MATERIAL SCIENCE

INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL SCIENCE

Materials are very important in the development of human civilization. Historians have identified civilization by the
name of most used material. Thus, we have: Stone Age, Bronze Age etc. From early human civilization, people used only
natural materials like stone, clay, skin, and wood for different purposes like weapons, instruments, shelter, etc. Thus the sites of
deposits for better quality stones became early colonies of human civilization. However, need for better quality tools brought
forth exploration that led to Bronze Age followed by Iron Age, when people found copper and how to make it harder by alloying.
The use of iron and steel, a stronger material that gave advantage in wars started after the bronze age. Iron was abundant and thus
availability was not limited to the affluent. This commonness of the material affected every person in many aspects, gaining the
name DEMOCRATIC material. The next major step in human civilization was the making of steel through a relatively cheap
process. This enabled the railroads and the building of modern infrastructure of the industrial world. One of the most significant
features of the democratic material is that number of users exploded. We are presently in Space Age marked by many
technological developments towards development of materials resulting in stronger and light materials like composites,
electronic materials like semiconductors, materials for space voyage like high temperature ceramics, biomaterials, etc.

In summary, materials constitute foundation of technology. Civilization evolved from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age, the Iron
Age, the Steel Age, and to the Space Age. Each age is marked by the advent of certain materials. The Iron Age brought tools
and utensils. The Steel Age brought railroads, instruments, and the Industrial Revolution. The Space Age brought the materials
for stronger and light structures (e.g., composite materials). The Electronic Age brought semiconductors, and thus many
varieties of electronic gadgets.
Materials Science: Engineering materials constitute foundation of technology. Thus an understanding of their properties become
important. The combination of physics, chemistry, and the focus on the relationship between the properties of a material and
its microstructure is the domain of Materials Science. Important components of the subject Materials Science are structure,
properties, processing, and performance

IMPORTANCE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

All engineers need to know about materials. Innovation in engineering often means the clever use of a new material for a
specific application. For example: plastic containers in place of age-old metallic containers. It is on record that engineering
disasters are frequently caused by the misuse of materials. So it is vital that the professional engineer should know how to select
materials which best fit the demands of the design - economic and aesthetic demands, as well as demands of strength and
durability. Hence engineer should be able : To select a material for a given use based on considerations of cost and
performance.; To understand the limits of materials and the change of their properties with use; To create a new material that
will have some desirable properties; To use the material for different application.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Materials can be classified based on many criteria, for example crystal structure (arrangement of atoms and bonds between
them), or properties, or use. Metals, Ceramics, Polymers, Composites, Semiconductors, and Biomaterials constitute the main
classes of present engineering materials.
METALS: These materials are characterized by high thermal and electrical conductivity; strong yet deformable under applied
mechanical loads; opaque to light (shiny if polished). These characteristics are due to valence electrons that are detached from
atoms and spread in an electron sea that glues the ions together, i.e. atoms are bound together by metallic bonds
and weaker van der Waals forces. Pure metals are not good enough for many applications, especially structural applications.
Thus metals are used in alloy form i.e. a metal mixed with another metal to improve the desired qualities. E.g.: steel, brass, gold.
CERAMICS: These are inorganic compounds, made up either of oxides, carbides, nitrides, or silicates of metals.
They are partly crystalline and partly amorphous. Atoms (ions often) in ceramic materials behave mostly like either positive or
negative ions, and are bound by very strong Coulomb forces between them. They are characterized by very high strength under
compression, low ductility. They are usually insulators to heat and electricity. Typical examples are: glass, porcelain, many
minerals.
POLYMERS: are in the form of thermo-plastics (nylon, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, rubber, etc.) consist of
molecules that have covalent bonding within each molecule and van der Waals forces between them. Polymers in the form of
thermo-sets (e.g., epoxy, phenolics, etc.) consist of a network of covalent bonds. They are based on H, C and other non-metallic
elements. Polymers are amorphous, except for a minority of thermoplastics. Due to the kind of bonding, polymers are typically
electrical and thermal insulators. However, conducting polymers can be obtained by doping, and conducting polymer-matrix
composites can be obtained by the use of conducting fillers. They decompose at moderate temperatures (100 – 400 C), and are
lightweight.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS: These are multiphase materials obtained by artificial combination of different materials to attain
properties that the individual components cannot attain. An example is a lightweight brake disc obtained by embedding
SiC particles in Al-alloy matrix. Another example is reinforced cement concrete, a structural composite obtained by combining
cement (the matrix, i.e., the binder, sand (fine aggregate), gravel (coarse aggregate), and, thick steel. However, we have
natural ones like wood. In general, composites are classified according to their matrix materials. The main classes of
composites are metal-matrix, polymer- matrix, and ceramic-matrix.
.
SEMICONDUCTORS: These are covalent t in nature. Their electrical properties depend extremely strongly on minute
proportions of contaminants. They are usually doped in order to enhance electrical conductivity. They are used in the form of
single crystals without dislocations because grain boundaries and dislocations would degrade electrical behaviour. They are
opaque to visible light but transparent to the infrared. Examples: silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and gallium arsenide (GaAs, a
compound semiconductor).
BIOMATERIALS: These are types of material that can be used for replacement of damaged or diseased human body parts.
They must be biocompatible with body tissues, and must not produce toxic substances. Other important factors are: ability to
support forces; low friction, wear, density, and cost; reproducibility. Applications include heart valves, hip joints, dental
implants, intraocular lenses. Examples: Stainless steel, Co-28Cr-6Mo, Ti-6Al-4V, ultra high molecular weight poly-ethylene,
high purity dense Al-oxide, etc.
ADVANCED MATERIALS: are used in High-Tech devices such as in computers, air/space-crafts, electronic gadgets,
etc. They operate on relatively intricate and sophisticated principles. These materials are either traditional materials with
enhanced properties or newly developed materials with high-performance capabilities. Hence these are relatively expensive.
.
Applications include integrated circuits, lasers, LCDs, fibre optics, thermal prote ction for space shuttle, etc. Examples:
Metallic foams, inter-metallic compounds, multi-component alloys, magnetic alloys, special ceramics and high temperature
materials, etc.

