A.

Q KHOSO 12ME42
ENGG: MATERIAL & SCIENCES
ASSIGNMENT # 1 SUBMITTED TO SIR TANWEER PHULPOTO

Q.1 What is Materials Engineering? Why Study Materials Engineering?

Note any two types of advanced materials along with their distinctive features. ANS: Materials science and engineering is a discipline that enables the
creation and application of materials in society. Materials make up the things we use, and materials engineers study, design, and make these materials.They develop new materials and create uses for them that benefit humans. Take your computer or cell phone as an example and ask yourself, Why is it made out of these materials? or, Why is it designed in this particular way? Materials engineers are experts on materials how they are made, how and why materials are useful, and how materials can be made better. To do this, materials engineers need to understand the scientific principles that underlie the relationship between how a material performs and its structure/ composition. They bring expertise on the properties of materials chemical, physical and mechanical.

(i)

Gold nanoparticles are engineered for direct imprinting of stable structures. This imprinting strategy provides access to new device architectures, as demonstrated through the fabrication of a prototype photoswitchable device.

(ii)

The bistable electroactive polymer is a new smart material capable of large strain, rigid-to-rigid actuation. At the rubbery state of the polymer heated to above its glass transition, stable electrically-induced actuation is obtained at strains as large as 150%.

Q.2. ANS:

Give the general classification of Engineering Materials.?

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
Solid materials have been grouped into three basic classifications:

1)METALS:
There are many metals which you are familiar with - copper pipes and wire, aluminium saucepans and cast iron stoves. Metals may be mixed with other elements especially other metals to produce alloys which will have improved properties. Heat treatment can also be used to change the properties of alloys e.g. hardening and tempering of high carbon steel. Properties: Lustre, Hardness, Resistance to Corrosion, Thermal and Electrical Conductivity, Malleability, Stiffness and Property of Magnetism. Examples: Iron and Steels, Aluminium, Copper, Zinc, Magnesium, Brass All metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. Copper is a particularly good conductor but is not very strong, it is also fairly dense. Aluminium is a good conductor has a low density and when alloyed has a high tensile strength. Some alloys such as pewter and zinc alloys have a low melting point and can be easily formed by casting or moulding but they have a low tensile strength.

2)CERAMICS:
This class of material includes plates and cups, bricks, earthenware pots, engineering ceramics, glasses [glasses are non-crystalline and not normally classed as ceramics], and refractory (furnace) materials. Ceramics are made by heating together materials such as silica, chalk and clays. Other chemicals may be included to act as flux and to change colour etc. Properties: Thermal Resistance, Brittleness, Opaqueness to Light, Electrical Insulation, High-temperature Strength, abrasiveness, Resistance to Corrosion. Examples: Silica, Glass, Cement, Concrete, Refractories, Silicon Carbide, Boron Nitride abrasives, Ferrites, Insulators Process components include pump shafts, seats, bearing surfaces, gears and even complete pump bodies, valve guides and seats. Ceramics are used for cutting tools including razor blades for film and tape cutting to 300mm diameter circular slitters for the paper industry. Ceramic turbine blades are used in most turbochargers providing lighter units than the steel alternatives allowing improved performance at higher temperatures.

3)PoLYMERS:
Polymers are made from long chain molecules which may have cross linking bonds affecting flexibility/stiffness. Properties: Soft, Light in weight, Dimensionally unstable, Poor Conductors of Heat and Electricity, Ductile, Combustible, Low-thermal Resistance. Examples: Poly Vinyl Chloride, Poly Tetrafluoroethylene, Polycarbonates. Thermoplastics which may be reformed with heat. e.g. PVC, HIPS, nylon, polycarbonate, PET, acrylic. Thermosetting plastics which once molded or formed cannot be reformed by heat. e.g. Melamine(M F), epoxy resin, Urea formaldehyde (UF). Elastomers - rubbers long chain elastic molecules. e.g. neoprene, natural rubber. Used for car tyres and elastic bands. Melamine is used as the protective layer on work surfaces and laminated flooring. UF is used to make electrical components when a good insulator is needed such as plug tops and switch buttons. Acrylic is used for safety shields but is not as tough as polycarbonate. Polycarbonate is used for the lenses in safety eye protection e.g. goggles.

This scheme is primarily based on chemical makeup and atomic structure of atoms.

