STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGES

Collection by : Skumar

Types of Bridges
Bridges are often built over huge landmasses or water bodies. Their design depends on their function. To know about the various types of bridges, read on... Bridge is not merely a piece of construction, it's a concept, I think sometimes. It represents the idea of crossing over large spans of land or water, thus 'bridging' the gaps spanning long distances. A bridge connects two far-off points thus reducing the distance between them and bringing them within reach. What does it take to construct this 'idea'? It takes ingenuity! Here, we take you through all the different types of bridges, and tell you about the civil engineering and aesthetics they involve. Arch Bridge: It is arch-shaped and has supports at both its ends. The weight of an arch-shaped bridge is borne by the supports at its ends. The Mycenaean Arkadiko Bridge in Greece of 1300 BC is the oldest existing arch-shaped bridge. Etruscans and ancient Greeks were aware of the concept of arches since a very long time. But the Romans were foremost in discovering the use of arches in the construction of bridges. Arch bridges have now evolved into compression arch suspended-deck bridges that enable the use of light and tensile materials in their construction. Moon arch, pointed arch, deck arch and two or three storied arches are some of the designs in this type of bridges. Quick Fact: The Chaotianmen Bridge in Chongqing, Southwest China is the largest arch bridge in the world. It is 1741 meters in length. Beam Bridge: A beam bridge was derived from the log bridge. It is built from shallow steel beams, box girders and concrete. Highway overpasses, flyovers or walkways are often beam bridges. A horizontal beam supported at its ends is roughly how the structure of a beam bridge is. The construction of a beam bridge is the simplest of all types of bridges. The design of a beam bridge should be such that it does not bend under load. For this, the top surface of this bridge is compressed and the bottom surface is under tension, thus helping the beam remain in a straight line. Quick Fact: The longer a beam bridge, the weaker it is! Typically, beam bridges are not more than 76 meters long. Cable-stayed Bridge: Structured similar to suspension bridges, the difference lies in the way they support load. In cable-stayed bridges, the cables are attached to the towers, which bear the load. Two variants of cable-stayed bridges are harp and fan. In the harp design, cables are attached to multiple points of the tower in a parallel manner. In the fan variant, all the cables connect to the tower or pass over it. Cable-stayed bridges are much stiffer than suspension bridges. The cables serve as a good support for the bridge deck. Also any number of towers can be used and it requires less cable than a suspension bridge does.

Quick Fact: Skybridge, Canada is the longest transit-only cable-supported bridge in the world. Cantilever bridge: Cantilevers are structures that project along the Xaxis in space. They are supported on one end only. Bridges intended to carry lesser traffic may use simple beams while those meant to handle larger traffic make use of trusses or box girders. In a typical cantilever bridge, cantilever arms extending from opposite ends meet at the center, while in a suspended span design, they do not meet. The Forth Bridge in Scotland is a railway bridge using the cantilever design and is one of the oldest known cantilever bridges. San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge that is 1400 feet long is another known example of a cantilever bridge. Quick Fact: The 1800 feet Quebec Bridge of Canada holds the record of being the world's longest cantilever bridge. Drawbridge: The term is used to refer to a bridge-like structure which is movable. Typically, a drawbridge opens up to extend over the distance it is meant to span. A castlebridge, for example, opens like a door, serving as a doorway to the castle. It could be in the form of a plank that is pivoted to the center that rotates along a designated circumference. This type of construction is often used above tidal waters, where the water levels rise and fall. A vertical lift bridge is a drawbridge that moves vertically in a plane parallel to its deck. Bascule bridges are drawbridges that swing up and down to facilitate boat traffic. Quick Fact: Tower Bridge across Thames in London is a well-known bascule bridge. Suspension Bridge: Simply put, a bridge suspended from cables is a suspension bridge. Suspension cables are anchored at each end of the bridge. The load that the bridge bears converts into the tension in the cables and is transferred to the towers. Cables stretch beyond the pillars up to the dock-level supports further to the anchors in the ground. Vertical cables suspended down, bear the weight of the deck. One advantage of this bridge design is that it can span long distances and resist earthquakes. It requires less construction material, which reduces its cost of construction. The Tsing Ma Bridge of China and the Humber Bridge of England are some of the famous suspension bridges.

