Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems: 19(3); 176184

DOI: 10.1079/RAFS200480

Organic almond, kiwifruit and winter pear handlers views on federal marketing order programs
Hoy Carman* and Karen Klonsky
Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA. *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Accepted 15 June 2004

Research Paper

Abstract
Producers and handlers of organic crops covered by federal marketing orders have questioned the value received for programs nanced by mandatory assessments on their products. This article highlights marketing issues and organic handlers views on marketing orders for three crops, California kiwifruit, California almonds and WashingtonOregon winter pears. Case studies for these three crops combine results of a survey of organic handlers with available data on production and marketing for each organic product. Handlers gave their views on the effectiveness of marketing order provisions for mandatory minimum quality standards, research, supply control and advertising and promotion. The average per acre yield is lower for each organic commodity than for the same conventional commodity. On a per farm basis, the average organic almond and winter pear acreage is smaller than the industry average, while that of the organic kiwifruit grower is slightly larger. Marketing issues for the three organic crops are similar. Organic products tend to use different channels of distribution than do the same conventional products, because of the smaller volume of product and the product mix of retailers. Organic almonds, kiwifruit and winter pears have enjoyed premium prices, but the premium has decreased as organic production has increased. Some handlers report that customers for their organic products are becoming more quality conscious, and handlers have responded by selling smaller and lower-grade organic kiwifruit and winter pears as conventional fruit at conventional prices. Organic handlers for all three commodities tend to be supportive of marketing order provisions for minimum quality standards and research. Most organic almond handlers were opposed to their marketing orders reserve program, or could see little reason for its application to organic almonds, which have been in relatively short supply. Organic handlers views concerning generic advertising and promotion programs were mixed, but most handlers do not believe that these programs increase demand for the organic product.
Key words: organic, marketing order, organic marketing, almonds, kiwifruit, pears

Introduction
This article examines the effects of federal marketing orders on marketing organic almonds, kiwifruit and winter pears. Each of these commodities has well-established organic production that is regulated by marketing orders, and each of the marketing order administrative committees has established working relationships with organic producers and handlers. The kiwifruit and winter pear administrative committees, for example, publish separate market statistics for the organic product, including seasonal movement and inventory, and the distribution of product by grade and package. Each of the commodities has directory listings used by buyers that indicate organic products. The Winter Pear Control Committee supplies point of purchase

materials for organic pears to retailers. The Almond Board of California effectively exempted organic almonds from the most recent reserve programs. Despite these efforts, there is a degree of controversy among organic producers and handlers about the costs and benets of each of the marketing order programs. Marketing order administrators and the individual administrative committees are often required to respond to issues associated with marketing organic products regulated by these three marketing orders. Federal marketing orders for fruits, vegetables and specialty crops are government sponsored, self-nancing programs requested by producers to help solve the marketing problems for a particular commodity. Once approved by a vote of producers, a marketing order covers
# CAB International 2004

Organic handlers views on federal marketing orders all producers and handlers of a commodity in a designated geographic area, and the handlers of each covered commodity collect and/or pay mandatory assessments to support the programs and activities authorized by the marketing order. (A handler is an intermediary or middleman in the marketing channel who receives, stores, packs and/or processes a commodity.) Marketing orders may include provisions that (1) regulate the volume marketed; (2) establish mandatory minimum quality, container and pack standards; (3) nance generic advertising and promotion programs; and (4) sponsor production and marketing research. Authorized by the Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937, as amended, most current marketing orders were enacted before production and marketing of organic products became signicant. Now, as organic production grows, many producers and handlers of organic products are questioning the value received for the assessments they pay to support marketing order programs that were designed for, and focus on, conventional products. Questions and concerns about how conventional and organic producers can cooperate and coexist under marketing order programs need to be addressed. This research has two major objectives. They are to: (1) collect basic production and marketing information for selected organic commodities with marketing orders; and (2) determine the strengths and weaknesses of federal marketing orders for production and marketing of organic commodities.

