A REPORT

ON
“INDUSTRIAL SUMMER TRAINING” AT
UPCL 33/11KV CHAMPAWAT

SESSION 2022-23

Submitted in BTKIT DWARAHAT

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Mr. Amit Kumar NIKHIL GARKOTI
Assistant Professor 6200180105012
BTKIT DWARAHAT IV Year/ VII Sem
BTKIT Dwarahat
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Industrial training has an important role in exposing the real-life
situation in the industry. It was a great experience for me to work on
the training at 33/11KV (Uttarakhand Power Corporation Limited)
through which I could learn how to work in a professional
environment.
Firstly, I would like to thankful to my college BTKIT Dwarahat
who gave me this opportunity to do industrial training
Now, I am sincerely grateful to Mr. NARENDRA PRASAD Sir
(JE UPCL) , who rendered me, his constant encouragement and able
guidance have enabled me to complete this training successfully.

I also wish my deep sense of gratitude toward Mr. S.K. GUPTA

Sir (EE UPCL) , whose guidance made this training possible.

NIKHIL GARKOTI
FINAL YEAR VII SEM
ELECTRICAL ENGG
 CONTENT
 INTRODUCTION

 SUBSTATION

 SWITCH YARS

 TRANSFORMER

 COMPONENTS OF TRANSFORMER

 TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS

 BUS BAR

 INSULATOR

 PROTECTION OF SUBSTATION

 CIRCUIT BREAKER

 PROTECTIVE RELAY

 PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTENING

 PLCC

 EARTHING MATERIAL
 INTRODUCTION

The present day electrical power system is a.c. electric power is generated, transmitted,
and distributed in the form of Alternating current. The electric power is produce at the
power station, which are located at favorable places, generally quite away from the
consumers. It is delivered to the consumer through a large network of transmission and
distribution. At many place in the line of power system, it may be desirable and necessary
to change some characteristic of electric supply. This is accomplished by suitable
apparatus called sub-station for example, generation voltage
(11KV or 6.6KV) at the power station is stepped up to high voltage (Say 220KV to
132KV) for transmission of electric Power. Similarly near the consumer’s localities, the
voltage may have to be stepped down to utilization level. Suitable apparatus called
substation again accomplishes this job.
 SUBSTATIONS

The present day electrical power system is A.C.i.e. electrical power is generated,
transmitted & distributed in the form of the alternating current. The electric power is
produced at power plant stations which are located at favorable places generally quite
away from the consumers. It is delivered to the consumers through a large network of
transmission 7 distribution.

At many places in the power system, it may be desirable and necessary to change some
characteristics e.g. voltage, ac to dc, frequency, power factor etc. of electric supply. This
accomplished by suitable apparatus called substation. For example; generation voltage
(11 KV or 33 KV) at the power station is set up to high voltage (say 220 KV or 132 KV)
for transmission of electric power. The assembly of apparatus (e.g. transformer etc.) used
for this purpose in the substation. Similarly near the consumer’s localities, the voltage
may have to be step down to utilization level.
This job is again accomplished by suitable apparatus called substation.
The assembly of apparatus to change some characteristic of electric power supply is
called substation.

 TYPES OF SUBSTATION:

• According to the service requirement:

(1) Transformer substation

(2) Switch substation
(3) Power factor correction substation
(4) Frequency change substation
(5) Converting substation
(6) Industrial substation

• According to the constructional features:

(1) Indoor substation

(2) Outdoor substation
(3) Underground substation
 (4) Pole mounted substation

TRANSFORMER SUBSTATION
They are known as transformer substations as because transformer is the main
component employed to change the voltage level. depending upon the purposed served
transformer substations may be classified into:

STEP UP SUBSTATION
The generation voltage is steeped up to high voltage to affect economy in transmission
of electric power. These are generally located in the power houses and are of outdoor
type.

PRIMARY GRID SUBSTATION

Here, electric power is received by primary substation which reduces the voltage level
to 66KV for secondary transmission. The primary grid substation is generally

SECONDARY SUBSTATIONS

At a secondary substation, the voltage is further steeped down to 11KV. The 11KV lines
runs along the important road of the city. The secondary substations are also of outdoor
type.

DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION

These substations are located near the consumer’s localities and step down to 400V,
3phase, 4-wire for supplying to the consumers. The voltage between any two phases is
400V & between any phase and neutral it is 230V.
CONDUCTORS USED IN SUBSTATION DESIGN:

An ideal conductor should fulfills the following requirements:

• Should be capable of carrying the specified load currents and short time currents.
• Should be able to withstand forces on it due to its situation. These forces
comprise self weight, and weight of other conductors and equipment, short circuit
forces and atmospheric forces such as wind and ice loading.
• Should be corona free at rated voltage.
• Should have the minimum number of joints.
• Should need the minimum number of supporting insulators.
• Should be economical.
The most suitable material for the conductor system is copper or aluminums. Steel may
be used but has limitations of poor conductivity and high susceptibility to corrosion. In
an effort to make the conductor ideal, three different types have been utilized, and these
include: Flat surfaced Conductors, Stranded Conductors, and Tubular Conductors

Overhead Line Terminations

Two methods are used to terminate overhead lines at a substation.

• Tensioning conductors to substation structures or buildings

• Tensioning conductors to ground winches.
The choice is influenced by the height of towers and the proximity to the substation.The
following clearances should be observed:

VOLTAGE LEVEL MINIMUM GROUND CLEARANCE

less than 66kV 6.1m
66kV - 110kV 6.4m
110kV - 165kV 6.7m
greater than 165kV 7.0m
 SWITCH YARD
Switch yard is a switching yard and is defined as the enclosed areas at the power stations
containing switching facilities and equipment for the purpose of connecting to the
transmission network. It consists of Isolators, circuit breakers, Current Transformers,
Potential Transformers, Capacitance Voltage Transformers, Wave Trap and Lightning
Arrestors.
Switchyard forms an integral part of any power station i.e., thermal Power Utilities, Gas
turbines based power plants or Hydel power plants.

BASIC STRUCTURE OF A SWITCH YARD

Current Transformer is used for measuring high current and Potential Transformer is used
for measuring high voltage.

Capacitance Voltage Transformers are used for maintaing the constant voltage in case of
voltage drop in transmission line.
Isolators is off-load switching device which disconnects the connection between busbars
in off condition. It id on both the sides of switch yard.
In BTPS, SF6circuit breakers are used disconnect the connection between busbars in both
off-load and on-load condition.
Wave Trap is used for sending and receiving of wave through transmission lines. It is
basically used for detecting any fault in transmission line.
Lightning Arrestors are used to supress the high voltage formed due to lightning to
ground.
 TRANSFORMER
Transformer is a static machine, which transforms the potential of alternating current at
same frequency. It means the transformer transforms the low voltage into high voltage
& high voltage to low voltage at same frequency. It works on the principle of static
induction principle. The transformer is an electromagnetic conversion device in which
electrical energy received by primary winding is first converted into magnetic energy
which is reconverted back into a useful electrical energy in other circuits (secondary
winding, tertiary winding, etc.). Thus, the primary and secondary windings are not
connected electrically, but coupled magnetically. A transformer is termed as either a
step-up or step-down transformer depending upon whether the secondary voltage is
higher or lower than the primary voltage, respectively. Transformers can be used to
either step-up or step-down voltage depending upon the need and application; hence their
windings are referred as high-voltage/low-voltage or high-tension/low-tension windings
in place of primary/secondary windings.

Transformers mainly are of three types:

1. Step up transformer
2. Isolators
3. Step down transformer

Figure: Transformer
DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF A TRANSFORMER:
• Magnetic circuit:
It consists of a high permeance core over which both primary and secondary coils are
wound. Electrical energy transfer between two circuits takes place through a transformer
without the use of moving parts; the transformer therefore has higher efficiency and low
maintenance cost as compared to rotating electrical machines.