Composites: There are also some intermediates .In addition there are COMPOSITES Which are the combination of two or more than two elements

Composites are mixtures of materials which give improved properties. One of the materials is the matrix or binding chemical and the other is the reinforcer. A good example is GRP - glass reinforced polyester(plastic) resin. where the glass fibres increase the strength of the polyester resin. Carbon fibre reinforced epoxy resin is stronger and lighter than steel. Concrete is a composite (the cement is the matrix and the gravel and steel rods are the reinforcer) as are bricks made from clay reinforced with straw. Natural composites include wood, shell and bone. Applications Car bodies - especially sports cars, F1 racing cars, boat hulls, lightweight struts and supports in bridge building and the construction industry. Aerospace - use of carbon fibre composites as well as high tech ceramic parts has revolutionised this industry. Another classification is ADVANCED MATERIALS: These are the materials used in high technology applications such as semiconductors , biomaterials, and nano engineered materials

Q.3. What is allotropy? Why is carbon, in the form of diamond one of the hardest materials known, but as graphite is very soft and can be used as a solid lubricant? ANS:
Allotropy or allotropism is the property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms, known as allotropes of these elements. Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element;the atoms of the element are bonded together in a different manner. For example, the allotropes of carbon include diamond (where the carbon atoms are bonded together in a tetrahedral lattice arrangement), graphite (where the carbon atoms are bonded together in sheets of a hexagonal lattice), graphene (single sheets of graphite), and fullerenes (where the carbon atoms are bonded together in spherical, tubular, or ellipsoidal formations).

In diamonds, each carbon atom is strongly bonded to four adjacent carbon atoms located at the apices of a tetrahedron (a three-sided pyramid). The four valence electrons of each carbon atom participate in the formation of very strong covalent bonds. These bonds have the same strength in all directions. This gives diamonds their great hardness. The carbon atoms in graphite are also arranged in an infinite array, but they are layered. Each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms and arranged at the corners of a network of regular hexagons. In addition, these planar arrays are held together by weaker forces known as stacking interactions.Unlike diamond, graphite can be used as a lubricant or in pencils because the layers cleave readily. It is soft and slippery, and its hardness is less than one on the Mohs scale.

Q.4. Differentiate between (i) a unit cell and a single crystal, (ii) crystalline and amorphous materials. State any two applications where single crystals are used.? ANS: (i) The simplest repeating unit in a crystal is called a unit cell. Each unit cell is
defined in terms of lattice points. The points in space about which the particles are free to vibrate in a crystal. A basic concept in crystal structures is the unit cell. It is the smallest unit of volume that permits identical cells to be stacked together to fill all space. By repeating the pattern of the unit cell over and over in all directions, the entire single crystal lattice can be constructed. A cube is the simplest example of a unit cell. The crystal structure of a material or the arrangement of atoms within a given type of crystal structure can be described in terms of its unit cell. The unit cell is given by its lattice parameters, which are the length of the cell edges and the angles between them, while the positions of the atoms inside the

unit cell are described by the set of atomic positions (xi , yi , zi) measured from a lattice point. A single crystal or mono crystalline solid is a material in which the crystal lattice of the entire sample is continuous and unbroken to the edges of the sample, with no grain boundaries.

The crystal lattice and unit cell of a crystal of sodium chloride. Sodium ions, Na+, are shown in color. Chloride ions, Cl, are shown in gray. (a) Overall crystal lattice; (b) unit cell; (c) unit cell, showing division of spheres.

(ii)

A crystalline solid is one in which there is a regular repeating pattern in the structure, or in other words, there is long-range order. In fact, you can completely describe the entire crystal by describing the single "repeat unit." Some crystalline solids are diamond, table salt, and many types of minerals found in the earth. An amorphous solid is one which does not have long-range order. In other words, there is no repeat unit. Some examples of amorphous solids are glass (in windows, for example), wax, and plastics. If a liquid cools very quickly, the molecules will not have time to arrange themselves in the most favorable pattern (which will almost always be crystalline), and so they are locked into a disordered solid. Silicon is a common solid that can be found in both amorphous and crystalline forms, depending on how it is manufactured. Crystalline silicon is much harder to grow, but it is what is used in computer chips. Amorphous silicon is much cheaper and easier to grow, and is commonly used in solar panels.

Q.5.

What is a slip system, and what is its significance?