177 (CKC), which conducts advertising and promotion programs. The OregonWashington winter pear marketing order has active provisions for advertising and promotion and research. The order also includes a provision for mandatory minimum grades and sizes, but this provision has not been used for several years. The marketing order administrative committees have several special programs for organic production that recognize its unique characteristics. The kiwifruit and winter pear administrative committees, for example, publish separate market statistics for organic production, grades, seasonal movement, packages and inventory. Each of the commodities has directory listings used by buyers that indicate organic products. The Winter Pear Control Committee supplies point of purchase materials for organic pears to retailers. The Almond Board of California effectively exempted organic almonds from the most recent reserve programs. A case study was prepared for each of the three commodities. We began by identifying data sources and collecting published economic data, including acreage, yields, production, average prices, total revenues, exports, imports, and consumption for each of the commodities. Marketing order issues for organic producers and handlers were identied in meetings with personnel in each of the administrative committee ofces. Contact information for organic handlers was obtained from each of the administrative committees. The administrative committees also provided unpublished industry data for both organic and conventional fruit and nuts that are collected as part of their administrative function. We then contacted as many of the organic handlers for each commodity as possible and scheduled a personal interview or a telephone interview. We were able to interview 12 of the 14 organic almond handlers, 8 of the 10 organic kiwi handlers and 10 of the 15 handlers of organic winter pears. We asked each cooperating handler a basic set of 21 questions about volume marketed, outlets utilized, prices, the growth of the organic market, and their views on the effects of marketing order provisions on their marketing efforts. The script used for the almond handler interviews is included in the Appendix at the end of this paper. The scripts for the other two commodities were quite similar. The case studies organize and report the information that we were able to assemble on production and marketing of each of the organic commodities, with a focus on marketing order issues that tend to be unique to organic products. Case study details are in Carman et al.1.

Procedure
Marketing order programs for three commodities were selected for analysis: California almonds, California kiwifruit and WashingtonOregon winter pears. The federal marketing orders for almonds, kiwifruit and winter pears differ with respect to the provisions (regulatory activities) that are authorized and utilized, as illustrated in Table 1. As shown, when the three commodities are combined, they include most of the possible marketing order provisions. The almond order, which has the largest budget, also has the most active marketing order provisions. It includes minimum grade standards, advertising and promotion, research, and is the only one of the three orders with supply control (reserves). The kiwifruit order focuses on minimum maturity, grade and size standards and also has pack and container regulations. Kiwifruit has a separate state commission, the California Kiwifruit Commission

Table 1. Active federal marketing order provisions for case study commodities. Commodity California almonds California kiwifruit WashingtonOregon winter pears Grade X X Size X X Pack and container X X X Supply control X Advertising X Research X

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H. Carman and K. Klonsky

Table 2. Estimated organic acreage and production for almonds, kiwifruit and winter pears: total and percentage share for each commodity, 20012002 marketing year. Organic Commodity Almonds Kiwifruit Winter pears
1

Percentage share of total Production 1,367,680 kg 1,123,390 kg 422,267 boxes1 Acreage (%) 0.56 6.47 3.80 Production (%) 0.35 6.06 2.75

Hectares 1197 120 405

A standard box of winter pears weighs 20 kg.

Table 3. Total number of handlers, number of organic handlers and organic handlers as a percentage of total handlers. Crop Almonds Kiwifruit Winter pears Total number of handlers 110 54 70 Organic handlers 14 10 15 Organic handlers as a percent of total number 12.7 18.5 21.4 Organic quantity as a percent of total quantity 0.4 6.1 2.8

Results
We compare and contrast the case study results in terms of market size, organic penetration, handler characteristics, marketing issues, marketing order provisions and handler views on marketing order provisions. Marketing provisions include mandatory minimum quality standards for almond and kiwifruit, research for almonds and northwest winter pears, supply control for almonds, and advertising and promotion for all three commodities.