Parts of a Suspension Bridge

A suspension bridge suspends a roadway by cables. Because the bridge uses these cables as an integral part of its design, the bridge is flexible and affected by wind. Engineers plan the design to account for this and to increase stability.

1. Superstructure and Substructure

A suspension bridge has two types of parts. The superstructure above includes the

deck, towers and main suspension cables. The substructure below includes piers and anchorages.

Deck
The deck is the roadway or walkway of a suspension bridge and can be made of one or more pieces. The deck is also called the girder.

Large Anchors
Anchorages of rock or concrete hold the cables at both ends of a suspension bridge. Cables entering the anchors are separated into strands within the rock to distribute the tension load.

Piers and Towers

Piers are the lower foundations of a suspension bridge, supporting the towers over which the cables travel. The weight of the cables is transferred into the towers and piers.

Cables
Main cables stretch from one anchorage, then over the towers, then into the anchor at the other side of the bridge. Suspension cables connect the deck to the main cables. Quick Fact: The Golden Gate Bridge of USA, declared as one of the Modern Wonders of the World is a suspension bridge. Truss Bridge: A truss bridge is built by connecting straight elements with the help of pin joints. Triangular units connected at joints form the skeleton of a truss bridge. Owing to the abundance of wood in the United States, truss bridges of the olden times used timber for compression and iron rods for bearing tension. Truss bridges came to be commonly constructed from the 1870s to the 1930s. Truss is the oldest form of modern bridge design. Deck truss railroad bridge that extends over the Erie Canal is one of the many famous truss bridges. For more on this bridge type, go through Truss bridge design and types. Quick Fact: Quebec Bridge, the longest cantilever bridge span, has a riveted steel truss structure. Man's desire to reach the 'unreachable' and venture new places led him to construct bridges that spanned huge distances and helped him overcome obstacles. A log of wood floating on water might have inspired man to build bridges for the very first time! Thanks to the developments in engineering and architecture, distances could be bridged and seemingly unreachable destinations came within man's reach.

Main Types of Bridges in the World

Below is the list of 5 main types of bridges:
1. Girder bridges 2. Arch bridges 3. Cable-stayed bridges 4. Rigid Frame Bridges 5. Truss bridges.

1. Girder bridges:
It is the most common and most basic bridge type. In its simplest form, a log across a creek is an example of a girder bridge; the two most common girders are I-beam girders and box-girders used in steel girder bridges. Examining the cross section of the I-Beam speaks for its so name. The vertical plate in the middle is known as the web, and the top and bottom plates are referred to as flanges. A box girder takes the shape of a box. The typical box girder has two webs and two flanges. However, in some cases there are more than two webs, creating a multiple chamber box girder. Other examples of simple girders include pi girders, named for their likeness to the mathematical symbol for pi, and T shaped girders. Since the majority of girder bridges these days are built with box or I-beam girders we will skip the specifics of these rarer cases. An I-beam is very simple to design and build and works very well in most cases. However, if the bridge contains any curves, the beams become subject to twisting forces, also known as torque. The added second web in a box girder adds stability and increases resistance to twisting forces. This makes the box girder the ideal choice for bridges with any significant curve in them. Box girders, being more stable are also able to span greater distances and are often used for longer spans, where I-beams would not be sufficiently strong or stable. However, the design and fabrication of box girders is more difficult than that of I beam. For example, in order to weld the inside seams of a box girder, a human or welding robot must be able to operate inside the box girder.