• Winding:
The rectangular paper-covered copper conductor is the most commonly used conductor
for the windings of medium and large power transformers. These conductors can be
individual strip conductors, bunched conductors or continuously transposed cable (CTC)
conductors. In low voltage side of a distribution transformer, where much fewer turns
are involved, the use of copper or aluminum foils may find preference. To enhance the
short circuit withstand capability, the work hardened copper is commonly used instead
of soft annealed copper, particularly for higher rating transformers. In the case of a
generator transformer having high current rating, the CTC conductor is mostly used
which gives better space factor and reduced eddy current losses in windings.

• Conservator Tank:
A small tank placed on the top of main tank. It is half filled with air and half filled with
oil. It maintains the level of oil in transformer. If oil level falls air comes in conservator
through the breather to fill the vacuum created.

• Breather:

It performs the function of releasing and taking atmospheric air. Further it is filled with
silica gel to prevent the contamination of transformer oil in the conservator by the
moisture present in the air entering the conservator.

• Cooling Mechanism:
Low power transformers are generally air cooled. For large power transformers, air
cooling is used. Oil performs the dual role of a coolant (heat exchanger) and an insulating
medium.

• Explosive Vent:

In case of severe fault in the transformer, the internal pressure may be build up to a very
high level, where it may result in an explosion of tank.Therefore this vent is provided to
remove the excess pressure from transformer if any such situation arises.

• Buchholz Relay:

This relay is used as a protective device sensitive to the effects of dielectric failure inside
the equipment. On a slow accumulation of gas, due perhaps to slight overload, gas
produced by decomposition of insulating oil accumulates in the top of the relay and
forces the oil level down. A float switch in the relay is used to initiate an alarm signal.If
an arc forms, gas accumulation is rapid, and oil flows rapidly into the conservator. This
flow of oil operates a switch attached to a vane located in the path of the moving oil.
This switch normally will operate a circuit breaker to isolate the apparatus.

• Mulsifire Mechanism:

This is provided for protection in case of a fire break-out in the transformer. A pipe filled
with pressurized air at 2-3 kg/cm2 is connected to a glass bulb. This pressure stops a
valve which operates the flow of water through nozzles provided over the entire tank. In
case of a fire, the glass bulb shatters due to the heat, releasing the pressurized air. This
fall in pressure causes the mulsifire valve to open, releasing water sprays from the nozzle,
thereby quenching the fire.
 TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
1 Power transformer
2 Instrument transformer
3 Auto transformer
4 On the basis of working
5 On the basis of structure

Power Transformer:
1.Single phase transformer
2.Three phase transformer

Instrument Transformer
1.Current transformer
2. Potential transformer

Auto Transformer
1. Single phase transformer
2. Three phase transformer

ON THE BASIS OF WORKING

Step down: Converts high voltage into low voltage.
Step up: Converts low voltage into high voltage.
ON THE BASIS OF STRUCTURE

Figure: core type

Figure: Shell type

 WHAT IS CURRENT TRANSFORMER
&POTENTIAL TRANFORMER

CT and PT are both a type of measuring device used to measure currents and voltages. CT
and PT are used where large quantities of currents and voltages are used. The job of CT and
PT is to reduce high current and high voltage to a parameter. With the help of this parameter,
we can measure the current flowing at high volume and voltage.

What is CT:
CT is a homogeneous current transformer that works to reduce the current flowing in the
electrical system.

What is PT:
PT’s full name is Potential Transformer. Right now, we talked about the function of CT.
PT also works today but with Voltage.
 BUSBARS
When numbers of generators or feeders operating at the same voltage have to be directly
connected electrically, bus bar is used as the common electrical component. Bus bars are
made up of copper rods operate at constant voltage. In large stations it is important that
break downs and maintenance should interfere as little as possible with continuity of
supply to achieve this, duplicate bus bar system is used. Such a system consists of two
bus bars, a main bus bar and a spare bus bar with the help of bus coupler, which consist
of the circuit breaker and isolator.

