of strength under cyclic or vibratory loading. Testing under
laboratory conditions and some field results indicate that the
performance of fiberglass rod is acceptable; however,
fiberglass rope has high creep and low resistance to fatigue
compared to metallic guy material, and is not recommended for
structural guys on Loran-C antennae.

(2) Ultraviolet Deterioration. Ultraviolet rays from the sun can

cause discoloration, deterioration and/or breakdown of the
fiberglass matrix. All Coast Guard rods are either protected
with a whitish titanium dioxide coating, or fabricated with a
slightly less effective urethane filler for protection against
ultra-violet rays. Some rods have lost their coating through
weathering, exposing the rod and causing some discoloration.
However, tensile tests have shown that the coating loss does
not affect strength. Uncoated rods having a translucent
greenish color sometimes exhibit a "bamboo" appearance with
time, but this is due to the way in which the rod is wrapped
while it is cured in the factory and strength is not affected.
Coating repairs have been attempted on existing rods, such as
sanding and painting with acrylic paint or covering the
surface with a special dielectric tape. The cost effectiveness
of this maintenance must be examined on a case by case basis.

(3) Weathering. Following coating loss, the outer fibers of rods

tend to fray or break, and give a fuzzy appearance. Salt,
dirt, and dust can be more readily trapped and less easily
washed off by rain, and tracking may be accelerated (see next
paragraph). Rods in this condition should be carefully
inspected for signs of tracking.

(4) Tracking. Tracking in the case of fiberglass rods can be

described as progressive carbonization of a material by the
electrochemical reaction created by an electrical discharge.
Tiny droplets containing some contaminant may form a terminal
for a partial discharge (leakage of current) from the clevis
tip. This leakage current produces a localized heating of the
rod surface, which in time oxidizes the polymer leaving a thin
carbon track. This track then becomes the jumping-off point
for another arc to another droplet farther down the rod. In
fiberglass rods, it is the coating or resin matrix that tracks
- not the glass. Tracking creates a conductive path that
eventually grows such that the original insulative properties
are lost; at this point the insulator that is tracking
literally burns up. The presence of moisture and contaminants
accelerates the rate of deterioration. Corona facilitates
electrical breakdown by effectively increasing the electrical
surface of the conductor. A gradual loss of cross-section
accompanies severe tracking, and ultimately structural failure
occurs.

(5) Insulator Twisting. On 625-ft Loran-C towers, the rod pairs

of structural guy fiberglass insulator assemblies may become
twisted (Figure 6-10). In the past, this twist has been
successfully removed using the following procedure:

6-23
 Figure 6-10 Twisted pair of fiberglass train insulators.

(a) Rotate the guy at the anchor end in a direction contrary

to the twist of the rods.

(b) After several turns, the effort to rotate will become

noticeably greater; at this point, stop the rotation even
though the twist may not be removed.

(c) After the passage of at least several months, inspect the

rod pairs to see if they have twisted farther. If the
twist is not removed to a satisfactory degree, repeat a.
and b. above, and check again after several more months
Lab tests have shown that more than 360° of twist at the
rated breaking tension is required before failure occurs,
and that significantly greater twist can be tolerated at
lower loads.

(6) Surface Cracking. Transverse cracking has occurred in 1/2-

inch fiberglass guys after only a few years of service. In
some cases, these cracks extended into the glass filaments,
causing structural failure. All fiberglass rods should be
closely examined whenever circumstances permit, for evidence
of this kind of cracking.

c. Inspection and Maintenance of Fiberglass Rods. All fiberglass

rods should be checked at regular intervals for signs of wear,
tracking, discoloration, cracking, etc. The end fittings should
be checked for any sign of distress, and the clevis checked for

6-24
 corrosion or deformation. The least accessible, yet electrically
most highly stressed, fiberglass rods are at the ends of the TLEs
of 625 ft and 700 ft Loran-C towers. Binocular or telescope
inspection should be regularly accomplished, and selected rods
should be closely examined every few years using the procedures
of Appendix E. Both structural and radial insulator rods may be
replaced with no off-air time, as detailed in Appendix E.

M. Gradient Cones and Arcing Rings. The development of devices for the
protection of fiberglass insulator assemblies from electrical effects has
mostly been the result of trial and error. There are a number of cones,
rings and other devices now installed on Loran-C towers; some are
adequate, some unnecessary, and some of questionable value. This section
describes current requirements. Modification of existing towers is not
required unless it is convenient to add onto the scope of related work or
there is a severe electrical problem at a particular tower.

1. Gradient Cones. A gradient cone, similar to that shown in Figure 6-

11, is required where fiberglass insulator rods are connected (via a
yoke plate) to an energized cable such as a top-loading element or
SLT antenna panel. These cones are effective in reducing the voltage
gradient at the clevis tip, thus reducing the potential for tracking
(see K.2.a(4) above). Servicing CEUs should contact the Tall Tower
Coordination Center for design parameters and details.

Figure 6-11 One type of gradient cone used on energized towers.

2. Arcing Rings. An arcing ring, similar to existing "corona rings" as

shown in Figure 6-12, is required where fiberglass insulator rods are
connected (via a yoke plate) to an unenergized cable such as a
structural guy or an SLT backstay. This ring is designed to attract
any lightning or flashover surge that would otherwise strike the
clevis tip. It should be a smoothed tubular ring of 1 inch outside

6-25
 diameter, and the plane of the ring should extend at least 6 inches
beyond the clevis tip in the direction of the insulator. The overall
ring diameter should be such that should one rod fail the remaining
rod will not contact the ring under static conditions.

Figure 6-12 One type of corona ring, in place on a structural guy.

3. Tower Connections. Where a fiberglass insulator assembly is

connected (via a yoke plate) to any tower leg, no device is required
at the tower end. Old "corona rings" at such locations may be
removed if they are deteriorating, but may be kept in service if
their condition is satisfactory.

4. Materials. New or replacement cones and rings should be fabricated

from galvanized or stainless steel.

N. Tower Anchors. The tower anchors are normally constructed of reinforced

3,000psi concrete and are designed to support the vertical and horizontal
forces imposed by the tower. Tower guys are connected to steel anchor
arms (eye-bolts or channels) which in turn are securely embedded in the
concrete anchors (Figure 6-5). Although current standards require all
anchor steel below ground level to be encased in concrete, there are many
existing installations where a major portion of the guy anchor arms are
in direct contact with the soil. The two major elements of guy anchors
are discussed below.

1. Concrete. Concrete is considered to be a permanent structural

material and when properly designed, mixed, and placed, should last
indefinitely. To fully serve its purpose in foundations, anchors,
and encasements, concrete must be of high quality and of sufficient
cover over the embedded anchor and reinforcing steel to protect them
from corrosion. Only high quality concrete can withstand continued
exposure to water, freezing and thawing, and other adverse
conditions. Considering the locations of various towers and the
conditions under which they were erected, it should not be taken for

6-26
 granted that all foundation, anchor and encasement concrete is high
quality and fulfilling its intended purpose.

2. Anchor Steel. In many instances, the galvanized steel anchor arms

(eyebolts and channels) are in direct contact with the soil and
consequently are subject to corrosion. It should be noted that in
the presence of water or moisture, where a combination of steel and
concrete occurs (as in the case of all tower anchors), the unencased
steel is anodic (sacrificial) to the steel encased in the concrete,
and corrosion of the exposed steel can be expected. The corrosion
process is further discussed in Ch.4 D.3. While the anchor steel is
galvanized and has a built-in factor of safety, which permits some
loss of cross-section, it is unwise to expect indefinite trouble-free
service without inspection and maintenance attention. At least one
radial anchor arm has failed at the point where it entered the
anchor, and several cases of severe loss of cross-section or pitting
have been found at the interface with the concrete anchor. New or
replacement anchor steel should have a factor of safety of at least
5.

3. Inspection of Components. Inspection of the guy anchors presents a

difficult problem in that the major elements of these structures are
concealed. The means for accomplishing subsurface inspections are
discussed in Chapter 4 C.6. Inspections of exposed and exposable
galvanized anchor steel should be guided by the discussion in Ch.5
C.5. The timing or frequency of inspections, determined by the
servicing CEU, should be based on the soil conditions, corrosive
environment and history involved. The inspection should note and
record the surface condition of the anchor arms. If the anchor arms
are found to be in good condition, one of the protective coatings,
described in later in this section should be applied to those anchor
arms. In the event a substantial loss of cross-section or other
structural deficiency is found the servicing CEU should be consulted
as to proper corrective action before proceeding. Structural and
encasement concrete should be checked for cracks and spalls,
mechanical damage, and erosion. When subsurface concrete is exposed,
the surfaces should be tapped and probed with a chisel or screwdriver
to check for soundness and integrity. Cracking, spalling, surface
indications of rusting of embedded steel, and/or expansion of salt
and ice crystals all indicate presence of low quality porous
concrete.

4. General Above Ground Inspections. The anchors should be checked

periodically for settlement or lateral movement. Slight vertical and
horizontal movements cannot be detected with the unaided eye, but
movements of serious proportions can be visually detected. Such
inspections should look for evidence of mounding or folding of the
soil at the front face of the exposed or encased anchor arms with an
accompanying crevice on the back side. Where there is reason to
suspect anchor movement, periodic instrument checks should be
conducted. Where anchors are located on fill material of relatively
soft or unstable soil, bench or control markers should be installed
close by on firm ground as a means for checking or monitoring
movement. Constant reduction in guy tensions may also be indicative
of anchor movement.

6-27
 5. Maintenance. Whenever normally hidden foundation and anchor elements
are exposed for inspection, preparations should be made to accomplish
anticipated maintenance at the same time. The most common form of
maintenance will consist of coating the anchor arms that are in
direct contact with the soil, and patching cracks and spalled areas
in the surface and subsurface concrete elements. When the anchor arms
are initially exposed, the protective treatment, depending on the
condition found, should be one of the methods described below. It
should be emphasized that the purpose of such coatings is to isolate
the anchor arms from the soil environment and the coatings must be
applied properly and be of sufficient thickness. If the coatings do
not provide a completely positive seal, corrosion can take place
under the coatings without being detected.

a. Bituminous Coating Protection. There are various types of

petroleum based protective coatings. Although proven effective,
these coatings are no longer recommended, in favor of epoxy
coatings.

b. Special Protective Coating. There are several types of special

protective coating systems that may be used where corrosion
control becomes a serious and expensive problem. These coatings
are described in the Coatings and Color Manual, COMDTINST
M10360.3(series). Since the surfaces to be protected by the
coatings must be highly cleaned in order to provide a proper base
for the coatings, their use will be limited to extremely high
maintenance areas. Epoxy coatings when properly applied provide
adequate protection for anchor arms.

c. Concrete Encasement. In many soil environments, concrete

encasement is a preferred and economical way to provide
protection for anchor arms. When this type of protection is
applied, the concrete cover over the steel should not be less
than 3 inches and must be designed to provide an impermeable
barrier for the anchor steel. Before encasement, the anchor
steel should be painted with an asphalt-based paint or similar
material. All new installations, when feasible, should
incorporate concrete encasement for guy anchor arms, reinforced
and tied into the anchor to reduce cracking and spalling from
vibration. Concrete sleeves that are not tied to the parent
anchor will not provide adequate protection under load, and
eventual separation from the anchor and exposure of the anchor
arm at the anchor interface will most likely occur.

6. Drainage and Landscaping. In order to preserve the original design

conditions, the soil surrounding anchors must be maintained in a
stable and well-compacted condition with the ground surfaces sloped
away from the anchor arms to provide adequate drainage. Ponding of
water should never be allowed, since the structural stability of the
anchor can be diminished and settlement or lateral movement may
occur. Also, ponding of water around exposed anchor steel invites
corrosion. Landscaping or the installation of surface or subsurface
drains should be provided where ponding is a problem. Vegetation
should not be permitted to grow in the vicinity of the anchors.

O. Tower Guy Accessories.

6-28
1. Guy Tensioning Devices. Most guyed towers have been furnished with
hydraulic tensioning devices or dynamometers for use during tower
erection and subsequent guy tension measurements. These are
important and delicate instruments that must be maintained in the
best possible condition at all times, if they are to provide the
necessary accuracy. In the event these devices are dropped,
mishandled, damaged, or otherwise believed to be inaccurate, they
should be immediately repaired and recalibrated or replaced. They
should also be calibrated prior to any retensioning efforts. Shunt
dynamometers are furnished with calibration curves or tables that
should always be kept with the instrument. See Chapter 8 for further
discussion on guy tensioning.

2. Guy Pulling Devices. Various devices, generally referred to as cable

or wire grips, are available and used to pull guys into the anchors,
hold the guys in place during disconnection and/or to slacken guys
away from their anchor connections. The grips normally consist of
two opposing jaws that tighten around the guy cable in a vice-like
manner as the grip is pulled along the line or plane of the cable.
Some cable grips utilize wedges or are specially designed to prevent
slippage if the pulling action on the grip is eased. Some have
permanent or insertable soft metal (bronze, copper, lead) jaw plates
for use with aluminum and copper coated cable to prevent nicking or
similar damage to the cable surface. Double concave jaws should be
used with fiberglass guys to minimize surface damage. These grips
are normally used with "come-along" hand or puller hoists. Only
properly sized and shaped grips should be used, and grips should be
kept in good working condition to prevent slippage and loss of a guy.
Preformed Big-Grip dead-ends can be safely used as pulling grips if
the following precautions and procedures are observed:

a. Use of the correct Big-Grip dead-end size and material.

b. Use a properly sized heavy-duty thimble at all times.

c. Carefully check the physical condition of the dead-end before

use. If there are corroded or broken strands, discard grip. Check
loop to be sure that there are no sharp bends.

d. Be sure that the upper end of the dead-end is tight against the
guy cable (not loose or unraveled).

e. Never apply a pulling force at an angle from the line of stress;

i.e., come-alongs or winch leads must be connected to or fair-led
through a point on or immediately adjacent to the guy anchor arm.
The dead-end should be installed as far up the guy as possible to
provide an optimum line of force.

f. Use the Big-Grip dead-end for minor tension or length adjustments

only. Use regular jaw grips for slacking the guy into the tower,
pulling the guy back to its approximate connecting position at
the turnbuckle or for similar erection or maintenance work.

g. Be sure the Big-Grip dead-end is holding fast and not slipping

before disconnecting the primary guy coupling to the anchor.

6-29
 h. Ensure that the guy connection points are not allowed to rotate
during operations. The rotation of guys fastened to a Big-Grip
can cause the Big-Grip to open slightly. The opening of the Big-
Grip can lead to the release of the guy cable.

i. Once a Big-Grip dead-end has been installed and used as a pulling

grip, it shall not be removed and reinstalled for use again.
However, it may be permanently installed and used many times.
Once removed it must be discarded.

3. Guy and Guy Anchor Related Spare Parts. Whether through initial
outfitting or subsequent procurement, a variety of structural and
electrical spare parts are usually available for each tower or
antenna system. Typical parts are hardware or expendable items such
as turnbuckles, Big-Grips, light bulbs, nuts, bolts, mercury
switches, and johnny-ball insulators.

a. Identification. All tower spare parts must be carefully

identified and maintained in like-new condition. Servicing CEUs
should ensure that station personnel can accurately identify each
spare part, by attaching tags, providing detailed descriptions,
or whatever method is most appropriate. Any item that is in
questionable condition should be discarded.

b. Inventory. An accurate inventory of all tower spares should be

available at the station and in the office of the major field
commander. This inventory should be updated periodically by
responsible station personnel. Local experience should dictate
detailed spare parts requirements, based on station isolation,
long lead-time items, and probability of failures.

c. Storage. Antenna system spare parts should be stored in a

specially designated location at every station, and access to
this area should be strictly limited. Items that may be
adversely affected by exposure to weather (Big-Grips, lighting
system components, etc.) should be stored indoors.

d. Procurement. It is recommended that all major tower parts

procurement be coordinated by the servicing CEU, except that the
station may be made responsible for procuring minor electrical
system items such as lamps and mercury switches.

6-30
CHAPTER 7. TOWER PAINTING

A. General. Tower painting is accomplished for three reasons:

• To provide obstruction marking, if required by the FAA;

• To extend the life of galvanizing;
• To help prevent corrosion.

The use of galvanized steel or aluminum for all Coast Guard towers and
similar coatings or materials for guys, hardware, and other components in
some cases precludes the need to paint to preserve the surface. The
reason for painting with the orange and white color bands is to meet the
visibility requirements of the FAA.

1. FAA Marking Requirement. Refer to FAA Advisory Circular 70/7460-

1(series) for complete marking requirements. The marking
requirements set forth in this chapter provide a summary of the
information in the Advisory Circular as it relates to Coast Guard
Towers. The Federal Aviation Administration recommends that all
towers presenting a hazard to air commerce be marked with alternating
bands of aviation surface orange and white unless they are marked
with high-intensity lighting systems. In general, all towers greater
than 200 feet in overall height above ground level are to be marked
and/or lighted regardless of geographical location. Towers with an
overall height of less than 200 feet may require obstruction marking
depending on their location in relation to airways, landing areas,
and land forms. Under certain conditions, a tower may not require
obstruction marking if the tower is shielded by a higher structure
that is properly lighted and marked. An aeronautical study by the
FAA is required in this case.

2. Responsibility for Tower Marking. It is the responsibility of the

Civil Engineering Unit to determine whether the marking of new towers
is required, and to ensure that all towers are marked as required by
the FAA. The conditions under which towers must be marked and when
FAA Form 7460-1 should be submitted is discussed in FAA, Advisory
Circular AC 70/7460-1(series). If an existing tower to be replaced is
less than 200 feet in height and was previously painted,
consideration should be given to painting the new tower to maintain
visual familiarity.

3. Maintaining Tower Visibility. The current FAA Advisory Circular on

tower marking, AC 70/7460-1(series), states that repainting is
required "when the color changes noticeably or its effectiveness is
impaired by scaling, oxidation, chipping, or layers of industrial
contamination". Any decision to repaint should take into account
other factors, such as the condition of the paint, the need to
repaint for protective purposes, and the anticipated life of the
tower. Where doubt exists as to the adequacy of daytime tower
visibility, the FAA should be consulted. The current scheme for
color band characteristics calls for each band to be approximately
1/7 the tower height, for towers not exceeding 700ft in height.
Consult Advisory Circular 70/7460-1(series) for towers exceeding
700ft in height.

7-1
 4. Painting New Galvanized Towers. If a new galvanized steel tower does
not have to be painted for daymarking, it may be painted if it is
located in a harsh environment in an effort to extend the life of the
galvanizing. This decision is the responsibility of the CEU, and it
must be based on an economic and environmental analysis. All local
factors and the projected lifecycle costs must be included in this
analysis. The life of the galvanizing, the life of the paint system,
and the life of the structure as defined by operational need are
sometimes difficult to estimate; a sensitivity analysis covering such
variables should be performed as a part of the economic analysis.

B. Maintenance of Tower Painting. Complete tower repainting is an expensive

and time-consuming undertaking. Many times a good touch-up painting will
postpone the need to completely repaint the tower for two to five years.
(As a rule of thumb, complete repainting in the field can be expected to
have about 1/2 the life of the factory applied paint.) In any case, for
corrosive environments, it is much less expensive to maintain a coating
system, preventing it from failing, than it is to maintain a coating
system once it has failed, the galvanizing has been lost, and the steel
has as begun to corrode. The man-hours involved in surface preparation
and coating application are the key to the savings realized by
maintaining a good paint system. A discretionary policy of touch-up
cleaning and painting should always precede complete repainting. The
Coatings and Color Manual, COMDTINST M10360.3(series) should be consulted
for information on painting techniques, paint materials, and safety
precautions. Other sources for similar information, recommendations, and
sample specifications are:

The Society for Protective Coatings (SSPC). SSPC Special Reports

and standards for coating of steel, available from the SSPC.
http://www.sspc.org.

American Galvanizers Association. "Suggested Specification for

Preparing Hot-Dip Galvanized Surfaces for Painting (1998)".
Available through 1-800-HOT-SPEC or http://www.galvanizeit.org.

1. Tower Repainting. Towers should not be repainted to improve

appearance if they have adequate visibility (see A.3 above) and
there is no reason to paint for surface protection. Complete
repainting should be governed by the overall condition of the
existing paint coating and not by premature localized failures.
Normally the best time to repaint is when the old paint evidences
general erosion or deadening of the coating. It is always better to
repaint with the same type of material originally used unless there
are clear indications that different materials will be compatible
with the old system. Some of the newer coatings contain solvents
that may act as efficient paint removers on old conventional paints.
It is often necessary to completely remove the old paint from all
surfaces to avoid problems of incompatible paints and to ensure
proper adhesion of the new paint. When severe corrosion of the
galvanizing layer of the tower is attributable to the sand blast
effect described in Chapter 5, it is important to use a paint based
on a penetrating type vehicle so as to get into the small pores
created. The same paint should also be heavily pigmented with an
abrasion resistant pigment to counteract such future erosion.