2. Arch bridges:
Arch bridges pose a classic architecture and the oldest after the girder bridges. Unlike simple girder bridges, arches are well suited to the use of stone. Since the arch doesnt require piers in the center so arches are good choices for crossing valleys and rivers. Arches can be one of the most beautiful bridge types. Arches use a curved structure which provides a high resistance to bending forces. Arches can only be used where the ground or foundation is solid and stable because unlike girder and truss bridges, both ends of an arch are fixed in the horizontal direction (i.e. no horizontal movement is allowed in the bearing). Thus when a load is placed on the bridge (e.g. a car passes over it) horizontal forces occur in the bearings of the arch. Like the truss, the roadway may pass over or through an arch or in some cases. Structurally there are four basic arch types:
1. Hinge-less 2. Two-hinged 3. Three hinged 4. Tied arches

The hinge-less arch uses no hinges and allows no rotation at the foundations. As a result a great deal of force is generated at the foundation (horizontal, vertical, and bending forces) and the hinge-less arch can only be built where the ground is very stable. However, the hinge-less arch is a very stiff structure and suffers less deflection than other arches. The two hinged arch uses hinged bearings which allow rotation. The only forces generated at the bearings are horizontal and vertical forces. This is perhaps the most commonly used variation for steel arches and is generally a very economical design. The three-hinged arch adds an additional hinge at the top or crown of the arch. The three-hinged arch suffers very little if there is movement in either foundation (due to earthquakes, sinking, etc.) However, the three-hinged arch experiences much more deflection and the hinges are complex and can be difficult to fabricate. The three-hinged arch is rarely used anymore. The tied arch is a variation on the arch which allows construction even if the ground is not solid enough to deal with the horizontal forces. Rather than relying on the foundation to restrain the horizontal forces, the girder itself "ties" both ends of the arch together, thus the name "tied arch."

3. Cable stayed bridges:

A typical cable stayed bridge is a continuous girder with one or more towers erected above piers in the middle of the span. From these towers, cables stretch down diagonally (usually to both sides) and support the girder. Steel cables are extremely strong but very flexible. Cables are very economical as they allow a slender and lighter structure which is still able to span great distances. Though only a few cables are strong enough to support the entire bridge, their flexibility makes them weak to a force we rarely consider: the wind. For longer span cable-stayed bridges, careful studies must be made to guarantee the stability of the cables and the bridge in the wind. The lighter weight of the bridge, though a disadvantage in a heavy wind, is an advantage during an earthquake. However, should uneven settling of the foundations occur during an earthquake or over time, the cable-stayed bridge can suffer damage so care must be taken in planning the foundations. The modern yet simple appearance of the cable-stayed bridge makes it an attractive and distinct landmark.

The unique properties of cables, and the structure as a whole, make the design of the bridge a very complex task. For longer spans where winds and temperatures must be considered, the calculations are extremely complex and would be virtually impossible without the aid of computers and computer analysis. The fabrication of cable stay bridges is also relatively difficult. The cable routing and attachments for the girders and towers are complex structures requiring precision fabrication. There are no distinct classifications for cable-stayed bridges. However, they can distinguish by the number of spans, number of towers, girder type, number of cables, etc. There are many variations in the number and type of towers, as well as the number and arrangement of cables. Typical towers used are single, double, portal, or even A-shaped towers. Cable arrangements also vary greatly. Some typical varieties are mono, harp, fan, and star arrangements. In some cases, only the cables on one side of the tower are attached to the girder, the other side being anchored to a foundation or other counterweight.

4. Rigid frame bridges:

Rigid frame bridges are sometimes also known as Rahmen bridges. In a standard girder bridge type, the girder and the piers are separate structures. However, a rigid frame bridge is one in which the piers and girder are one solid structure. The cross sections of the beams in a rigid frame bridge are usually I shaped or box shaped. Design calculations for rigid frame bridges are more difficult than those of simple girder bridges. The junction of the pier and the girder can be difficult to fabricate and requires accuracy and attention to detail.
Though there are many possible shapes, the styles used almost exclusively these days are the pi-shaped frame, the batter post frame, and the V shaped frame. The batter post rigid frame bridge is particularly well suited for river and valley crossings because piers tilted at an angle can straddle the crossing more effectively without requiring the construction of foundations in the middle of the river or piers in deep parts of a valley. V shaped frames make effective use of foundations. Each Vshaped pier provides two supports to the girder, reducing the number of foundations and creating a less cluttered profile. Pi shaped rigid frame structures are used frequently as the piers and supports for inner city highways. The frame supports the raised highway and at the same time allows traffic to run directly under the bridge.