Do all metals have the same slip system? Why or why not? Ans: In materials science, Slip is the process by which plastic deformation
is produced by a dislocation motion. By an external force, parts of the crystal lattice glide along each other, resulting in a changed geometry of the material. Depending on the type of lattice, different slip systems are present in the material. More specifically, slip occurs between planes containing the smallest Burgers vector. The picture shows a schematic view of the slip mechanism.

Usually there are preferred slip planes and directions in certain crystal systems. The combination of both the slip plane and direction form the slip system. Slip plane is generally taken as the closest packed plane in the system Slip direction is taken as the direction on the slip plane with the highest linear density.

FCC and BCC materials have large numbers of slip systems (at least 12) and are considered ductile.HCP systems have few slip systems and are quite brittle.
(a) A slip system is a crystallographic plane, and, within that plane, a

direction along which dislocation motion (or slip) occurs. (b) All metals do not have the same slip system. The reason for this is that for most metals, the slip system will consist of the most densely packed crystallographic plane, and within that plane the most closely packed direction. This plane and direction will vary from crystal structure to crystal structure.

Q.6 Describe (i) point defect and its types, (ii) Line defect (dislocation) and its types, (iii) surface defect and its types.

ANS: (i) Materials rarely consist of a single perfect crystal formed of one type of atom. The majority of engineering materials are alloys. An alloy is a mixture of atoms of more than one element. Even pure metals are rarely more than 99.9% pure. Real materials have a number of imperfections or defects in their crystal structure. These include both impurity atoms and irregularities in the alignment of atoms. Point defects are localised imperfections in crystals. There are three types of point defect. The simplest type of point defect is formed when atoms are missing from the lattice, leaving a hole, this is known as a vacancy.A number of different point defects occur in metallic crystals. Self-defects include vacancies and selfinterstitials. The other two types of point defect arise from the presence of alloying elements in the host metal. A self interstitial atom is an extra atom that has crowded its way into an interstitial void in the crystal structure. Self interstitial atoms occur only in low concentrations in metals because they distort and highly stress the tightly packed lattice structure. A substitutional impurity atom is an atom of a different type than the bulk atoms, which has replaced one of the bulk atoms in the lattice. Substitutional impurity atoms are usually close in size (within approximately 15%) to the bulk atom. An example of substitutional impurity atoms is the zinc atoms in brass. In brass, zinc atoms with a radius of 0.133 nm have replaced some of the copper atoms, which have a radius of 0.128 nm. Interstitial impurity atoms are much smaller than the atoms in the bulk matrix. Interstitial impurity atoms fit into the open space between the bulk atoms of the lattice structure. An example of interstitial impurity atoms is the carbon atoms that are added to iron to make steel. Carbon atoms, with a radius of 0.071 nm, fit nicely in the open spaces between the larger (0.124 nm) iron atoms. Vacancies are empty spaces where an atom should be, but is missing. They are common, especially at high temperatures when atoms are frequently and randomly change their positions leaving behind empty lattice sites. In most cases diffusion (mass transport by atomic motion) can only occur because of vacancies.

(ii) Linear defects occur when a crystal structure contains misaligned planes of atoms. They are referred to as dislocations since atoms are dislocated from their position in the lattice. There are three types of dislocation. 1. edge dislocation 2. screw dislocation, 3. mixed dislocations

(iii) Surface defects may arise at the boundary between two grains, or small crystals, within a larger crystal. The stacking fault between two closed -packed regions of the crystal that have alternate stacking sequences are another example of surface defects. Grain boundaries, a low angle boundaries and Twin boundaries are surface defects. types of surface defects : 1. one is inherent in the surface of the grating, 2. the other is caused by handling. 3. a stacking fault and 4. a twin region

Q.7 What is twinning? How does it differ from slip?

Deformation by Twinning: When mechanical deformation is created by twinning, the lattice structure changes. The atoms move only a fraction of an interatomic space and this leads to a rearrangement of the lattice structure. Twinning is observed as wide bands under the microscope. These wide bands can not be removed by polishing. Two kinds of twins are of interest to the metallurgists: 1. Deformation or mechanical twins, most prevalent in close packed hexagonal metals (magnesium, zinc, iron with large amount of ferrite) 2. Annealing twins, most prevalent in F.C.C. (Face centered cubic) metals (aluminum, copper, brass, iron with austenite).These metals have been previously worked and heat treated. The twins are formed because of a change in the normal growth mechanism.

twinned crystal
Deformation by Slip: If a single crystal of a metal is stressed in tension beyond its elastic limit, it elongates slightly, a step appears on the surface indicating relative displacement of one part of the crystal with respect to the rest, and the elongation stops. Increasing the load will cause another step. It is as if neighboring thin sections of the crystal had slipped past one another like a sliding cards on a deck. Each successive elongation requires a higher stress and results in the appearance of another step, which is actually the intersection of a slip plane with the surface of the crystal. Progressive increase of the load eventually causes the material to fracture.