FUTURE MATERIALS: These are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being developed, and expected to have
significant influence on present-day technologies, especially in the fields of medicine, manufacturing and defence.
Smart/Intelligent material system consists some type of sensor (detects an input) and an actuator (performs responsive and
adaptive function). Actuators may be called upon to change shape, position, natural frequency, mechanical characteristics in
response to changes in temperature, electric/magnetic fields, moisture, pH, etc.
 .
Modern Materials needs: Although progress have been made in the field of materials science and engineering, innovation of
new technologies, and need for better performances of existing technologies demands much more from the materials field. It is
evident that new materials/technologies are needed to be environmental friendly. Some typical needs, thus, of modern materials
are: Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures, which requires high temperature structural materials.

Quiz:

1. First material known to be used by man: (a) Cotton (b) Bronze (c) Iron (d) Rock
2. First metal known to be used by man: (a) Iron (b) Bronze (c) Silver (d) Aluminium
3. Which one of the following is not basic component of Materials Science? (a) Cost (b) Properties (c) Structure (d)
Performance
4. Figure out the odd statement about ceramics in the following : (a) Good insulators of heat and electricity (b) Usually less
desire than metals (c) Ductile in nature (d) Contains both metallic and non-metallic elements.

5. Pick the composite from the list : (a) Wood (b) Steel (c) Nylon (d) Mica
6. Which of these is Not an example for actuator: (a) Optical fiber (b) Shape memory alloys (c)Magneto-strictive materials
(d) Electro-/Magneto-rheological fluids
7. Strong and ductile materials: (a) Polymers (b) Ceramics (c) Metals (d) Semiconductors
8. Presently most used metal in the world: (a) Aluminium (b) Gold (c) Steel (d) Silver
9. Detrimental property of a material for shock load applications: (a) High density (b) Low toughness (c) High strength (d)
Low hardness
10. Democratic material (a) Diamond (b) Titanium (c) Iron (d) Gold
 PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS OF MATERIALS
When making a new device/component, most often we come across a very familiar problem-selection of fit for purpose materials.
Selection of materials play very important role in preventing failures. Some of the important factors governing selection are: strength,
ease of forming, resistance to environmental degradation, etc.

Materials are broadly divided into metals/alloys, plastics and ceramics.

METALS/ALLOYS: Metallic materials are broadly of two kinds – ferrous and non-ferrous materials. Ferrous materials
are those in which iron (Fe) is the principal component. All other materials are categorized as non-ferrous materials.
Other classification is based on their formability. If materials are hard to form, components with these materials are
fabricated by casting, thus they are called cast alloys. If material can be deformed, they are known as wrought alloys.
Thus metallic materials are usually strengthened by two methods – cold work and heat treatment.

• Strengthening by heat treatment involves specific heat treating procedure. When a material c a n n o t be strengthened by
heat treatment, it is referred to as non-heat-treatable alloys.
Ferrous materials
• Ferrous materials are popular because of abundant raw materials i.e. iron ore combined with economical extraction, ease of
forming and their versatile mechanical and physical properties. Their disadvantages are their poor corrosion resistance, relatively high
density and comparatively low electrical and thermal conductivities.
• In ferrous materials the main alloying element is carbon (C) and are thus classified as when the carbon content is either
less/higher than 2.14%. The ferrous alloys with less than 2.14% C are termed as steels and the ferrous alloys with higher than 2.14% C
are termed as cast irons.
Steels
• In steels, carbon is present in atomic form at interstitial sites of Fe microstructure. Alloying additions are to improve properties,
corrosion, resistance, etc.
• Mechanical properties of steels are very sensitive to carbon content. Hence, we classify steels based on their carbon content.
Steels are basically three kinds: low-carbon steels(% wt of C<0.3), medium carbon steels(0.3 <% wt of C < 0.6)and high-carbon steels
(% wt of C > 0.6).We can also classify steels by amount of alloying additions, and based on this steels can either be (plain) carbon
steels or alloy-steels. Low carbon steels are produced in the greatest quantities than other alloys. Carbon present in these alloys is
limited, and is only enough to be strengthened by cold work.

• These alloys are relatively soft, ductile and have high toughness. They are easily machineable and weldable. Typical applications
of these alloys include: structural shapes, tin cans, automobile body components, buildings, etc.
• Low carbon steels : A special group of ferrous alloys with noticeable amount of alloying additions are known as HSLA
(high-strength low-alloy) steels. Common alloying elements are: Cu, V, Ni, W, Cr, Mo, etc. These alloys can be strengthened by heat
treatment. They are ductile and formable. Typical applications of these HSLA steels are as support columns, bridges, pressure vessels.
• Medium carbon steels: Stronger than low carbon steels and is less ductile than low carbon steels. They can be heat treated to
improve their strength. They are often used in tempered condition. Ni, Cr and Mo alloying additions improve their hardenability.
Typical applications include: railway tracks & wheels, gears, other machine parts which may require good combination of strength
and toughness.
• High carbon steels: They are the strongest and hardest of carbon steels. Their ductility is very limited and are heat treatable,
and mostly used in hardened and tempered conditions. They possess very high wear resistance, and capable of holding sharp edges.
They are used for tool application such as knives, razors, hacksaw blades, etc. With addition of alloying element like Cr, V, Mo, W
which forms hard carbides by reacting with carbon present, wear resistance of high carbon steels can be improved considerably.
• Stainless steels: The name comes from their high resistance to corrosion i.e. they are rust-less (stain- less). Steels are made
highly corrosion resistant by addition of special alloying elements, especially a minimum of 12% Cr along with Ni and Mo.
Stainless steels are mainly three kinds: ferritic & hardenable Cr steels, austenitic and precipitation hardenable (martensitic, semi-
austenitic) steels. This classification is based on prominent constituent of the microstructure. Typical applications include cutlery,
razor blades, surgical knives, e.t.c.
Ferritic stainless steels are principally Fe-Cr-Calloys with 12-14% Cr. They also contain small additions of Mo, V, Nb, and Ni.
Austenitic stainless steels usually contain 18%Cr and 8% Ni in addition to other minor alloying elements. Ni stabilizes the austenitic
phase assisted by C and N.