7-2
 2. Touch-up Painting. Touch-up painting should not be done merely to
improve appearance. Towers with over 70% paint loss have been
considered to be "adequately marked" because the remaining white and
orange color patches had the required effect on the human eye at
distances which are of concern to pilots. The discussion in B.1
above applies whenever touch-up painting is required to improve
visibility. Touch-up painting is most frequently accomplished when
corrosion control is necessary. When this involves corrosion of the
base metal in corrosive environments, a choice must be made between
either complete rust removal, reconditioning, and maintenance of a
protective coating system, or "worst" rust removal, efforts to slow
the corrosive process, and a plan to eventually replace the corroded
components when enough cross-section has been lost. Only a
comprehensive economic analysis can show which choice should be made.
A careful appraisal of each situation will help to determine the most
economical maintenance program. It is important to inspect
structures from the top down, because the worst corrosion occurs on
the uppermost sides of the horizontal members and cannot be readily
seen from the ground. In making these inspections, the rusted areas
or those showing the common rust color, should be carefully examined
and wire brushed. If the red color can be removed in this way, and
if good zinc (for galvanized towers) still remains after the
cleaning, the problems are not severe. For such instances, all
surfaces showing any red stain should be thoroughly wire brushed and
a single coat of paint will usually suffice and give an average life
nearly equal to that of the paint job done before failure. On towers
with spots that have none of the original galvanizing remaining, it
is necessary to scrape and chip these areas, then wire brush them
well, and then touch up these spots with a primer coat of rust-
inhibitive paint. When this is completed, the tower is ready for the
finish coat. In relatively non-corrosive environments, the decision
to slow the corrosion process has proven sufficient because the
corrosion process, even unaddressed, does not pose a serious problem.
In severely corrosive environments, the decision is not so
straightforward. It is important to note that painting before the
galvanizing layer fails simplifies the painting process and
significantly extends the life of the paints that are applied.

3. Lead Paint. Refer to your servicing CEU environmental branch for the
most current requirements for environmental and worker protection
from lead paint hazards. The requirement to paint towers can be
waived if high-intensity lighting systems are used. However, an
existing paint system that may contain lead paint cannot be neglected
regardless of FAA marking requirements.

C. Standard Tower Painting Systems. Most Coast Guard towers which require
painting are made of galvanized steel. The following paint systems
should give good service when applied to new galvanized steel towers
prior to erection:

1. Normal Environment. (limited or no salt spray or industrial

pollutants, normal humidity levels):

a. One coat Epoxy-Polyamide Primer (MIL-P-24441).

b. Two coats Silicone Alkyd (MIL-E-24635) or Acrylic Enamel (TT-E-

2784).

7-3
 2. Moderate or Severe Corrosive Environment. (high humidity, heavy salt
spray and/or pollutants):

a. One coat Zinc Rich Epoxy Primer (MIL-P-24648).

b. One coat Epoxy-Polyamide Primer (MIL-P-24441).

c. Two coats Silicone Alkyd (MIL-E-24635) or Acrylic Enamel (TT-E-

2784).

D. Alternative Painting Systems. In those cases where the standard paint

system has failed to provide reasonable service, a more durable system
may be selected. Where experience on the suitability of other painting
systems is lacking, field experimentation is encouraged in accordance
with H below. Should field experimentation be undertaken, COMDT(G-SEC)
and the Tall Tower Coordination Center should be periodically advised of
the coating system performance. It must be emphasized that when choosing
a coating system, the ability to recoat can be just as important as the
bonding, weathering and intercoatability.

E. Corrosion Protection of Unpainted Towers. Sometime during the life of

unpainted towers, it may become necessary to provide some sort of
protection against corrosion.

1. Galvanized Steel Towers. The zinc coating of structural steel

members may be destroyed by corrosive action that is sometimes
accelerated because of flaws in the coating itself. Such corrosion
can be identified as discussed in Chapter 5 C.5. Loss of the
sacrificial zinc coating will result in rusting of the underlying
steel. Efforts to restore the zinc through the application of zinc
dust paints have not always been successful in the field, because
this type of coating requires the complete removal of all rust (a
white-metal surface preparation), constant agitation (to ensure that
the zinc dust remains in suspension) and proper mil thickness
application. Failure to meet these basic requirements has resulted
in substandard performance. To be effective, the manufacturer's
instructions must be carefully followed when using these products. A
better solution for field touch-up of galvanizing layers is the use
of cold galvanizing compounds. These compounds are readily available
and have proven themselves in a variety of tower locations. Cold
galvanizing compounds (both spray and brush-on) are an excellent rust
inhibitor and are easily applied. The surface requires mechanical or
wire brush cleaning before application.

2. Aluminum Towers. The aluminum alloys used for tower structural

members have a high resistance to atmospheric corrosion. However,
serious corrosion in the form of surface pitting can occur after
prolonged exposure to severe environments. Deeply pitted areas
should be reconditioned by cleaning and wire brushing, then Priming
with a Zinc Chromate rust-inhibitor primer (TT-P-645), then coating
with a ready mixed Aluminum Paint conforming to TT-P-38. The
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) "Suggested Specifications
for Structures of Aluminum Alloys" should be consulted for
recommendations on coating or painting aluminum surfaces, especially

7-4
 where dissimilar metals are fastened or attached to the aluminum
structure.

3. Galvanized and Aluminum Coated Steel Cable and Associated Hardware.

In addition to the zinc dust paints noted in E.1 above, there are
commercially available special coating compounds that will inhibit
further deterioration of the metal. Petroleum-based products have
been used successfully on turnbuckles and exposed portions of anchor
arms. Keeler and Long #4405 RIFC Anodic Self-Priming Stainless Steel
paint has been applied to galvanized structural guys on a 1350-foot
tower. Development of such compounds is relatively rapid, and
extensive testing prior to field use may not be possible. CEUs who
use new products of this type are requested to forward to the Tall
Tower Coordination Center brochures, cost data and the results of
periodic evaluations of performance. Compounds containing oil or
grease bases should not be used over preformed Big-Grips. There is a
possibility that lubrication of the interface between the grip and
the cable may result, causing the grip to slip.

F. Ladders and Safety Rails. See Chapter 5 Section F for information on

coating ladders and safety rails.

G. Application. Brushes are normally used for tower painting, and will
normally ensure proper paint thickness application. Hand mitts or other
applicators may be used providing that there are no restrictions by the
paint or coating manufacturer and that the specified thickness can be
met.

H. Records. Records of completed paint jobs are a good means of determining

the best paint job for a particular surface and environment. The surface
preparation, coating system (including application methods) and site
conditions must be accurately documented to properly evaluate the
performance of a coating system. Inadequate surface preparation,
improper coverage or mil thickness, or overcoating a prime coat with
something other than that specified by the manufacturer are examples of
circumstances that make performance evaluations invalid or at least
suspect. The weather conditions, the surface preparation method used,
the condition of the surface after cleaning and just prior to coating
application, the coating system used, the method of application, the
costs, the long term performance and the suspected cause of failure will
allow a meaningful evaluation of completed jobs and will help determine
methods of improvement for future work. Acceptance or rejection of any
system should be made on a case by case basis and backed with a sound
economic analysis.

7-5
CHAPTER 8. TOWER ERECTION, ALIGNMENT, TWIST, AND GUY TENSIONS

A. General. In order to perform properly under wind and/or ice loadings,

the alignment and twist of a tower under no-load conditions must be
maintained within the limitations imposed by the tower designer. If the
tower is guyed, the initial tensions must likewise be maintained within
design limitations. When a tower is properly fabricated, assembled and
erected, maintaining these characteristics within design tolerances can
be a relatively easy task. However if any one or more of these have not
been correctly accomplished, maintaining proper tower alignment and twist
will become an almost immediate post-erection problem which will become
increasing difficult to correct. Towers will adjust to their environment
and some loosening of structural fasteners and stretching of cables on
guyed towers, for example, can be expected after erection. The influence
of these conditions on tower behavior can be such that alignment and
twist limitations may be exceeded as the wind and/or ice load approach
their design maximum. Since these adjustments are likely to occur after
exposure to annual weather cycles, the requirement for yearly tower
inspections is recommended (see Ch. 3 C.1). These inspections should
include checks of alignment, twist, and guy tensions. To provide a
better understanding of the importance of tower alignment, twist, and guy
tensions, a brief discussion of tower design and behavior follows.

B. General Tower Design Characteristics. Towers are designed to withstand

the loading conditions (wind and ice) which are expected to exist in the
geographic location where they will be placed in service. The legs are
designed to carry the compressive load. The horizontal and diagonal
members are designed to transmit wind and gravity loads throughout the
tower framework without inducing flexure in the leg members. Horizontal
members serve essentially as spacers between tower legs. The diagonals,
usually designed to carry only tension, provide resistance to shear and
control leg alignment.

1. Guyed Towers. Guyed towers are usually triangular in cross-section

and have a constant face width. On some towers the base section may
be tapered inward to a pin connection. Structural guys are
symmetrically anchored around the tower with initial tensions as
required to provide proper stiffness to the tower. Guys are
tightened to an initial tension of about 10% of their breaking
strength. Under full design load the tensions will increase to about
40% of the cable's breaking strength. These towers are analyzed as
continuous beams supported on elastic foundations. The base is
usually treated as a pinned connection and any section above the
topmost level of guys is considered as a cantilever. Guyed towers
are designed to deflect laterally under wind loading to the extent
permitted by the catenary and elastic elongation of the supporting
guys. Under certain wind and ice loads the tower can bend
simultaneously about the two major axes and also twist. In addition,
on top loaded monopole antennae, such as those used for Loran-C, lift
and drag wind forces acting on the top loading cables can cause the
top of the tower to deflect into the wind.

2. Self-Supported Towers. Self-supported towers may be triangular or

square in cross-section and may either have a constant face width or
taper with height. They are designed as a cantilever with a rigid

8-1
 base connection. Under design wind and/or ice loadings, the tower
legs are subject to both compression and tension forces. Deflection
of self-supported towers increases from zero at the base to a maximum
at the top. Twisting is usually minimal, the degree being primarily
a function of the eccentricity of antennae and other appurtenances
mounted on the tower. Most self-supported structures have high
built-in torsional rigidity to meet the directional and stability
requirements of installed equipment. Therefore, there should be no
problem with tower alignment and obviously no concern with guy
tensions.

C. Analysis of Existing Towers. Special analysis or evaluations of abnormal

tower alignment, twist, or guy tension conditions have been made by the
Coast Guard. This research has included the study of reverse deflection,
apparently excessive deflection under limited wind conditions, twisting
of towers beyond the designer's or manufacturer's recommended limits, and
crossing of guy pairs. The extent of such analyses has varied, but their
results have been partially translated into inspection and maintenance
policies which are now incorporated in this manual. Civil Engineering
Units are encouraged to evaluate abnormal tower conditions on a local
level as much as possible; however, when local analysis is inadequate or
inconclusive, an evaluation by a Professional Structural Engineer should
be considered.

D. Cause of Misalignment and Twist. Misalignment and twist can occur in a

tower for a number of reasons. Temporary misalignment and twist can
result from wind and ice load as discussed in section B above. Permanent
misalignment and twist can be caused by improper guy tensions. Twist can
be caused by improper assembly and erection techniques, such as a
systematic rotation of bolt tightening which produces a built-in twist in
the tower framework.

E. Alignment, Twist and Guy Tension Limitations. To obtain true tower

alignment without twist an ideal set of conditions would have to exist
during the alignment process. There would have to be no structural
failures, loose fasteners or built-in twist, no wind or ice effect, with
all guys at each level having equal lengths, identical catenaries, and
equal temperatures. Consequently, from a practical point of view, true
tower alignment is an impossible condition to achieve. In view of this,
tolerances are given in Erection Manuals for tower alignment, twist and
guy tension. If an erection manual is not available, see G.1.e below
concerning alignment tolerances; tensions and tolerances will be provided
by the Tall Tower Coordination Center, and existing twist should be
monitored for change.

1. Erection or Built-in Twist. Towers can be erected to the

manufacturer's twist tolerances if proper erection procedures are
used and qualified, experienced personnel are assigned to the job.
This assumes, of course, that the tower has been properly designed
and fabricated. In this respect, experience has shown that the
preferred method for minimizing and controlling erection twist is to
assemble tower sections on the ground using a jig to ensure
straightness, and to tighten all bolts before raising the section in
place by gin pole or crane. Opinions vary as to whether the bolts
should be fully tightened on the ground or after the section is
positioned in the air. This is usually left to the option of the
erector. However, bolts should be tightened in a random pattern

8-2
 rather than following a systematic pattern of proceeding around the
tower in the same direction on each section. This could result in a
serious twist. Twist may be most easily monitored during erection
through the use of the "Leg Sighting" Method described in G.2.a
below. Erection twist that may occur can usually be reduced to
within specified tolerances by loosening and retightening bolts.
There have been cases where the erection twist exceeded recommended
limits and the circumstances forced acceptance of the tower with
excessive twist. This problem has so far been limited to a few 625-
ft. face-guyed towers, where as much as 4 to 4 1/2 degrees of twist
has existed since erection without problems, compared to the rather
restrictive 1/2 degree limit specified by the manufacturer. Towers
can also be twisted with respect to the guy anchors because of a
misalignment of the tower legs when the first sections were set on
the base insulator. Although the tower has a pin-type connection at
the base insulator, once the first sections are resting in place,
rotation of the tower to bring the legs in line with the guy lane
directions requires a considerable effort. As additional sections
are set in place, correction of this type of misalignment or twist
becomes impractical. The impact of this misalignment is not easily
determined, but an alert inspector can eliminate it altogether during
the tower erection process. Studies made at one station revealed
that less than 1 degree of twist could be removed by severely
unbalancing tensions in adjacent guys. Based on these studies and
various other factors, the following policies have been adopted
relative to erection twist.

2. Every attempt should be made during erection to maintain tower twist

within manufacturer's tolerances by using proper erection procedures
and qualified personnel. Erectors should be made fully responsible
for erecting the tower within tolerances, and structures with
excessive twist should not be accepted.

3. Where erection twist cannot be controlled or reduced to within

tolerance, and acceptance must be made for operational or other
purposes, the twist should be reduced to the minimum possible without
unbalancing guy tensions or modifying the structure.

4. Measurements of tower twist subsequent to erection should be compared

to the amount of twist measured at the time of erection and not to
the specified tolerances. For this reason, the most accurate
available method (see G.2.a below) should be used to measure the
tower's twist immediately following erection, and the values recorded
in the central file for the tower.

F. Conditions for Alignment, Twist, and Tension Measurements. As indicated

above, an ideal set of conditions for guy tensioning, alignment, and
twist measurements and adjustments will never occur. A practical set of
conditions are:

1. Ground level wind speed of not more than 10 knots.

2. No ice accumulation on tower or guys.

8-3
 3. Temperature distribution throughout the guys as equal as possible;
this can generally be achieved during periods of cloud cover or in
the early morning.

Measurements of any kind will seldom agree if taken at two different

times. In order to obtain the best possible data, an effort should be
made to perform each measurement or adjustment under which the previous
measurements or adjustments were made.

G. Determination of Alignment and Twist. Several methods of measuring

alignment and twist of a tower are outlined below. All methods are
acceptable for various conditions, but each has certain inherent
inaccuracies that should be recognized and considered when results are
interpreted.

1. Methods for Determining Alignment.

a. Visual Check. This is a very quick, unsophisticated means of

obtaining a rough check of tower alignment following storm
conditions or when instruments are not available. The observer
positions himself outside of the antenna field, in line with the
tower and a guy of the highest level. For Loran-C towers, the
top-loading radial guys should be used for this method. He must
also be directly upwind or directly downwind from the guy. The
guy that hangs vertically is then compared to the tower or a
tower leg, thus giving a rough indication of the tower alignment.
When the wind shifts, or if it is calm, a similar sighting is
made from behind another guy that is as close as possible to 90
degrees away from the first guy. Significant deflections may be
estimated using the tower face width dimension as a guide.

b. Transit Check Method. This is an accurate method of obtaining an

indication of tower alignment, but several inherent errors noted
below cause final results that contain a measure of uncertainty.
In this method, readings taken by transit or theodolite from two
positions 90 degrees apart are plotted, resulting in a "bird's
eye view" of the tower. The steps below apply to a triangular
shaped tower, but the principles are readily adapted to a square-
section tower, see Figure 8-1.

(1) Transit Readings. Set up a transit (position "T1") in the

antenna field far enough from the tower to permit convenient
sighting of the tower top, yet near enough to permit a
reasonably accurate estimate of the deflection based on a leg
diameter as a guide (i.e. typically at the TLE for a LORAN-C
tower). Ensure that all tower legs are clearly visible, and
that all legs will be visible from a second transit position
90 degrees away from position T1. Firmly embed the transit
legs, and level the transit.

(2) Align the vertical cross hair with the edge of any tower leg
at the base of the tower, then lock the scope to prevent
horizontal movement. Elevate the line-of-sight to each guy
attachment point and each midpoint between guy levels; record
the direction (left or right) and amount (using the leg
diameter as a guide) of deflection at each point. The leg

8-4
 diameter of taller towers varies at different elevations and
at pull-off points, and must be taken into consideration.

(3) Repeat step b. above for all tower legs.

(4) Plunge and invert the scope, check transit level, and repeat
b. and c. above. This will eliminate collimation errors.
Average the two sets of readings for each leg.

(5) Move to transit position "T2", located a similar distance away

from the tower, but 90 degrees away from T1. Obtain averages
of deflection readings on all tower legs as described in b.
through d. above.

(6) To facilitate subsequent transit setups, it is suggested that

permanent markers or concrete transit pads be established at
optimum T1 and T2 locations.

(7) Plotting results. On standard graph paper, draw an

equilateral triangle representing the tower in plan view.
Ensure that this triangle is correctly oriented so that T1 and
T2 lines-of-sight may be represented by the horizontal and
vertical graph paper lines. See Figure 8-1.

(8) The averaged readings for each leg at each level from T1 and
T2 are used to plot triangles representing the various levels.
The triangle plotted in step (7) above is taken to represent
the tower at the base, and thus the location of any cross-
section through a perfectly plumb tower. Plot the true
locations of each leg at each level by first drawing a
horizontal line representing the line-of-sight from T1, and
then a vertical line representing the line-of-sight from T2.

(9) Use an exaggerated scale to plot deflection readings. That is,

do not use the scale inferred by the original triangle drawn
in step (7) above. This will allow a clearer view of the many
triangles to be plotted, and will permit a more accurate
indication of the final deflection figures.

(10) As each triangle (representing the true position of a given

level of the tower) is plotted, find its center using
perpendicular bisectors of any two sides. Indicate this by a
dot, and use a label such as "4" for the 4th guy level. Using
the exaggerated scale, the distance from any such dot to the
center of the "base" triangle is the measured deflection of
the tower at that elevation.

(11) Due to the effect of various errors, the plots will not
normally be equilateral triangles. Twist will be indicated by
the triangular plots, but will be exaggerated because of the
exaggerated scale; superior methods of measuring twist are
discussed in G.2 of this chapter. By plotting all three
legs, the effects of twist and imperfect triangles is
minimized when obtaining deflection readings.

8-5
 (12) Steps 7-11 above can be completed using an AutoCad drawing
program. If this is done, then the use of an exaggerated
scale is not necessary.

(13) Errors. Human errors in operating the instrument and

estimating deflections, instrument errors other than
collimation, aberrations of the line of-sight, and movement of
the tower while readings are taken contribute to the
inaccuracy of the transit check method.
T2 1" RIGHT

LEG A
BASE OF TOWER

T1 1-1/2" RIGHT
LEG C

BASE SECTION AT LEVEL 4

LEVEL 4

"
.5

NOTE: DUE TO THE TWIST OF THE TOWER AT

LEVEL 4 THE LEGS ARE SEEN TO BE DEFLECTED
MUCH MORE THAN THE TRUE DEFLECTION OF THE
TOWER AS REPRESENTED BY THE CIRCLE "LEVEL 4",
WHICH IS THE CENTER OF THE TOWER AT THAT LEVEL.
LEG B

Figure 8-1

c. One-Leg Method. This method uses the same basic principles of the
Transit Check method, but it is much easier to plot results and
the final alignment plot can be made on the spot in the field.
However, three transit setups are required instead of two.

(1) Locate the transit in the antenna field (see Ch. 8 G.1.b(1)
above) so that two tower legs appear approximately in line.
This is position "Tl". Align the transit reticle on the edge
of the third leg (not one of the two legs in line) and take
deflection readings at points up to the tower top just as in

8-6
 the Transit Check method. Plunge and invert the scope, take
duplicate readings, and average the results.

(2) The key to the plotting lies in having available special (but
easily constructed) plotting paper, as shown in Figure 8-2a.
These lines are drawn at 60 degrees to each other, and the
center of the plot (small circle) represents the center of a
perfectly plumb tower. (See Pg. B-20.)

Figure 8-2a

(3) Referring to the family of parallel lines noted as "T1", plot

a line representing the deflection reading for the particular
elevation. In Figure 8-2b, a deflection of 1 1/4 inches left
has been plotted.

(4) Now move to transit position "T2", 60 degrees further around

the antenna field, where two legs again are approximately in
line. Take deflection readings on the third leg as before, and
plot results using the "T2" family of parallel lines. In
Figure 8-2b, a deflection of 1 inch left is plotted.

8-7
 Figure 8-2b

(5) Move to transit position "T3", another 60 degrees further, and

repeat the procedures of recording deflection of the third
leg. In Figure 8-2b, a deflection of 3/4 inches right is
plotted.

(6) The measurements are now complete and a triangle is formed on

the plotting paper. The center of this triangle represents
the plot of the tower center at the particular elevation, and
the scaled distance and direction from the small circle is the
probable true deflection. Under ideal conditions, the
triangle should be a point; however, the readings become less
accurate with distance, and the size of the triangle can be
expected to increase accordingly. As readings are taken up
the tower, efforts should be made to keep the triangles as
small as possible. If a very large triangle is plotted, a
reading is automatically suspect and can be taken again on the
spot.

