Periodic Classification Of elements Earlier Attempts to Classify Elements; Modern Periodic Table

Earlier Attempts to Classify Elements Dobereiners Triads Show a relationship between atomic weights and the chemical properties of elements Certain similar elements exist in groups of three elements called triads. Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic mass; and the atomic mass of the middle elements is the arithmetic mean of the atomic weights of the other two elements in the triad. Dobereiners Triads Element Li Na K Atomic weight 7 23 39 Element Ca Sr Ba Atomic weight 40 88 137 Element Cl Br I Atomic weight 35.5 80 127

This law of triads is applicable to a limited number of elements. Newlands law of octaves Elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic weights and it was noticed that every eighth element had the properties similar to the first element. This relationship was similar to every eighth note that reassembles the first in octaves of music. Newlands Octaves Element At. wt Element At. wt Element At. wt Li 7 Na 23 K 39 Be 9 Mg 24 Ca 40 B 11 Al 27 C 12 Si 29 N 14 P 31 O 16 S 32 F 19 Cl 35.5

Law of octaves could not be applied beyond Ca. Mendeleevs Periodic Table Mendeleevs Periodic Law The properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic weights. Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic weights.

Eight vertical columns groups Six horizontal rows periods or series Defects in the Mendeleevs periodic table: Position of hydrogen is not justified. Certain elements of higher atomic masses precede those with lower atomic weights. Isotopes are placed in the same position in the table. However, according to Mendeleevs law, they should be placed in different positions.

Modern Periodic Law and the Present Form of Periodic Table Modern Periodic Law The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers. Modern periodic table (or long form of the periodic table)

Horizontal rows periods Vertical columns groups Elements having similar outer electronic configurations in their atoms are arranged in groups or families.

IUPAC Nomenclature for Elements with Atomic Number 100 Latin word roots for various digits are listed in the given table. Notation for IUPAC Nomenclature of Elements Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Name nil un bi tri quad pent hex sept oct enn Abbreviation n u b t q p h s o e

Latin words for various digits of the atomic number are written together in the order of digits, which make up the atomic number, and at the end, ium is added. Nomenclature of elements with atomic number above 100 is listed below. Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number Above 100 Atomic number 101 102 103 104 Name Unnilunium Unnilbium Unniltrium Unnilquadium Symbol Unu Unb Unt Unq IUPAC Official Name Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium IUPAC Symbol Md No Lr Rf

105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Unnilpentium Unnilhexium Unnilseptium Unniloctium Unnilennium Ununnillium Unununnium Ununbium Ununtrium Ununquadium Ununpentium Ununhexium Ununseptium Ununoctium

Unp Unh Uns Uno Une Uun Uuu Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassnium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Rontgenium

Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg

Electronic Configuration and the Periodic Table

Electronic Configuration in Periods Period indicates the value of n (principal quantum number) for the outermost or valence shell. Successive period in the periodic table is associated with the filling of the next higher principal energy level (n = 1, n = 2, etc). First period (n = 1) hydrogen (1s1) and helium (1s2) [2 elements] Second period (n = 2) Li (1s2 2s1), Be (1s2 2s2), B (1s2 2s2 2p1) to Ne (2s2 2p6) [8 elements] Third period (n = 3) filling to 3s and 3p orbitals give rise to 8 elements (Na to Ar) Fourth period (n = 4) 18 elements (K to Kr) filling to 4s orbital 3d orbital is filled up before 4p orbitals (3d orbitals energetically favourable) 3d-transition series Sc (3d1 4s2) to Zn (3d10 4s2) (n = 3) Fifth period (n = 5) 18 elements (Rb to Xe) 4d-transition series starts at Ytterbium and ends at Cadmium. Sixth period (n = 6) 32 elements; electrons enter 6s, 4f, 5d, and 6p orbitals successively. Elements from Z = 58 to Z = 71 are called 4f-inner transition series or lanthanoid series (filling up of the 4f orbitals). Seventh period (n = 7) electrons enter at 7s, 5f, 6d, and 7p orbitals successively. Filling up of 5f orbitals after Ac (Z = 89) gives 5finner transition series or the actinoid series. Electronic Configuration in Groups Same number of electrons is present in the outer orbitals (that is, similar valence shell electronic configuration). Electronic configuration of group 1 elements is given in the following table. Atomic number 3 11 19 37 55 87 Symbol Li Na K Rb Cs Fr Electronic configuration 1s2 2s1(or) [He]2s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1(or) [Ne]3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1(or) [Ar]4s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 5s1(or) [Kr]5s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2 5p6 6s1(or)[Xe]6s1 [Rn]7s1

Electronic Configurations and Types of Elements s- Block Elements Group 1 (alkali metals) ns1 (outermost electronic configuration) Group 2 (alkaline earth metals) ns2 (outermost electronic configuration)