Organic handler characteristics

The organic handlers providing information for each of the three commodity case studies have interesting characteristics related to how long they have been grading, packing and/or processing organic products, how and why they got started, and their size. In general, the average organic handler is smaller than the average conventional handler for each of the three commodities. There are approximately 110 California almond handlers, with 14 (12.7%) handling organic almonds; 7 of the 14 handle only organic almonds. There are approximately 54 California kiwifruit handlers, with 10 (18.5%) who handle organic kiwifruit; 7 of the 10 handle only organic kiwifruit. For northwest winter pears there are approximately 70 handlers, of which 15 (21.4%) ship organic winter pears; at least six of the handlers ship only organic winter pears (Table 3). Comparing the percentage of organic handlers for each crop with the shares of production (Table 2) provides an indication of the relative small size of organic packout (i.e., for almonds, 12.7% of the handlers by number account for only 0.4% of total production). A summary of some characteristics of the handlers providing information for this study is included in Table 4. Note that we were able to interview 12 of 14 organic almond handlers, 8 of 10 organic kiwifruit handlers, and 10 of 15 organic winter pear handlers. The degree of handler specialization varies by commodity. For almonds, 7 of the 12 handlers deal only in organic almonds, but all of the kiwifruit handlers pack other organic commodities and 9 out of 10 winter pear handlers pack other organic products. Other organic nuts are popular with the organic almond handlers, while kiwifruit handlers tend to handle other organic fruit crops (plums, pears, apples and apricots). Organic winter pear handlers tend to handle organic Bartlett pears and organic apples. When asked why they decided to start packing and marketing organic products, handlers gave a variety of responses with health and

Production of organic commodities

Production and acreage data for organic commodities is sparse. Each of the three marketing order administrative committees has recent information (but little historic data) on the organic sector of their industry. The California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA), which administers the California Organic Foods Act, tracks registered organic almond and kiwifruit acreage but does not distinguish between winter pears and all pears. The California Kiwifruit Commission has collected and published separate data on crop size, movement, fruit size and packages used for organic and conventional kiwifruit, beginning with the 200001 marketing year. The Pear Bureau Northwest also collects data on organic pear production and marketing. These sources, combined with information from organic handlers, were utilized to develop the estimates shown in Table 2. The organic share of production is less than the organic share of acreage for each commodity, which means that the average per acre yield is lower for each organic commodity than for the same conventional commodity (Table 2). Given the estimated number of organic growers (almonds, 81; kiwifruit, 20; winter pears, 80) and estimated acreage, the average organic almond and winter pear grower has fewer acres than the industry average, while the average organic kiwifruit grower has slightly more acres than average.

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Table 4. Organic handler characteristics: number of handlers interviewed, proportion that handle other organic commodities, reasons for handling organic products, range and average number of years handling organic commodities. Reason for organic Crop Almonds Kiwifruit Winter pears Number of handlers 12 8 10 Handle other crops 5/12 8/8 9/10 Health/environmental 7 2 4 Business 9 4 5 Years in organic Range 124 117 119 Average 10.1 9.7 9.0

environmental concerns and economic reasons most often mentioned (a few mentioned both, e.g., almond handlers). Those handlers who have been involved with organic commodities for the longest time period tend to have started as producers and integrated into packing when existing packers were not interested in handling organic products. Some of these handlers also mentioned economic reasons, involving higher prices for organic products and lower production costs. Many of the newer handlers gave economic reasons such as existing producers shifted to organic production, organic prices are higher and better margins for organic products. While there is a large range of years that the handlers have been involved with organic products, they describe themselves as relatively new to the business compared to the typical handler for each crop. Note that the average number of years that handlers have been packing organic products is very similar for the three commodities. This is probably due to the recent rise of organic commodities to commercial importance.

Marketing issues for organic commodities

There are interesting similarities between the three organic commodities in terms of marketing issues, including channels of distribution, prices and pricing, and individual handler advertising and promotion efforts. The similarities noted are undoubtedly due to the volume of sales, the product category and the customer base. Each of the three organic crops has small production relative to the total, the handlers tend to deal with small volumes of commodity, and the organic market segment is a limited proportion of the total that tends to be reached through specialized vendors. Overall, the organic handlers for each commodity use the same channels of distribution as the conventional handlers, but the mix of outlets differs and the organic channels tend to have more intermediaries. For conventional products, a high proportion of sales is made directly to large chain-store retailers. If an organic handler sells directly to a retailer, it is likely to be to a specialized supermarket chain, such as Whole Foods or Wild Oats, although some larger handlers have sold directly to Safeway (which apparently has buyers specializing in organic produce). Organic handlers tend to sell through wholesalers, organic distributors and brokers to reach smaller organic food stores, food cooperatives and