In substations, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the system for general

maintenance and repairs. An isolating switch or isolator accomplishes this. Isolator
operates under no load condition. It does not have any specified current breaking
capacity or current making capacity. In some cases isolators are used to breaking
charging currents or transmission lines.While opening a circuit, the circuit breaker is
opened first then isolator while closing a circuit the isolator is closed first, then circuit
breakers. Isolators are necessary on supply side of circuit breakers, in order to ensure
isolation of the circuit breaker from live parts for the purpose of maintenance.A transfer
isolator is used to transfer main supply from main bus to transfer bus by using bus
coupler (combination of a circuit breaker with two isolators), if repairing or maintenance
of any section is required.

FIGURE: BUSBAR
 INSULATORS
The insulator serves two purposes. They support the conductors (bus bar) and confine
the current to the conductors. The most common used material for the manufacture of
insulator is porcelain. There are several types of insulators (e.g. pin type, suspension
type, post insulator etc.) and their use in substation will depend upon the service
requirement. For example, post insulator is used for bus bars. A post insulator consists
of a porcelain body, cast iron cap and flanged cast iron base. The hole in the cap is
threaded so that bus bars can be directly bolted to the cap.

With the advantage of power system, the lines and other equipment operate at very high
voltage and carry high current. The arrangements of switching along with switches
cannot serve the desired function of switchgear in such high capacity circuits. This
necessitates employing a more dependable means of control such as is obtain by the use
of the circuit breakers. A circuit breaker can make or break a circuit either manually or
automatically under all condition as no load, full load and short circuit condition.

A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts. These contacts can
be opened manually or by remote control whenever desired. When a fault occurs on any
part of the system, the trip coils of breaker get energized and the moving contacts are
pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening the circuit.
 PROTECTION OF SUBSTATION
• Transformer protection:

Transformers are totally enclosed static devices and generally oil immersed. Therefore
chances of fault occurring on them are very easy rare, however the consequences of even
a rare fault may be very serious unless the transformer is quickly disconnected from the
system. This provides adequate automatic protection for transformers against possible
faults.

• Conservator and Breather:

When the oil expands or contacts by the change in the temperature, the oil level goes
either up or down in main tank. A conservator is used to maintain the oil level up to
predetermined value in the transformer main tank by placing it above the level of the top
of the tank.
Breather is connected to conservator tank for the purpose of extracting moisture as it
spoils the insulating properties of the oil. During the contraction and expansion of oil air
is drawn in or out through breather silica gel crystals impregnated with cobalt chloride.
Silica gel is checked regularly and dried and replaced when necessary.

• Marshalling box:

It has two meter which indicate the temperature of the oil and winding of main tank. If
temperature of oil or winding exceeds than specified value, relay operates to sound an
alarm. If there is further increase in temperature then relay completes the trip circuit to
open the circuit breaker controlling the transformer.

• Transformer cooling:

When the transformer is in operation heat is generated due to iron losses the removal of
heat is called cooling.
There are several types of cooling methods, they are as follows:
 • Air natural cooling:
In a dry type of self cooled transformers, the natural circulation of surrounding air
is used for its cooling. This type of cooling is satisfactory for low voltage small
transformers.

• Air blast cooling:

It is similar to that of dry type self cooled transformers with to addition that
continuous blast of filtered cool air is forced through the core and winding for
better cooling. A fan produces the blast.

• Oil natural cooling:

Medium and large rating have their winding and core immersed in oil, which act
both as a cooling medium and an insulating medium. The heat produce in the cores
and winding is passed to the oil becomes lighter and rises to the top and place is
taken by cool oil from the bottom of the cooling tank.

• Oil blast cooling:

In this type of cooling, forced air is directed over cooling elements of transformers
immersed in oil.

• Forced oil and forced air flow (OFB) cooling:

Oil is circulated from the top of the transformers tank to a cooling tank to a cooling
plant. Oil is then returned to the bottom of the tank.