• Other alloying additions include Ti, Nb, Mo (prevent weld decay), Mn and Cu (helps in stabilizing austenite). By alloying
additions, for martensitic steels Ms is made to be above the room temperature. These alloys are heat treatable. Major alloying elements
are: Cr, Mn and Mo. Ferritic and austenitic steels are hardened and strengthened by cold work because they are not heat treatable. On
the other hand martensitic steels are heat treatable. Austenitic steels are most corrosion resistant, and they are produced in large
quantities. Austenitic steels are non-magnetic as against ferritic and martensitic steels, which are magnetic.
• Cast irons: Commercially cast irons contain about 3.0-4.5%C along with some alloying additions. They melt at lower
temperatures than steels i.e. they are responsive to casting. Casting is the most used fabrication technique for these alloys. Hard and
brittle constituent present in these alloys; cementite is a meta-stable phase, and can readily decompose to form α-ferrite and graphite.
The tendency of cast irons to form graphite is usually controlled by their composition and cooling rate. Cast irons are categorized as
gray, white, nodular and malleable cast irons based on the form of C present.
• Gray cast iron: It consists of carbon in the form of graphite flakes, which are surrounded by either ferrite or pearlite. Fractured
surface of these alloys look greyish hence the name. Addition of Si (1-3wt.%) is responsible for decomposition of cementite, and also
high fluidity. Thus castings of intricate shapes can be easily made. Due to graphite flakes, gray cast irons are weak and brittle. However
they possess good damping properties, and thus typical applications include: base structures, bed for heavy machines, etc. they also
show high resistance to wear.

• White cast iron: When Si content is low (< 1%) in combination with faster cooling rates, there is no time left for cementite
to get decomposed, thus most of the brittle cementite remains. Because of presence of cementite, fractured surface appear white,
hence the name. They are very brittle and extremely difficult to machine. Hence their use is limited to wear resistant applications such
as rollers in rolling mills. Usually white cast iron is heat treated to produce malleable iron.

• Nodular (or ductile) cast iron: Alloying additions are of prime importance in producing these materials.

Small additions of Mg / Ce to the gray cast iron melt before casting can result in graphite to form nodules or sphere-like particles.
Matrix surrounding these particles can be either ferrite or pearlite depending on the heat treatment.They are stronger and more ductile
than gray cast irons. Typical applications include: pump bodies, crank shafts, automotive components, etc. Malleable cast iron: These
are formed after heat treating white cast iron. Heat treatments involve heating the material up to 800-900 C, and keep it for long hours,
before cooling it to room temperature. High temperature incubation causes cementite to decompose and form ferrite and graphite.
Thus these materials are stronger with appreciable amount of ductility. Typical applications include: railroad, connecting rods, marine
and other heavy-duty services.

Non-ferrous materials
• The specific advantages non-ferrous materials have over ferrous materials include ease of fabrication, high relatively low density,
and high electrical and thermal conductivities.
Aluminium alloys: These are characterized by low density, high thermal & electrical conductivities, and good corrosion resistant. They
are ductile even at low temperatures and can be formed easily. A great limitation is their low melting point (660C), which restricts their
use at elevated temperatures. Can be strengthened by both cold and heat treatment. Al alloys can be designated into two groups, cast
and wrought. Chief alloying elements are Cu, Si, Mn, Mg, Zn. Recently, alloys of Al and other low- density metals like Li, Mg, Ti
gained much attention as there is much concern about vehicle weight reduction. Al-Li alloys enjoy much more attention especially as
they are very useful in aircraft and aerospace industries.
Common applications include beverage cans, automotive parts, bus bodies, aircraft structures, etc.
Copper alloys: include bronze which has been used for thousands of years. It is an alloy of Cu and Sn. Cu is soft and ductile thus hard
to machine, and has virtually unlimited capacity for cold work. One special feature of most of these alloys is their corrosion resistant in
diverse atmospheres. Most of these alloys are strengthened by either cold work or solid solution method. Common Cu alloys include
Brass, alloys of Cu and Zn (e.g.: yellow brass, catridge brass, muntz metal, gilding metal); Bronze, alloys of Cu and other alloying
additions like Sn, Al, Si and Ni. Bronzes are stronger and more corrosion resistant than brasses. Also are Beryllium coppers which
possess a combination of relatively high strength, excellent electrical and corrosion properties, wear resistance, can be cast, hot worked
and cold worked. Cu alloys are used for costume jewellery, coins, musical instruments, electronics, springs, bushes, surgical and
dental instruments, radiators, etc.
Magnesium alloys: have low density among all structural metals. Mg alloys are difficult to form at room temperatures
.
and so are usually fabricated by casting or hot working. Mg alloys are characterised as either cast or wrought
type, and some of them are heat treatable. Major alloying additions include Al, Zn, Mn and rare earths. Mg alloys are commonly
used for hand-held devices like saws, tools, automotive parts like steering wheels, seat frames, electronics’ casing for laptops,
camcoders, cell phones etc.
Ti and its alloys: are of relatively low density, high strength and have very high melting points. They are easy to machine and
forge. However the major limitation is Ti’s chemical reactivity at high temperatures, which necessitated special techniques to
extract.
Thus these alloys are expensive. They also possess excellent corrosion resistance in diverse atmospheres, and wear properties. Common
applications include: space vehicles, airplane structures, surgical implants, and petroleum & chemical industries.