supermarkets that have organic food sections. Several of the organic handlers also have signicant direct sales over the Internet and through farmers markets. There are export sales of each of the organic commodities, but the amounts are small in both absolute and percentage terms when compared with the same conventional commodities. Specically, over 70% of the 200001 California almond crop was exported. In contrast, export sales made up an estimated 25% of total organic almond sales, based on the handler responses, and only 7 of the 12 organic handler respondents had export sales. Exports of California kiwifruit, once quite important, now account for approximately 20% of annual production (note that approximately two-thirds of annual US kiwifruit consumption is from imports). Only two handlers reported organic kiwifruit exports during the 200001 marketing year, and the volumes were less than 10% of each of their packs. US pear exports have increased signicantly since the late 1980s, with 32% of the total 200001 northwest winter pear crop going to export markets. For 20012002, approximately 24% of the organic winter pear crop was exported, with 13% shipped offshore (mainly to the UK), 6.6% to Mexico and 3.8% sold to Canada. Six of the nine organic winter pear handlers reported export sales, with exports ranging from 5 to 40% of their total pack. Premium prices for organic products are a major factor in growth of each of the three organic commodities in this study and will be an important determinant of future production trends. From available cost of production estimates24, it appears that organic costs per unit of output for almonds, kiwifruit and winter pears are higher than for the conventional product. The reduction in purchased inputs for organic production tends to be offset by lower yields and increased labor requirements. Thus, to be protable, organic products must sell for a premium over conventional products, and they have. Respondents report that organic almonds have recently sold for a price per pound that is from two to four times higher than the price for conventional almonds. Organic kiwifruit has recently enjoyed a premium of 2030% over conventional kiwifruit, while organic winter pear handlers report prices 2025% higher than conventional winter pear prices. Kiwifruit and winter pear handlers both report that their organic fruit enjoyed much higher premiums in the past, but that the differential had narrowed as organic production increased.

180 Almost all of the organic almond and kiwifruit handlers expect organic production of their crops to grow, as do the majority of winter pear handlers. While consumption of each of the organic products has increased over time with premium prices, there is widespread concern that future production increases will place additional downward pressure on organic premiums. Several kiwifruit and winter pear handlers have, on occasion or regularly, sold organic fruit as conventional fruit at conventional fruit prices, when: (1) conventional prices are high; (2) the organic market is saturated with produce; and (3) the quality is too low for the organic market. For both commodities, it is the smaller and lower-grade organic fruit that is most likely to be sold as conventional fruit at conventional prices. This suggests that the market holds organic fruit to a higher standard than conventional fruit. There are producer-funded generic advertising and promotion programs for all three commodities. Almonds and winter pears have advertising and promotion provisions in their federal marketing orders, while California kiwifruit uses a state commission to fund advertising and promotion. In addition, several of the handlers reported private advertising expenditures, although the amounts were typically small. Typical private advertising expenditures were for trade shows, ads about product availability in industry and organic trade publications, websites, and directories. At least one organic almond handler, using the provisions in the marketing order that provide a partial credit toward assessments, did print advertising to nal consumers and provided point of purchase materials to retailers. Overall, seven organic almond handlers, four organic kiwifruit handlers, and two winter pear handlers did some private advertising.

