ME2302 INTRODUCTION

ME2302: INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS SCIENCE AND

MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

Introduction

Historical Perspective

Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we associate Ages with them. In the
origin of human life on Earth, the Stone Age, people used only natural materials, like stone, clay,
skins, and wood. When people found copper and how to make it harder by alloying, the Bronze Age
started about 3000 BC. The use of iron and steel, a stronger material that gave advantage in wars
started at about 1200 BC. The next big step was the discovery of a cheap process to make steel around
1850, which enabled the railroads and the building of the modern infrastructure of the industrial world.

Materials Science and Engineering

Understanding of how materials behave like they do, and why they differ in properties was only
possible with the atomistic understanding allowed by quantum mechanics, that first explained atoms
and then solids starting in the 1930s. The combination of physics, chemistry, and the focus on the
relationship between the properties of a material and its microstructure is the domain of Materials
Science. The development of this science allowed designing materials and provided a knowledge base
for the engineering applications (Materials Engineering).

Classification & the structure of Engineering Materials

Like many other things, materials are classified in groups, so that our brain can handle the complexity.
One could classify them according to structure, or properties, or use. The one that we will use is
according to the way the atoms are bound together:

- Crystalline Materials ( Metals, Ceramics)

- Amorphous Materials (Glass, Polymers)
- Type of Bonding
- Molecular & crystal Structure
- Physical & Mechanical properties

What are the Materials?

- Metals and alloys: Iron, steel, Cu, Al & its alloys

- Polymers: Plastics/ Rubber combine, Nylon, Polyethylene
- Ceramics & Glasses: Al2O3, MgO, SiO2, SiC, Si3N4
- Composites: Wood, Fiber glass

Metals: valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an 'electron sea' that "glues" the ions
together. Metals are usually strong, conduct electricity and heat well and are opaque to light (shiny if
polished). Examples: aluminum, steel, brass, gold.

Semiconductors: the bonding is covalent (electrons are shared between atoms). Their electrical
properties depend extremely strongly on minute proportions of contaminants. They are opaque to
visible light but transparent to the infrared. Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs.

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Ceramics: atoms behave mostly like either positive or negative ions, and are bound by Coulomb
forces between them. They are usually combinations of metals or semiconductors with oxygen,
nitrogen or carbon (oxides, nitrides, and carbides). Examples: glass, porcelain, many minerals.

Polymers: are bound by covalent forces and also by weak van der Waals forces, and usually based on
H, C and other non-metallic elements. They decompose at moderate temperatures (100 – 400 C), and
are lightweight. Other properties vary greatly. Examples: plastics (nylon, Teflon, polyester) and
rubber.

Other categories are not based on bonding. A particular microstructure identifies composites, made of
different materials in intimate contact (example: fiberglass, concrete, wood) to achieve specific
properties. Biomaterials can be any type of material that is biocompatible and used, for instance, to
replace human body parts.

Advanced Materials

Materials used in "High-Tec" applications, usually designed for maximum performance, and normally
expensive. Examples are titanium alloys for supersonic airplanes, magnetic alloys for computer disks,
special ceramics for the heat shield of the space shuttle, etc.

Structure:

 At the atomic level: arrangement of atoms in different ways. (Gives different properties for
graphite than diamond both forms of carbon.)
 At the microscopic level: arrangement of small grains of material that can be identified by
microscopy. (Gives different optical properties to transparent vs. frosted glass.)

Properties are the way the material responds to the environment. For instance, the mechanical,
electrical and magnetic properties are the responses to mechanical, electrical and magnetic forces,
respectively. Other important properties are thermal (transmission of heat, heat capacity), optical
(absorption, transmission and scattering of light), and the chemical stability in contact with the
environment (like corrosion resistance).

Processing of materials is the application of heat (heat treatment), mechanical forces, etc. to affect
their microstructure and, therefore, their properties.

Modern Material's Needs

 Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high temperature structural materials
 Use of nuclear energy requires solving problem with residues, or advances in nuclear waste
processing.
 Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong and resist high temperatures.
 Optical communications require optical fibers that absorb light negligibly.
 Civil construction – materials for unbreakable windows.
 Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist corrosion like plastics.

Why do we want to study about materials?

All engineering disciplines need to know about materials. Even the most "immaterial", like software or
system engineering depend on the development of new materials, which in turn alter the

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economics, like software-hardware trade-offs. Increasing applications of system engineering are in

materials manufacturing (industrial engineering) and complex environmental systems.