Refractory metals: are metals of very high melting points. For example: Nb, Mo, W and Ta. They also possess high
strength and high elastic modulus. Common applications include: space vehicles, x-ray tubes, welding electrodes, and where there is a
need for corrosion resistance.
Noble metals: These are eight all together and are, Ag, Au, Pt, Pa, Rh, Ru, Ir and Os. All these posses some common
properties such as expensive, soft and ductile, oxidation resistant.

Ag, Au and Pt are used extensively in jewelry, alloys are Ag and Au are employed as dental restoration materials; Pt is used in chemical
reactions as a catalyst and in thermo couples
 PROCESSING/FABRICATION OF METALS
• Metals/alloys are fabricated by different means to achieve
metal/alloy objects of desired characteristics. There been many kinds of fabrication techniques, the choice of which depends on the properties
of metal, product shape-size- properties, cost, etc. Fabrication techniques are of four types:
• Casting - to give a shape by pouring in liquid metal into a mould that holds the required shape, and allow the metal to
harden without external pressure.
• Forming – to give shape in solid state by applying pressure. Machining – in which material is removed in order to give it the
required shape.
• Joining – where different parts are joined by various means.
• Powder metallurgy is another useful technique.
.
• Casting: Usually employed when (a) product is large and/or has a complicated shape (b) particular material is low in ductility.
It is usually economical compared with other techniques. Casting techniques are sand, die, investment and continuous casting.
Sand casting: Sand is used as casting material. A two piece mould (cope and drag) is formed by compact packing of sand around a pattern
of required shape. Gating is provided for proper distribution of liquid metal.
Die casting: Here metal is forced into a mould by external pressure at high velocities. Usually a permanent two- piece mould made of steel
is used. In this technique rapid cooling rates are achieved, thus it is inexpensive.

• Investment casting: In this, pattern is made of wax. Then fluid slurry of casting material is poured over which eventually
hardens and holds the required shape. Pattern material is heated to leave behind the cavity. This technique is employed when
reproduction of fine details, and an excellent finish are required. Example: jewellery, dental crowns, and gas turbine blades as well as
jet engine impellers.
• Continuous casting: After refining, metals are usually in molten state, which are later solidified into ingots for further
processing like forming. In continuous casting, solidification and primary forming processes are combined, where refined metal is cast
directly into a continuous strand which is cooled by water jets.
METAL FORMING: Common forming techniques are: forging, rolling, extrusion, and drawing. In these techniques, a metallic piece is
subjected to external pressures (in excess of yield strength of the material which induces deformation and the material acquires a
desired shape. There are basically two types – one that is performed at relatively low temperatures, cold working; and the other
performed at relatively high temperatures, hot working. With hot working change in cross section occurs without material getting
strengthened, while during cold working, fine details are achieved along with material getting strengthened.

FORGING: involves deforming a single piece of metal, usually, by successive blows or continuous squeezing. In open die forging,
two dies having the same shape are employed, usually, over large work- pieces; while in closed die forging, there may be
more than two pieces of die put together having finished shape. Forged products have very good mechanical properties. Typical
products include: crane hooks, wrenches, crank shafts, connecting rods.
ROLLING: the most widely used forming technique because of high production rate and close dimensional control of final product. It
involves passing a piece of metal between two rotating rolls. Deformation is in terms of reduction in thickness resulting from
applied compressive forces. This technique is typically employed to produce sheets, strips, foil rails, etc.
EXTRUSION: a technique which involves forcing a piece of material through a die orifice by compressive force. Final product from die
will have the desired shape and reduced cross sectional area, and with constant cross-section over very long lengths. Two varieties of
extrusion are, direct extrusion and indirect extrusion. Typical extrusion products are: rods, (seamless) tubes, utensils for domestic use.

DRAWING: is pulling of material through die orifice using tensile forces. Reduction in cross-section results with corresponding change in
length. Typical drawing strand has number of dies in a series. Rods, wire and tubes are commonly produced using drawing
technique.
MACHINING: technique employs removal of metal from selected areas of a work piece to give final shape to the product. This contrasts
with metal forming where metal is moved and volume is conserved. Machining is employed to produce shapes with high
dimensional tolerance, good surface finish, and often with complex geometry.
PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS OF CERAMICS
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and non metallic elements for which the inter-atomic bonds are either ionic or
predominantly ionic. The term ceramics comes from a Greek word which means ‘burnt stuff.
Based on their composition, ceramics are classified as: Oxides, Carbides, Nitrides, Sulfides, Fluorides, etc. The other
important classification of ceramics is based on their application, such as: Glasses, Clay products, Refractory, Abrasives, Cements,
Advanced ceramics. Ceramic materials used for engineering applications can be divided into two groups: traditional ceramics, and the
engineering ceramics).