H. Carman and K. Klonsky their customers are very concerned with quality and that they must supply a quality product regardless of marketing order provisions. One kiwifruit handler described the market evolution for organic kiwifruit as beginning with customers who were most concerned about farming practices. As consumers became acquainted with organic kiwifruit, they came to appreciate the taste but were not too concerned with appearance. Now, his customers want fruit that not only tastes good but is also free from blemishes. One handler markets only his US No. 1 organic kiwifruit as organic and sells the kiwifruit that do not meet the No. 1 grade standard as conventional kiwifruit. Each of the organic almond and kiwifruit handlers was asked if mandatory minimum quality standards help them sell their organic product. Kiwifruit handlers expressed a variety of opinions on the value of minimum quality standards for organic kiwifruit. Two of the smallest producer/handlers, who market only their own fruit, said that the minimum size requirement tended to result in more culls for organic than for conventional fruit. One, however, added that the economic impact was minimal because organic consumers would not buy the small cull fruit if it were available in the marketplace. Four of the eight handlers were very positive and supportive of the existing quality standards for kiwifruit. They stated that the quality standards help them sell their organic kiwifruit by helping to maintain consistent quality and by giving buyers condence in the product. Each of the four also believes that the current standards are fair. One handler criticized the maturity standard for having sugar levels that are too low (the average minimum maturity of 6.5% soluble solids was reduced to 6.2% for the 200001 season); this is also a complaint of many conventional kiwifruit growers. Seven of the 12 organic almond handlers responded positively to minimum quality standards. These handlers indicated that the grades are known and respected by buyers worldwide as an indicator of quality. Three handlers did not object to the use of mandatory standards but indicated that their buyers demand quality and that the almonds must look good and satisfy existing standards in order to be sold. Two handlers said that minimum quality standards did not help them to market organic almonds. All of the organic winter pear handler respondents sort their fruit according to USDA standards. Organic pears that do not meet the standards are processed. Handlers were asked if additional standards or mandatory standards would help them market organic pears. Five of the 10 organic winter pear handlers did not believe that additional standards are required or will help in marketing organic pears. One noted that his customers have their own standards and that mandatory minimum standards would not help. On the other hand, four of the handlers supported industry-wide minimum quality standards as assuring that all organic winter pears are good quality. One of these handlers noted that organic pears have additional production standards and that these stringent standards need to be made known to consumers.

Handler Views on Marketing Order Provisions

Handlers for each of the three commodities were asked to: (1) comment on the usefulness of marketing order programs; and (2) suggest program improvements. Handler views are summarized for quality standards, research programs, supply controls, and advertising and promotion.

Mandatory minimum quality standards

The almond and kiwifruit marketing orders have mandatory minimum quality standards. The winter pear marketing order authorizes grade size, and quality regulations for fresh winter pears, but this provision has not been used since the 197879 marketing year. The winter pear marketing order does require federal inspection of pears before shipping from the handler. The handlers for all three commodities view the typical organic consumer of their product as having above-average education, income, concern about health and environmental awareness. Handlers for each commodity commented that

Organic handlers views on federal marketing orders

181 next marketing year. The ABC has used non-allocated reserves twice during the past decadeduring the 199495 and the 19992000 marketing years. The ABC effectively exempted organic almonds from these two reserve programs by including sales of organic almonds to organic outlets as an authorized reserve outlet. As expected, most of the organic handlers said that the reserve program did not create any problems for marketing organic almonds. Ten of the 12 organic almond handlers offered comments on almond reserves. Of the 10 handlers who commented, six were strongly opposed to reserves for organic or conventional almonds from a philosophical standpoint. They stated that they do not believe in reserves and that there should be a free market. One stated that handlers should be free to decide when and how much to store for later sale. None of the other four handlers saw any reason to have reserves for organic almonds, given the tight supply situation relative to demand. Three of the four mentioned that reserves could possibly be useful for organic almonds in the future if organic almonds are overproduced relative to their market.