8-8
 (7) The effects of tower twist are automatically eliminated when
using this method, but on the other hand no indication of
twist is obtained.

d. TIA/EIA Method. This method uses a procedure of calculations

developed in the TIA/EIA Structural Standards for Steel Antenna
Towers and Antenna Supporting Structures. This method gives
accurate results from the data of a 3-transit set up. It will
give both the alignment and twist from the data. The procedure
does however require calculations from a computer spreadsheet. A
copy of the spreadsheet along with the procedures can be acquired
from the Tall Tower Coordination Center or the procedures and
calculations can be taken from the TIA/EIA manual. This method
is an accurate method with results that can be obtained
relatively quickly compared to other methods.

e. Allowable Deflections. The maximum allowable deflections

permitted shall be as specified by the tower manufacturer or
designer. When such deflections are not specified, the following
shall apply:

(1) The maximum allowable deflection at the top of the tower

("Dtop") is equal to the lesser of:
Htop
720
OR

W
20

(Htop is the height of the tower and W is the tower face width.)

(2) The maximum allowable deflection at any other elevation "H" is

equal to:
Dtop x H
Htop

(3) The maximum allowable deflection between consecutive guy

levels is equal to:
Dtop x L;
Htop

(Htop is the tower height, and L is the distance between guy levels.)

2. Methods for Determining Twist. Five methods are discussed below,

with those most highly recommended given first. Accurate twist
measurements should be made during every tower inspection and checked
on the spot against previous measurements. Any significant change in
tower twist will indicate a problem (see D above), and an
investigation should be undertaken.

a. Leg Sighting. This is the most simple and most accurate of all
methods, but climbing the tower is necessary. This method is
highly recommended for use during erection of a tower.

(1) Highly visible targets must be placed at the outer portion of

the antenna field, usually adjacent to a top-loading radial

8-9
 anchor where the distance to the tower is known. These
targets are located along the circumference of an imaginary
circle whose center is the tower; they are placed every 1/2
degree, or every 1/10 of a degree for greater accuracy. For
example, targets placed at the radial anchors of a 625-ft.
Loran-C tower, 850 feet from the tower, would be spaced at 1
1/2 foot intervals in order to indicate every 1/10 degree.
The 0 degree target should be exactly in line with a tower
face at the base of the tower.

(2) An observer on the tower at any elevation may then sight along
the outer edges of two tower legs and directly note the twist
using the targets; interpolate between targets as necessary.
It is important to use large, brightly painted targets, to
locate the targets away from the sun relative to the observer,
and to clearly distinguish the 0 and whole-degree targets
from the others. See Figure 8-3.

(3) On towers energized with high-powered transmitters, the high

voltage gradients outside the legs may cause shocking which
could preclude the use of this method.

LINE OF TARGETS (NUMBERS IN DEGREES)

2 1 0 1 2
PROJECTION OF TOWER FACE

T
IGH
F S
E O
LIN
R'SE
ERV
OBS

LEVEL UNDER OBSERVATION

BASE LEVEL
OBSERVER'S EYE

Figure 8-3 Leg Sighting Method for Twist Measurement.

8-10
b. T-Square Method. This method uses the same basic principle as leg
sighting, but relies on a device for sighting on targets rather
than on the alignment of two legs. It may be used on all towers
which may be climbed while energized (see Ch.2 Part II.B), but it
is necessary to carry the device up the tower.

(1) Highly visible targets such as described in G.2.a above must

be placed at the outer portion of the antenna field, but are
located such that the 0 degree target is exactly in line with
the perpendicular to a selected tower face.

(2) A T-square shaped device is fabricated of rigid lightweight

materials. The top of the "T" should be designed to rest
securely upon any horizontal tower member. The stem of the
"T" should be about two feet long, and fitted with a nail (or
similar projection) at each end. This device is then carried
by the observer on the tower. At each elevation where twist
is to be measured, the device is rested near the midpoint of
the horizontal member and the targets are sighted using the
two nails on the stem of the "T".

(3) This method comes highly recommended because of its accuracy,

but it has the obvious disadvantage of encumbering the
observer with the T-square device. Inaccuracies may be
introduced because of bent or distorted horizontal tower
members, and it is good practice to use an average reading
obtained from measurements using 2 or 3 vertically adjacent
horizontals.

c. Visual Check Method. If the tower is not to be climbed, or other

reasons preclude the use of the above two methods, the visual
check method should be used. This method is sometimes referred
to as "Walking the Radials".

(1) An observer on the ground is equipped with a transit,

theodolite, or high-powered telescope of some kind. The
observer-positions himself a known distance from the tower, in
line with the projection of a tower face, usually at or near
one of the top-loading radial anchors. The observer then
marks the position, point ("A"), which is directly in line
with the outer edges of the two overlapping tower legs at the
tower base. See Figure 8-4.

(2) Sighting up to the first guy level, the observer moves left or
right until the tower legs at this level appear in line. This
point ("B") is then marked by a convenient object on the
ground. The distance between this object and the point "A" can
be related to the twist of the tower between the base and the
first guy level by simple trigonometry equation, (see Figure
8-4).

(3) For example, assume the observer is near a radial anchor of a

625-ft. Loran-C tower, 850 feet from the tower. The observer
has moved to the right 4 feet in order to line up to the two
legs at the first guy level. The twist angle in radians is
therefore, 4/850; multiply by 57.3 to obtain degrees. The
twist is 0.27 degrees counterclockwise.

8-11
(4) The procedure in (2) above is repeated for each guy level, and
the twist at each level computed according to the distance of
the respective marker (point "A").

(5) Accuracy of this method is primarily dependent on the ability

of the observer to clearly see the alignment of the legs at
the distances involved. For best results, follow these
guidelines:

(a) On sunny days, sight along the tower face that is toward
the sun, with the sun behind the observer. Align the
outer edges of the legs.

(b) On cloudy days, use the gap between legs to determine

alignment of the legs; that is, align the inner edge of
the near leg with the outer edge of the far leg, or vice
versa. The observer should be positioned where legs are
best silhouetted against a bright sky.

(c) Use a high powered optic on a stable platform; a good

theodolite is cumbersome but otherwise satisfactory. If
possible, measure from the same spot from year to year.

(d) Measurement from a radial anchor not only gives an

accurate distance from the tower, but allows absolute
measurement of the twist of the base section by using the
anchor as a positive point of reference.

8-12
 S

ACE
R F
TWIST

OWE

L"
F T
TWIST = 57.3 * (S/L) IN DEGREES

E "
N O

ANC
TIO

IST
JEC

N D
PRO

W
KNO
LEVEL UNDER OBSERVATION

BASE LEVEL

Figure 8-4 Visual Check Method for Twist Measurement.

d. Boresighting. This method uses a cross-shaped device, fabricated

of rigid lightweight materials, which is taken up the tower by
the observer. One cross member is designed to rest against two
tower legs, while the other is free to pivot and is fitted with
two nails for sighting on a radial anchor or any other
appropriate target. Graduations marked on either arm (depending
on design) are used for readings of twist in degrees. Not only
is it necessary to carry the device up the tower, but the
accuracy of the final measurement cannot compare with
measurements obtained using the chord of the angle, as in the
three foregoing methods.

e. Transit Check Method. Twist may be obtained from the plot of

cross sections at various elevations as described in G.1.b
above. However, an exaggerated scale should not be used to plot
deflections; the deflections must be plotted in true proportion
to the scale of the triangle representing the tower cross-
section. All of the errors noted in G.1.b(12) above contribute
to the inaccuracy of this method. This, plus its basic
inferiority to the foregoing twist determination methods, leads
to the recommendation that it be used as a rough check only.

H. Guy Tensions. The initial tensions should be maintained during no wind,

no ice conditions to ensure that the guys and the tower are properly
loaded if maximum design forces are experienced. Guy tensions and tower

8-13
plumbness are the primary indicators of the stability of the structure.
It is therefore desirable to measure tensions in appropriate guys at each
major tower inspection using a method or device which has good accuracy
and, equally important, good repeatability. Prior to guy retensioning,
the need to retension should be verified by the use of a recently
calibrated guy tension measuring device. The calibration test should
duplicate field usage of the equipment as much as possible. For example,
for a 625-ft. Loran-C tower, the guy calipers should be calibrated with
the dynamometers installed; calibration of the dynamometers alone is not
considered adequate. The use of recently calibrated guy tension
measuring devices during the actual retensioning effort cannot be
overemphasized.

1. Master Lane. For the massive 1350-ft Loran-C towers the

manufacturers specify initial tensions in one lane of guys only,
because of the great physical effort required to obtain a tension
measurement. Guys in a "lane" share the same, or nearly the same,
vertical plane. If tensions within this "master lane" are within
specified tolerances, and at the same time the tower is within its
tolerance limits for verticality, then the tensions in the guys of
the remaining two lanes must be acceptable. This method should be
reserved for 1350-ft towers. This master lane should be as specified
by the manufacturer or the one whose anchors are at elevations which
are closest to the elevation of the tower base, since tensions are
usually specified for an idealized flat site.

2. Methods for Measuring Tension. Coast Guard tower guys range in size
from about 1/4 inch to over 2 1/2 inches in diameter; initial
tensions vary from a few hundred pounds to more than 50 thousand
pounds. There are therefore several entirely different approaches to
the single task of tension measurement, depending on the
circumstances. The methods described below are listed in general
order of preference, but not all methods may be used on all towers.

a. Calipers. A guy tension caliper is a scissors-type device that

is quick and simple to use, and is ideal for guys whose initial
tensions do not exceed 3000lbs. See Figures 8-5 and 8-6. By
modifying the design, but retaining the same basic principle,
caliper-like devices have been developed for guys whose tensions
are 12,000lbs (see Figure 8-7). The arms of one side of the
caliper are designed to fit inside the thimble of the guy end and
to straddle the eye of the connecting turnbuckle. The other arms
are connected to a dynamometer, and have a crank-operated screw
mechanism for tensioning. By turning the crank, the turnbuckle
eye and thimble are separated, and the guy force is transferred
through the caliper arms to the dynamometer. This gives a direct
reading of guy tension. The caliper is preferred for use on all
towers up to about 700ft in height, but it may be unnecessarily
sophisticated for towers shorter than 200 feet. It is simple,
quick, and accurate, and is endorsed without qualification by all
who have used it. Great attention to the turnbuckle/ thimble
detail is necessary for caliper design.

8-14
 Figure 8-5 Guy tension caliper.

Figure 8-6 Guy tension calipers for tensions up to 3000lbs.

b. Tensiometers. A tensiometer (Figure 8-8) is basically a spring

balance that is placed between the guy and the anchor to measure
tension directly. The tensiometer has a distinct disadvantage in
that it must be attached in parallel to the guy using a “come-
along", and it is difficult to determine when the full load has
been assumed by the instrument. This method is most commonly

8-15
 used during erection of guyed towers less than 1000 feet in
height, or during major guy length adjustments; the tensiometer
can be easily inserted in series with the come-along and the
tension of the guy measured before connection to the anchor is
accomplished.

Figure 8-7 Guy tension calipers for high tension guys.

Figure 8-8 Tensiometer.

c. Slope Measuring Device (SMD). Catenary equations show that for a

given guy construction, site and tower geometry, and guy tension,
the angle of the guy at the anchor can be computed. Therefore,
since guy construction and site geometries do not change, the
slope of a particular guy at its anchor can be used to indicate
the tension in the guy. An instrument for measuring this slope
is the SMD shown in Figure 8-9. The SMD is recommended only for
guys which are too large to accommodate calipers. The
repeatability of the SMD is very good, within 6% under worst

8-16
 conditions; however, its accuracy is dependent on prior
calibration of each particular guy through the use of a very
accurate device such as the "TMD" (7-7-2-4). Accuracy based on
calculations using catenary equations is questionable. The SMD
shown in Figure 8-9 is configured such that a measurement of the
cosine of the angle of the guy is obtained along the vernier
scale, which reads to thousandths of an inch. Through a
calibration process, curves plotting tension versus SMD readings
are generated, and kept with the instrument; a separate curve is
required for each individual guy. The main advantages of the SMD
are simplicity, rapidity, and ease of handling. Once a
historical collection of SMD readings is accumulated, it is easy
to quickly check tensions on the largest towers within reasonable
limits.

Figure 8-9 Slope measuring device.

d. Tension Measuring Device (TMD). The TMD employs two very accurate
tensiometers and a complex apparatus for mounting onto the bridge
sockets and hairpins at the anchors of large towers with high-
tension guys. Although 3 - 4 men are required to use the device,
its accuracy and repeatability for large guys is very good.
Variations of the TMD have been developed for other very large
towers.

e. Hydraulic Tensioning Device. This type of device is used for

measuring and adjusting tensions in the guys of the larger
towers. The device consists of a hairpin harness and jacking bars
with two hydraulic rams connected by a flexible hose to one
pumping unit. A gage is attached to the pumping unit, calibrated
directly in pounds or showing a pressure that may be converted to
pounds. Hydraulic rams and hairpins are required to unseat the
bridge socket from the hairpin nuts, but this equipment is
cumbersome, requires several people, is time consuming, and
provides limited accuracy in tension measurement. An alternate to
the jacking harness method is the hydraulic ram method. Note

8-17
 that, to use this method, there must be sufficient room at the
end of the closed bridge socket U-Bolt to back a nut off and
insert the steel plates and hydraulic rams. The gages and rams
must be calibrated together at frequent intervals for either
method.

f. Shunt Dynamometers. A shunt dynamometer, one type of which is

shown in Figure 8-10, is a simplified device for tension
measurement. It may be used on cables up to about one inch in
diameter. It is a deflection-type indicator that is clamped onto
a guy, and measures guy deflection as it applies a force to the
cable. It is important to realize that each dynamometer must be
calibrated for the particular size and type of cable on which it
will be used. The manufacturer's instructions should be strictly
followed. To obtain optimum results, three readings should be
taken on each guy at slightly different positions along the guy.
The final measurement should be an average of the three readings.
Shunt dynamometers are best for small, flexible guy cables. If
the shunt dynamometer is calibrated and used correctly, it can
yield accurate results, although its accuracy can be affected by
cold temperatures.

Figure 8-10 Shunt dynamometer.

g. Visual Sag Method. This method makes use of the principles of

catenary equations, as does the slope-measuring device, to relate
the observed geometry of a guy to its theoretical tension. This
method is most appropriate for guy cables whose weight per lineal
foot is nearly uniform. It is the fairly good repeatability of
this method which makes it useful, not its accuracy; its accuracy
is further limited when there are insulators in the guy acting as
point loads. The visual sag method is of particular use when the
visual sag tension can be correlated with the tension of the
particular guy as measured at the same approximate time by one of
the tensioning devices described previously. If a record of
visual sag tension is maintained when several tensioning device
measurements are taken, it is possible to develop a plot of
"visual sag method tension" versus "tensioning device tension".

8-18
 Subsequent visual sag method readings may then be converted using
the resultant curve. This results in a relatively simple means
whereby station personnel can periodically check the tension in
the guys. If commonly used within their area, it is recommended
that Civil Engineering Units prepare curves for the use of
station personnel that plot T vs. I for each guy in the master
lane. The curves may first be based on theoretical values, then
further modified as field data is accumulated through the use of
tensioning devices. Refer to Figure 8-11.

(1) Attach a sighting device to the underside of the guy at the

anchor end so that the line-of-sight is tangent to the axis of
the guy at that point.

(2) Determine the "intercept" distance (I) between the line of

sight and the guy pull off by counting girts and multiplying
by the girt spacing.

(3) Calculate tension at the anchor (T) using the equation given
in Figure 8-11.

Figure 8-11 Visual Sag Method.

I. Correction of Alignment and Guy Tension. Correction of tower alignment

or guy tensions should only be attempted by experienced and qualified

8-19
 personnel and only when an overall improvement in alignment and/or
tensions is required and can be expected. There are many ways to correct
alignment and tensions on guyed structures, and no single method or
approach can be specified for every structure. Correction of alignment
will involve an adjustment to guy tensions, but these changes should not
be such that the guy tensions become out of tolerance. Based on various
experiences with Coast Guard towers, corrections should be accomplished
with the following in mind:

1. On face-guyed towers it is more important to maintain a balanced

condition in the guys (guys in each pair with equal
tensions/catenaries) than to sacrifice this balance in an attempt to
counteract twist. Field tests have shown that guy pair tensions must
be unbalanced by more than 50% to remove less than one degree of
twist. This imbalance would be more detrimental to the integrity of
the tower structure during design winds and ice than the slight
amount of twist that may exist in the tower. (See E.1 above for
discussion of twist.)

2. Most deviations in tower plumbness on multi-level guyed structures

can be corrected to within specified alignment tolerances by careful
adjustment of guy tensions. Adjustments should be made
incrementally, since large changes in tension at a given guy level
can cause changes in the alignment and tensions at adjacent guy
levels. There are situations when both alignment and tension
tolerances cannot be met concurrently and a compromise of one or both
must be made. As a rule, once tensions for each guy lane have been
established, the tension tolerances should take precedence over
alignment tolerances. A good deal of judgement is required when
determining if this is the situation and the extent of the
compromise. The accuracy of the equipment being used and the weather
conditions at the time must be considered. Experience has shown that,
generally, only small sacrifices have to be made to the alignment
tolerances in order to bring the tensions within acceptable limits.

3. Most adjustments of guy tensions can be made within the range of the
attaching turnbuckles or U-bolts. If a physical length change of a
guy is required, the turnbuckles should be left with a 40-60% take-up
to facilitate minor adjustments in the future. New Big-Grip dead-
ends should always be used when adjusting guy lengths subsequent to
initial tower erection. (See Ch.6H.3.b)

4. Complete and detailed records of all adjustments should be

maintained. A record of weather conditions, tension/alignment/twist
values before, during and after adjustments will greatly assist in
understanding the response of the structure and in simplifying
subsequent corrective actions.

J. Frequency and Scope of Alignment and Tension Checks. Tower alignment,

twist, and guy tension checks should be made on a regular basis at a
frequency to be determined by major field commanders. These checks
should be accomplished by qualified Coast Guard or contractor personnel
and should include observation of the guys for excessive vibrations and
any unusual tower behavior or condition. In addition to these scheduled
inspections, alignment, twist, guy tension checks and general tower
condition observations shall be conducted after each heavy storm, during

8-20
and after heavy icing of the tower or guys, and after earthquakes, as
discussed in Ch.3 B.4. If only visual inspection methods are employed
after severe conditions, and the tower appears out of alignment or is
twisted, or guy tensions appear slack, an instrument-assisted inspection
should be made as soon as possible; no one should be permitted to mount
the tower.

8-21
CHAPTER 9. TOWER LIGHTING AND LIGHTNING PROTECTION

A. General. Coast Guard towers may have obstruction lighting systems.

These systems must conform to Federal Aviation Administration standards
for the protection of air navigation. The FAA Advisory Circular 70/7460-
1(series) uses 200ft as a threshold for determining whether a tower or
structure is an obstruction and therefore must be marked (painted or
lighted). The FAA may also recommend marking or lighting a structure
that does not exceed 200ft because of its particular location. Refer to
the FAA standards in the Advisory Circular AC 70/7460-1(series). In
recent years, concerns have been raised by some groups regarding the use
of red obstruction lights versus medium and high intensity strobe
lighting systems, in particular as it relates to migratory birds striking
taller towers. No requirement is in place to replace one system with
another, as research and debate on this issue continues. The number of
installations of medium and high intensity lighting systems is
increasing, particularly on Nationwide DGPS towers, as well as some LORAN
towers, most notably the SLT type antenna. Some original high intensity
systems suffered frequent maintenance problems. Newer systems currently
being installed have not suffered the same magnitude of problems
encountered by earlier systems. Advisory Circular AC 70/7460-1(series)
provides detailed information on the requirements and specifications of
high intensity lighting systems. It is the responsibility of the CEU to
ensure that the tower lighting system conforms to the appropriate
standards. Any tower construction and or modifications originating from
the respective unit commander, CEU, FD&CC, or other engineering
organization shall be responsible for coordinating with the tower's field
commander and local FAA to ensure that current standards and regulations
are met. Typically, for any alteration to a tower greater than 200 feet
or within certain distances from airports/runways, FAA Form 7460-1
("Notice of Proposed Construction or Alteration") is required at least 30
days prior to the work. If applicable, coordinate with the local FAA
office as to where the form should be sent. The unit or company
generating the work is responsible to ensure that the FAA is notified of
pending work and that all required FAA forms are submitted per the FAA
requirements.

B. FAA Notification Requirements for Tower Lighting Failures. Coast Guard

field units responsible for towers shall immediately contact the FAA upon
learning of a tower lighting failure. All Coast Guard stations
responsible for towers and their associated lighting systems and
equipment shall have the phone number of their local FAA office that
should be notified. Details are available in FAA Advisory Circular AC
70/7460-1(series).

C. Tower Lighting System Components. The erection and maintenance manual

for each tower should contain specific information on the lighting system
and its components. The components listed in this section are for towers
that will be lit using red obstruction lights, not medium or high
intensity systems.