 To be able to select a material for a given use based on considerations of cost and performance.
 To understand the limits of materials and the change of their properties with use.
 To be able to create a new material that will have some desirable properties.

Properties of Materials

Mechanical Properties : Strength, Hardness, Toughness, Fatigue/ Creep Strength

Physical Properties : Thermal, Electrical, Optical, Magnetic properties
Chemical Properties : Oxidation, Corrosion
Production Properties : Ease of manufacture, Fabrication, Joining, Finishing methods
Economic Properties : Price, Availability
Aesthetic Properties : Appearance, Texture, Feel
Surface Properties : Friction, Abrasion & Wear

The factor which determines the behaviour and properties of the material is its structure. Structure can
be classified as follows depending on the level of observation.

1. Macro structure
2. Micro Structure
3. Crystal structure
4. Atomic structure

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Fundamental Concepts

Atoms are composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Electron and protons are negative and
positive charges of the same magnitude, 1.6 × 10-19 Coulombs.

The mass of the electron is negligible with respect to those of the proton and the neutron, which form
the nucleus of the atom. The unit of mass is an atomic mass unit (amu) = 1.66 × 10 -27 kg, and equals
1/12 the mass of a carbon atom. The Carbon nucleus has Z=6, and A=6, where Z is the number of
protons, and A the number of neutrons. Neutrons and protons have very similar masses, roughly equal
to 1 amu. A neutral atom has the same number of electrons and protons, Z.

A mole is the amount of matter that has a mass in grams equal to the atomic mass in amu of the atoms.
Thus, a mole of carbon has a mass of 12 grams. The number of atoms in a mole is called the Avogadro
number, Nav = 6.023 × 1023. Note that Nav = 1 gram/1 amu.

Calculating n, the number of atoms per cm3 in a piece of material of density d (g/cm3).

n = Nav × d / M, Where M is the atomic mass in amu (grams per mol).

Thus, for graphite (carbon) with a density d = 1.8 g/cm3, M =12, we get 6 × 1023 atoms/mol × 1.8
g/cm3 / 12 g/mol) = 9 × 1022 C/cm3.

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For a molecular solid like ice, one uses the molecular mass, M (H2O) = 18. With a density of 1 g/cm3,
one obtains n = 3.3 × 1022 H2O/cm3. Note that since the water molecule contains 3 atoms, this is
equivalent to 9.9 × 1022 atoms/cm3.

Most solids have atomic densities around 6 × 1022 atoms/cm3. The cube root of that number gives the
number of atoms per centimeter, about 39 million. The mean distance between atoms is the inverse of
that, or 0.25 nm. This is an important number that gives the scale of atomic structures in solids.

Electrons in Atoms

The forces in the atom are repulsions between electrons and attraction between electrons and protons.
The neutrons play no significant
role. Thus, Z is what characterizes
the atom.

The electrons form a cloud around

the neutron, of radius of 0.05 – 2
nanometers. Electrons do not
move in circular orbits, as in
popular drawings, but in 'fuzzy'
orbits. We cannot tell how it moves, but only say what is the probability of finding it at some distance
from the nucleus. According to quantum mechanics, only certain orbits are allowed (thus, the idea of a
mini planetary system is not correct). The orbits are identified by a principal quantum number n, which
can be related to the size, n = 0 is the smallest; n = 1, 2 …are larger. (They are "quantized" or discrete,
being specified by integers). The angular momentum l is quantized, and so is the projection in a
specific direction m. The structure of the atom is determined by the Pauli exclusion principle, only two
electrons can be placed in an orbit with a given n, l, m – one for each spin.

The Periodic Table

Elements are categorized by placing them in the periodic table. Elements in a column share similar
properties. The noble gases have closed shells, and so they do not gain or lose electrons near another
atom. Alkalis can easily lose an electron and become a closed shell; halogens can easily gain one to
form a negative ion, again with a closed shell. The propensity to form closed shells occurs in
molecules, when they share electrons to close a molecular shell. Examples are H2, N2, and NaCl.

The ability to gain or lose electrons is termed electronegativity or electropositivity, an important factor
in ionic bonds. Atom is the smallest portion of matter and it consists of a nucleas (which contains
protons and neutrons) whilst electrons revolve around the nucleas in an orbital.