Commodity research funded by marketing orders

California almonds and northwest winter pears each have active marketing order provisions for marketing and production research. The Almond Board of California (ABC) has two major research programs, one on nutrition and the other on production. The nutrition research program focuses on research relevant to consumer health concerns, which provides a base for domestic marketing programs. The ABC allocated $US1 million to nutrition research projects during 200102. The ABC also funds production research projects in orchard management, variety development, pests, diseases, irrigation, tree nutrition and pollination. The proposed budget for 200203 allocates $US583,604 to 28 production research projects. One of the projects has an organic emphasis, and several of the integrated pest management (IPM) projects have potential applications to organic production. The Winter Pear Coordinating Committee (WPCC) currently collects an assessment of $US0.02 per standard box for research projects. Total research funds have recently averaged about $US300,000 annually. While none of its projects is specically dedicated to organic winter pears, many IPM projects have potential benets for both organic and conventional producers. Organic almond handler comments regarding ABCfunded research were generally favorable. Their most favorable comments were for the nutrition research that has focused on the health benets of almonds. Handlers who offered comments believe that this research helps to emphasize the health benets that consumers are seeking when they purchase organic almonds. One handler would like to see separate research on the organic industry, even though he realizes that it would be a small percentage of the total research program. Six of the 10 organic winter pear handlers had positive reactions to the market and production research funded by the WPCC. There were positive comments on post-harvest projects, market research and production research. Four handlers stated that, even though production research is driven by conventional pears, the results benet both organic and conventional producers. Another commented that the IPM research was very helpful and useful for organic growers. Two handlers were not familiar with any research results that were of use to organic producers. One commented that he does not pay any attention to anything that the WPCC does.

Advertising and promotion

Forker and Ward5 have summarized several econometric studies that document a positive impact of commodity advertising and promotion programs on sales and producer returns. Crespi and Sexton6 recently estimated producer returns from advertising and promotion programs for California almonds that were quite favorable, but we are not aware of similar estimates for either kiwifruit or winter pears. The majority of the assessments for the almond and winter pear marketing orders fund generic advertising and promotion programs. The California Kiwifruit Commission, which works jointly with the kiwifruit marketing order, also funds generic advertising and promotion for kiwifruit. While generic advertising and promotion programs for agricultural commodities have increased demand and generally yielded positive returns to producer-funded expenditures, they continue to be controversial. This is especially true with organic handlers and producers, who focus on a market niche that may or may not benet from increases in the overall demand for almonds, kiwifruit or winter pears. The degree of separation (or integration) between the organic and conventional consumer markets, while very important, has not been determined. However, most of the organic handlers for almonds, kiwifruit and winter pears who offered comments believe that the market for their organic product is separate from that for the conventional commodity. They also believe that the organic product they market is clearly superior to the conventional product in several dimensions. These views undoubtedly inuence handler/producer evaluations of the contribution of advertising and promotion programs to marketing organic products. Seven of the 12 almond handlers reported advertising expenditures for their organic almonds, ranging from

Supply control
The almond marketing order is the only one of the three that has provisions to control the amount of product marketed. Control of the supply marketed is through two forms of volume control: allocated and non-allocated reserves. Allocated reserves permanently remove almonds from primary consuming markets to secondary markets such as animal feed, while non-allocated reserves temporarily restrict the ow of almonds to the market at specic points in time, to be released later in the marketing year or even the

182 $US600 to more than $US50,000 annually, which were made in addition to ABC expenditures. Views on the contribution of ABC advertising and promotion to organic almond sales were mixed, as might be expected. Three of the ve handlers who had no private advertising and promotion expenditures believe that the ABC program has an effect on total almond demand but does not help to sell organic almonds, while the other two stated that the ABC program does not help them sell organic almonds. Five of the seven handlers who did some advertising and promotion are supportive of ABC advertising and promotion programs. Three believe that it has an indirect positive effect by increasing the demand for all almonds (helps sell almonds in general but does not provide direct help to market organic almonds), while the other two handlers indicated that nutritional messages based on the ABC research program helps market organic almonds. Two of the larger organic handlers do not believe that the ABC advertising and promotion program is effective for either organic or conventional almonds, and would prefer to be exempt from assessments for advertising and promotion. Two of the ten organic winter pear handlers reported advertising expenditures separate from the WPCC. One of these handlers believes that generic advertising conducted by the WPCC helps market organic pears, while the other stated that it provides no help. Two other organic handlers also believe that industry advertising has not helped them market organic pears. The remaining six handlers believe that the WPCC advertising and promotion benet all pear growers, but they were not enthusiastic about the programs. Two of the handlers believe that organic winter pears would benet from a complete separation between organic and conventional pear advertising and promotion. They think that organic winter pears should be promoted for their positive effect on the environment, freedom from pesticides, and other features that differentiate them from conventional winter pears. Section 10607 of the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act (the 2002 Farm Bill) directs the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) to issue regulations exempting any person who both produces and markets solely 100% organic products from paying commodity promotion assessments. Consequently, in December 2003, USDA issued proposed amendments to 28 fruit and vegetable marketing order programs that authorize market promotion activities to conform with the Farm Bill. These include OregonWashington winter pears and California almonds. The federal California kiwifruit marketing order does not include promotion activities. Technically, it is the handlers of commodities who are assessed under marketing order programs and not the producers. Therefore, in order to be exempt, a person must both grow and handle 100% organic commodities, or receive 100% organic commodities, and in some way alter (e.g., shell, slice, process) the commodity. Handlers who receive 100% organic commodities and sell only organic commodities, but only sort and package the commodities, are not exempt because they are not

