EFFICIENT ELECTRICAL

ENERGY TRANSMISSION
AND DISTRIBUTION
INTERNATIONAL
ELECTROTECHNICAL
COMMISSION
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EFFICIENT ELECTRICAL
ENERGY TRANSMISSION
AND DISTRIBUTION
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EFFICIENT ELECTRICAL
ENERGY TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Growing populations and industrializing countries
create huge needs for electrical energy. Unfortunately,
electricity is not always used in the same place that
it is produced, meaning long-distance transmission
lines and distribution systems are necessary. But
transmitting electricity over distance and via networks
involves energy loss.
So, with growing demand comes the need to minimize
this loss to achieve two main goals: reduce resource
consumption while delivering more power to users.
Reducing consumption can be done in at least two
ways: deliver electrical energy more effciently and
change consumer habits.
Transmission and distribution of electrical energy
require cables and power transformers, which create
three types of energy loss:
the Joule effect, where energy is lost as heat
in the conductor (a copper wire, for example);
magnetic losses, where energy dissipates into
a magnetic feld;
the dielectric effect, where energy is absorbed
in the insulating material.
The Joule effect in transmission cables accounts for
losses of about 2.5 % while the losses in transformers
range between 1 % and 2 % (depending on the type
and ratings of the transformer). So, saving just 1 %
on the electrical energy produced by a power plant of
1 000 megawatts means transmitting 10 MW more to
consumers, which is far from negligible: with the same
energy we can supply 1 000 - 2 000 more homes.
Changing consumer habits involves awareness-raising
programmes, often undertaken by governments or
activist groups. Simple things, such as turning off lights
in unoccupied rooms, or switching off the television at
night (not just putting it into standby mode), or setting
tasks such as laundry for non-peak hours are but a few
examples among the myriad of possibilities.
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On the energy production side, building more effcient
transmission and distribution systems is another
way to go about it. High effciency transformers,
superconducting transformers and high temperature
superconductors are new technologies which promise
much in terms of electrical energy effciency and at
the same time, new techniques are being studied.
These include direct current and ultra high voltage
transmission in both alternating current and direct
current modes.
Power plant
Step-up
substation
High voltage
overhead lines
OUTLINE OF AN ELECTRICAL
TRANSMISSION/DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
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Medium/Low voltage
transformer
Step-down
substation
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A power plant produces electrical energy in medium
(20 000 V) or low (1 000 V) voltage which is then ele-
vated to high voltage (up to 400 kV) by a step-up
substation. Electrical power is then transmitted across
long distances by high-tension power lines, and the
higher the voltage, the more power can be transmitted.
A step-down substation converts the high voltage back
down to medium voltage and electrical power can
then be transported by medium voltage lines to feed
medium and low voltage transformers using overhead
lines or underground cables. Most of the users are
fed in low voltage, but bigger ones, such as factories,
commercial buildings, hospitals and so forth, can be
directly fed in medium voltage.
The length of cables between a power plant and a
step-up substation is short since they are usually
installed in the same place, so the energy losses there
are quite low. The situation is not the same between
the step-down substation and users where kilometres
of medium and low voltage cables must be erected or
buried to reach them.
ELECTRICAL LOSSES
AND OVERALL EFFICIENCY
Energy losses essentially come about in transformers
and cables. The effciency of large power transformers in
step-up and step-down substations is quite high and may
reach 99 %, but this depends mostly on the real power
delivered, compared with the maximum power it could in
principle deliver. A transformer operating at power close
to the assigned value has the best effciency. Medium
and low voltage transformers are of different types and
their effciency may range between 90 % and 98 %, again
depending on the power delivered.
For cables its the contrary. Those carrying high current
sustain more heating and therefore endure more
energy loss because of the Joule effect, which is an
increase in heat resulting from current fowing through a
conductor. Essentially, electrical current passing through
a conductor raises its temperature and this heat bleeds
away as lost energy. This raises design considerations
for overhead lines for long distance transmission cables
and underground ones which deliver energy from the
step-down substation to the user.
Electricity supply companies generally try to limit energy
losses in overhead lines to about 2.5 %. So, between the
power plant and the step-down substation the total losses
range between 3 % and 5 %. Between the step-down
substation and users the losses can be about the same
or even greater. Therefore the overall losses between
the power plant and users can easily be between 8 %
and 15 %, which suggests that there is still some room to
improve effciency in the transmission/distribution system
and hence reduce CO
2
emissions.