Note:

- Atom is electrically neutral because number of protons = Number of electrons

- Atomic number of an element = number of protons in the atom
- Periodic table is arranged in the order of the atomic number

 All the elements in the periodic table can be divided in to three categories.
o Metals
o Non – Metals
o Metalloids (elements that exhibit the properties of both metals and non metals) – B, Si,
Ge, As, Sb, Te

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 About 80% of the metals in the periodic table are metals because the outer most shells of these
elements are not fully occupied and electrons move freely from one atom to another giving
high electrical and thermal conductivity.
 All the metals except (mercury)
Hg are solid at room
temperature.
 The light metals (s block
elements — IA & IIA) are soft
and chemically reactive
because they have only 1 or 2
electrons in the outer shell and
give away these electrons very
easily. Hence, the ionization
energy is very low.
 The noble gases (group VIIIA
- He, Ne, Ar, etc.,) have the
last orbital fully filled and
they are chemically inert or
inactive.
 The d-block elements
(groups IIIA - VIIA) have atoms in which the outermost d-orbital is filling. These
elements need only a few electrons to complete their outer shell which they try to get from
(or share with) the other atoms. Hence, the ionization energy of these elements is high and is
mostly non-metallic.
 Most non-metals are gaseous but bromine (Br) is a liquid.
 The d-block elements (groups IB - VIIIB) are the elements in which the d-orbit is
filling. From these, the elements in which the d-orbit is not fully occupied are called the
"transition metals" (groups IIIB — VIIIB). They are stronger and harder than the other
metals.
 H can be in group IA (because it has only one electron) or group VIIA because, like the halogens, it
needs one electron to complete its outer energy level. However, its properties differ from those
of both groups.
 He can be placed in group IIA, but it is placed in group VIIIA. This is because its highest energy
level is completely filled with two electrons, and its properties are similar to those of other
noble gases that are chemically inert.

Bonding Forces and Energies between atoms

The Coulomb forces are simple: attractive between electrons and nuclei, repulsive between electrons
and between nuclei. The force between atoms is given by a sum of all the individual forces, and the
fact that the electrons are located outside the atom and the nucleus in the center.

When two atoms come very close, the force between them is always repulsive, because the electrons
stay outside and the nuclei repel each other. Unless both atoms are ions of the same charge (e.g., both
negative) the forces between atoms is always attractive at large internuclear distances r. Since the force
is repulsive at small r, and attractive at small r, there is a distance at which the force is zero. This is the
equilibrium distance at which the atoms prefer to stay.

The interaction energy is the potential energy between the atoms. It is negative if the atoms are bound
and positive if they can move away from each other. The interaction energy is the integral of the force
over the separation distance, so these two quantities are directly related. The interaction energy is a
minimum at the equilibrium position. This value of the energy is called the bond energy, and is the

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energy needed to separate completely to infinity (the work that needs to be done to overcome the
attractive force.) The strongest the bond energy, the hardest is to move the atoms, for instance the
hardest it is to melt the solid, or to evaporate its atoms.

Bonds form between atoms due to forces of attraction and repulsion that operate between them. The
types of bonds formed between atoms (inter-atomic bonds) are grouped into two categories.

Primary bonds: - e.g. Ionic bonds, covalent bonds, metallic bonds

Secondary bonds:- Van der Waals bonds, Hydrogen bonds

Primary Interatomic Bonds

1) Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonds form between a metal and a non-metal. The metallic element gives up one or more
electrons to the non-metallic element, producing two oppositely charged ions. Ionic bond lacks the
directionality. An example is NaCl. In the molecule, there are more electrons around Cl, forming Cl -
and less around Na, forming Na+. Ionic bonds are the strongest bonds. In real solids, ionic bonding is
usually combined with covalent
bonding.

Na – 1s22s22p63s1 – gives away

one electron and forms Na+ ion

Cl - 1s22s22p63s23p5 – Takes
that electron and forms Cl- ion

In this case, the fractional ionic

bonding is defined as %ionic =
100 × [1 – exp(-0.25 (XA –
XB)2], where XA and XB are the
electronegativities of the two atoms, A and B, forming the molecule.

This is the bond when one of the atoms is negative (has an extra electron) and another is positive (has
lost an electron). Then there is a strong, direct Coulomb attraction.

Due to the electrostatic forces (attractive forces) that exists between the negatively charged and the
positively charged ions a bond is formed between them. This is referred to as an ionic bond. To
preserve the charge neutrality, the positive and negative ions must alternate in a symmetrical fashion.

Attractive force
q2
Attractive force, F 
4 0 r 2
r
Where q – charge on each ion, 0 – permittivity, r – separation of the ions
Work as the ions are brought to a separation r from infinity,


u   fdr U
q2
r 4 0 r

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2) Covalent Bonding

In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between the molecules, to saturate the valency. The simplest
example is the H2 molecule, where the electrons spend more time in between the nuclei than outside,
thus producing bonding.