H. Carman and K. Klonsky considered to be producers. However, growers generally think of themselves as paying the assessment since, in practice, the assessment is deducted from their payment from the handler. In our interviews we asked the handlers about attitudes toward paying marketing order assessments. Five of the 10 organic winter pear handlers believe that all of their producers would opt out of paying promotion assessments if they had a choice. These producers account for about 40% of the organic winter pear pack. Among the other ve handlers, three indicated that they had very few 100% organic producers and the other two did not provide an estimate. Two of the three handlers with few 100% producers said that it would be a mistake for these producers not to pay the promotion assessment, since organic production is increasing. They believe that organic producers will need the resources and skills provided by the Pear Bureau to reach retail stores and conventional supermarkets. Organic kiwifruit handlers were asked for their views on the CKC advertising and promotion programs. Four of the eight handlers spend money on advertising their own kiwifruit. One of the handlers believes that the CKC advertising has expanded the demand for all kiwifruit, but with reduced budgets the present impact is small. Seven of the eight handlers stated that the present CKC advertising and promotion does not help market organic kiwifruit.

Key Findings
Case studies for three organic crops with federal marketing orders (almonds, kiwifruit and winter pears) provide data and handlers views on marketing order provision as applied to their crops. Following are some key ndings from the case studies. $ Average yield per acre is lower and costs per unit of output tend to be higher for each organic commodity than for the same conventional commodity. $ The average handler for each of the three organic commodities tends to be smaller and have fewer years operational experience than the average conventional handler for each commodity. $ The organic products tend to ow through more market intermediaries when moving from the farm to retail customers than does the same conventional commodity. $ Each of the organic commodities has received a premium price but the amount of the premium has been decreasing relative to the conventional commodity as organic production has increased. Handlers expect future increases in supplies of organic products and further erosion of the premium. $ Several organic kiwifruit and winter pear handlers noted that their customers have become more quality conscious over time, and that improved product appearance and size are becoming more important in marketing their fruit.

Organic handlers views on federal marketing orders

$

183 Arguably, the total amount of assessments collected from organic producers and handlers is, and will continue to be, relatively small, and will buy little in the way of separate programs for each organic product. Thus, organic producer contributions to the overall commodity program may provide access to programs that would not be possible with a separate organic program. Organic producers and handlers gain access to retailers, to trade information and such things as point of purchase materials, websites and organized public relations. Access to production and marketing data and the benets of being organized are valuable to all producers and handlers, both organic and conventional.

Handlers indicate that they are very concerned with supplying their customers with high-quality products. Seventy percent of the handlers who commented on minimum quality standards believe that they are a positive factor in marketing their organic product. Of the organic handlers who offered comments on research, 69% were positive. They believe that nutrition research is valuable but expressed reservations about production research that benets only conventional products and producers. They would like to have projects that focus on organic production. Only 48% of the handlers, who commented, support generic advertising and promotion, and even fewer believe that the marketing order programs help market the organic product. None of the organic almond handlers think the marketing order reserve program is presently needed for organic almonds, and three-fourths indicate that they do not want a supply control program for their product.