1. Flashing Beacons. Typically, 300-mm coded beacons are installed at

the top of all towers over 200 feet in height and at one or more
intermediate levels for towers in excess of 350 feet. The beacon
typically consists of two clear Fresnel lenses, red filter, gaskets,

9-1
and two 620-watt or two 700-watt pre-focus lamps. The top and bottom
sections of the beacon are hinged at the mid-point for ease of
relamping. Both pre-focus lamps burn and flash in synchronization.
Some fixtures have a vented dome at the top to allow air to circulate
and heat to escape so to reduce the internal light fixture
temperature. A drain port is typically located in the base to prevent
accumulation of moisture. See Figure 9-1.

Figure 9-1 300mm coded beacon at top of 625ft Loran tower.

a. Beacon Flashing Mechanism. Most flashing beacons are controlled

by a solid state flasher mechanism. Any mercury tilt switch type
flashing mechanisms shall be replaced by solid state flashers.

b. Flashing Circuit Characteristics. Deficiencies present when an

open-coil type isolation transformer is used in flashing beacon
circuits include, relatively poor voltage regulation, low
efficiency and high no-load magnetizing current. These
deficiencies are due to the requirement for a large air space
between the primary and secondary windings of the open-coil type
isolation transformer. The open-coil construction results in
satisfactory secondary leakage reactance as it limits secondary
current surges in fixed circuits such as the obstruction light,
or when the flasher is mounted on the secondary side of the
transformer. However, the flasher units on most Loran-C tower
lighting systems have been relocated to the primary side of the
transformer causing peak current surges that resulted in rapid
heating and failure of the mercury tilt-switches in the flasher
units. Hence, to no avail, special dimming resistors were
shunted across the beacon flasher terminals in an effort to solve
this problem. Following extensive field testing, special peak
current limiters were designed and developed by the lighting kit
manufacturer to limit the high initial magnetizing current of the
installed isolation transformer. Based on the principles of the
current limiter, the manufacturer also designed a “stiffer", more

9-2
 efficient, low-impedance, open-coil type isolation transformer.
When ordering new or replacement transformers, always specify the
location of the flasher mechanism to ensure proper design. Keep
in mind that the rise in voltage during the beacon OFF interval
can also result in an overvoltage condition on the lamps
regardless of other features of the system. If this becomes a
problem, one manufacturer recommendation is to install a 50-
Farad, 400 VAC capacitor across the beacon leads, then adjust the
transformer taps (with the beacon ON) to provide proper lamp
voltage.

2. Fixed Obstruction Lights. A steady burning/fixed obstruction light

is required at the top of obstructions less than 150 feet in height.
For obstructions in excess of 150 feet in height, a steady
burning/fixed obstruction light is required at the top level, and at
one or more intermediate level of the obstruction.

Figure 9-2 Fixed obstruction lights with covers removed for inspection.

Although, single and double obstruction lights are available, the

Coast Guard typically uses the double obstruction light which
consists of two red Fresnel globes, each with medium screw-type lamp
base mounted in a common housing. See Figure 9-2. The double
obstruction light type fixture has an enclosed relay that allows for
only one lamp to be lit at a time. The transfer relay mounted within
the fixture housing monitors power to one lamp and automatically
switches power to the second lamp if power loss is sensed in the
first lamp. Lamps are typically 116 watt. Generally, three double
obstruction light fixtures are installed, one on each leg, at each
prescribed level on towers over 350 feet high.

3. Photo-Electric Relay. The photoelectric relay (a.k.a. photocell) is

used to automatically energize and de-energize the lighting system.
This concept is dependent upon light. Typically, when light levels
are reduced to a preset level, the photocell switches and energizes
the lighting circuit. When light levels are increased to a preset
level, the photocell again switches to de-energize the lighting

9-3
 circuit. The photocell sensitivity is typically factory set.
However, there are photocells available that can be manually
adjusted. Typical Coast Guard photoelectric relays consist of two
basic components: the relay/switch mechanism and a remote mounted
photocell.

4. Isolation Transformers. Isolation transformers provide a means of

supplying 60 Hz power across the base insulator of an energized tower
while providing high RF impedance between the tower and ground. The
two basic types in use at Coast Guard installations are the open-
coil, air-insulated, side arm-mounted (Figure 9-3), and the older
oil-insulated types. Isolation transformers are provided with
primary/secondary voltage ratios suited to the needs of the specific
site. There are multiple taps on the windings that enable adjustment
of the voltage supply to the secondary side.

5. Lighting System Wiring. Typical obstruction lighting kits furnished

for a given tower contain components conforming to FAA
specifications. Many of the original lighting kits contained type TW
wiring in conduit. Where corrosion was a problem, lighting kits were
modified to use Type RR-USE wiring which does not require conduit.
Refer to section D below for current wiring requirements.

Figure 9-3 Isolation transformers on an energized tower.

6. Junction Boxes and Overcurrent Protection Devices. The remainder of

a typical tower lighting system consists of junction boxes, and over-
current protection devices. Weatherproof junction boxes are
typically cast aluminum construction. Because of the obvious Life
Safety issue, safety chains must be furnished with all junction box
covers to prevent the cover from falling. Overcurrent protection
devices can be a circuit breaker and/or a fused safety switch. Where
isolation transformers are used, Safety Switches with slow-blow fuses
are recommended because of the induced RF voltage that exists across
the transformer's primary side even though the lighting system power
supply is off. It is possible that once the lighting system is re-
energized, a momentary high current surge may trip a circuit breaker.

9-4
 Hence, the slow blow fuse could sustain this momentary surge.
Typically, safety switches should be installed between the lighting
system controls (source of power) and the primary coil of the
transformer.

D. New Lighting System Requirements. For new or replacement lighting

systems, the following materials and features shall be provided in lieu
of existing components. Most new lighting systems require little
maintenance. However, because of the environments present at most Coast
Guard tower sites, periodic inspection is required. The following
features should be incorporated for new or replacement lighting systems:

1. Lighting cable should be type USE, style RR or equivalent, rated at

600 volts, secured directly to the inside of tower legs with approved
tape. Cable shall be "sunlight resistant" and suitable for wet
locations as described in the National Electric Code. Conduit is no
longer authorized.

2. Provide double obstruction lights at appropriate levels with raised

encapsulated relays, stainless steel hardware and keeper chains that
prevent the fixture lens and cover from falling. Specify Hughley &
Phillips OB22A31TR1CG/ 5703 for cabling requiring a 3/4in diameter
knockout. Knockout shall be located at the bottom of the fixture.
For cabling requiring a 1in diameter knockout, specify H & P
OB22A41TR1CG/5703 obstruction lights. For side entrance fixtures,
use the same part number given above but change OB22 to OB24.

3. Junction boxes should be UL Listed, NEMA 4X, cast aluminum housing,

with watertight fittings, stainless steel screws, stainless steel
keeper chain (to prevent cover from falling), and neoprene gasket.

4. Whenever possible, lighting controls should not be mounted on the

tower but should instead be mounted on panels at ground level.

5. Provide solid state flashers.

E. Lighting System Inspection and Maintenance. Prior to climbing a tower

for inspection, it is recommended that the inspector/climber wear a
backpack that includes replacement lamps, silicon grease, tools for
opening junction boxes, tape, etc. It is also required that tools be
fastened to the climber such that an accidental drop of the tool will not
allow that tool to fall from the tower. Tower lighting systems should be
inspected at least once per year (see Ch.3 C.1). Lighting system
inspections should include the following:

1. For unmanned and remote tower locations all lamps or strobe flash
tubes shall be replaced annually. Continuously manned stations shall
annually replace strobe flash tubes and beacon lamps as well as any
burnt out obstruction lamps in double obstruction light fixtures.
When relamping a tower, the lenses and fixtures of the beacons and
obstruction lights should be cleaned inside and out. Where double
obstruction lights with transfer relays have been provided, the relay
should be tested for proper operation, then sprayed with a fungicide
and moisture-proof varnish. Where provided, vents and drain holes
should be checked and cleaned as necessary. In some cases, drain
holes have been enlarged with a countersink on the inside. Before

9-5
 closing the lamp fixtures, the rubber or neoprene gaskets should be
coated with silicone grease for weather proofing.

2. The voltage at each lamp socket should be checked and to comply with
FAA standards, may not vary more than 3% from the rated lamp voltage.

3. Provide the following lamp types:

a. Obstruction Lamps. General Electric, incandescent, 116 watt, A-

21 bulb, clear, medium screw base, 120 volt, C-9 filament, 6000
hour. NSN 6240-00-842-2887.

b. Beacon Lamps. General Electric, incandescent, 120-volt, 700-

watt, PS-40 bulb mogul pre-focus base, C-7A filament, 6000 hour.
NSN 6240-01-030-7071.

c. Supply of Lamps. Each tower unit should always have on hand a

sufficient supply to re-lamp their entire tower

4. Replace any mercury switches in the flasher mechanism with a solid

state flasher.

5. For double obstruction lights, test all transfer relays by unscrewing

the primary lamp. Unscrewing the primary lamp should cause the relay
to switch over to the secondary lamp. If the transfer takes place,
the relay is good. If the transfer does not take place, then a new
relay should be installed.

6. Clear vent and drain holes in obstruction light fixture.

7. Lubricate all neoprene gaskets in lighting fixtures and junction

boxes with silicone grease. Do not leave excess grease inside the
junction boxes or enclosures as it may trap moisture inside the
housing or melt, blocking drain holes. Do not use silicone sealant
in lieu of silicone grease.

8. Coat all screw threads with silicone grease before tightening.

9. Where needed, secure loose lighting cable to a tower member with tape
as follows:

a. 2 turns of 2 inch Scotchwrap 1#50 around cable and tower member.

b. 3 turns of 1 inch Scotch filament tape #890 over the Scotchwrap.

c. 4 turns of 2 inch Scotchwrap #50 over the filament tape. Apply

the last two turns with no tension.

d. Where extra holding strength is required, apply "Band-It"

stainless steel banding over the last layer of tape.

10. The flasher unit and photocell should be checked and verified as
operable at least monthly. The window of the photocell should be
cleaned. Outdoor enclosures should be adequately sealed against
moisture infiltration. Replace any mercury switches with solid state
flashers.

9-6
 11. The open coil type of isolation transformer should not require
frequent inspection or extensive maintenance. The surfaces of the
coils should be repainted with a waterproof varnish whenever cracking
or other deterioration is noted. The coils should be oriented such
that water does not drip from the upper coil to the lower. The oil-
insulated base insulator type transformer is no longer specified.
However, it is good practice to maintain the proper oil level in
existing base insulators to prevent contamination from accumulating
on the inner surfaces of the cylinder walls.

12. The lighting system wiring should be checked at least every other
year via an insulation resistance test with a 500-volt self-contained
megger. Care should be taken to avoid the use of a megger which
produces a higher voltage than the rated voltage of the conductor and
connected equipment. Records should be maintained of all resistance
tests so that any downward trend will be noted. It is important to
establish initial insulation resistance values for any new
installations; these will serve as a basis of comparison for
subsequent tests. The insulation resistance should normally be at
least one mega-ohm. To check the resistance of the tower wiring
insulation, disconnect the conductors from the flasher, junction box,
or transformer. Connect one lead of the megger to one of the
conductors and the other lead to "ground" (the tower or junction
box). This should be done for each individual conductor in the
lighting system. It is not necessary to check the insulation
resistance between conductor pairs unless problems are suspected. To
isolate a point of low resistance, it will be necessary to repeat the
megger check at each junction box. Tape or clamps securing lighting
cable should be renewed as necessary.

13. The conduit, junction boxes, fittings, terminals, etc. should be

inspected for corrosion, proper support, and loose connections.
Deficiencies are normally easy to correct and should be taken care of
immediately. Corroded areas should be cleaned and painted. Terminal
boards should be sprayed with a moisture-resistant varnish as
required.

14. Whenever the tower is de-energized for inspection or maintenance, the

ball gaps should be checked to ensure that the proper distance is
maintained between the ball gap spheres. The spheres should also be
checked for contamination, protrusions, etc., and they should be
cleaned as required. Where bonding straps are connected to the ball
gap arms, they should be checked for loose connections and corrosion.
The grounding of the ground side ball gap should be checked for
electrical continuity and condition. Refer to Lightning Protection
section below for further information on ball gaps.

F. Lightning Protection. Each ungrounded tower is provided with a ball gap

lightning protector (with or without a rain shield) for installation
across the base insulator. See Figure 9-3. A one-time adjustment
process can be used to establish the gap distances, and thereby provide a
reasonable degree of protection for the transmitting equipment. The final
gap setting should be recorded for future reference.

1. Adjustment of base insulator ball gap. The base insulator ball gap
distance should be set approximately one-eighth inch greater than the
maximum arc-over distance under full operating transmitting power.

9-7
 This adjustment should be made during periods of high relative
humidity using a trial and error method as follows:

a. With the transmitter off and the tower grounded, the spheres
should be wiped clean.

b. The ball gap arm connected to ground should be positioned so as

to provide a gap of about 1 inch between the two spheres.

c. Clear all personnel from the immediate area of the tower base.
Remove the grounding stick and energize the tower with full
normal power.

d. If no arc-over is detected, turn off the transmitter, again

ground the tower, and reduce the gap by one-eighth inch or less.

e. Again remove the grounding stick, energize the tower, and look
for arc-over.

f. Repeat this process until arc-over is detected across the

spheres. At this point, the gap should be increased by one-
eighth inch to compensate for future contamination of the
spheres.

2. Adjustment of isolation transformer ball gaps. Isolation

transformers should have ball gaps installed. The ball gaps for the
isolation transformers should be set one-eighth of an inch greater
than the base insulator ball gap distance.

3. Orientation of Ball Gap Spheres. Except where rain shields have been
provided, the spheres should be placed so that drip water will not
fall from one sphere to the other, and so that they will not come in
contact should the tower twist about its vertical axis.

4. Feedline. To further discourage travel of lightning into the

transmitter building, antenna feedlines should have "vertical Z"
shaped bends rather than straight lead to the tower (see Figure 9-4).
This feature should be incorporated in all new or replacement
feedlines.

9-8
 Figure 9-4 Typical "z-feed" used at a LORAN Station.

5. Grounding. Lightning prefers a short, straight path to ground. This

should be considered when mounting and connecting the lower arm of
ball gaps. A better ground may be attained by driving galvanized
well pipes into the water table near the base of the tower and
running direct leads to these pipes from the lower ball gap arms;
this may only be necessary where lightning is a particularly frequent
problem.

9-9
APPENDIX A. GLOSSARY

A
ACSR CABLE - A high conductivity, low-weight stranded cable having a
galvanized steel or aluminum-coated strand as an inner core surrounded by
solid aluminum wires. Problems with low outer wire strength and failure at
the connectors makes it less desirable than alumoweld cable.

ALUMINUM TOWERS - Towers whose structural members are made of aluminum base
alloys with high resistance to atmospheric corrosion.

ALUMOWELD CABLE - A proprietary aluminum coated steel cable (ACSC) widely

used on guyed towers. The aluminum coating is electrically bonded to the
steel strands during fabrication, and provides a higher resistance to
corrosion than galvanizing. This cable is widely used for LORAN tower TLE's.

ANCHOR ARM - A steel rod, channel, or other member or assembly, one end of
which is secured in the ground or in a concrete guy anchor, which provides an
attachment point for the guy or guys.

ANCHOR BAR - A "U" shaped steel bar or eyebolt which is set into the tower
base pedestal or guy anchor, and which is used to attach hoisting equipment,
or guy tensioning or rigging gear. See Figure 4-4.

ANCHOR PIN - A pin that is used to attach an equalizer plate or a guy link to
an anchor arm when the plate is not welded to the arm.

ANTENNA - Any device used to transmit and/or receive electromagnetic waves.

ANTENNA SUPPORT TOWER - A non-energized tower which is used to hold an

antenna, or part of an antenna, but which is not part of the electrical
antenna.

ANTENNA TOWER - A tower that is used as the transmitting antenna, or as part

of an antenna, such as the 625 foot Loran-C transmitting antenna tower or
DGPS tower. These towers are electrically isolated using base insulators.
Also known as energized towers.

ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION - Usually the result of an alternate wetting or drying

process, with the corrosive attack taking place when the surface is wet.
This can be expected to occur to a somewhat greater extent on the seaward
portion of the tower elements.

AUTOPLUMB - A special optical instrument used at the base of a tall tower to

determine tower deflection.

AWAC CABLE - An alumoweld-aluminum conductor cable which consists of both

alumoweld strands and solid aluminum strands in a symmetrical interweave.
The combination offers increased conductivity over alumoweld cable, but at
some loss in strength.

B
BALL-GAP LIGHTNING PROTECTOR - A device which includes two spherical surfaces
at the end of adjustable arms. The ball gap is adjusted so that any
lightning-induced current in the antenna tower or the antenna tower lighting
system will arc across the gap to ground, thus protecting the transmitter or

A-1
power supply without grounding the tower base insulator or lighting system
isolation transformer.

BASE INSULATOR - A device consisting of one or more porcelain cones or

cylinders which is used to support and insulate a tower from the ground.

BASE PEDESTAL - The concrete pedestal or foundation which supports a tower;

also referred to as a "base pier".

BASE PLATE - The horizontal steel plate which rests on the top of the base
insulator or insulators; or, a metal plate with a thick base pad of lead or
zinc between the base pedestal and the base insulator.

BEACON LIGHT - A flashing light placed at prescribed intervals throughout

the tower height in accordance with FAA standards, which is used to mark the
location of a possible hazard to aerial navigation.

BEARING BOLT (Also known as body-bound or interrupted rib bolt) - A bolt

which is designed to be driven into position, thereby completely filling the
bolt hole and eliminating possible slippage of the connected plates.

BIRD CAGE, BIRD-CAGING - A condition wherein the outer wires or strands of a

cable separate and expand outwards from the core. This can be caused by
corrosion of the inner core or foreign matter or improper handling of the
cable. This condition can sometimes be removed by twisting and tensioning
the cable, provided all dirt or other matter is cleared away. Bird-caging
does not materially affect the strength of cable used for standing rigging,
such as tower guys, but should not exist in running rigging.

BONDING STRAP - A braided or solid metal conductor, usually copper or

aluminum, which is used to provide electrical continuity between two adjacent
items. It is generally used where a connection between two conductors is
likely to develop high resistance or arcing (i.e., at a shackle, or insulator
yoke plate, or some leg flanges).

BREAK-UP INSULATORS - Ceramic or porcelain insulators which are inserted in

guys at a specified spacing to keep the length of individual guy segments
short enough so that guys will not re-radiate signals and to reduce the build
up of tribolelectric charges. Often referred to as "johnny ball insulators".

BRIDGE SOCKET - A special potted socket fitting used at the lower end of
bridge strand structural guys to connect the guy to its hairpin.

C
CABLE - A generic term used to describe guy strand as well as the exposed
lighting system wiring on the lighted towers.

CABLE BIGHT - A loop in the end of a cable (sometimes the term refers to the
size of such a loop).

CABLE CLIP - A "U-bolt" or "J-bolt" which is used to fasten two cables

together or to hold a loop in the end of a cable. Cable clips are not
recommended, and are not authorized for permanent use in any structural
application on tower guys and radials.

A-2
CABLE END FITTING - A guy-grip dead end, socket, swaged or compression
fitting used at the end of a cable, cable segment, or fiberglass insulator to
form a loop or otherwise enable connection to a tower, shackle, turnbuckle,
or other component.

CABLE GRIP - A device used to temporarily hold a guy cable for erection or
tensioning purposes. The common grip usually consists of two jaws, plates,
or cams, which exert friction pressure against the cable as the grip is
pulled axially along the cable. Special material or cover plates of copper
or aluminum are used for alumoweld or similar "soft surface" cable to
minimize damage to the cable.

CAM-ACTION CABLE GRIP - A device which is used in tensioning cables. It is

designed so that the pressure exerted against the sides of the cable
increases (through cam action) as the tension increases. (See CABLE GRIP).

CHAIN HOIST - A manually operated lifting device that uses a continuous chain
looped through a series of pulleys.

CLEVIS - A U-shaped metal piece with a hole in each end through which a pin
or bolt is run.

CLOSED END INSULATOR - A compression-type porcelain, fail safe guy insulator

in which the interlocking guy loops pass through holes in the insulator. The
insulator prevents the interlocked cables from touching each other.

"CLOVER-LEAF" RIGGING - A system for tensioning guys during tower erection in

which all guys at a given level are pulled simultaneously by a single cable,
automatically equalizing guy tension.

COFFING HOIST - (See "CHAIN HOIST") A proprietary name for a variety of

hoisting devices. The term is often used to refer to a lever-operated hoist
which uses a discontinuous chain.

"COME-ALONG" - A loosely used term for a variety of pulling or hoisting

devices. (The term is also the proprietary name of a specific type of a
lever-operated spur-gear driven hoist).

COMPRESSION CONE INSULATOR - A type of porcelain guy insulator in which a

hollow porcelain cone is mounted within an open frame, with one end seated
against the frame. An eyebolt extends through the hollow center of the cone.
One guy segment is attached to the frame and the other guy segment is
attached to the eyebolt.

COMPRESSION FITTING - A cable end fitting, made of relatively soft metal

alloy, which is deformed under pressure to form a permanent loop in the
cable. It is also known as a press fitting.

COPPERWELD CABLE - A proprietary copper-coated steel cable wherein the

copper-coating is permanently bonded to the steel strands during fabrication.

CORONA - An electric discharge resulting from a breakdown (ionization) of a

gas dielectric (i.e., a discharge into the air from a high voltage
conductor). Corona is likely to occur at the top of an energized tower, or at
any projecting object on a tower.