Covalent bonding takes place between non – metallic elements near one another in the periodic table.
The bond is formed due to sharing of their outer electrons, so that each atom has a complete outer
electron shell. Covalent bond is directional.

A B
Energy in a covalent bond, U  m
 n (m<n)
r r
Attractive part Repulsive part

Covalent bond energies are generally high,

indicating the formation of a strong bond.
However many materials with covalent bonds
do not have high strength and a high melting
temperature. This is due to the weak
secondary bonds that are present between
molecules. e.g.: CH4

3) Metallic Bonding

The metallic bond occurs between atoms with only a few electrons in their outer s and p orbitals.
These electrons are bound to the atom much less strongly than those in the atoms of non – metals.
Hence, they are free to move from atom to atom. This is responsible for the high electrical and thermal
conductivity of metals. Therefore metallic bonding is observed only among atoms in metallic elements
and the bond is formed due to the electrostatic attraction between the electron cloud and the ions. Since
the electrons can move freely between atoms, metals have non-directional bonds (therefore close
packing of atoms is possible and close packing in planes make it possible to deform without fracture).

Metallic bond is the dominant bond in metals and alloys. In metals, the atoms are ionized, loosing
some electrons from the valence band. Those electrons form an electron sea, which binds the charged
nuclei in place, in a similar way that the electrons in between the H atoms in the H2 molecule bind the
protons. In a solid metal the highest energy electrons tends to leave the parent atoms and combine to
form a “sea” (sometimes referred to as an electron cloud).

Metals account for about two thirds of all the elements and about 24% of the mass of the planet. They
are all around us in such forms as steel structures, copper wires, aluminum foil, and gold jewelry.
Metals are widely used because of their properties: strength (a measure of the ability of a material to
support a load), ductility, high melting point, thermal and electrical conductivity, and toughness (the
ability to absorb energy of deformation without breaking. High toughness requires both high strength
and high ductility).

These properties also offer clues as to the structure of metals. As with all elements, metals are
composed of atoms. The strength of metals suggests that these atoms are held together by strong
bonds. These bonds must also allow atoms to move; otherwise how could metals be hammered into

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sheets or drawn into wires? A reasonable model would be one in which atoms are held together by
strong, but delocalized, bonds.

Secondary Bonding (Van der Waals)

Atoms with filled outer shells, such as inert gases and non polar covalently bonded molecules are held
together by forces known as Van der Waals’ forces. This is due to a temporary dipolar attraction
between uncharged atoms. These bonds are very weak with low binding energies. The low binding
energies result in very low melting and boiling temperature. These bonds are non-directional due to the
fluctuating character of dipoles.

Examples:

Noble or inert gases (Ne, Ar,………..)

Halagens (F2, Cl2, Br2,…………….....)
CH4
Graphite
Liquid Nitrogen (N2) (melting point is -198˚C)

1) Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds

Since the electrons may be on one side of the atom or the other, a dipole is formed: the + nucleus at the
center, and the electron outside. Since the electron moves, the dipole fluctuates. This fluctuation in
atom A produces a fluctuating electric field that is felt by the electrons of an adjacent atom, B. Atom B
then polarizes so that its outer electrons are on the side of the atom closest to the + side (or opposite to
the – side) of the dipole in A. This bond is called van der Waals bonding.
2) Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds
A polar molecule like H2O (Hs are partially +, O is partially –), will induce a dipole in a nearby atom,
leading to bonding.
3) Permanent Dipole Bonds
This is the case of the hydrogen bond in ice. The H end of the molecule is positively charged and can
bond to the negative side of another dipolar molecule, like the O side of the H2O dipole.

Hydrogen Bond

Hydrogen bonds are formed between polar covalently bonded molecules containing H bonded to a
highly electronegative atom. Examples: HF, H2O, NH3 and HCl.

H Cl- H Cl-
+ +
H + (or proton) acts as a bridge
between strongly electronegative
Cl H Cl H
- + - + Cl atoms.

Hydrogen atoms are strongly attracted to two different atoms, thereby acting as a bond between them.
This type of bond is called a “hydrogen bond”.

Molecules

If molecules formed a closed shell due to covalent bonding (like H2, N2) then the interaction between
molecules is weak, of the van der Waals type. Thus, molecular solids usually have very low melting
points.

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