Bus-bar :- When a no. of lines operating at the same voltage have to be directly
connected electrically, bus-bar are used, it is made up of copper or aluminum bars
(generally of rectangular X-Section) and operate at constant voltage.
The bus is a line in which the incoming feeders come into and get into the instruments
for further step up or step down. The first bus is used for putting the incoming feeders in
LA single line. There may be double line in the bus so that if any fault occurs in the one,
the other can still have the current and the supply will not stop. The two lines in the bus
are separated by a little distance by a Conductor having a connector between them. This
is so that one can work at a time and the other works only if the first is having any fault.
 CIRCUIT BREAKER
A circuit breaker is an equipment, which can open or close a circuit under normal as well
as fault condition. These circuit breaker breaks for a fault which can damage other
instrument in the station. It is so designed that it can be operated manually (or by remote
control) under normal conditions and automatically under fault condition. A circuit
breaker consists of fixed & moving contacts, which are touching each other under normal
condition i.e. when breaker is closed. Whenever a fault occurs trip coil gets energized,
the moving contacts are pulled by some mechanism & therefore the circuit is opened or
circuit breaks. When circuit breaks an arc is stack between contacts, the production of
arc not only interrupts the current but generates enormous amount of heat which may
cause damage to the system or the breaker itself. Therefore the main problem in a circuit
breaker is to extinguish the arc within the shortest possible time so that the heat generated
by it may not reach a dangerous value. The medium used for arc extinction is usually
Oil, Air, Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) or vacuum.

Circuit breakers can be classified on the basis of medium used for arc extinction:
A. Oil Circuit Breakers:-
These are the oldest type of circuit breakers & have the virtues of reliability,
simplicity of construction & relative cheapness. These are mainly of two types:

a. Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers using large quantity of oil are also called the dead
tank type because the tank is held at earth potential. Such circuit breakers may further
be classified as:-

i. Plain Break Oil Circuit Breakers are very simple in construction &
widely used in low voltage d.c&a.c circuits. For use on higher voltages, they
become unduly large in size & need huge of transformer oil. In addition, such
breakers are not suitable for high-speed interruption; therefore, these cannot be
used in autoclosing.
ii. Self-Generated Pressure Oil Circuit Breakers are of three types viz.
Plain explosion pot having limited breaking capacity, cross jet explosion pot
suitable for interrupting heavy current t high voltage (66kV) &self-compensated
explosion potsuitable for operation both at heavy currents as well as low currents.
Plain explosion pot cannot be used either for very low currents because of
 increased arcing time or for very heavy currents because of risk of bursting of pot
due to high pressure.
iii. Impulse Type Oil circuit Breakers have the main advantage, over other
conventional design, of reduced requirement of oil (roughly one-fourth). The
possibility of current chopping can also be avoided by using resistance switching.

b. Low oil or Minimum Oil Circuit Breakers are also called the live tank circuit
breakers because the oil tank is insulated from the ground. Such circuit breakers are
now available for all type of voltages (3.6, 7.2, 12, 36, 72.5,145,245& 420 kV) & for
the highest breaking capacities. The MOCB with rated voltage of 12 kV has a single
interrupter per phase without extra support insulator.

B. Low Voltage Air Circuit Breakers:-

These breakers are designed for use on d.c circuits & low voltage a.c circuits for the
protection of general lighting & motor circuits. These breakers are usually provided with
an over current tripping mechanism which may be of instantaneous or time delay type
or combination of both. Trip devices may be set over a range from about 80 to 160
percent of rating. The breakers may also be provided with over tripping ranges &
arrangements such as low voltage trip, shunt trip connected to ever voltage, reverse
current or over current relays. Such breakers are of rating of to & including 6,000 A a.c&
12,000 A d.c, voltage ratings are 250 to 600 V a.c& 250 to 750 V d.c. Special breakers
available up to 3,000 V for d.c services.

C.Air Blast Circuit Breakers:

The air blast circuit breakers employs compressed air (at a pressure of 20 kg/c.m2)
for arc extinction & are finding their best application in systems operating 132 kV
& above (up to 400kV) with breaking capacity up to 7,500 MVA (during short
circuit fault)& above, although such breakers have also been designed to cover
the voltage range of 6,600 Volts to 132,000 Volts. These breakers have the
advantages of less burning of contacts because of less arc energy, little
maintenance , facility of high speed reclosure, no risk of explosion & fire hazard
& suitability for duties requiring frequent operations. The drawbacks of such
breakers are additional need of compressor plant for supplying compressed air,
current chopping, sensitivity restriking voltage & air leakage at the pipe line
fittings.