Traditional ceramics are made from three basic components: clay, silica (flint) and feldspar. For example bricks, tiles and porcelain
articles. However, engineering ceramics consist of highly pure compounds of aluminium oxide (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC) and
silicon nitride, Si N
3 4.
Glasses are – containers, windows, mirrors, lenses, etc. They are non-crystalline silicates containing other oxides, usually CaO, Na O,
2
K O and Al O which influence the glass properties and its color. Typical property of glasses that is important in engineering
2 2 3
applications is its response to heating. There is no definite temperature at which the liquid transforms to a solid as with crystalline
materials. A specific temperature, known as glass transition temperature is defined based on viscosity above which material is
named as super cooled liquid or liquid, and below it is termed as glass.

Clay is the most widely used ceramic raw material. It is

abundant and popular. Clay products are mainly two kinds – structural products (bricks, tiles, sewer pipes) and white-wares
(porcelain, chinaware, pottery, etc.).
Refractories are described by their capacity to withstand high temperatures without melting or decomposing; and their inertness in
severe environments. Used for thermal insulation.
Abrasive ceramics are used to grind, wear, or cut away other materials. Thus the prime requisite for this group of materials is hardness
or wear resistance in addition to high toughness. They need to exhibit some refractoriness. Diamond, silicon carbide, tungsten
carbide, silica sand, are some typical examples.
Cements -cement, plaster of paris and lime come under this group of ceramics. The characteristic property of these materials is that
when they are mixed with water, they form slurry which sets subsequently and hardens finally. Thus it is possible to form virtually
any shape. They are also used as bonding phase, for example between construction bricks.
Advanced ceramics are newly developed and manufactured in limited range for specific applications. Typical applications are heat
engines, ceramic armours, electronic packaging, etc.
 Aluminium oxide / Alumina(Al2O3) is the most commonly used ceramic material. It is used in many applications such as to contain
molten metal, where material is operated at very high temperatures under heavy loads, as insulators in spark plugs, and in some
unique applications such as dental and medical use. Chromium doped alumina is used for making lasers.

Aluminium nitride(A l N) has good electrical insulation

but high thermal conductivity properties hence, it is used in electrical circuits operating at a high frequency. It is also suitable for
integrated circuits. Other electronic ceramics include – barium titanate (BaTiO ) and Cordierite (2MgO-2Al O -5SiO ).
3 2 3 2
Diamond is the hardest material known in nature. It has many applications such as industrial abrasives, cutting tools, abrasion resistant
coatings, etc., in jewellery.
Lead zirconium titanate (PZT)is the most widely used piezoelectric material, and is used as gas igniters, ultrasound imaging, in
underwater detectors.

Silica,(SiO2) is an essential ingredient in many

engineering ceramics and the most widely used ceramic material. They are used in thermal insulation, abrasives, laboratory
glassware, etc. It is an integral part of optical fibers. Fine particles of silica are used in tires, paints, etc.
Silicon carbide,(SiC) is the best ceramic material for very high temperature applications. Used as coatings for protection against
extreme temperatures. Also used as abrasive material. It is used as reinforcement in many metallic and ceramic based
composites. It is a semiconductor and often used in high temperature electronics.

.
Silicon nitride (Si N ) has pr operties similar to those of SiC but is somewhat lower, and found applications
3 4
in such as automotive and gas turbine engines.
Titanium oxide,(TiO2): is mostly used as pigment in paints. It also forms part of certain glass ceramics. It is used in making other
ceramics like BaTiO3
Zirconia, (ZrO2) is used in producing many other ceramic materials. It is also used in making oxygen gas sensors, as additive in many
electronic ceramics. Its single crystals are part of jewellry.
Uranium oxide, (UO2) is mainly used as nuclear reactor fuel. The products of fission process are well accommodated within its crystal
structure.

FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OF CERAMICS

Ceramics melt at high temperatures and are brittle Thus cannot be processed by the usual melting, casting and thermo-
mechanical processing routes. Most ceramic products are made from ceramic powders. However, post forming shrinkage is much
higher in ceramics processing because of the large differential between the final density and the as- formed density. Glasses,
however, are produced by heating the raw materials to an elevated temperature above which melting occurs. Most commercial
glasses are of the silica-soda-lime variety.
.
Silica is in the form of co mmon quartz sand, soda (Na O) in form of soda ash (Na CO ) while the lime (CaO) is supplied
2 2 3
in form of limestone (CaCO3). Different forming methods- pressing, blowing, drawing and fiber forming- are widely used in
practice to fabricate glass products. Thick glass objects such as plates and dishes are produced by pressing, while the
blowing is used to produce objects like jars, bottles and light bulbs. Drawing is used to form long objects like tubes, rods, fibres etc.
Ceramic processing consists of powder production by milling, followed by fabrication of green product, which is then consolidated
to obtain the final piece