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RELEVANT IEC
TECHNICAL COMMITTEES
IEC Technical Committees work in a variety of
associated eIds, with the Iist incIuding:
TC 7 Overhead electrical conductors
TC 8 System aspects for electrical
energy supply
TC 10 Fluids for electrotechnical
applications
TC 11 Overhead lines
TC 13 Electrical energy measurement,
tariff and load-control
TC 14 Power transformers
TC 17 Switchgear and controlgear
TC 20 Electric cables
SC 22F Power electronics for electrical
transmission and distribution
systems
TC 42 High-voltage testing techniques
TC 55 Winding wires
TC 68 Magnetic alloys and steels
TC 90 Superconductivity
TC 112 Evaluation and qualifcation of
electrical insulating materials and
systems
In addition, TC 113, Nanotechnology standardization for
electrical and electronic products and systems, involves
the IEC in a very promising area that could see important
breakthroughs across a broad range of technological
felds, including insulation and conductivity.
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Although the following list is not exhaustive, it does
give a good idea of the broad range of subjects the IEC
addresses when dealing with effciency for electricity
transmission and distribution:
IEC 60076 series for liquid immersed or
dry power transformers covering ratings, test
methods, measuring methods for losses,
loading guides, and so forth.
IEC 61378 series on converter transformers.
IEC 61803, Determination of power losses in
HV direct current converter stations.
IEC 60183, Guide to the selection of
high-voltage cables.
IEC 60287 series for calculating the current
rating and losses for electric cables.
IEC 60885 series on electrical test methods
for electric cables.
IEC 61788 series on superconductivity.
IEC 60028, International standard of
resistance for copper
IEC 61039, General classifcation of
insulating liquids
IEC 61181, Mineral oil-flled electrical
equipment - Application of dissolved gas
analysis (DGA) to factory tests on electrical
equipment
IEC 61620, Insulating liquids - Determination
of the dielectric dissipation factor by
measurement of the conductance and
capacitance - Test method
IEC 60826, Design criteria of overhead
transmission lines
IEC 62052 series on general requirements,
tests and test conditions for electricity metering
equipment (AC)
IEC STANDARDS AVAILABLE IEC STANDARDS AVAILABLE
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IEC 62056 series on electricity metering -
data exchange for meter reading,
tariff and load control
IEC 62271 series on high-voltage
switchgear and controlgear
IEC 60060 series on high-voltage test
techniques
IEC 60317 series on specifcations for
particular types of winding wires
IEC 60404 series on magnetic materials
IEC 60505, Evaluation and qualifcation of
electrical insulation systems
IEC 60243 series on test methods for electrical
strength of insulating materials
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TECHNOLOGIES WITH POTENTIAL
High effciency transformers, superconducting trans-
formers and high temperature superconductors are
technologies that promise much in terms of electrical
energy effciency.
High efciency transformers
According to the Leonardo ENERGY website, which
is the global community for sustainable energy
professionals: The worldwide electricity savings
potential of switching to high effciency transformers is
estimated to be 200 TWh. This savings potential is not
only technically advantageous, but also brings economic
and environmental benefts. Taking the full life cycle
cost into account, selecting high effciency transformers
is often an economically sound investment decision
despite their higher purchase price.
High effciency transformers have been around for
decades. But because their prices are greater than
for ordinary transformers, buyers should estimate the
energy savings which can be made during the life cycle
of a transformer and then choose the most appropriate
one. These transformers differ from ordinary ones in that
they use high quality magnetic material and selected
insulating substances and are designed in such a way
that they can be cooled down better.
Regulators may also require using certain kinds of
transformers within the context of the Kyoto Protocol.
Superconductivity
Most conductors have some degree of resistance
which prevents electricity from fowing effortlessly.
Superconductors are materials that have no resistance to
the fow of electricity and mostly this occurs at extremely
cold temperatures. The frst occurrence, in 1911, was in
a material which became superconducting at 4 degrees
Kelvin (-269 Celsius / -452 Fahrenheit). By the 1950s
with the discovery of new materials this had risen to
17.5 K and in the 1980s to 92 K, which is warmer than
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liquid nitrogen a commonly available coolant. Today,
superconductivity is happening at 138 K, but that's still
-135 C (or -211 F). Despite the apparent coldness, this
is known as high temperature superconducting, or HTS,
and it holds a lot of potential for being energy effcient
in the future.