A-3
CORONA RING - (See "CORONA") - Any circular or curved device which extends
above a tower or outside a projecting object on a tower, and whose purpose is
to prevent corona. It functions as a conductor between the parts of the
tower to which it is attached, preventing the accumulation of unequal
electrical charges in those parts. It also functions as a distributive
capacitor, equalizing the charge applied to the air. See also GRADIENT RING.

COTTER PIN - A split pin that is fastened in place by spreading apart its
ends after it is inserted. It is used to prevent the loss of a shear pin
from its fitting, such as in a turnbuckle or in a shackle.

D
DEFLECTION - Horizontal displacement of a tower from true vertical.

DEFORMATION - A permanent bend or kink in a structural member of a tower,

exhibited by a permanently formed short radius bend, or series of closely
grouped bends.

DIAGONAL - A term used to describe those structural members connecting

adjacent legs of a tower. The rods or channels are usually connected at an
angle to the legs or diagonally between the legs.

DISPLACEMENT CURRENT - A current that flows over the surface of the body when
an individual in a fluctuating electromagnetic field is grounded or is near a
conductor which is at a different potential from his body.

DYNAMOMETER - A device for measuring force or power (See also "SERIES

DYNAMOMETER" and "SHUNT DYNAMOMETER").

E
EQUALIZE PLATE - A metal plate that is used to provide more than one
turnbuckle attachment point on a single anchor arm. The plate may be
attached to the anchor arm by an anchor pin or by welding.

EXFOLIATION - The corrosion of an alloy plate where the corrosion product

expands, causing a laminated or flaked appearance.

EYEBOLT - A bolt used with a closed loop head. It is often used to attach a
guy to a compression cone insulator.

F
FAIR LEAD - A block or ring serving as a guide for running rigging to keep it
from chafing.

FIBERGLASS INSULATORS - An insulator that has extremely high dielectric

strength and is attached between the tower and the structural guys, and at
the ends of the top loading elements where its insulating characteristics are
most needed. The insulator is in tension when installed. Often referred to
as strain insulators.

FLASHER - A device or control which turns the electrical power to a beacon

light "on" and "off" at a specified frequency, giving the beacon its flashing
characteristic.

FLASH TUBE - The "lamp" portion of a medium or high intensity (strobe)

lighting system.

A-4
G
GIN POLE - A special rig, varying from a simple steel pole to a large space
frame truss, depending on the size of the tower, which is used to erect the
upper sections of a tower without the use of a crane or derrick. The gin
pole is equipped with swivel heads and pulleys which, during operation, are
commonly rigged with wire rope lifts and jumping lines which lead to a
double-drum winch on the ground.

GIRT - A structural compression member fastened between the legs of a tower,

such as the horizontal cross pieces.

GRADIENT RING - A device shaped like a wheel or an open cone which is used as
a distributive capacitor. Gradient rings are often installed at the hot ends
of guy insulators to equalize the distribution of electrons over the end of
the insulator, thereby reducing the possibility of arc over. See also CORONA
RING.

GUSSET - A metal plate used to reinforce a joint or used to provide leg

attachment points for tower diagonals and girts.

GUY - A generic term for the cable or rope, either temporary or permanent,
which is connected between a tower and the ground to support the tower in a
vertical position.

GUY ANCHOR - Any device used to fasten a guy to the ground.

GUY GRIP DEAD END - A cable end fitting which consists of several high
tensile strength wires. The wires are bent near the center to form a loop,
and the legs are preformed and laid so that they will tightly clamp a cable
when they are wrapped around it. (Commonly called preformed guy grips, or
PLP's).

GUY INSULATOR - Any device which is used to prevent current from flowing
through a guy. Guy insulators are generally made of either porcelain or
fiberglass.

GUY SEGMENT - A portion of a guy between insulators and/or fittings.

GUY TENSION - (See also INITIAL TENSION) - The amount of axial force in a guy
as measured at the ground end of the guy. It is usually stated in pounds.

GUY TENSION CALIPER - A special scissor-shaped metal device incorporating a

tensiometer. It is used to directly measure tension in guys that are
connected to anchors with turnbuckles.

GUYED TOWER - A tower that is supported by guy cables or ropes attached at

one or more levels.

H
HAIRPIN - A large, threaded U-bolt used on the taller tower guys to position
the upper jacking plate, and to transfer tension to the anchor when adjusting
guy tensions with the hydraulic jacking device.

HIGH-STRENGTH BOLT - A structural steel bolt usually made to ASTM A325

specifications.

A-5
HYDRAULIC JACKING DEVICE - A heavy duty hydraulic jack consisting of two
hydraulic rams, a pump, hose and gage, which is used on high tension guys
such as backstays on SLT/TIP Loran towers and towers over 1000ft to measure
tensions when erecting or adjusting the guys.

I
IMPULSE CHARGE - A static charge caused by a lightning discharge.

INITIAL TENSION - The axial force or load recommended by the tower designer
to be applied to a guy under no load (i.e., "no wind" and "no ice")
conditions.

INTERRUPTED-RIB BOLT - A bolt with a serrated shank to prevent rotation and

slippage of connections. (See "BEARING BOLT").

ISOLATION TRANSFORMER - An air-insulated, open coil, or oil filled power

transformer which is capable of withstanding high voltages between windings.
It provides a low-capacity means of supplying electrical power across the
base insulator on antenna towers without grounding the structure.

J
JACKING LEGS - Vertical columns placed between the jacks and the jacking pads
when raising a tower to replace the base insulator.

JACKING PADS - Horizontal plates, welded to the base section of a tower,

designed to carry the weight of the tower if it is necessary to raise the
tower to replace the base insulator.

JACKING PLATES - Steel plates attached to the tower base pedestal that are
used as bases for the jacks if it is necessary to raise the tower to replace
the base insulator.

JAM NUT - A thin nut installed under the regular nut on a bolt to prevent
loosening of the nut or bolt. It is a form of lock nut.

K
KLEIN GRIP, KLEIN-CHICAGO GRIP, KLEIN-HAVENS GRIP - Proprietary names which
refer to a variety of lever action and cam action cable grips. (See "CABLE
GRIP").

L
LAMP - A general term used to describe the light bulb in a tower lighting
fixture.

LAY - The direction of rotation or helix of either the wires in a strand or

the strands in a rope.

LOCK NUT - Any nut with a special locking feature that prevents or restricts
its rotation. ("ANCO" is a commonly used lock nut).

M
MAINTENANCE - Routine, recurring work, such as painting and lamp replacement,
which is required to keep all tower structural elements, including guys,
anchors, insulators, and electrical components in such a condition that they

A-6
may be continuously utilized at their original or design capacity and for
their intended purposes.

MERCURY TILT SWITCH - A plastic, tube-shaped mercury filled switch used in

mechanical flashers to flash the beacon circuit. The mercury rolls back and
forth within the switch as it is tilted up and down to provide the on-off
switch capability.

MULTIPLE-CYLINDER BASE INSULATOR - A type of tower base insulator which uses

two or more porcelain cylinders between parallel steel plates.

O
OBSTRUCTION LIGHT - A single or double light fixture located at various
levels on a tower in accordance with FAA regulations. Obstruction lights
have a fixed characteristic.

OPEN END INSULATOR - (Also known as a "Johnny Ball" Insulator). A failsafe

compression type porcelain guy insulator in which interlocking guy loops rest
in grooves in the surface of a porcelain insulator. The insulator prevents
the interlocked cables from touching each other.

P
PERSONAL FALL ARREST SYSTEM - A system worn by a climber to break a fall;
consists of a safety climb device, connectors, lanyards, deceleration device
and body harness.

PHOTO-ELECTRIC RELAY - A control or device used to automatically activate and

deactivate the entire tower lighting system. The photo-electric relay
utilizes a photocell which is preset at the factory to operate the lights
between dusk and dawn as required by FAA standards.

PRECIPITATION CHARGE - A static charge caused by precipitation (rain, sleet,

etc.).

PROTECTIVE BARRIERS - A permanent type single gated fence or wall, preferably

constructed with non-metallic materials, to protect the towers and anchors
from vehicular damage as well as to guard against injuries to personnel.

PULL-OFF PLATE - A plate that is attached to a tower leg and used as an

attachment point for a guy.

Q
QUESTAR TELESCOPE - A high-powered, tripod mounted telescope used to inspect
inaccessible portions of the tower and guy systems from the ground.
Photographs can be taken using a special camera attachment.

R
RADIAL, RADIAL GUY - The uppermost guy assembly on an antenna tower which
consists of the transmitting elements (top-loading elements) and the
insulated supporting guy connecting the transmitting elements to the ground.
A radial guy also acts as a structural guy for the tower.

RADIAL GUY ANCHOR - An anchor that is used to attach the end of a radial guy
to the ground.

A-7
REPAIR - Restoration of a tower structural element or electrical components
to a condition substantially equivalent to their original or design capacity
by replacement, overhaul or reprocessing of constituent parts or materials.

REST PLATFORM - A platform which is installed to provide a resting location

for an individual who is climbing the tower ladder. It is also used as a
work platform at levels where maintenance work is likely, such as the tower
top and at obstruction lighting levels.

RIGGING - All of the various cables that secure towers and other masts are
collectively referred to as rigging. Cables or wires bracing the tower
comprise the standing rigging. Those used for hoisting or adjustments make
up the running rigging.

RIGGING LOOP - (See "ANCHOR BAR")

S
SAFETY CLIMBING DEVICE - A device that aids or prevents a climber from
falling off a structure while climbing. It consists of a rigid metal rail up
the center of the ladder or climbing surface, and a sliding unit that will
move easily up or down the rail but that will automatically lock if the
climber falls.

SAFETY RAIL - A continuous channel or notched pipe that is attached to the

center of a ladder or climbing surface.

SAFETY WIRE - A wire loop that is threaded through a guy turnbuckle or screw
type shackle in a manner that will prevent the turnbuckle or shackle pin from
loosening.

SELF-LOCKING NUT - Any lock nut which incorporates a device that increases
the amount of torque required to loosen the nut.

SERIES DYNAMOMETER - A device used for measuring the tension in guys by

placing it between the guy and the anchor in such a manner that it carries
the full axial load. Loads are read directly from a dial, which is
calibrated in pounds.

SHACKLE - A "U" shaped (chain) or horse-shoe shaped (anchor) attaching device

with a removable pin or bolt. Shackles are used to attach guys to anchors
and towers, or as connectors within the guy assemblies.

SHEAR PIN - A pin or bolt that connects or transfers load between two
fittings, such as in a turnbuckle or shackle.

SHUNT DYNAMOMETER - A device used to measure the tension in guys. It

operates on the basis of measuring the amount that a guy deflects (between
two fixed points) upon application of a given amount of pressure. The
instrument must be calibrated for each specific type and diameter of guy
which is to be checked. Readings obtained must be interpreted by using a
special calibration chart. Some tower manufacturers incorrectly refer to a
shunt dynamometer as a "tensiometer".

SINGLE-CYLINDER BASE INSULATOR - A type of base insulator which uses a single

porcelain cylinder as the insulating element.

A-8
SLIDING DEVICE - The portion of the safety climbing device that slides on the
safety rail, and locks on the rail should the climber fall.

SLOPE MEASURING DEVICE (SMD) - A calibrated triangular-shaped device with a

built-in bubble level or dial indicator used to measure the slope of a guy.
The slope is then converted to guy tension through the use of pre-developed
curves or graphs.

SOCKET FITTING - A cable or fiberglass insulator end fitting that uses a

tapered conical socket into which the cable end is inserted. The socket is
then filled with a potting compound. (Socket fittings are also known as
potted fittings).

SOIL CORROSION - A condition characterized by poor aeration and high acidity,

electrical conductivity, salt, and moisture content. The degree of corrosion
of metals in contact with soil is influenced by the characteristics or
properties of the soil.

SPOOL - A solid steel spacer used between the shear pin and take-up U-bolt on
1,000 foot or taller tower guy anchors. The spool serves the same purpose
as a thimble.

SPUD WRENCH - A wrench with jaws at one end, and a point at the other end,
which is commonly used in structural steel assembly. The pointed end can be
used for centering bolt or rivet holes, as with a pry bar, temporary
fastener, etc.

STATIC DRAIN DEVICES - A device installed in AN/FPN-44 and AN/FPN-45 Loran-C

transmitter couplers to ground static charges when the tower is de-energized.

STATIFLUX - A trade name of the MagnaFlux Corporation applied to the

materials and equipment for use with the electrified particle inspection
method.

STRAIN INSULATOR - A porcelain or fiberglass insulator in which the

insulating element carries a tension load.

STRAY-CURRENT CORROSION - A form of corrosion that occurs on subsurface

metals, and results from the electrical current which has a source external
to the affected metal structure. This type of corrosion is generally
associated with direct current.

STRUCTURAL GUY - A guy whose function is to assist in supporting the tower

structure.

STRUCTURAL MEMBER - A distinct part of a structure, such as a tower leg, a

horizontal brace, etc., which bears a compressive or tensile load.

SWAGED FITTING - A cable end fitting in the form of a sleeve that is slipped
over a cable end, and then crimped.

T
TAKE-UP "U" BOLT - A "U" Bolt with long threaded legs used as both a
tensioning device and to connect the structural guys on 1,000 foot or taller
towers to the link bars on the guy anchors.

A-9
TENSIOMETER - (See "SERIES DYNAMOMETER")

TENSION - The axial load, force or pull in a tower diagonal, guy, guy
component, or anchor arm.

THIMBLE - A device that fits inside a cable end loop to maintain a proper,
fixed radii in the cable loop under load.

TLE SUPPORT GUY - The lower, insulated portion of a radial or radial guy
which connects the TLE to the radial anchor and maintains the spatial
position of the TLE.

TOP LOADING ELEMENT (TLE) - The upper, energized portion of a radial or

radial guy on a Loran and DGPS antenna towers. The TLE is bonded to the
tower and insulated from its supporting guy by a strain insulator.

TOWER - a permanent vertical structure, or structure that is more vertical

than horizontal, that is energized or non-energized, guyed or free standing,
and exceeds 20 feet in height.

TOWER ALIGNMENT - (a) Technically, a relative measure of the extent to which

a tower is deflected from true vertical; (b) the process of adjusting a tower
to change its deflection; and (c) a general term used to describe both the
deflection and the twist of a tower.

TOWER BASE - The entire structure which supports the tower, including the
pedestal, base insulator, pivot bearing, etc.

TOWER DEFLECTION - The horizontal displacement of a tower from true vertical.

TOWER, SMALL - Any tower less than 300ft in height.

TOWER, TALL - Any tower 300ft in height or greater.

TOWER TWIST - The rotation of a tower or portion of a tower about its

vertical axis.

TRANSIT - A surveying instrument used to accurately determine, measure, or

observe a straight vertical or horizontal line or surface; used to measure
tower alignment.

TRIBOELECTRIC CHARGE - A static charge caused by friction, usually wind

friction.

TURNBUCKLE - A tensioning device which uses a rotating link that is threaded

at one or both ends, and which becomes an integral part of the assembly that
is being tensioned. It is the most commonly used method to connect tower
guys to anchors.

U
UPSET THREADED EYEBOLT - An eyebolt whose threaded portion has a greater
diameter than the shank. It is used on some compression cone insulators.
(See "EYEBOLT").

A-10
V
VISUAL SAG METHOD - A method of arranging a sighting device parallel (and
tangent) to a guy at the guy anchor to measure the guy catenary and determine
guy tension.

W
WARNING MARKERS - A permanent type single gated fence or post, preferably
constructed with non-metallic materials, to mark guy anchors and to avoid
vehicular damage and injuries to personnel.

WIRE ROPE - A form of metal cable which consists of multiple strands (each
made up of several wires) laid helically around a center strand. Wire rope
is more flexible than wire strand, and is used mainly for running rigging.

WIRE STRAND - A form of metal cable composed of individual wires laid

helically about an axis or center wire to produce a symmetrical single
strand. Strand is used for guying towers since it has a higher modulus of
elasticity than wire rope and, size for size, is stronger by some 30 percent.

Y
YOKE PLATE - A special galvanized steel plate typically used to connect a
pair of fiberglass insulator rods to a tower or to a guy segment.

A-11
APPENDIX B. TOWER INSPECTION REPORTS

This Appendix contains a selection of forms which are suggested for use in
documenting tower inspections. Most reports contain narrative sections and
photographs which will supplement the information on these forms. Civil
Engineering Units are encouraged to develop standardized forms which are
tailored to local conditions, using forms in this Appendix as a guide. Two
types of inspection reports are highlighted in this Appendix. The first
report (pages B-2 thru B-5) is a simplified format and is well suited for use
with small towers. The second report format (starting on page B-6) is well
suited for tall towers but may be used for towers of any height.

All tower inspection reports need to include at a minimum the following

information:
1. Cover Sheet-Station Name
Tower height, model and purpose
Inspection Date
Inspector name and signature

2. General Comment - Give a brief summary of the overall tower

condition description upon completion of the current inspection.

3. Initial Tower Condition - List discrepancies not corrected from

the last report and any new discrepancies found during the
current inspection. Provide initial alignment, twist, and
tension readings, including plots of all of these readings.
Provide the initial lighting system diagram and data.

4. Previous Discrepancies Corrected - List and briefly explain

discrepancies corrected from the previous report, prior to the
current inspection.

5. Maintenance Accomplished - Give a summary of routine maintenance

and discrepancy corrections accomplished during the current
inspection.

6. Completed Tower Condition - Give a final detailed tower condition

description, and provide final readings and plots of the
alignment, tensions and twist readings. Include the final
lighting system diagram and data.

7. Recommended Actions - List recommended actions and dates by which

action should be taken to correct discrepancies addressed and
left uncorrected upon completion of the current inspection.

Maximum use should be made of color photographs to show normal, typical, and
unusual conditions. When inspection work is accomplished by a contractor,
the servicing CEU should review the Inspection Report and add comments,
narratives, and plots as necessary.

B-1
TOWER INSPECTION REPORT (FORMAT 1)

REPORT OF SMALL TOWER INSPECTION

UNIT/LOCATION: _______________________________________

TOWER HEIGHT: __________ TOWER USE: _______________

TOWER MANUFACTURER: __________________________________

TOWER MODEL NUMBER: __________________________________

TOWER INSTALLATION DATE: _____________________________

INSPECTING UNIT: _____________________________________

INSPECTORS: __________________________________________

DATE OF INSPECTION: __________________________________

WEATHER: _____________________________________________

ANTENNAS ON TOWER: TYPE MODEL ELEVATION

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

INSPECTOR'S SIGNATURES: ___________________________________

___________________________________

B-2
TOWER INSPECTION SUMMARY

TOWER: _________________________ DATE: _______________

INSPECTION ITEM SAT. UNSAT.* N/A

1. ENCLOSURE/FENCE/GROUNDS
2. TOWER FOUNDATION
3. ANCHOR BOLTS
4. GROUND STRAPS
5. TOWER BASE INSULATOR
6. LEGS
7. DIAGONALS/HORIZONTALS
8. BOLTED CONNECTIONS
9. WELDED CONNECTIONS
10. SECTION CONNECTIONS
11. LADDER AND SAFETY RAIL
12. PAINT/GALVANIZING
13. ANTENNAS
a. MOUNTING HARDWARE
b. ORIENTATION
c. RADIATING ELEMENTS
14. TRANSMISSION LINES/FEEDS
a. CONNECTIONS
b. INSULATION
15. LIGHTING SYSTEM
16. GUY ANCHORS
17. GUY WIRES (include tensions)
18. GUY INSULATORS
*COMMENTS ARE REQUIRED FOR ALL UNSAT CONDITIONS.

B-3
 SMALL TOWER DISCREPANCIES & MAINTENANCE PERFORMED

TOWER: __________________________ DATE: _______________

ITEM COMMENTS PHOTO NUMBER

B-4
 RECOMMENDED ACTIONS

TOWER: __________________________ DATE: _______________

ITEM RECOMMENDED ACTION UNIT TO COMPLETE

TOWER INSPECTION REPORT (FORMAT 2)

B-5
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

GENERAL
(describe tower, location, date of inspection, a summary statement of tower condition and list
inspector names)

STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
(Insert general comments about tower paint and galvanizing condition, condition of structural
members and structural integrity).

ALIGNMENT AND TWIST

(Insert summary results of tower verticality -- i.e. "alignment and twist are within tolerances at all
levels" and a statement of any significant changes from previous inspection.)

LIGHTING SYSTEMS
(Insert summary of lighting system condition and lamp replacement).

GUYS AND GUY HARDWARE

(Insert summary of guy and guy hardware condition, as well as statement of guy tensions -- i.e.
"All guy tensions were within tolerance").

ANCHORS AND FOUNDATIONS

(Insert summary statement of guy anchor and foundation condition)

INSULATOR SYSTEMS
(Insert summary of base insulator and guy insulator conditions)

GROUNDING SYSTEMS
(Insert summary of grounding system condition)

B-6
 RECOMMENDATIONS

CONTRACTOR ACTION (To be accomplished during next contracted maintenance)

1.
2.
3.
4.

CEU ACTION
1.
2.
3.
4.

UNIT ACTION
1.
2.
3.
4.

B-7
 STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

INSPECTION CHECKLIST (Comment on all items that are answered “NO.”)