 Alkali metals form +1 ion and alkaline earth metals form +2 ion. Reactivity increases as we move down the group. They are never found in pure state in nature. (Reason they are highly reactive) p - Block Elements Elements belonging to Groups 13 to 18 Outermost electronic configuration varies from ns2np1 to ns2np6 in each period. Group 18 (ns2np6) noble gases Group 17 halogen Group 16 chalcogens Non-metallic character increases from left to right across a period. d- Block Elements (Transition Elements) Elements of group 3 to group 12 General electronic configuration is (n 1) d110 ns0-2. Called transition elements Zn, Cd, and Hg with (n 1) d10 ns2 configuration do not show properties of transition elements. All are metals. They form coloured ions, exhibit variable oxidation states, paramagnetism, and are used as catalysts. f- Block Elements Lanthanoids Ce (Z = 58) to Lu (Z = 71) Actinoids Th (Z = 90) to Lr (Z = 103) Outer electronic configuration (n 2) f114 (n 1) d01 ns2 They are called inner-transition elements. All are metals. Actinoid elements are radioactive. Elements after uranium are called Transuranium elements. Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids Metals Appear on the left side of the periodic table Non-metals Located at the top right hand side of the periodic table Elements change from metallic to non-metallic from left to right. Elements such as Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te show the characteristic properties of both metals and non-metals. They are called semi-metals or metalloids.
Periodic Trends in Physical Properties

Atomic Radius Atomic radii decrease with the increase in the atomic number in a period. For example, atomic radii decrease from Li to F in the second period.

Nuclear charge increases progressively by one unit in moving from left to right across the period. As a result, the electron cloud is pulled closer to the nucleus by the increased effective nuclear charge, which causes decrease in atomic size. Atomic radii increase from top to bottom within a group of the periodic table. Variation of atomic radii with atomic number among alkali metals and halogen:

Ionic Radius Cation is smaller than its parent atom. The size of the anion is larger than its parent atom. Ionization Enthalpy

Defined as the amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from the isolated gaseous atom in its ground state

Decreases with the increase in atomic size Increases with the increase in nuclear charge Decreases with the increase in the number of inner electrons Increases with the increase in penetration power of electrons Atom having a more stable configuration has high value of enthalpy. Variation across a period: Increases with the increase in atomic number across the period. Variation in a group: Decreases regularly with the increase in atomic number within a group. Electron Gain Enthalpy Defined as the enthalpy change taking place when an isolated gaseous atom accepts an electron to form a monovalent gaseous anion Larger the value of electron gain enthalpy, greater is the tendency of an atom to accept electron. Greater the magnitude of nuclear charge, larger will be the negative value of electron gain enthalpy. Larger the size of the atom, smaller will be the negative value of electron gain enthalpy. More stable the electronic configuration of the atom, more positive will be the value of its electron gain enthalpy. Variation across a period Tends to become more negative as we go from left to right across a period Variation down a group Becomes less negative on going down the group Electronegativity Defined as the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself Greater the effective nuclear charge, greater is the electronegativity. Smaller the atomic radius, greater is the electronegativity. In a period Increases on moving from left to right In a group Decreases on moving down a group Non Metallic (and Metallic Character) of an Element Non-metallic elements have strong tendency to gain electrons. Non-metallic character is directly related to electronegativity and metallic character is inversely related to electronegativity. Across a period, electronegativity increases. Hence, non-metallic character increases (and metallic character decreases). Down a group, electronegativity decreases. Hence, non-metallic character decreases (and metallic character increases). The periodic trends of various properties of elements in the periodic table are shown in figure.

Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties

Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States Valence of the elements = Number of electrons in the outermost orbitals (if valence electrons 4) Or, valency of the element = 8 Number of outermost electrons (if valence electrons > 4) Group Number of valence electrons Valence 1 1 1 2 2 2 13 3 3 14 4 4 15 5 3,5 16 6 2,6 17 7 1,7 18 8 0,8

The given table shows the periodic trends observed in the valence of elements (hydrides and oxides).

Group Formula of hydride

1 LiH NaH KH

13 B2H6

14 CH4 SiH4 GeH4 SnH4

15 NH3 PH3 AsH3 SbH3 N2O3, N2O5 P4O6, P4O10 As2O3, As2O5 Sb2O3,Sb2O5 Bi2O3

16 H2O H2S H2Se H2Te

17 HF HCl HBr HI

CaH2

AlH3

Formula of oxide

Li2O Na2O K2O

MgO CaO SrO BaO

B2O3 Al2O3 Ga2O3 In2O3

CO2 SiO2 GeO2 SnO2 PbO2

SO3 SeO3 TeO3

Cl2O7

Many elements exhibit variable valence (particularly transition elements and actinoids).

Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements First member of each group (the element in the second period from lithium to fluorine) differs in many respects from the rest of the members of the same group. For example, the behaviour of Li and Be is more similar with the second element of the following group i.e., Mg and Al respectively. Such sort of similarity is commonly known as diagonal relationship in periodic properties. Reasons for the different chemical behaviour of the first member of a group of elements in the s-and p-blocks as compared to the other members in the same group are as follows. Small atomic size of the first element Large charge/radius ratio High electronegativity Absence of d-orbitals in the valence shell Ability of form p p multiple bonds First member of each group of p-block element has the tendency to form p p multiple bonds to itself and to the other second period elements. For example, C = C, C C, C = O, C = N Reason This property of the elements is due to their small size. Higher members of the group have little tendency to form p p bonds. Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity High chemical reactivity at the two extremes of a period and the lowest in the centre Maximum chemical reactivity is at the extreme left of a period because of the ease of electron loss (or low ionization enthalpy). Elements at the extreme left exhibit strong reducing behaviour and elements at the extreme right exhibit strong oxidizing behaviour. Oxides formed by the elements on the left are basic and by the elements on the right are acidic in nature. Oxides of elements in the centre are amphoteric or neutral. The electron gain enthalpy increases across a period and decreases down the group.