Superconducting transformers
When a transformer is under a loaded condition,
Joule heating of the copper coil adds considerably
to the amount of lost energy. Although todays utility
power transformers lose less than 1 % of their total
rating in wasted energy, any energy saved within this
1 % represents tremendous potential savings over the
expected lifetime of the transformer as they can be in
service for decades.
We are all used to seeing copper and aluminium
electrical wires and cables, which conduct electricity at
ambient temperatures but lose energy due to the Joule
effect. With superconductors, losses due to the Joule
effect become essentially zero, thereby creating the
potential for dramatic reduction in overall losses. Even
with the added cost of making them cold enough for
superconducting, transformers in the 10 MW and higher
range are projected to be substantially more effcient and
less expensive than their conventional counterparts.
High temperature superconducting cables
Superconducting cables offer the advantage of lower
loss, lighter weight, and more compact dimensions, as
compared to conventional cables. In addition to better
energy effciency of the utility grid, this can lead to easier
and faster installation of the cable system, fewer linking
parts, and reduced use of land. The high performance
of superconducting materials leads to reduced materials
use and lighter and more compact cable technology. In
this way, energy and cost are saved in the whole chain
of manufacturing, transport, installation, use and end-of-
life disposal.
In the shorter term, these HTS cables offer energy
effciency, cheaper installation, and lower system
cost. The long-term perspectives include low-loss
backbone structures that transmit electric power over
long distances. The driving factors for such backbone
structures are:
uninhibited exchange of electricity in
interconnected networks;
solar energy potential in North Africa;
green energy (hydroelectric and wind) in
northern Europe.
HTS cable backbones, which do not yet exist, would be
designed as DC systems with power ratings in multiples
of gigawatts. They can be created as virtual backbones
joining and reinforcing existing networks, or as actual
lines traversing continents.
HTS backbones will be an alternative or complement to
gas and oil pipelines, oil tankers and overland transport
of hydrogen or other energy types. The determining
factors for them, apart from cost, are political stability
within the connected regions, ownership and tariff
structures.
The IEC committees where these technologies are
being considered are TC 14, Power transformers, TC
20, Electric cables, and TC 90, Superconductivity.
Other transmission techniques are also being studied,
such as direct current and ultra high voltage in both
alternating current and direct current modes.
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The IEC has been developing standards that deal
with electrical effciency since its creation in 1906.
As an example, at a meeting held in Paris in 1932,
IEC Advisory Committee No. 2 (as the TCs were then
known), which at that time covered the entire feld of
electrical machinery, decided to set up a permanent
subcommittee to consider the issue of effciency and
losses. Technical Committee 2, Rotating machinery,
and TC 14, Power transformers, today continue that
work by delivering the highest quality International
Standards involving the best means of producing and
providing electrical energy effciently.
Overall, IEC work addresses a vast array of technologies.
Standardizing the transmission and distribution of
electricity is one of the felds where the EC can really
make a difference to the future of the world in its quest
for greater energy effciency.
CONCLUSION
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The IEC, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, is the
worlds leading organization that prepares and publishes
International Standards for all electrical, electronic
and related technologies collectively known as
electrotechnology. IEC standards cover a vast range of
technologies from power generation, transmission and
distribution to home appliances and offce equipment,
semiconductors, fbre optics, batteries, fat panel displays
and solar energy, to mention just a few. Wherever you fnd
electricity and electronics, you fnd the EC supporting
safety and performance, the environment, electrical
energy effciency and renewable energies. The EC
also administers international conformity assessment
schemes in the areas of electrical equipment testing and
certifcation (ECEE), quality of electronic components,
materials and processes (ECQ) and certifcation of
electrical equipment operated in explosive atmospheres
(ECEx).
The IEC has served the worlds electrical industry
since 1906, developing International Standards to
promote quality, safety, performance, reproducibility and
environmental compatibility of materials, products and
systems.
The IEC family, which now comprises more than
140 countries, includes all the worlds major trading
nations. This membership collectively represents about
85 % of the worlds population and 95 % of the worlds
electrical generating capacity.
THE IEC
INTERNATIONAL
ELECTROTECHNICAL
COMMISSION
3, rue de Varemb
P.O. Box 131
CH-1211 Geneva 20
Switzerland
Tel: + 41 22 919 02 11
Fax: + 41 22 919 03 00
[email protected]
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Copyright IEC 2007. All rights reserved.