Q.8 below:

Determine the Miller indices of planes A, B and C in Figure

Determine the Miller indices of planes A, B, and C in given fig: SOLUTION: Plane A 1. x = 1, y = 1, z = 1 2. 1/x =1,1/y=1,1/z=1 3. No fractions to clear 4. (1,1,1) Plane B 1. 1. The plane never intercepts the z axis, so x=1 ,y=2,and z=infinity 1. 1/x=1,1/y=1/2,1/z=0 2. 1/x=0,1/y=1,1/z=0 3. (210) 1. We must move the origin, since the plane passes through 0, 0, 0. Lets move the origin one lattice parameter in the y-direction. Then, x = infinity, y = -1, and z = infinity 2. 1/x=0 ,1/y=-11,1/z=0 3. no fractions to clear.

4. (010) Several important aspects of the Miller indices for planes should be noted: 1. Planes and their negatives are identical (this was not the case for directions) because they are parallel. Therefore, .(020)=(020) 2. Planes and their multiples are not identical (again, this is the opposite of what we found for directions). We can show this by defining planar densities and planar packing fractions. The planar density is the number of atoms per unit area with centers that lie on the plane; the packing fraction is the fraction of the area of that plane actually covered by these atoms. Example 3-9 shows how these can be calculated. 3. In each unit cell, planes of a form or family represent groups of equivalent planes that have their particular indices because of the orientation of the coordinates. We represent these groups of similar planes with the notation {}. The planes of the form {110} in cubic systems are shown in Table 3-4. 4. In cubic systems, a direction that has the same indices as a plane is perpendicular to that plane

9.Describe three basic crystal structures in metals. Calculate the volume of BCC, FCC and HCP unit cells in terms of the atomic radius R.
Three densely packed crystal structures: Face-centered cubic (FCC) Body-centered cubic (BCC) Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)

1) The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure: The crystal structure found for many metals has a unit cell of cubic geometry, with atoms located at each of the corners and the centers of all the cube faces. It is aptly called the face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure. Some of the familiar metals having this crystal structure are copper, aluminum, silver, and gold. Figure shows a hard sphere model for the FCC unit cell, the atom centers are represented by small circles to provide a better perspective of atom positions. The aggregate of atoms in the Figure represents a section of crystal consisting of many FCC unit cells. These spheres or ion cores touch one another across a face diagonal; the cube edge length a and the atomic radius R are related through a =2R2

VOLUME of FCC:
a v = = = ( = )

2) The Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure: Another common metallic crystal structure also has a cubic unit cell with atoms located at all eight corners and a single atom at the cube center. This is called a body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure. A collection of spheres depicting this crystal structure is shown in Figure , also diagrams of BCC unit cells with the atoms represented by hard sphere and reduced-sphere models. Center and corner atoms touch one another along cube diagonals, and unit cell length a and atomic radius R are related through

VOLUME OF BCC:
consider d=a By pythagoras theorem:

a volume = V

= = =

3) The Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure: Not all metals have unit cells with cubic symmetry; the final common metallic crystal structure to be discussed has a unit cell that is hexagonal.Figure shows a reduced-sphere unit cell for this structure, which is termed hexagonal close packed (HCP); an assemblage of several HCP unit cells is presented in Figure. The top and bottom faces of the unit cell consist of six atoms that form regular hexagons and surround a single atom in the center. Another plane that provides three additional atoms to the unit cell is situated between the top and

bottom planes. The atoms in this midplane have as nearest neighbors atoms in both of the adjacent two planes. The equivalent of six atoms is contained in each unit cell; one-sixth of each of the 12 top and bottom face corner atoms, one-half of each of the 2 center face atoms, and all 3 midplane interior atoms. If a and c represent, respectively, the short and long unit cell dimensions as in figure, the c/a ratio should be 1.633; however, for some HCP metals this ratio deviates from the ideal value.

volume of HCP:
We are know that

Area of hexagon = where a = 2R volume v = A c = c

= =

c c

10. Describe your understanding of why different crystal structures exhibit different strengths and ductilities.
As we know that different metals possess different physical properties and they are classified on the basis of their properties.