Powder is a collection of fine particles. Production of powder involves grinding/milling as-mined raw materials in which particle
size is reduced to physically ‘liberate’ the minerals of interest from the rest of the ‘gangue’ material blending different powders,
drying to form soft agglomerates. Different techniques such as compaction, tape casting, slip casting, injection moulding and
extrusion are then used to convert processed powders into a desired shape known as green ceramic. The green ceramic is then
consolidated further by heat treatment known as sintering or firing. Wet milling is much more common with ceramic materials than with
metals. The combination of dry powders with a liquid such as water is called slurry. Dispersants are added to ease the wet milling
operation in a ball-vibratory mill in order to further reduce the particle sizes of the materials.
Ceramic powders/slurry prepared are shaped using number of techniques, such as casting, compaction, extrusion/hydro-plastic forming,
injection moulding. Tape casting, also known as doctor blade process, is used for the production of thin ceramic tapes. In this technique
slurry containing ceramic particles, solvent, plasticizers, and binders is then made to flow under a blade and onto a plastic
substrate. The shear thinning slurry spreads under the blade. The tape is then dried using clean hot air. Later-on the tape is subjected to
binder burnout and sintering operations. Tape thickness normally range between 0.1 and 2 mm. Commercially important electronic
packages based on alumina substrates and barium titanate capacitors are made using this technique.
Slip casting is another technique which uses aqueous slurry, also known as slip, of ceramic powder. The slip is poured into a plaster of
Paris (CaSO4:2H2O) mould. As the water from slurry begins to move out by capillary action, a thick mass builds along the mould wall.
When sufficient product thickness is built, the rest ofthe slurry is poured out (drain casting). It is also possible to continue
to pour more slurry in to form a solid piece (solid casting
 )
Extrusion and injection moulding techniques are used to make products like tubes, bricks, tiles etc. The basis for
extrusion process is a viscous mixture of ceramic particles, binder and other additives is fed through an extruder where a
continuous shape of green ceramic is produced. The product is cut to required lengths and then dried and sintered.
Injection moulding of ceramics is similar to that of polymers.
.
Ceramic powder is mix ed with a plasticizer, a thermoplastic polymer, and additives. Then the mixture is injected into a die with
use of an extruder. The polymer is then burnt off and the rest of the ceramic shape is sintered at suitable high temperatures.
Ceramic injection moulding is suitable for producing complex shapes.
A popular technique in ceramics to produce simple shapes in large numbers is the combined use of compaction and
sintering. E.g electronic ceramics, magnetic ceramics, cutting tools. Compaction is used to make green ceramics with respectable
strength and can be handled and machined.
Time for compaction varies and depends on the complexity and size of the product. compaction involves applying
equal pressure in all directions to a mixture ceramic powder to increase its density. Cold iso-static pressing (CIP) involves application of
pressure using oil/fluid at room temperature. The green ceramic is then sintered with or without pressure. . In some instances,
compaction and sintering are conducted under pressure at elevated temperatures. This is hot iso-static pressing (HIP), and is used for
refractory and covalently bonded ceramics that do not show good bonding characteristics under CIP. HIP is also used when close to none
porosity is the requirement.

Sintering is the firing process applied to green ceramics to increase its strength. It is carried out below the melting temperature thus there
is no liquid phase present. During sintering, the green ceramic product shrinks with a reduction in porosity. This leads to an improvement
in its mechanical integrity. After pressing, ceramic particles touch one another. During initial stages of sintering, necks form along the
contact regions between adjacent particles thus every interstice between particles becomes a pore. The pore channels in the compact grow
.
in size, resulting in a significant increase in strength. With increase in sintering time , pores become smaller in size. The driving force for
sintering process is the reduction in total particle surface area, and thus the reduction in total surface energy. During sintering,
composition, impurity control and oxidation protection are provided by the use of vacuum conditions or inert gas atmospheres
QUIZ
1. The word ‘ceramic’ meant for (a) soft material (b) hard material (c) burnt material (d) dry material.
2. Which of these is Not a characteristic property of ceramic material (a) high temperature stability (b) high mechanical strength (c) low
elongation (d) low hardness
3. Major ingredients of traditional ceramics (a)silica (b) clay (c) feldspar (d) all
4. Which of these is Not a major contributor of engineering ceramics (a) SiC (b) SiO2(c) SN4(d) Al2O3
5. The following ceramic product is mostly used as pigment in paints (a) TiO2(b) SiO2(c) UO2(d) ZrO2
6. Most commercial glasses consist of (a) lime (b) soda (c) silica (d) all
7. Hot isostatic pressing is not a viable option if the chief criterion is (a) strength without grain growth (b) lost cost (c) zero porosity (d)
processing refractory ceramics
8. During sintering densification is not due to (a) atomic diffusion (b) surface diffusion (c) bulk diffusion (d) grain growth

ADVANCES IN CERAMICS
One of the most prominent examples of the rapid and accelerating technological development is the electronics industry, more
specifically the simple transistor. The push has been along miniaturisation and packing the maximum amount of performance into
the smallest space. Recently noted, an e-mail quote stated that; “If the Automotive industry had advanced at the same pace as the
Computer industry, we would be driving cars, which gave a thousand kilometres to the litre and cost =N=3000.00”. The concept of
the simple transistor stands as one of the most significant electronic engineering achievements of the 20th century Ceramics, brittle
by nature, having a more complex chemistry and requiring advanced processing technology and equipment to produce, perform best
when combined with other materials, such as metals and polymers which can be used as support structures. This combination
enables large shapes to be made, the Space Shuttle is a typical example of the application of advanced materials and an excellent
example of the capability of advanced materials. With the development of phase transformation toughening of PSZ (partially
stabilised zirconia) ceramic, the way ceramic systems were viewed changed. Therefore, the techniques of Phase transformations,
alloying, quenching and tempering, were applied to a range of ceramic systems. Significant improvements to the fracture toughness,
ductility and impact resistance of ceramics were realised and thus the gap in physical properties between ceramics and metals began
to close.
.
 The new and emerging family of ceramics are referred to as advanced, new or fine, and utilise highly refined materials and new
forming techniques. These ceramics, when used as an engineering material, posses several properties which can be viewed as superior
to metal-based systems. Their properties, which include high resistance to abrasion, excellent hot strength, chemical inertness, high
machining speeds (as tools) and dimensional stability, place this new group of ceramics in a most attractive position, not only in the
area of performance but also cost effectiveness. They are classified as earlier discussed but a new sub-group, Composites can be
added. They include Particulate reinforced, combinations of oxides and non-oxides.