1. YES/NO 1. Is an adequate amount of galvanizing and/or paint intact to inhibit corrosion? Note: Pay
particular attention to the weather side.
2. YES/NO 2. Is at least 30% of orange/white aviation warning paint intact?
3. YES/NO 3. Is all hardware securely in place and intact? Note: Loose structural nuts and bolts should
be replaced entirely, not retightened.
4. YES/NO 4. Are all replacement nuts ANCO self-locking or a similar type?
5. YES/NO 5. Is the ladder and safety rail in good condition?
6. YES/NO 6. Are structural members free of deformation? Note: The CG Tall Tower Coordination
Center shall be notified immediately by message of pronounced bowing in diagonals.
7. YES/NO 7. Are fillet weld areas free of cracks?
8. YES/NO 8. Are all bolt and pin connections tight?
9. YES/NO 9. Is the tower free of galvanic corrosion? Note: If “NO,” note which type of metals are
involved.

NARRATIVE REMARKS
(Insert comments about any item marked NO, as well as other amplifying information).

B-8
 ALIGNMENT AND TWIST

INSPECTION CHECKLIST (Comment on all items that are answered “NO.”)

1. YES/NO 1. Are tower guys free of ice?
2. YES/NO 2. Are the ground winds less than ten knots?
3. YES/NO 3. Is there an equal temperature distribution along the tower? Note: This is best
accomplished during cloud cover or early morning.
4. YES/NO 4. Are twist and alignment measurements taken at the same time or during the same
conditions?
5. YES/NO 5. Is tower deflection within allowable values? Note: Tower plumbness and guy tensions are
the primary indicators of tower stability.
6. YES/NO 6. Has tower deflection experienced relatively little change from the last inspection?
7. YES/NO 7. Is tower twist within allowable values? Note: Maintaining guy tension tolerances and
balance takes precedence over counteracting twist and alignment discrepancies.
8. YES/NO 8. Has tower twist experienced relatively little change from the last inspection?

NARRATIVE REMARKS
(Insert comments about any item marked NO, comparison comments to previous readings as well as
other amplifying information. Include summary of alignment and twist worksheets enclosed).

B-9
 LIGHTING SYSTEMS

INSPECTION CHECKLIST (Comment on all items that are answered “NO.”)

1. YES/NO 1. Have all lamps been replaced and tested satisfactory?
2. YES/NO 2. Do all transfer relays test satisfactory?
3. YES/NO 3. Do all light fixtures have neoprene gaskets in good condition?
4. YES/NO 4. Have all gaskets and screws been coated with silicone grease?
5. YES/NO 5. Is all loose wiring properly taped to the tower structure? Note: Use of conduit is no longer
authorized.
6. YES/NO 6. Is all lighting cable type RR and rated at a minimum of 600 volts?
7. YES/NO 7. Are voltage readings within allowable values?
8. YES/NO 8. Are megger readings within allowable values?

NARRATIVE REMARKS
(Insert comments for any item marked NO as well as other amplifying information. Include lighting system
inspection worksheet).

B-10
 GUYS AND GUY HARDWARE

INSPECTION CHECKLIST (Comment on all items that are answered “NO.”)

1. YES/NO 1. Are guys free from being fouled or crossed?
2. YES/NO 2. Are all big-grips intact and free of unraveling?
3. YES/NO 3. Are all guy tensions within design guidelines? Note: Tower plumbness and guy tensions
are the primary indicators of tower stability.
4. YES/NO 4. Are guy tensions less than approximately 40% of their breaking strength? Note: This
safety factor allows for high winds and icing conditions.
5. YES/NO 5. Are all guys free of frays or burrs?
6. YES/NO 6. Are all turnbuckles and associated hardware intact and free of corrosion?
7. YES/NO 7. Are at least 2-3 threads visible within the body of all turnbuckles? Note: Turnbuckles
should be at 40%-60% of their take-up to allow for tensioning and slackening.
8. YES/NO 8. Is safety wire in place on all turnbuckles?
9. YES/NO 9. Are all cotter pins in good condition?
10. YES/NO 10. Are turnbuckle threads greased or similarly protected from corrosion?
11. YES/NO 11. Is the use of cable clips and saddle clamps prohibited for structural applications?
12. YES/NO 12. Are guy cables free of rust or other corrosion?
13. YES/NO 13. Are shackles free of deformations?
14. YES/NO 14. Are safety shackles used at places where vibrations can be expected?

NARRATIVE REMARKS
(Insert comments about any item marked NO as well as other amplifying information. Include guy tension
summary).

B-11
 ANCHORS AND FOUNDATIONS

INSPECTION CHECKLIST (Comment on all items that are answered “NO.”)

1. YES/NO 1. Is all foundation concrete free of cracks?
2. YES/NO 2. Is steel reinforcement protected from the atmosphere and subsurface?
3. YES/NO 3. Are steel anchor arms free of corrosion?
4. YES/NO 4. Is steel in contact with the subsurface maintained with a zinc-based primer and paint?
5. YES/NO 5. Are foundations free of evidence of lateral or vertical movement? Note: Markers shall be
placed near foundations suspected of movement and measurements taken regularly.
6. YES/NO 6. Is there adequate drainage away from all foundation piers and anchors?
7. YES/NO 7. Is deep-root vegetation prevented from growing near all foundation piers and anchors?
8. YES/NO 8. Are anchors free from evidence of soil corrosion? Note: If no, note appropriate
characteristics of soil.

NARRATIVE REMARKS
(Insert comments about any item marked NO as well as other amplifying information).

B-12
 INSULATOR SYSTEMS

INSPECTION CHECKLIST (Comment on all items that are answered “NO.”)

1. YES/NO 1. Has the integrity and level of oil in the base transformer been maintained?
2. YES/NO 2. Is the sealing compound of the base insulator intact?
3. YES/NO 3. Is the base insulator clean?
4. YES/NO 4. Are all guy insulators free of cracks or chips?
5. YES/NO 5. Are all guy insulators free from being excessively cocked?
6. YES/NO 6. Does a statiflux of the base insulator show satisfactory results?
7. YES/NO 7. Are all fiberglass rod insulators free of significant twist?
8. YES/NO 8. Are all fiberglass rod insulators free of a developing pattern of resin deposits? Note: This
suggests electrical travel along the fiberglass rod.
9. YES/NO 9. Are all fiberglass rods free of signs of ultraviolet deterioration?

NARRATIVE REMARKS
(Insert comments about any item marked NO as well as other amplifying information.)

B-13
 GROUNDING SYSTEMS

INSPECTION CHECKLIST (Comment on all items that are answered “NO.”)

1. YES/NO 1. Is the tower free of signs of electrical arcing? Note: This includes burn spots, humming,
snapping, or abnormal guy resonance.
2. YES/NO 2. Are lightning ball-gaps 1/8th-inch greater than the maximum arc over distance?
3. YES/NO 3. Are lightning ball-gaps oriented to prevent a short circuit by dripping rain water?
4. YES/NO 4. Are lightning ball-gaps oriented to prevent closure by tower twist?
5. YES/NO 5. Are grounding straps intact for an adequate distance into the subsurface? Note: A straight
line to the water table is ideal.
6. YES/NO 6. Is the antenna feedline from the transmitter building z-shaped to discourage lightning
travel?

NARRATIVE REMARKS
(Insert comments about any item marked NO as well as other amplifying information).

B-14
B-15
B-16
B-17
B-18
NOTE: THIS FORM SHOULD BE TAILORED TO THE SPECIFIC SYSTEM ON THE TOWER.

B-19
 TOWER ALIGNMENT BY ONE-LEG METHOD

DATE: TOWER IDENTIFICATION:

INSPECTORS:
LEVEL/ELEVATION: (USE DIFFERENT SHEET FOR EACH ELEVATION)
WIND: DIRECTION: SPEED:
LEG DIAMETER:
TRUE BEARING FROM POSITION "T1" TO TOWER:

B-20
APPENDIX C. MANUFACTURER'S DATA FOR VARIOUS TOWER COMPONENTS

A. Ordering Wire Rope or Strand. When ordering wire rope or strand always
specify:

1. Length, diameter, construction, and number of strands.

2. For wire rope, number of wires per strand.
3. Arrangement of wires in each strand (left/right hand lay).
4. Breaking strength and modulus of elasticity.
5. Grade ("Bridge Strand", "EHS", "Utilities", etc.)
6. Class of galvanized coating (A, B, or c), either on all wires or the
required combination of coatings.

B. Ordering Preformed Big-Grips or Splices. When ordering preformed

products, specify:

1. Type and size of strand or rope on which to be used.

2. Left/right hand lay.
3. Class of galvanized coating, or, if Alumoweld, with conductive grit.
4. Structural application.
5. For use with johnny-ball type insulators; type, part number, and size
of the insulator.

C. Ordering Insulators. When ordering insulators of the johnny-ball type,

specify:

1. Type (open/closed end).

2. Mechanical strength.
3. Wet and dry peak flashover rating.
4. Size of cable in which insulators are to be used.

D. Physical Properties of Various Tower Components. The following pages

provide tables of physical properties which are for information only.
When ordering materials, the current manufacturer's catalog should be
consulted.

C-1
GALVANIZED BRIDGE STRAND CLASS A COATING

C-2
C-3
GALVANIZED WIRE STRAND CLASS "A", "B", AND "C" COATINGS

C-4
ALUMINUM COATED STEEL CABLE

COPPER COATED STEEL CABLE

C-5
C-6
Note: BIG-GRIP is a registered trademark of Preformed Line Products Company.
All data referenced herein concerning BIG-GRIP dead ends is copyrighted and
is used in this Manual with express written permission of the manufacturer.

BIG-GRIP dead-end
C-COAT GALVANIZED STEEL
SPECIAL INDUSTRY TOWER AND ANTENNA USE for use on: Galvanized Steel Strand

C-7
 BIG-GRIP dead-end ALUMOWELD

SPECIAL INDUSTRY TOWER AND ANTENNA USE for use on: Alumoweld Strand

C-8
BIG-GRIP dead-end GALVANIZED STRAND
For Use On:
Extra High Strength
Siemens Martin
High Strength
Utilities Grade

C-9
Big-Grip dead-end for use on: Aluminum Covered Steel Strand

1. BIG-GRIP dead-ends should be specified for all tower applications rather

than GUY-GRIP.

2. BIG-GRIP dead-ends are precision devices. To insure a tight assembly,

they should be handled carefully. To prevent distortion and damage, they
should be installed as directed by the manufacturer.

3. BIG-GRIP dead-ends should be stored in cartons under cover until used.

C-10
4. BIG-GRIP dead-ends may be removed and re-applied two times, if necessary,
on new construction, for the purpose of re-tensioning guys. BIG-GRIP
dead-ends should not be re-used after original installation.

5. BIG-GRIP dead-ends should be used only on the size strand for which they
are designed.

6. BIG-GRIP dead-ends should not be used as tools-- that is, come-alongs,

pulling in grips, etc.

7. BIG-GRIP dead-ends should be applied only to smooth-contoured pole line

hardware which has ample radius. Drive hooks, eye bolts and eye nuts do
not have ample radius. If this type of fitting is desired, a heavy-duty
cable thimble of proper size should be used. Strap-type hardware is not
recommended.

8. BIG-GRIP dead-ends should not be used on hardware which allows the strand
to rotate or spin about its axis uncontrolled. Adjustable hardware such
as a turnbuckle, may be used as long as rotational movement of the strand
is restricted.

9. BIG-GRIP dead-ends should be used with compatible strand and fittings.

10. When BIG-GRIP dead-ends are used on storm guys, the guys must be
tensioned so to maintain a load at all times.

11. If in doubt about fittings or application, contact the manufacturer.

HARDWARE DIMENSIONS for GUY-GRIP dead-ends

C-11
APPENDIX D. BASE INSULATOR REPLACEMENT

A. General. Base insulators are very rarely replaced. Detailed procedures are not
given in this Appendix because of the great variance in site conditions and tower
sizes throughout the Coast Guard. The general guidance given is based primarily
on experience gained during past base insulator replacements. Any plan to replace
a base insulator should be closely coordinated with the Tall Tower Coordination
Center.

B. Planning.

1. If base insulator replacement is contemplated, conditions at the site must be

accurately verified. Check: (1) orientation of the tower legs with respect to
the foundation, (2) integrity and structural adequacy of the foundation, (3)
severity of the damage (if any) to the existing insulator, (4) condition of
the soil and elevation of the water table, and (5) condition and dimensions of
the jacking pads on the tower.

2. Consult the tower manufacturer's erection and maintenance manual and any
related drawings.

3. If acceptable to the contracting officer, meet with personnel (at the site, if
possible) to simulate the replacement procedure before any work is
accomplished. Primary emphasis should be on the safety of the structure and
personnel, but minimization of off-air time should be next in importance.
Actual field conditions should be carefully studied in the formulation of
procedures.

4. Locate the jacking frame and/or jacking legs that have been supplied with the
tower or have been previously used for a base insulator change at the
particular site. Loosely assemble the frame to determine its integrity and
structural adequacy, and check for missing components. If a new frame is
required, it may be made of components essentially the same as those of the
tower structure. If any doubt exists, consult with the Tall Tower
Coordination Center concerning sizes and types of materials or other questions
related to the jacking frame. Some towers are built with a permanent jacking
frame attached to the tower. In such cases, check to make sure that the
jacking legs are available and that they are the proper size. See Figure D-1
for a picture of a jacking frame and jacking leg.

5. Some tower foundations have pads for jacking built into an exposed footing. A
decision on the method of providing support for the jacking frame must be made
early in case an extended foundation is to be constructed or special grillage
material is required. In some cases it may be possible to excavate to the top
of the footing, but soil conditions may preclude this.

6. Determine whether isolation transformers will have to be relocated during the

insulator replacement, and make provisions accordingly. Replacement of the
base insulator while the tower is energized is not authorized.

D-1
Figure D-1 Tower jacking legs installed on permanent jacking frame prior to insulator
replacement.

C. General Description of Procedures. A single asterisk (*) indicates that some off-
air time is usually required; particular attention to these procedures will
minimize loss of service. A double asterisk (**) indicates that all or part of
this step may not be required or feasible.

1. (*)(**) Fabricate and install a steel collar around the ceramic of the
existing insulator. The collar should be sized to transmit the load of the
tower from the top plate of the insulator to the bottom plate should the
ceramic fail. A gap of 1 1/2-2 inches (38-51 mm) should be provided between
the top of the collar and the top plate of the insulator in order to permit
the tower to be energized. The collar is meant to help prevent a large drop of
the tower should the insulator fail. If damage to the insulator is slight and
can be monitored until replacement, this measure is unnecessary. This step is
usually not necessary.

2. (*)(**) Install restraining cables (with strain insulators) from the area of
the tower base platform to the inner structural anchors. These provide some
extra lateral stability while the tower is jacked, but great care must be
taken to ensure that the horizontal components of tension in the cables are
equal.

3. Test the jacks and hydraulic system for integrity by jacking against two
immovable objects (see Figure D-2). The jacking system may also be tested for
sensitivity of control over the rate of descent, such as is shown in Figure D-
3.

4. If feasible, Statiflux the replacement insulator (see Appendix E).

5. Measure and plot tower alignment and twist. Measure and record all guy
tensions.

6. (*) Attach jacking frame and/or jacking legs to the tower, or install it in
place beneath the tower. The frame may be designed to rest on the foundation

D-2
 with jacks at the upper end (Figure D-4); it is more common for the frame to
attach to the tower so that jacks are at foundation level (Figures D-1 and D-
5). If the jacks are not in place and the area is carefully cleared, the
tower may be re-energized.

7. (*) Accurately measure all lightning ball gaps for future resetting.

8. (**) Cut off the threaded extensions of all insulator base plate hold-down
bolts just above the nut tops. This will minimize the distance the tower must
be lifted. This step does not apply to newer towers where the bolts may be
removed.

9. (**) Slacken structural guys. This is required only on certain towers and
should be accomplished only if specifically advised by the Tall Tower
Coordination Center.

10. Man two transits positioned 90° apart within fifty feet of the tower. These
transit men should continuously monitor the tower position during jacking.
Fixed sighting devices may be used instead of transits.

11. Remove the base insulator hold-down nuts. On newer towers the bolts may be
removed, and should be done in conjunction with step 15. below.

12. (*)(**) Remove the RF feedline. Remove or adjust lighting transformers, and
lightning ball gaps. If the transformers or ball gaps are not removed from
the tower, they will likely need to be adjusted so that they are not damaged
as the tower is raised and lowered.

Figure D-2 Testing of hydraulic jacking system by placing jacks in series between two
immovable objects.

D-3
 Figure D-3 Testing of rate of descent of a jack by loading it with a metered heavy
beam.

Figure D-4 Jacking Frame utilizing jack at the upper end. Note restraining guys that
are visible at the top of the photo.

D-4
 Figure D-5 Jacks, shims, jacking legs, and jacking frame supporting tower after
insulator has been removed. Notice shim plates between jack and jacking legs to
prevent tower from falling if the jacks fail. Also note that the ball gaps and
lighting transformers have been left on the tower but have been adjusted a number of
times to provide clearance as the tower was raised.

13. (*)(**) Install tie rods in the base insulator. This step is required only on
the newer insulators. See Figure D-6.

14. (*) Install jacks, shims as necessary (see Figure D-7), and pumping rig.
Ensure that some kind of positive mechanical apparatus is incorporated into
the jacking system to prevent sudden settling of the tower if a hydraulic leak
occurs. For example, steel collars may be fabricated to fit around the
extended jack rams (see 16. below), or safety-type jacks may be used.
Hydraulic jacks should be connected to a common manifold to ensure an even
distribution of pressure. (See Figure D-8) However, with adequate control
over both men and equipment, separately controlled jacks have been
satisfactorily used.

15. (*) Jack the tower slightly and rock the base insulator with crowbar to check
for horizontal bearing on the center pin. Remove base insulator hold-down
bolts where possible.

16. (*) Jack the tower to the full height required. This is normally the height
of the center pin plus the height of the hold-down bolts plus about 1/2-inch
(See Figure D-9). As the tower is raised, insert slotted shim plates between
the tower base and the top of the base insulator so that the amount of drop is
minimized in the event of a jack failure. The "slot" should be sized to fit
around the center pin. Slotted shim plates may also be placed around the ram
portion of the jacks to minimize the amount of drop in the event of a jack
failure (See Figure D-7).

17. (*)(**) Unless safety type jacks are used, install collars around the jack
rams when the tower is fully raised. Carefully monitor the jacks for
settlement or shifting.

D-5
 18. (*) Replace the base insulator. See Figure D-5 and Figure D-10.

19. (*) Loosely apply hold-down nuts. Remove the ram collars and lower the tower
onto the new insulator. Utilize the slotted shim plates between the tower and
insulator or the shim plates around the jack rams (as in 16. above), removing
them gradually as the tower is lowered. Before loading the insulator, remove
vent plugs.

20. (*) When the weight of the tower is on the new insulator, remove the tie rods
if installed. Tighten hold-down nuts.

21. (*)(**) Re-install the RF feedline. Re-install or re-adjust the lighting

transformers and lightning ball gaps. Install rain shield.

22. (*) Statiflux the new insulator (see Appendix E).

23. (*) Remove the jacks, clear the area, remove all connectors and equipment
bridging the tower to the ground, and re-energize the antenna.

24. (*) After one full day, statiflux the base insulator. Cover the insulator
with a protective collar, and remove the jacking frame if required. Establish
proper oil levels, and check for leaks or other abnormalities.

25. (**) Re-tension structural guys if originally slackened.

Figure D-6 New insulator in place, with spherical bearing assembly. Note the tie rods
in the insulator, which must be kept installed until the weight of the tower is on the
insulator. Shims, jack, and pump are in the background.

D-6
Figure D-7 Shims between jack and tower jacking leg.

D-7
 Figure D-8 Hydraulic manifold attached to jacking frame for easy monitoring and
security of the lines. Note jacks in place at the top of the jacking frame. A steel
collar is attached around the base insulator.

Figure D-9 Tower jacked up to approximately 1/2-inch above center pin of base
insulator.

D-8
Figure D-10 Removing the bolts that hold down the base insulator. It should be noted
that once the tower’s weight is removed from the insulator, oil may begin to leak out
from under the ceramic portion of the insulator.

D-9
APPENDIX E. Special Evolutions for Loran-C Antenna Towers

A. General. This appendix addresses those inspection, maintenance, repair

and special evolutions required periodically over the life of a Loran-C
antenna tower. The procedures outlined are considered adequate for the
evolutions described, but variations suggested by experienced riggers
should be considered as long as basic safety guidelines are met. These
procedures should be followed whenever practical and possible. While an
attempt should be made to always minimize off-air time, opportunities for
inspection or maintenance presented through off-air time created for any
valid reason should be utilized to the maximum extent.

B. Loran-C Electric Energy and Hazards. With the exception of SLT and TIP
type LORAN antennas, the Loran-C transmitter directly energizes the
entire tower structure above the base insulator including the top loading
elements. Very large voltage differences exist between these components
and ground or metallic devices within the Radio Frequency (RF) field.
The structural guys are insulated from the direct Loran-C energy at the
points of their connection to the tower, but they nevertheless become
energized by the RF field and through triboelectric effects caused by
wind, snow, etc. If the breakup insulators are functioning properly
(i.e., they are not short-circuited or arcing) there are larger voltages
across them. Although all components of the tower structure, including
the ladder and safety rail, carry a share of the RF current, personnel
are safe from RF related shock hazards if all portions of their bodies
are within the framework of the tower. However, any person who extends
any portion of his body outside the tower framework, or is working on the
ground in the vicinity of a guy, anchor, or conductive cable or rigging,
is subject to varying degrees of RF shock. These shocks usually take the
form of annoying tingles, but there is the possibility of a hazardous
secondary effect through the sudden release of one's grip on a tool or on
a member by which he is supporting himself. Severe RF shocks are most
likely when a person, on the antenna or on the ground, either bridges the
potential between antenna and ground, or comes in contact with a top-
loading element. Personnel on the ground should limit their time within
the fenced area of the tower base to no more than 6 minutes during any
one hour period.