ANS:

Crystal structures:
Crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystalline liquid or solid. A crystal structure is composed of a pattern, a set of atoms arranged in a particular way, and a lattice exhibiting long-range order and symmetry.some properties of crystalline solids depends upon crystal structure.

Strengths:
Strength means resistance to irreversible deformation or, if you prefer, the upper limit of elastic stress that is safe to apply to a material. Strength is highly dependent on microstructure because it is proportional to the difficulty of moving dislocations through (and between) the grains.

Ductilities:
Ductility measures the ability of a material to undergo plastic deformation without fracture intervening. Ductility is the hallmark of structural materials because it makes structures damage tolerant. If one element of a structure is overloaded, it will deform before it breaks and thus not jeopardize the entire structure. High degrees of ductility occur due to metallic bonds, which are found predominantly in metals and leads to the common perception that metals are ductile in general. In metallic bonds valence shell electrons are delocalized and shared between many atoms. The delocalized electrons allow metal atoms to slide past one another without being subjected to strong repulsive forces that would cause other materials to shatter.

Yield strength and ductility

Most structures are designed so that the materials used will only undergo elastic deformation. It is therefore necessary to know the stress at which plastic deformation (yielding) begins. For metals which experience a gradual elastic-plastic transition, the yield stress may be taken to be the point at which the stress-strain curve is no longer linear. A more precise way of determining the limit is to use the stress at a strain of 0.002, this value is known as the yield strength. Ductility is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation which has occurred prior to fracture. A material that undergoes very little plastic deformation is brittle.

The area under the stress-strain curve gives the fracture energy of the material. A ductile material has a greater fracture energy. The total fracture energy can be broken into that required to produce elastic deformation (shown by the pink shaded region) and that required to produce plastic deformation (green shaded region).

Increasing the yield strength of a metal by processes such as work-hardening , precipitation hardening and solid solution strengthening generally decreases the ductility. They, therefore, decrease the notched-bar impact energy since less plastic work can be done before the strain in the plastic zone is sufficient to fracture the test specimen.

Q.11.What effects does recrystallization have on the properties of metals?

ANS: Recrystallization is a process that is used to purify a substance. It can be used in various processes, such as the creation of aspirin. Re-crystallization is completed by placing the impure compound in a solvent, heating the solution so the compound dissolves, and filtering the impurities. In some cases, it may be necessary to use carbon to remove colored contaminants from the compound. The mixture is then cooled, allowing pure crystals to form. 1. Strained grains of cold-worked metal are replaced, upon heating, by more regularly-spaced grains. This occurs through short-range diffusion enabled by the high temperature. Since recrystallization occurs by diffusion, the important parameters are both temperature and time. 2. The material becomes softer, weaker, but more ductile

Recrystallization temperature: is that at which the process is complete in one hour. It is typically 1/3 to 1/2 of the melting temperature. It falls as the %CW is increased. Below a "critical deformation", recrystallization does not occur. 3. Although the majority of this work is converted to heat, some fraction (~15%) is retained in the material as defects - particularly dislocations. Alloying additions, such as magnesium or zinc, that are present in solid solution in the aluminium throughout processing, result in a reduction in the static recrystallization temperature after cold working and can result in dynamic recrystallization during hot working. The effects of dynamic and static recrystallization on microstructure and on the flow stress or creep rate of the metal are considered in this paper and particular attention is given to the range of deformation conditions under which these recrystallization processes are expected to occur. 4. Recrystallization takes deformed metal crystal grains and allows them to reform without the deformations. This usually results in the metal becoming less strong, less hard (softer),and more ductile. This allows the metal to be worked more easily.

12.Show for the body-centered cubic crystal structure that the unit cell edge length a and the atomic radius R are related through a=4R/3.

ANS: Usually, the length of the cell edge is represented by a. The direction from a corner of a cube to the farthest corner is called body diagonal (b). The face diagonal (l) is a line drawn from one vertex to the opposite corner of the same face. If the edge is a, then we have:

= + = 3

] Atoms along the body diagonal (b) touch each other. Thus, the body diagonal has a length that is four times the radius of the atom, R. b =4R The relationship between a and R can be worked out by the Pythagorean theorem: = Thus, =a or

a =
Recognizing these relationships enable you to calculate parameters for this type of crystal. For example, one of the parameter is the packing fraction, the fraction of volume occupied by the spheres in the structure.