5. Truss bridges:
Thus, for the most part, all beams in a truss bridge are straight. Trusses are comprised of many small beams that together can support a large amount of weight and span great distances. In most cases the design, fabrication, and erection of trusses is relatively simple. However, once assembled trusses take up a greater amount of space and, in more complex structures, can serve as a distraction to drivers. Like the girder bridges, there are both simple and continuous trusses. The small size of individual parts of a truss make it the ideal bridge for places where large parts or sections cannot be shipped or where large cranes and heavy equipment cannot be used during erection. Because the truss is a hollow skeletal structure, the roadway may pass over or even through the structure allowing for clearance below the bridge often not possible with other bridge types. Trusses are also classified by the basic design used. The most representative trusses are the Warren truss, the Pratt truss, and the Howe truss. The Warren truss is perhaps the most

common truss for both simple and continuous trusses. For smaller spans, no vertical members are used lending the structure a simple look. For longer spans vertical members are added providing extra strength. Warren trusses are typically used in spans of between 50-100m. The Pratt truss is identified by its diagonal members which, except for the very end ones, all slant down and in toward the center of the span. Except for those diagonal members near the center, all the diagonal members are subject to tension forces only while the shorter vertical members handle the compressive forces. This allows for thinner diagonal members resulting in a more economic design. The Howe truss is the opposite of the Pratt truss. The diagonal members face in the opposite direction and handle compressive forces. This makes it very uneconomic design for steel bridges and its use is rarely seen.

Economical Span of Bridge

Fixing length of typical span in design of bridges across river/elevated road/metro project is very important structural design decision. The cost of building one typical span can be broadly divided into following two components 1. Cost of Substructure 2. Cost of Superstructure The cost of substructure is covers cost of bridge bearing, pier cap/pier head, pier and foundation (Open/Pile/Cassion). To take decision on most economical length of typical span, initial design and cost estimate is done for four to five different span lengths. A graph is plotted with span length as abscissa and cost as ordinate. The graph is completed using cost of superstructure and substructure for all different spans. Figure 1 shows typical graph of Span versus cost. Point A on this graph correspondence to the economical span for the bridge project.

Figure 1 Span Versus Cost for Superstructure/Substructur

Three Types of Loads Considered in Bridge Construction

When building a bridge, engineers need to consider the weight and environment, or load types the bridge will encounter over a long period of time. These factors determine what material should be used to build the bridge as well as the type of structure that will best withstand the loads. Also known as forces, the type of loads considered in bridge construction is vital to its integrity.

1. Dead Load
The dead load of a bridge is the bridge itself -- all the parts and materials that are used in the construction of the bridge. This includes the foundation, beams, cement, cables, steel or anything else that comprises the parts of the bridge. It's called a dead load because it doesn't move. It may breathe with the seasons or sway with the wind, but those movements are almost imperceptible.

Live Load
A live load is the moving weight the bridge will hold, such as traffic. It is based on traffic patterns that include the number of cars, trucks and other vehicles that will travel across it at any given time. Certain variables, such as snow, may be calculated into the total live weight for a more accurate estimate. The heaviest possible weight in the most extreme conditions is also a factor despite the rarity of such an occurrence.

Dynamic Load
Dynamic loads are outside forces that cannot be accurately measured such as wind, vibration and extreme weather. These factors need to be considered in the construction of a bridge to build "breathing" room into the structure. This breathing room allows the bridge to move or adjust to the dynamic loads without collapsing or permanently shifting. As solid as a bridge may seem, it still has the ability to sway when a strong wind is present.

Other Loads
When building a bridge, there are other types of loads that need to be considered that are specific to the terrain in which the foundation will be laid. Environmental factors and weather patterns are also considered when calculating load-bearing needs. The load expectation of a bridge will determine the best design for strength and to ensure its longevity, whether the bridge is to span over large bodies of water or between rising mountaintops.

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Note : For more design consideration refer RCC vol-2, by BC Punmia & AK Jain.