C. Basic Safety Guidelines. Procedures outlined in this appendix will

provide for the safe execution of any evolution discussed, provided the
following BASIC SAFETY GUIDELINES are complied with:

1. Any person positioned on the tower such that their body from the
chest upwards will at any time be outside the framework of the tower
shall wear conductive clothing (see Section V. for specifications).
This guideline does not apply to persons in the process of boarding
the tower, provided the transition from ground to tower is made in a
single uninterrupted effort as described in Evolution #1.

2. Whenever any evolution described in this appendix is to be

accomplished, a safety observer shall be stationed near the tower
base, but outside of the protective fence, such that he has as clear
a view as possible of personnel working on the tower or handling
items which are connected to the tower in any manner. The safety
observer, preferably a senior electronics technician, shall have
primary responsibility to detect circumstances or conditions which
present an unusual RF shock hazard to personnel. The safety observer

E-1
 should possess a means of rapid communication to a technician who is
standing ready to de-energize the antenna upon the shortest possible
notice. During Evolutions #3 and #4, a safety observer should be
positioned on the tower near the level at which work is being
performed.

3. A rigger suspended such that his body is totally outside the

framework of the tower for work on a guy system shall not be lowered
along the guy beyond an imaginary point on the guy which is
approximately six feet (2m) from the highest breakup insulator in the
direction of the tower. See Figure E-1.

Figure E-1

4. All haul lines, tag lines, support lines, etc. leading to, from, or
along the tower shall be "nonconductive". Positive actions shall be
taken to ensure that these lines are kept dry, and stored under cover
if unused for a period of time. Nonconductive line should be sized
to provide a factor of safety of five based on the ratio of average
breaking strength to working load. See paragraph E for
specifications.

5. All persons inspecting or working on a portion of the guy system

shall keep all portions of their bodies below the guy to the maximum
extent possible.

6. Work involving rigging shall not be accomplished when the ground

level wind speed exceeds 20 mph, except in emergency situations or
where otherwise impractical. Work should be discontinued, and
rigging secured, when electrical storm activity is present or
forecast within the general geographical area.

7. Conductive items greater than about 3 feet (1m) in length, such as

safety rail sections, which are being hoisted onto the tower shall be
positioned so as to be well clear of any grounded object, and shall
be electrically bonded to the tower structure before being handled by
personnel on the tower. Once positioned totally within the tower
framework, the bonding may be removed. The features of suitable
bonding devices are described in paragraph E below.

E-2
D. Evolutions Covered by this Appendix. Before a given evolution is
attempted, it should be read in its entirety and a specific safety brief
given to all personnel involved.

#1 - Getting People on and off the Energized Tower

#2 - Getting Things on and off the Energized Tower

#3 - Working or Inspecting Outside the Tower Framework

#4 - Replacing Structural Guy Insulator Rods

#5 - Inspecting and Replacing TLE Insulator Rods and Gradient Rings

#6 - Lowering a Structural Guy

#7 - Lowering a Radial Guy

#8 - Servicing Base Insulators and Isolation Transformers

EVOLUTION #1 - Getting People On and Off the Tower

1. General. Since the zero-to-peak voltage across the base insulator is

in excess of 20 kV, the transition from ground potential to tower
potential must be conducted with great care. Many years of
experience by contractors and others have shown that towers can be
safely mounted and dismounted using a non-conductive ladder or
platform/ladder which has been kept thoroughly dry. The top of the
mounting ladder should contain a small horizontal platform, to enable
the person to bring as much of his body as close to the tower as
possible before grabbing the tower structure.

2. Guidelines.

a. The transition from ladder to tower or vice versa should be made

without hesitation.

b. The horizontal platform at the ladder top, if so equipped, is not

a rest platform or a staging area, and should not be used as
such.

c. The ladder should be stored inside in a dry area when not in use,
and should be dry and clean when used.

3. Special Equipment.

a. 4:1 slope fiberglass ladder rated at a minimum of 200 kV, with

top platform. (see Figure E-2) The ladder should be of pultruded
structural fiberglass and in compliance with OSHA standards.

4. Procedure.

a. No off-air time is required for this evolution.

E-3
b. Locate foot of ladder firmly on the ground, about 6 feet (2m)
from the tower face.

c. Holding rungs, lower top of ladder into the tower, so that it

rests securely against the bottom rest platform.

d. Climb ladder, holding rungs. While climbing, avoid touching any

conductive object. At top platform, grasp rail and orient the
body as near vertical as possible.

e. With a sure deliberate motion, grasp the diagonal tower members

with both hands. Avoid touching the tower legs.

f. Enter the tower framework as rapidly as possible.

g. When dismounting the tower, position the entire body outside of

the tower framework and as close to the tower as possible. Ensure
that climbing device, tool bags, etc. are free of the tower
structure. If the tower must be dismounted in rainy or very damp
conditions, especially if the access ladder has recently been
wet, the tower must be de-energized.

h. With sure, deliberate movements, grasp the fiberglass handrail

and step onto the platform.

i. Descend the ladder, holding the rungs. Avoid touching any

conductive object.

Figure E-2

E-4
EVOLUTION #2 - Getting Things On and Off the Tower

1. General. There are two basic categories of items which are needed on
the tower: (1) the relatively small, such as paint cans, tools,
backpacks, hotsticks, etc, which can be easily handled on the tower
by one person; (2) the relatively large, such as spare insulator
rods, heavy rigging apparatus, safety rail sections, etc. which must
be hauled up by mechanical means. The former items should be hauled
up a fiberglass slide similar to that shown in Figure 2. This will
minimize the chance for damaging the base insulator, arcing through
contact with an energized member, or transmitting a shock to a ground
worker. The latter items are normally hauled up the outside face of
the tower structure until they can be placed inside the tower
framework, if possible. The most important consideration is that
haul lines, not people, should be used to transport equipment from
the ground to the tower and vice-versa.

2. Guidelines.

a. Materials should be kept clear of the base insulator and the

isolation transformers. When passing long objects such as safety
rail sections or insulator rods to or from the tower, personnel
on the ground should not handle the lower end of these objects
while the upper ends are near or in contact with the tower
structure or an energized component.

b. A non-conductive tag line shall be used for items not

conveniently raised by means of the fiberglass slide.

c. All haul lines shall be non-conductive.

d. The slide should be stored as per guidelines for the ladder (see
Evolution # 1).

3. Special Equipment.

a. 30' (9m) length of 1/2 inch (12.7 mm) diameter non-conductive

line, with large safety snap at each end.

b. Nonconductive haul and tag lines required.

c. Fiberglass slide as shown in Figure 2.

4. Procedure.

a. No off-air time is required for this evolution.

b. Stage materials near the tower base.

c. By Evolution #1, worker mounts the tower equipped with the 30'
(9m) line. For raising of the relatively large category items,
rig as necessary, keeping haul lines well away from the tower
base as items are hauled.

E-5
 d. Snap one end of 30' (9m) line to a tower girt or diagonal. Pass
the other end down the slide.

e. Haul materials as required. The worker on the tower should

remain within the tower framework to the maximum extent.

f. Follow basic guidelines and good judgement in unusual cases.

Figure E-3

EVOLUTION #3 - Working or Inspecting Outside the Tower Framework

1. General. It has been determined through experience that the effect of

the electromagnetic field from a Loran-C tower on a worker may be
effectively eliminated if the worker is wearing conductive clothing.

Note: This conductive clothing is not designed to protect personnel

when two or more parts of the body are in contact with conductive
members at different voltage levels.

The guidelines for this evolution are also based on the premise that
the great majority of work or inspections performed outside the tower
framework will be accomplished between the tower and the lower yoke
of the strain insulator assemblies.

2. Guidelines.

a. See Basic Safety Guidelines above.

E-6
 b. No off-air time is required for this evolution.

c. The worker should be seated in a boatswains' chair or similar

apparatus, which is connected to a primary support line.
Contractors may provide a chair or seat of their own design.
Primary support lines should be connected to the tower at the
next highest guy level or higher.

d. A safety line connected directly to the worker should be used,

connected approximately 40 feet (12m) above the working area.

e. Workers shall transport themselves from the tower to the lower

yoke plate, and return, by means of a fiberglass hot stick
telescoping pole with suitable end hook attached. Under no
circumstances may the worker be permitted to use the installed
guy strain insulators to transport himself while the antenna is
energized.

f. All support lines should be non-conductive.

3. Special Equipment.

a. Support lines as required.

b. Conductive suit, socks, and gloves.

c. Boatswain's chair or seat.

d. Hot stick telescoping pole.

4. Procedure.

a. If worker is to remain at the tower face only, and not inspect or

maintain a lower portion of the guy system, use two standard 5ft
safety lanyards to secure the worker to the tower. Do not use
the bos'n chair and rigging shown in Figures 3A and 3C.

b. Ensure a good bond between suit, socks, and gloves, utilizing the
provisions incorporated in the conductive clothing. If worker is
to remain in one place for a relatively long period of time, the
bonding straps attached to the suit may be tied to tower members
(or the guy if working on the guy system) by a simple half-knot
to provide added Faraday-type protection. THESE ARE NOT SAFETY
STRAPS.

c. If the worker is to inspect or service components at or near a

lower strain insulator yoke plate, rig the primary support line
to the boatswain's chair, and the safety line to the worker
(Figures 3A and 3B). The primary support line should be secured
to the tower at least 80 feet above the level of the worker
because of the effort required to move along the telescoping
pole.

d. Extend the hot stick telescoping pole and insert the hook through
the eye of the PLP grip, the lower yoke shackle, or the large
hole of the lower yoke plate (see Figure 3A). The long, flexible
telescoping pole is best handled by two workers on the tower,

E-7
 especially if there is a cross wind. Lash the tower end of the
pole to a leg or girt for security. The worker may then
transport himself from the tower to the lower yoke by pulling out
along the hot stick telescoping pole; he must return to the tower
in the same manner. The pole may be temporarily removed while
the worker is at the lower yoke if it is obstructing the work.

e. If worker is to remain at a particular portion of the guy system

for a few minutes or longer, small, easily parted lines (rated at
about 50 lbs breaking load) should be used to secure the
boatswain chair to the guy. This is for steadying the worker,
and not safety, so that in the unlikely event of a guy failure
the worker is not carried along with the guy.

Figure E-4 Moving to and from Lower Yoke Plate.

E-8
 Figure E-5 Working at Lower Yoke Plate

EVOLUTION #4 - Replacing Structural Guy Insulator Rods

1. General. Replacing strain insulator rods in place without lowering

the guy, has been accomplished previously by temporarily installing
long steel rods between the yoke plates. Off-air time has been
required for this evolution, since a worker had to be extended beyond
the face of the tower, and since the steel rods shorted out the
insulators. However, by utilizing the principles of Evolution #3
(previously described), and by using spare insulator rods instead of
steel rods, the entire procedure has been accomplished with the tower
energized. Replacement of insulator rods while the tower is
energized has also been accomplished using temporary guys made of
non-conductive material.

E-9
2. Guidelines.

a. See Guidelines for Evolution #3.

b. Three alternative methods are suggested for transferring the load

from the service insulator to the auxiliary rod; the choice
should be the contractors'.

3. Special Equipment.

a. See Special Equipment for Evolution #3.

b. Hardware as detailed on the attached sketches.

c. Cable type hoist - puller as required.

4. Procedure.

a. No off-air time is normally required for this evolution.

b. See applicable Procedures for Evolution #3.

c. Stage replacement insulators at the various guy levels. These

can easily be hauled up within the tower framework, but there is
always the risk of chafing.

d. Do not remove protective covering from the rods until they are
actually being passed to the extended worker for installation.

e. Rig for Evolution #3, and extend worker to lower yoke.

Note: The following steps may be used only if the yoke plates
have holes which permit attachment of the double bars or special
bar. Special designs must be used if these holes are not
present.

f. Extended worker fastens the "long double bar" (see Figures E-6,
E-7, E-8) to the lower yoke plate using quick-acting (q/a) pins.

g. There are three alternative methods with which to proceed from

this point:

(1) Method I - as shown in Figure 4A, the load is transferred

from a service rod to the auxiliary rod by means of a turn
buckle operated by the extended worker. A short double bar
is first attached to the upper yoke plate using q/a pins.

(2) Method II - as shown in Figure 4B, the load is transferred

from a service rod to the auxiliary rod by means of a lever
mechanism operated from the tower. This procedure may be
unacceptably awkward at higher guy levels. A "special bar"
is first attached to the upper yoke plate using q/a pins.

(3) Method III - Using a turnbuckle/auxiliary rod arrangement, or

omitting the turnbuckle, the load is transferred to the
auxiliary rod using a hoist-puller attached to the tower
(Figure 4C). No bars are attached to the upper yoke plate.

E-10
 This method is preferred if the insulator rods are twisted.

h. Using one of the above methods, the load is removed from the
service rod nearest the auxiliary rod. Disconnect the tower end
of this service rod before the lower end. The old rod is removed
and passed to the tower.

i. The new rod is passed to the extended worker, removing protective

wrapping as it leaves the tower framework. The new rod is
installed.

j. The load is transferred from auxiliary rod to new upper rod by

relaxing the load transfer mechanism.

k. The turnbuckle and auxiliary rod are passed to the lower outer
holes of the double bar(s), and the process is repeated for the
lower rod replacement.

l. Continue replacement of rods at other guys as required.

m. If a rod which has already failed is to be replaced, Method III

is the most practical means of cranking the yokes into position,
so that a new rod may be installed. However, should the
remaining service rod be severely twisted, or should its cross-
sectional area at any point be reduced by more than 25%, the guy
should be lowered in accordance with evolution #6.

NOTE: Replacement of both rods simultaneously is not authorized

using the "bars" shown. If simultaneous replacement is
desirable, these bars must be sized to take the full guy load,
and only Method I may be used; two auxiliary rods and turnbuckles
will be required.

E-11
Figure E-6 Method I for Replacing Structural Guy Insulator Rods

E-12
Figure E-7 Method II for Replacing Structural Guy Insulator Rods

E-13
 Figure E-8 Method III for Replacing Structural Guy Insulator Rods

EVOLUTION #5 - Inspecting and Replacing TLE Insulator Rods, Gradient Rings,

and Radial Guy Components.

1. General. The highest voltage levels in the antenna system exist at

the bottom end of the TLEs, and the strain insulators at this point
have frequently failed. In the past, these insulators were inspected
or replaced by lowering opposing TLE pairs into the tower, de-
energizing the transmitter when they approach within 30 feet or more

E-14
 of the tower structure, and performing the work off-air. Field
experimentation has shown that if the TLE can be securely bonded
mechanically and electrically to the framework of the tower once it
is lowered into the tower, the insulators may be safely serviced
without de-energizing. This evolution requires the greatest
attention to detail and the greatest precautionary measures, however,
because the workers on the ground are trying to manhandle a very long
guy at the end of an energized cable, while proximate to the base of
the tower.

THIS PROCEDURE IS NOT ADEQUATE FOR USE ON CERTAIN TOWERS WHOSE TLE
LENGTH IS SUCH THAT THE UPPER END OF THE STRAIN INSULATORS CANNOT BE
REACHED FROM A POINT ABOVE THE TOWER BASE PLATFORM. On these towers
the Procedures of Evolution #7 may be used in order to lower the
insulator assembly to the ground for inspection or servicing.

2. Guidelines.

a. See Basic Safety Guidelines above.

b. Positive steps should be taken to cushion radial guy breakup

insulators as they reach the ground.

c. Operations at the base of the tower should be carried out with

particular attention to detail, because of the near proximity of
the following conductive elements at different voltage levels:
(1) the tower structure, (2) the TLE when not bonded to the
tower, (3) the radial guy when not grounded, and (4) elements
which are grounded. Personnel at ground potential should never
handle a conductive element, such as a radial guy segment which
has not been positively bonded to the ground wire or copper
grounding straps at the tower base.

d. Personnel on the tower should never handle the TLE or upper yoke
plate hardware or gradient cone unless the TLE has been
positively bonded to the tower.

e. When lowering TLEs into the tower, prevent the TLE from touching
any part of any structural guy, particularly the strain
insulators. The TLE may touch the tower before bonding,
especially if it is windward. Both before and after bonding some
arcing may be heard; this is not a problem with respect to TLE or
tower damage, due to the relatively short duration of the work.
Before hauling a radial guy back to its anchor for reconnection,
ensure that the guy and TLE are clear of all obstructions or
other components on the tower and on the ground.

3. Special Equipment.

a. Hot Stick, bonding cables, and Bonding hardware.

b. 50 feet (50.2m),of 1/2 inch(12.7 mm) diameter nonconductive line.

c. Auto battery jumper cables, or equivalent, with insulated

handles.

E-15
 d. 850-1000 ft. (259-305m) of #4 AWG gage bare copper (or similar)
stranded wire conductor.

e. Auxiliary PLP guy-grip dead-ends for attachment to radial guys.

f. Approximately 8 six-foot (1.83m) lengths of 1/2 inch(12.7 mm)

non-conductive line.

4. Procedure.

a. No off-air time is normally required for this evolution.

b. Connect the end of a copper, steel, alumoweld, or other conductor

of size at least #4 gage stranded wire to the ground lead or
copper ground straps at the base of the tower. This conductor
will be up to about 1000 feet (305m) in length, in order to
extend to the radial anchors. Extend the conductor along the
ground in the direction of the radial guy to be serviced.

c. Connect a suitable winch device to an auxiliary PLP guy-grip

dead-end which has been applied to the radial guy such that its
eye is at least six feet (about 2m) from the eye of the PLP which
connects the radial guy to the anchor turnbuckle. This auxiliary
PLP should not be repositioned or reused on another guy, but
should be left permanently installed. A Klein grip may also be
used if a PLP is not available, but not on copperweld guys if
they are not being discarded. Measure the tension in the radial
guy. Remove the load from the turnbuckle, and disconnect the
radial guy from the upper end of the turnbuckle.

d. Connect a jumper cable between the #4 copper ground wire and the
anchor arm or rod. Attach one end of a jumper to the #4 copper
ground wire about a meter in front of the radial anchor, and the
other end to the last guy segment. Be sure to connect jumper to
ground wire first. (Figure E-9) Attach one end of a jumper to the
last guy segment the first breakup insulator; slacken the radial
guy towards the tower if necessary to reach the insulator. Short
out the first insulator using the second jumper (Figure E-10).

e. Slacken the radial guy in towards the tower. Monitor tower top
deflection with a transit positioned 90° away. If deflection is
excessive, the opposing radial guy must be slackened. When the
next-to-ground guy segment is within reach, stop slackening.
Attach a jumper to the #4 copper ground wire, then to the next-
to-ground guy segment. (Figure E-11) Remove the jumper connecting
the last guy segment to the #4 copper ground wire.

f. Resume slackening. When the second insulator is within reach,

short it out with a jumper, as described for the first insulator
in D above.

g. Repeat E. and F. until all insulators have jumpers installed

across them, and the guy segment adjacent the fiberglass strain
insulators is jumpered to the #4 copper ground wire.

h. As the radial is slackened, jumpers from the guy segments to the

#4 ground wire will tend to become taut: attach new jumpers

E-16
 further along the guy as this occurs, ground wire end first, then
remove the taut jumper. ENSURE THAT AT ALL TIMES THERE IS A
JUMPER FROM THE HIGHEST ACCESSIBLE GUY SEGMENT TO THE #4 GROUND
WIRE; other jumpers to the ground wire maybe removed.

i. Cushion all breakup insulators using heavy matting; ensure proper

grounding of all guy segments adjacent to insulators being
handled. Old "Clorox" bottles cut open helically have been used
as snap-on protectors for insulators.

j. Position a worker on the tower, equipped with a hot stick (see

Figure E-12). Connect to the end of the hot stick the duckbill
clamp with bonding strap attached. Bond the end of the bonding
cable to a tower member at least 3 ft (1m) below the point where
the upper TLE yoke plate will meet the tower structure (about 10
feet (3m) above the base platform). Ensure a good electrical
connection to the tower structure.

k. Carefully lower the TLE into the tower. When the TLE is within
reach of the hot stick on the tower, the TLE should be quickly
bonded to the tower by attaching the duckbill clamp to the upper
portion of the PLP guy-grip dead-end or to the TLE cable, and
then remove the hot stick from the bonding cable.

l. Lash the PLP guy-grip dead-end to a tower leg to stabilize the

upper yoke assembly.

m. If insulator replacement is required, it is best to have 2

workers on the tower. Run the l/2 inch nonconductive line
through the large yoke plate hole. Tie a clove hitch around one
rod near the clevis tip, and with the extended bitter end tie a
clove hitch around the second rod. Take the load off of the
clevis pins one at a time, and remove the pins. Lower the
insulators to the ground. After the ground crew attaches new
insulators in a like fashion to the 1/2 inch line, haul up the
new rods and install (see Figure E-13).

n. If required, the tower crew should replace the gradient cones

while the insulators are on the ground. The 1/2 inch haul lines
will have to be temporarily removed.