References
1 Carman, H.F., Klonsky, K., Beaujard, A., and Rodriguez, A.M. 2004. Marketing order impact on the organic sector: Almonds, kiwifruit and winter pears. Giannini Foundation Research Report No. 346, University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Oakland. Available at http://giannini.ucop.edu/researchreports.htm (veried 5 August 2004). 2 Holtz, B.A., Duncan, R.A., Verdegaal, P.S., Klonsky, K.M., and Demoura, R.L. 2002. Sample costs to produce organic almonds. University of California, Davis, CA. Available at http://coststudies.ucdavis.edu (veried 5 August 2004). 3 Hasey, J.K., Johnson, R.S., Meyer, R.D., and Klonsky, K.M. 1997. An organic versus a conventional farming system in kiwifruit. Acta Horticulturae 444:223228. 4 Glover, J., Hinman, H., Reganold, J., and Andrews, P. 2002. A cost of production analysis of conventional versus integrated versus organic apple productions systems. Washington State University Agricultural Research Center, Wenachee, Washington. 5 Forker, O.D. and Ward, R.W. 1993. Commodity advertising: The economics and measurement of generic programs. Lexington Books, New York. 6 Crespi, J.M. and Sexton, R.J. 2000. Have expenditures to advertise California almonds been effective? Agricultural and Resource Economics UPDATE 3:12, 78.

Concluding Comments
Organic handlers and producers support for the provisions contained in the almond, kiwifruit and winter pears marketing orders varies by provision. We believe that generally positive views on minimum quality standards and marketing order research programs can be improved by selected actions by marketing order staff. For example, views of organic producers and handlers should be an explicit component of discussions to revise grades and standards. An examination of recent research projects shows that several have potential applications for both organic and conventional producers. In terms of operating practices, some researchers, research committees, and marketing order administrative committees could do a better job of communicating research results to producers. For example, research committees could provide summary reports and updates of research with specic implications for organic producers. Research topics which focus on organic production, but offer benets to conventional producers, should be seriously considered. The skepticism regarding the impact of generic advertising and promotion programs on the demand and prices for the three organic commodities is not surprising. Organic producers are concerned with the benet derived from an increase in demand for the commodity overall versus the cost of advertising and promotion. Many believe that a separate advertising and promotion program stressing the favorable characteristics of the organic product would yield higher returns than does generic commodity promotion. This is based on the observation that it is often less costly for a small rm to capture market share than it is to expand total demand for a commodity. The challenge for individual organic commodities is to raise the funds required for an effective promotional program and to develop a message that does not disparage the conventional commodity.

Appendix: Organic Almond Handler Questionnaire

When did you start marketing organic almonds and why? Do you market both organic and conventional almonds, or only organic? Do you market other organic nuts/fruits/vegetables? If so what are they? How many producers do you have supplying organic almonds to you? How many acres of organic almonds do your producers have? How many do you produce? What is their annual production? Has this been increasing or decreasing? Do you take title to the organic almonds you handle?

184 How much is your marketing charge and how has it changed over time? Do you sell organic almonds for the export market? What share of your annual sales is exported? How many pounds of organic almonds do you sell annually? What do you do with the organic almonds that do not meet grade standards? Is there any revenue from poor quality almonds? What are your views on the quality standards? Do grades and standards have a different impact on organic than on standard almonds? Do these rules help sell organic almonds? What are your views on what is happening to organic almond productionstable, growing, or declining? Do you have any quantitative observations? What are the prices for conventional and organic almonds? Is there an unmet demand for organic? What is the seasonal pattern of prices for organicsame as conventional or different?

H. Carman and K. Klonsky Who are the organic almond customers? Processors, large chains, small specialty stores, institutional buyers, etc.? How different than customers for conventional? The Almond Board has an advertising and promotion program. Do you believe that these programs help you market your organic almonds? What improvements would you like to see made to the program? Do the reserves in 1999 create a problem for you? Whats your opinion about reserve for organic almonds? Do you advertise organic almonds? If so, who is the target and what is the level of expenditure? Have you ever lowered your organic price to secure a conventional order? Have you ever been asked to pay a slotting fee? Are there different buying patterns for organic and conventional almonds? Do you have any observation on marketing organic almonds that we have not discussed?