Ceramic based composites can be composed of a combination of: oxide ceramics – non-oxide ceramics (granular, platy, whiskers,
etc.), oxide - oxide ceramics, non-oxide – non-oxide ceramics, ceramics - polymers, etc. an almost infinite number of combinations are
possible. The objective here, is to improve either the toughness or hardness in order for the material to be more suited to a particular
application. Compositions can also include metals in particulate or matrix form. Each ceramic type has its own special requirement in
regard to firing rate, environmental condition and temperature. If these conditions are not met then the quality of the final product and even
the formation of the final compounds and densities will not be achieved

RECYCLING CERAMICS

Ceramics can be crushed and recycled into a range of useful products, diverting waste from landfill and decreasing emissions
and toxic outputs used in the production process. Redirecting this waste can also help avoid costly landfill charges. By recycling or
reusing these ceramics, large amounts of waste is diverted from landfill as well as helping reduce the demand for natural resource.
Ceramics is emissions intensive and involves a number of toxic substances used as glazes, but recycling or reusing ceramic products
can decrease these outputs. Redirecting waste also helps avoid increasingly costly landfill
charges.
When recycled ceramics can be made into useful products such as drainage materials, rock base for driveways and paths or as composite
material for aggregates.Some companies that recycle are making tiles from the toilets, others add 20% of old cups into the new ones.
Anyway the process requires lots of energy for crushing the shards into smaller particles till they get back almost to the state of raw
material. But even then its qualities are different and it can’t be used alone on its own, only as an addition to the regular clay
 .
COMPOSITES
Composites are any multiphase material that is artificially made and exhibits a significant proportion of the properties of the constituent
phases. The constituent phases of a composite are usually of macro sized portions, differ in form and chemical composition and
essentially insoluble in each other. Composites are made by combining two distinct engineering materials. One is called matrix that is
continuous and surrounds the other phase – dispersed phase. The properties of composites are a function of the properties of the
constituent phases, their relative amounts, and size-and-shape of dispersed phase.

Classification- composites are classified using different criteria like: (a) type of matrix material– metal matrix composites, polymer
matrix composites and ceramic matrix composites (b) size- and-shape of dispersed phase e.g particle- reinforced composites, fiber-
reinforced composites and structural composites. The properties of composites are improved versions of properties of matrix materials due
to presence of dispersed phase. 1. Particle-reinforced composites are widely available and cheap. There are two types: dispersion-
strengthened and particulate-reinforced composites. In dispersion-strengthened composites, particles are about 0.01-0.1μm in size.

Here the strengthening occurs at atomic / molecular level i.e.mechanism of strengthening is similar to that for precipitation hardening in
metals where matrix bears the major portion of an applied load, while dispersed particles hinder/impede the motion of dislocations.
Examples: thoria (ThO2) dispersed Ni-alloys (TD Ni- alloys) with high-temperature strength; SAP (sintered aluminium powder) – where Al
matrix is dispersed with extremely small flakes of alumina (Al2O3). 2. Particulate reinforced composite contain large amounts of coarse
particles. They are designed to produce unusual combinations of properties rather than to improve the strength. Mechanical properties, such
as elastic modulus, of particulate composites achievable are in the range defined by rule of mixtures as follows:

E = E V + E V
C (U) m m p p
E = E E ∕ E V + E V Where E and V are elastic modulus and volume fractions respectively; c,m & p represent composite,
C (l) m p p m m p,
matrix and particulate phases. Particulate composites are used with all material types – metals, polymers and ceramics. Cermets contain hard
ceramic particles dispersed in a metallic matrix. Eg.: tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC) used to make cutting tools. Polymers
are frequently reinforced with various particulate materials such as carbon black. When added to rubber enhances toughness and abrasion
resistance of the rubber. Aluminium alloy castings containing dispersed SiC particles are widely used for automotive applications including
pistons and brake applications. Concrete is the most commonly used particulate composite. It consists of cement as binding medium and
finely dispersed particulates of gravel in addition to fine aggregate (sand) and water. Its strength can be increased by additional
reinforcement such as steel rods/mesh. The old rule of thumb for mixing concrete is 1 cement: 2 sand : 3 gravel by volume. Water is critical,
therefore mix the components thoroughly before adding water. Usual water is about 0.4 to 0.5 of cement. Too little water results in a concrete
that is unworkable. Too much water results in weak concrete. Water may separate out (bleed) from the mixture.
Fiber-reinforced composites provide improved strength and other mechanical properties and strength-to-weight ratio by incorporating strong,
stiff but brittle fibers into a softer, more ductile matrix. The matrix material acts as a medium to transfer the load to the fibers, which carry
.
most of the applied load. The matrix also provides protection to fibers from external loads and atmosphere. These composites are
classified as either continuous or discontinuous.
Generally, the highest strength and stiffness are obtained with continuous reinforcement. Discontinuous fibers are used only when
manufacturing economics dictate the use of a process where the fibers must be in this form. The mechanical properties of fiber-
reinforced composites depend not only on the properties of the fiber but also on the degree to which an applied load is transmitted
to the fibers by the matrix phase. Their mechanical properties depend on :properties of the fiber, the degree to which an applied
load is transmitted to the fibers by the matrix phase, length of fibers, their orientation and volume fraction as well as the direction
of external load. Effect of fiber length: Define critical length (lc), necessary for effective strengthening and stiffening of the
composite material, as:σ* f d /2τ where, σ*f is ultimate/tensile strength of the fiber, d– diameter of the fiber, – τ
c c
interface bond strength. Fibers for which l >>lc(normally l >15lc) are termed as continuous, discontinuous or short fibers on the
other hand.
Effect of fiber orientation and concentration: with respect to orientation, two extreme possibilities are
parallel alignment and random alignment. Continuous fibers are normally aligned, whereas discontinuous fibers are randomly or partially
oriented. Two instants of loading are: longitudinal loading and transverse loading. (a) Continuous fiber composites: Under longitudinal
loading, by assuming that deformation of both matrix and fiber is the same i.e. isostrain condition, rule-of-mixtures results in the
following: σ = σ A /A + σ A /A , where, A /A and A /A are the area fractions of the matrix and fiber phases respectively.
c m m c f f c m c f c
In the composite, if matrix and fiber are all of equal length, area fractions will be equal to volume fractions