NOTE: It may be desirable to leave to the option of the rigger

the choice of following the above procedure or lowering the upper
yoke plate to the ground with the gradient ring and insulators
attached. There may be difficulty in loosening the bolt of the
shackle, however, and before reconnecting the shackle threads
should be lubricated and carefully inspected for signs of
corrosion or deformation due to loosening.

o. After servicing the TLE insulator assembly, remove the lashing

and haul the TLE slowly away from the tower. When the duckbill
clamp is about 3 feet (1m) from the tower, remove it using the
hot stick.

p. When hauling the radial guy back to the anchor, the

shorting/grounding procedure is reversed. Before removing a guy-
segment-to-ground-wire jumper, attach a similar jumper to the #4

E-17
 ground wire further along the guy in the direction of the anchor.
Remove the insulator jumpers as the insulators rise to about head
height, unclipping the tower side first.

q. Reconnect end of the radial guy to its anchor. Ensure that the
TLE does not contact any structural guy component while hauling
out.

Figure E-9 Connecting jumper to guy.

Figure E-10 Connecting jumper across break-up insulator.

Figure E-11 Jumper wires in place across insulator and guy segments.

E-18
Figure E-12 Bonding TLE to Tower.

E-19
 Figure E-13 Lowering and Raising Insulators

EVOLUTION #6 - Lowering a Structural Guy

1. General. A structural guy may be lowered for inspection, servicing or

replacement by first installing a temporary guy in its place. This
can be accomplished without de-energizing the antenna, provided that

E-20
 the temporary guy and all working rigging is nonconductive line.

2. Guidelines.

a. See Basic Safety Guidelines above.

b. See Guidelines 2. and 5. of Evolution #5.

3. Special Equipment.

a. 1600 ft. (488m) of nonconductive haul line.

b. 800 ft. (244m) of nonconductive tag line.

c. 1200 ft. (366m) nonconductive temporary guy.

d. Haul line winch, cable type hoist-pullers.

e. 800 ft. (244m)of #4 AWG gage bare copper (or similar) stranded
wire conductor.

f. Auto battery jumper cables, or equivalent, with insulated

handles.

g. Dynamometer

NOTE: For proper sizing of haul lines, tag lines, and temporary
guys, refer to the Tower Manufacturer's Erection and Maintenance
Manual or tower analysis. Size the lines to carry the following
loads:

Haul Line ... 120% of the initial or "no load" tension.

Tag Lines ... 50% of the initial or "no load" tension.

Temporary Guys ... 50% of the maximum load tension.

Nonconductive Line should have an average breaking strength

rating of FIVE times the above loads.

4. Procedure.

a. No off-air time is normally required for this evolution.

b. Raise the temporary guy, haul line, hoist-puller and tag line to
the pull-off elevation of the guy to be lowered. Attach the
temporary guy to the tower leg, just above the pulloff plate of
the guy to be lowered.

c. Connect the end of a stranded copper conductor, of size at least

#4 gage, to the ground lead or copper ground straps at the base
of the tower. This conductor will be up to 800 feet (244m) in
length in order to extend to the outer structural anchors.
Extend the conductor along the ground in the direction of the
structural guy to be lowered.

E-21
d. Measure the tension in the guy to be lowered.

e. Station a transit 90° away from the lane of the guy being
lowered. Continuously monitor tower deflection while load is
transferred to the temporary guy. Connect the temporary guy at
the anchor end, and transfer the load of the guy to be lowered.
For face-guyed towers, the temporary guy may be connected to the
adjacent anchor arm.

f. Disconnect the permanent guy at the anchor, and slacken in

towards the tower until all tension is removed. Ground the guy
segments and jumper the insulators in the manner described in
Procedures 4. through 7. of evolution #5. Cushion all breakup
insulators using heavy matting; ensure proper grounding of all
guy segments adjacent to insulators being handled.

g. Using a cable type hoist-puller attached to the yoke plate,

release the load from the shackle at the pulloff plate and
disconnect the shackle. With the shackle still attached to the
yoke plate, connect the haul and tag lines to the shackle and
secure the shackle bolt. Transfer the load from the hoist-puller
to the haul line. NOTE: By positioning the haul line sheave
above the pull-off plate, the haul line may be used to remove the
load from the pull-off shackle and the hoist-puller may therefore
be unnecessary.

h. Take a strain on the tag line while slackening the haul line, and
proceed to lower the guy while pulling it away from the vertical
plane of the guy lane with the tag line (see Figure E-14).

NOTE: The tag line is not required for first level guys, or if
the guy may be lowered in a downwind direction.

i. When the entire guy is on the ground, service or inspect the guy
as necessary. If a new guy is to be installed jumper all breakup
insulators while it is on the ground.

j. Reverse the procedure to raise and reconnect the guy, tending the
tag line in order to keep the guy clear of other guys in the
lane. As breakup insulators leave the ground, remove the jumpers
by disconnecting the tower ends first.

k. Reconnect the permanent guy first at the tower pull-off, then at

the anchor; transfer the load from the temporary to the permanent
guy, and check the tension in the permanent guy before removing
the temporary guy.

E-22
 Figure E-14 This figure shows a 4th level guy being lowered. The temporary
guy is not shown. The permanent guy has been slackened at the anchor end,
and is being lowered via the "haul line". The "tag line" is keeping the guy
clear of lower guys in the same lane.

EVOLUTION #7 - Lowering a Radial Guy & TLE

1. General. Because of the large number of radials and the relatively

small tension in each, there is no need to consider the use of a
temporary guy. However, to ensure that the forces on the tower
remain reasonably balanced, the opposing radial should be slackened.
The procedures for rigging detailed below may have to be modified
somewhat for certain TLEs; experienced riggers will be able to effect
necessary modifications with no difficulty. However, the steps
involved in bonding and unbonding the TLEs must be strictly adhered
to.

2. Guidelines.

a. See Basic Safety Guidelines above.

b. The opposing radial need only be slackened in towards the tower

approximately 80 feet and secured.

3. Special Equipment.

a. 1800-2000 feet (550-610m) of nonconductive haul line, sized for a

working load of 2000 lbs (8900N) plus line weight.

b. Haul line winch, cable type hoist-pullers.

E-23
 c. 850-1000 feet (260-300m) of #4 gage bare copper stranded wire
conductor.

d. Hot sticks.

e. Auto battery jumper cables, or equivalent, with insulated

handles.

f. Several 6 ft. (2m) lengths of 1/2 inch (6.4mm) nonconductive

line.

4. Procedure.

a. No off-air time is normally required for this evolution.

b. Raise the haul line and hoist-puller to the tower top.

c. Slacken the opposing radial guy in towards the tower

approximately 80 feet (24m). (Refer to Procedure 2. of Evolution
#5). Secure the opposing radial guy to a deadman anchor or
vehicle parked sideways. Then slacken the radial guy to be
serviced until no tension is in the guy. Cushion and jumper
breakup insulators, following the procedures of steps 3. through
8. of Evolution #5.

d. At the tower top, bond the end of a hot stick bonding cable to a
tower member approximately three feet (1m) below the top
platform, beneath the pulloff plate of the TLE to be lowered.
Connect the duckbill clip to the PLP guy-grip dead-end of the TLE
to be lowered near the PLP eye (see Figure E-15).

e. Disconnect the pigtail of the TLE to be lowered.

f. Secure the standing end of a cable type hoist-puller to one of

the 12 WF beams opposite the TLE to be lowered, and situate the
hoist-puller on the top platform. Connect the hoist cable of the
hoist-puller to the PLP eye-thimble of the TLE to be lowered (see
Figure E-16).

g. Hang a sheave from the heavy beam to which the TLE is attached,
below the TLE to be lowered to the extent possible. Run the haul
line through the sheave.

h. Using the hoist-puller, remove the load from the shackle.

Disconnect the shackle and connect to it the haul line end.

i. Take a load on the haul line until the shackle comes right up
against the sheave. Slack off on the hoist-puller as required.
This should be done slowly and carefully, with good
communications to the ground, due to the large amount of stretch
in nonconductive haul-lines (see Figure E-17).

j. Slacken the hoist-puller cable until the haul line carries all of
the load. Disconnect the hoist-puller cable from the PLP eye-
thimble.

NOTE: It is feasible to avoid the use of a hoist puller at the

E-24
 tower top. In lieu of Steps 5. through 9. above, proceed as
follows: Rig a haul line with Klein Grip attached, as shown in
Figure E-18. After the TLE has been slackened from the anchor
end, connect the Klein Grip to the TLE just below the ends of the
PLP (or about 3 ft (1 m) below a press-type fitting if installed)
(see Figure E-19). Be sure the Klein Grip is properly sized, and
is designated for use on the type of TLE cable installed. Use
the haul line to remove the load from the shackle at the pull-off
plate and disconnect the shackle. Good communications between
tower and ground are a must. Reconnect the shackle loosely to
the haul line (see Figure E-20) and secure the pigtail to prevent
excess movement of the end of the TLE; the haul line load is
still carried by the Klein Grip.

k. Lower the TLE until the shackle is about 3 feet (1m) from the
sheave, and disconnect the duckbill clamp using the hot stick.
Lower the TLE to the ground. Caution: Be sure the TLE is kept
well clear of the tower and other guys as it is lowered.

l. Cushion and jumper breakup insulators as they reach ground. As

the lower end of the TLE approaches ground, bond it to the #4
ground wire using a hot stick or a jumper cable attached to the
end of a hot stick telescoping pole. Do not attempt to ground
the TLE with a hand held jumper cable until it has been grounded
by remote means and a significant portion of the TLE cable is on
the ground. DO NOT PERMIT THE GRADIENT OR CORONA RING AT THE END
OF THE TLE TO TOUCH GROUND UNLESS THE TLE HAS BEEN BONDED TO THE
#4 GROUND WIRE; this precaution is necessary because there is
enough induced energy in the TLE to cause a fire in dry grass.

m. Avoid contact with the TLE while it is being lowered. If it is

necessary to manhandle the TLE, use short lengths of non-
conductive line as a means of contact with the TLE cable. When
the entire radial guy and TLE are on the ground, service and
inspect as necessary.

n. Reverse the procedure to raise and reconnect the radial guy.

Refer to procedures 10, 11, and 12 of Evolution #6.

E-25
Figure E-15

Figure E-16

Figure E-17

E-26
 Figure E-18

Figure E-19

Figure E-20

EVOLUTION #8 - Servicing Base Insulators and Isolation Transformers

1. General. - The area of the base insulator is perhaps the most

hazardous point in a monopole antenna system, because of the high
voltage difference between the energized tower and the ground, and
because the area is readily accessible. In particular, the area of
the lightning gaps, where there is only a fraction of an inch between
energized metal and ground, is a place where utmost caution should be
exercised. Specific inspection and maintenance items on and around

E-27
 the base insulator are:

a. Cleaning of ceramic surfaces.

b. Corrosion control of metallic surfaces.

c. Close inspection of ceramic surfaces for cracks, by Statifluxing

or similar methods.

d. Adjustment of lightning ball gaps.

e. Varnishing isolation transformer coils.

f. Inspection of wiring insulation resistance, by meggering.

2. Guidelines. The above inspection and maintenance items shall only be

done when the antenna tower is de-energized. However, all of these
items can be fairly rapidly performed if properly planned, and some
can be accomplished simultaneously, thus minimizing the necessary
off-air time. In the event that off-air time is required for some
purpose other than for items listed above, this opportunity should be
utilized for the accomplishment of the items as time allows.

E. General Equipment Specifications. The CEU contracting the work described

in this appendix is responsible to see that the proper "Special
Equipment" listed for each evolution is identified in the contract
specification and that a copy of this manual is made available to the
contractor. This section is designed to CEUs in this respect, and also
provides source of supply information if the CEU chooses to do the work
"in-house". Symbols such as "PLP", "MMP", etc. refer to manufacturers
whose complete addresses are listed at the end of this section.

Listing Of Special Equipment

BATTERY JUMPER CABLE - "jumper cables"; heavy duty (#3 copper cable), 12-
ft. (3.7m) length.

BOATSWAIN'S CHAIR OR SEAT- "industrial work seat" or "universal work

harness".

CABLE TYPE HOIST-PULLER - capacities to be based on dead loads and

initial or "no-load" guy tensions; "hand hoists", "rope and chain
hoists"; "hoist-pullers".

CONDUCTIVE SUIT, SOX, GLOVES- "Brunshield" suit, gloves, and socks are
preferred, because of their comfort and launderability. Less desirable,
but having full conductive features, are the A.B. Chance Co. suit #C402-
0533, gloves #C402-0558, and socks #C402-0577. Before ordering, contact
supplier for sizes, prices, and availability.

CONDUCTOR, #4 AWG GAGE WIRE - alumoweld or equal conductive capacity.

FIBERGLASS LADDER and SLIDE- consult local suppliers of protruded

fiberglass products, such as Ryerson. Discuss design details with the
supplier in the light of possible use of on-the-shelf protruded shapes.
Pay attention to detail where ladder rests against the tower base
platform, to ensure a secure connection.

E-28
HOT STICK - Hastings Fiber Glass Products, Inc. #8106 fixed shotgun
stick, #4630-3 bronze clamp, #4706-4(SPL) ground clamp, 10 feet (3m) of
#2 strand copper grounding cable, #C-8106 carrying case, #10-070-SPL
storage bag.

HOT STICK TELESCOPING POLE - Hastings Fiber Glass Products, Inc. #SH-250
tel-o-pole hot stick with universal switch hook; universal pigtail
disconnect #10-053; carrying case #C-30.

KLEIN GRIP- "Chicago" Grip, available from Klein Tools. Cite cable type,
working load, and size when ordering grips.

NONCONDUCTIVE LINE - Polypropylene rope conforming to MIL-R-24049A (Type

I) is preferred because of its low water absorption and relatively low
elongation (35% at breaking point). Nylon rope conforming to MIL-R-
17343D or Type II poly-propylene rope (MIL-R-24049A) are also acceptable,
but their breaking point elongation is 55%. Doublebraided nylon rope
conforming to MIL-R-24050B is very suitable; it is much stronger than
polypropylene for a given size, and has a much lower elongation than
nylon rope; like polypropylene, it should not be subjected to rapid
running.

PLP GUY-GRIP DEAD-ENDS - should be identical in material, size, and lay

to those installed on the guy cable for connection to the anchor.

QUICK-ACTING PINS - the various sizes required are available from Monroe
Engineering Products, Inc. & Medalist Leitzke, among others.

SAFETY SNAP, LARGE - "safety snap", wide or extra-wide throat.

TURNBUCKLE - contact local suppliers for availability of turnbuckle

proportioned for size and takeup required.

WINCHES - provision of winches of proper drum size and capacity should be

the contractor's responsibility.

LISTING OF COMMON SUPPLIERS:

Preformed Line Products, Inc.

Box 91129
Cleveland, OH 44101

McMaster-Carr Supply Company

PO Box 4355
Chicago, IL 60680

Hastings Fiber Glass Products, Inc.

Hastings, Mich. 49058

A.B. Chance Co.

Utility Systems Division
Centralia, MO 65240

Standard Handling Devices, Inc.

PO Box 13Y
8 Sycamore Ave.

E-29
 Medford, MA 02155

Monroe Engineering Products, Inc.

Farmington Industrial Park
PO Box 127
Farmington, Mich. 48024

Medalist Leitzke
Box 305
Hustisford, Wis. 53034

Klein Tools and Safety Equipment

7300 McCormick Rd.
Chicago, IL 60645
(Catalog Contains many items of use to Riggers)

F. RIDING TALL TOWER GUYS

1. General. Riding the guys of is an acceptable method of inspecting

the guys and insulators on the tallest of towers. The tower must be
de-energized when the guys are being ridden. The methods outlined
below have been successfully used in the past. However,
specifications for riding the guys should be "performance" type and
should not incorporate the descriptions below.

2. Ring Method. In this method the inspector literally rides down the
guy from the tower to the ground. See Figure E-21. A bosun chair is
suspended from a supporting ring which straddles the guy wire. A
large sheave is contained in the ring that actually rides on the guy.
The ring must have a connection to allow it to be passed around the
guy and it and/or the chair support must also have haul lines
attached to control the movement of the ring down the guy. The
presence of compression cone guy insulators on these tall towers
requires that the ring be large enough to pass over the insulators.
It also requires the use of a come-along or similar device by the
person riding in the chair. This is used to winch the chair upwards
to relieve the load on the sheave. The ring is then passed by hand
around the insulator and the load again transferred to the sheave.
In addition, it is necessary to climb out over the compression cone
insulator clusters at the tower end of the guys to first attach the
ring. Understandably, close coordination and reliable communication
with the persons tending the haul lines are a prerequisite to this
operation.

a. Advantages.

(1) Heavy equipment and rigging is not required on the ground or

tower.

(2) The lower portion of the guys and insulators can be inspected
at close range.

b. Disadvantages.

(1) Only two guys can be inspected in a ten hour workday. This is
because of the manual labor involved in handling the haul

E-30
 lines, climbing the tower to the respective guy levels, and
winching around the insulators.

(2) It is difficult and potentially hazardous to climb out over

the cluster insulators and attach the ring to the guy. Two
persons may be required for this operation. Mounting of the
bosun chair by the inspector is also difficult.

(3) The inspector lacks mobility.

(4) It is difficult, if not impossible, to inspect the upper

portion of the insulators and guys.

(5) It is difficult to pass the ring around the insulators.

3. Basket Method #1. In this method a mechanically powered hoist is

used to raise and lower the inspector in a steel basket alongside the
guy wire. See Figure E-22. A haul line and two tag lines are
required to control the movement of the basket. The inspector mounts
the basket on the ground and then directs the hoist operator and line
tenders on the movement of the basket. The haul line should be
rigged as close as possible to the top of the tower to reduce the
tensions in the lines and to minimize the necessity to adjust the
rigging when inspecting more than one guy in each lane. Close
coordination and reliable communication with persons tending the haul
and tag lines are a prerequisite to this operation.

a. Advantages.

(1) As many as five guys may be inspected in a 10 hour workday.

(2) The guys and insulators may be inspected from any angle as
required.

(3) The inspector is more mobile and comfortable and is not

required to perform strenuous winching operations.

b. Disadvantages.

(1) This method requires heavy equipment and rigging.

(2) There is a tendency for the rigging lines to become fouled on

guy insulators.

(3) Repositioning of rigging to inspect more than one guy lane is

time consuming.

(4) At times, because of high winds, the basket cannot be pulled

close enough to the guy.

4. Basket Method #2. This method uses a rigging procedure which is

slightly different from Basket Method 1. The rigging for this method
is shown in Figure E-23. The basket is supported by a harness and
sheave arrangement, which hangs from the "support line". Two
mechanically powered hoists are required; one controls the tension in
the "support line", providing close control over the basket's
vertical position and the other hoist controls the horizontal

E-31
 positioning of the basket along the guy, by means of the "haul line".
A tag line may also be required to counter wind blowing
perpendicularly to the guy lane. Nonconductive line has been used in
this method (a nylon support line and polypropylene haul line), but
due to the stretch of the line the highest level could not be
inspected. The advantages and disadvantages of this method are
similar to those of Basket Method 1 except that two hoists may be
required.

5. Nonconductive Line. Nonconductive line may be used for tower-to-

ground rigging in any of the three methods discussed. Its use will
permit re-energizing the tower overnight or during long periods when
no work is accomplished. If the tower is to be energized, all lines
leading from tower to ground should be pulled tight to remove slack.
Safety markers should be attached to or placed near all hoists and
portions of the lines which are proximate to the ground. If wet,
these lines may carry some RF current from the tower.

Figure E-21 Ring Method

E-32
Figure E-22 Basket Method #1

E-33
 Figure E-23 Basket Method #2.

G. STATIFLUXING

1. "Statiflux" is a trade name of the Magnaflux Corporation for an

ionized particle inspection method. This is a simple, non-
destructive method for the detection of cracks in non-conducting
materials such a ceramic insulators by means of electrostatically
charged particles. This method can produce erroneous results if not
performed properly.

2. This method is used on ceramic insulators as follows:

a. The insulator is washed with hot water containing a wetting

agent. This agent enters any discontinuities and acts as a
conductive material.

b. The surface is dried with a cloth, air blast, hot air drier, or
other suitable means.

c. A cloud of fine electrostatically charged particles is blown onto

the surface to be inspected. These powdery particles are held
electrostatically at the defect. They quickly build up into a
visible indication of the crack or discontinuity.

E-34
 3. Specially developed powder guns and nozzles are used to blow the
powder in a dispersed cloud. Each particle is dynamically charged by
its passage through the nozzle, and holds its charge when applied to
the surface of the material being inspected. The materials used in
this process are harmless.

4. Since most compressed air systems contain moisture or oil droplets,

it is necessary to use a moisture and oil filter trap with this gun.
In the application of the powder the gun should be held approximately
two to four (inches from the insulator surface; a gentle shaking
action during application will assist in developing a good powder
cloud. The air pressure is not critical, and is usually in the range
of 15 to 25 psi. This can be obtained from an air cylinder, or even
from an inflated spare tire by use of a special adapter.

5. Figure E-24 shows statifluxing of a base insulator.

Figure E-24 Results of Statifluxing a Base Insulator. The powder indicates

cracks not otherwise visible.

E-35
Figure E-25 Results of Statifluxing an open-end johnny-ball type insulator.
A crack can be seen in the groove.

E-36