D. Vacuum Circuit Breakers:

 The idea behind the vacuum circuit breakers is to eliminate the medium between
the contacts-vacuum.
The dielectric strength of vacuum is 1000 times more than that of any medium. In
construction it is very simple circuit breaker in comparison to an air or oil circuit
breakers. These breakers are used for reactor switching, transformer switching,
capacitor bank switching where the voltages are high & the current to be
interrupted is low.

E. Sulphur Hex-fluoride Circuit Breakers:

SF6 gas has unique properties, such as very high dielectric strength, non-reactive to the
other components of circuit breakers, high time constant & fast recombination property
after removal of the source energizing the spark, which proves it superior to the other
mediums (such as oil or air) for use in circuit breakers.
SF6 circuit breakers have the advantages of very much reduced electrical clearances,
performance independent of ambient conditions, noise less operation, reduce moisture
problem, minimum current chopping, small arcing time, no reduction in dielectric
strength of SF6, low maintenance, reduced installation time & increased safety. Such as
circuit breakers are used for rated voltages in the ranges of 3.6 to 760 kV.
For the later operation a relay wt. is used with a C.B. generally bulk oil C.B. are used for
voltage up to 66 KV while for high voltage low oil & SF6 C.B. are used. For still higher
voltage, air blast vacuum or SF6 cut breaker are used. The use of SF6 circuit breaker is
mainly in the substations which are having high input kv input, say above 132kv and
more. The gas is put inside the circuit breaker by force ie under high pressure. When if
the gas gets decreases there is a motor connected to the circuit breaker. The motor starts
operating if the gas went lower than 20.8 bar. There is a meter connected to the breaker
so that it can be manually seen if the gas goes low. The circuit breaker uses the SF6 gas
to reduce the torque produce in it due to any fault in the line. The circuit breaker has a
direct link with the instruments in the station, when any fault occur alarm bell rings.
 PROTECTIVE RELAY
A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the C.B.
is to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system”. The relay detects the
abnormal condition in the electrical circuit by constantly measuring the electrical
quantities, which are different under normal and fault condition. The electrical quantities
which may change under fault condition are voltage, current, frequency and phase angle.
Having detect the fault, the relay operate to close the trip circuit of C.B.
There are two principle reason for this; Firstly,if the fault is not cleared quickly, it may
cause unnecessary interruption of service to the customer. Secondly, rapid disconnection
of faulty apparatus limits the amount of damage to it &a prevents the effects from
speeding into the system. A protective relay is a device that detects the fault & initiates
the operation of circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the
system. Most of the relays operate on the principle of electromagnetic attraction or
electromagnetic induction. The following important types of relays are generally used in
electrical distribution & transmission line:

1. Induction Type Over Current Relay

2. Induction Type Over Voltage Relay
3. Distance Relay
4. Differential Relay
5. Earth Fault Relay

1. Induction Type Over Current Relay: This type of relay operates on the principle
of electromagnetic induction initiates corrective measures when current in the circuit
exceeds a predetermined value . The actuating source is a current in the circuit supplied
to the relay by a current transformer . These relays are used on ac circuits only and can
operate for fault flow in either direction.
Under normal condition the resulting torque is greater than the driving torque produced
by the relay coil current. Hence the Aluminum disc remains stationary, by during fault
current in the protective circuit exceeds the preset value. The driving torque becomes
greater than the starting torque & the disc starts to rotate, hence moving contact bridges
are fixed contact when the disc rotates to a preset value. Trip circuit operates the circuit
breaker, which isolates the faulty section.

2. Induction Type Over Voltage Relay: This type of relay operates on the principle
of electromagnetic induction & initiates corrective measures when current in the circuit
exceeds a predetermined value. Under normal condition the aluminum disc remains
stationary. However if the voltage increases at any cost the disc starts to rotate, hence
moving contact bridges to the fixed contact when the disc rotates through a preset angle.
Trip circuit operates the circuit breaker, which isolates the faulty section.