In case of transverse loading, it is assumed that both matrix and fiber will experience the equal stress i.e. isostress condition.Longitudinal
tensile strength: Here, matrix material is softer i.e. fibers strain less and fail before the matrix. And once the fibers have fractured,
majority of the load that was borne by fibers is now transferred to the matrix.
Structural composites: are special class of composites, and consists of both homogeneous and composite materials. Their properties
depend on the properties of the constituents as well as the geometrical design of the various structural elements. There are two:
laminar composites and sandwich structures. (a) Laminar composites are composed of two-dimensional sheets/layers that have a
preferred strength direction.

These layers are stacked and cemented together according to the requirement. Materials used for fabrication are metal sheets, cotton, paper,
woven glass fibers embedded in plastic matrix, etc. Examples: thin coatings, thicker protective coatings, claddings, bimetallics,
laminates. Many laminar composites are designed to increase corrosion resistance while retaining low cost, high strength or light
weight. (b)Sandwich structures consist of thin layers of a facing material joined to a light weight filler material. Neither the filler
 material nor the facing material is strong or rigid, but the composite possesses both properties. Example: corrugated cardboard. The
faces bear most of the in-plane loading and also any transverse bending stresses.
Typical face materials include Al-alloys, fiber- reinforced plastics, titanium, steel and plywood. The core serves two functions – it
separates the faces and resists deformations perpendicular to the face plane and provides a degree of shear rigidity along planes that are
perpendicular to the faces. Typical materials for core are: foamed polymers, synthetic rubbers, inorganic cements, balsa wood. Sandwich
structures are found in many applications like roofs, floors, walls of buildings, and in aircraft for wings, fuselage and tail plane skins.

Degradation of concrete and rebar corrosion

One of the important hydration rxns of cement is: 2[(Ca0) SiO ] + 6H 0 → (CaO) . (SiO ) . 3H 0 +
3 2 2 3 22 2
Ca(0H)2
The presence of Ca(0H)2 is the weakness in cement and thus in concretes. The interactions of concrete with the environment are
typified by: (a ) Carbonation
Ca(OH) + CO ® CaCo + H O CaCO + CO + H O ® Ca(HCO )
2 2 3 2 3 2 2 3 2;

Ca(HCO3)2 is very soluble, thus it can be leached from the concrete causing a fall in pH from about 12 to 8.However, if the concrete is of
good integrity, the carbonation reactions take place only on the surface.
\

b. SO can react with Ca(0H) directly.

2 2
2Ca(0H) + 2S0 ® CaSO + CaSO + H O + H Or SO
2 2 3 4 2 2 2
2-
can react with atmospheric O and H O to form H SO . The So then reacts with Ca(0H) thus,
2 2 2 4 4 2
2-
Ca(0H) + SO + 2H O ® CaSO + 2H O + 20H-
2 4 2 4 2
CaSO4. 2H2O can then react with tricalcium aluminate in the concrete to form “ENTTERINGITE” – calcium sulpho–aluminate hydrate.
Its volume is 1.7 times the original volume of calciumaluminate. The formation of this bulky product leads to cracking and
consequent erosion of the concrete. To solve the problem, sulphate resisting cement should be employed in making the concrete . Other
contaminants like chlorides, oils and organic acids do cause deterioration of concretes based on similar reactions as above.
When prepared initially, concretes are alkaline, thus,
the steel will not need protection. However, reinforcement steel corrosion still occurs in practice. This can be traced to factors, such as
variation in porosity, permeability and cracks in the concrete. This state of affairs can lead to creation of micro and macro
electrochemical cells depending on the distance between the anode and cathode on the steel surface. Other factors include air
and water pollution, marine atmosphere, joints, depth of concrete cover, lack of supervision etc. during construction.
 .
Renovation of Concretes: Concretes do flake and spall as a result of general weathering including corrosion caused by airborne
pollutants. Prior to painting, cut away patches of weathered, open- textured and spalled concretes up to a predetermined depth, 100mm
is usually adequate. Then apply cement grout as binder before filling with a modified repair mortar. After allowing for drying
time, the faces of the wall should then be treated with fungicidal wash, followed by wire brushing. Then apply 3 – coats of a
polyurethane based paint system. This will provide an effective and long lasting protection against the most extreme environmental
conditions. . Recent developments in the coating world have made it possible for the use of water based paints of very high quality and
they are also corrosion resistant.

Prevention of Reinforcement bar Corrosion

Use of paint: Prior to implanting the reinforcing steel, the steel bar should be coated with epoxy based coating. Epoxy resists alkaline
attack. Also, the exterior of the concrete can be coated with high performance coating to exclude the environment from attacking the
surface of the concrete. The use of textured coatings on concrete surfaces is highly recommended for rural and city environments.
Textured paints are specially reinforced with silica. Silica is inert, and will not disintegrate on interacting with atmospheric pollutants.
However, in heavily industrialized areas, the use of high performance coatings are favoured. Cathodic protection can be applied as well
although current demand for the reinforcing bars are usually very high.

ANSWERS

1.c 2.a 3.a 4.b 5.a 6.a 7.c 8.b 9.d 10.a 11.d 12.a