3. Distance Relay: Under normal operating condition, the pull is due to the voltage
element. Therefore the relay contacts remains open. However when a fault occurs in the
protected zone the applied voltage to the relay decreases where the current increases.
The ratio of voltage to current faults is below the predetermined value. Therefore, the
pull of the current element will exceed that due to voltage element & this causes the
beam to tilt in direction to close the trip circuit.

4. Differential Relay: It compensates the phase difference between the power

transformer’s primary & secondary. The C.T.s on the two sides are connected by pilot
wires at both ends are same & no current flows through the relays. If a ground or
phaseto-phase fault occurs, the currents in the C.T.s no longer will be the same &
the differential current flowing through the relay circuit will clear the breaker on
both sides of transformers. The protected zone is limited to the C.T.s on the low
voltage side & C.T.s on the high voltage side of the transformer.
This scheme also provides protection for short circuits between turns of the same phase
winding. During a short circuit, the turn ratio of power transformer is altered & cause
unbalance in the system which cause the relay to operate. However, such sorts are better
taken care by Buchholz relay.

5. Earth Fault Relay: This scheme provides no protection against phase to phase
faults unless & until they develop into earth faults. A relay is connected across
transformer secondary. The protections against earth faults are limited to the region
between the neutral & line current transformer.
Under normal operating condition, no differential current flows through the relay. When
earth fault occurs in the protected zone, the differential current flows through the
operating coil of the relay. The relay then closes its contacts to disconnect the equipment
from the system.
PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTENING:
0Transients or Surges on the power system may originate from switching or other causes,
but the most important & dangerous surges are those which caused by lightning. The
lightning surges may cause serious damage to the expensive equipments or strokes on
transmission lines that reach the equipments travelling as a wave. Thus it is necessary to
provide a protection against lightning surges. They are: -
1. Earth Screen.
2. Overhead Ground Wire.
3. Lightning Arrestor.

1. Earth Screen: The power stations & the substations are generally have much
expensive equipments. These stations can be protected from direct lightning strikes by
providing earthing screens.
It consists of a network of Copper conductors mounted all over the electrical equipments
in the substation or Power station. The screen is properly connected to earth on at least
two points through low impedance.On the occurrence of direct stroke on the station the
screen provides a low resistance path by which lightning surges are connected to the
ground.In this way station equipments are protected against lightning.

2. Overhead Ground Wires: The most effective method of providing protection

against direct lightning strokes is by the use of overhead ground wires. The ground wires
are placed over line conductors at such position that practically all lightning strokes are
intercepted by them. The ground wire is ground at each tower or pole through as low
resistance as possible. When the direct lightning strokes occur on the transmission line
will be taken you by the ground wire. The heavy current flows to the ground through the
ground wire, so it protects the line from harmful effects of lightning.

3.Lightening Arrestors: Firstly, we can see lightning arrestors. These lightning

arrestors can resist or ground the lightning, if falls on the incoming feeders. The lightning
arrestors can work in an angle of 30 degrees around them. They are mostly used for
protection of the instruments used in the substation. As the cost of the instruments in the
substation are very high to protect them from high voltage lightning these arrestors are
used.
It is a device used in Electrical Power systems to protect the insulation o the system from
the damaging effect of lightning. Metal Oxide arrestors (MOVs) have been used for
power system protection the mid 70s.The typical lightning arrestor is also known surge
arrestor has a high voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge or
switching surge travels down the power system to the arrestor, the current from the surge
is diverted around the protected insulation in most cases to earth. Lightning arrestors
with earth switch are used after the current transformers to protect it from lightning i.e.
from high voltage entering into it. This lightning arrestor has an earth switch that can
directly earth the lightning. The arrestor works at 30o to 45o angle of the lightning making
a cone. The earth switch can be operated manually, by pulling the switch towards the
ground. This also helps in breaking the line entering the station. By doing so maintenance
repair of any instrument could be performed.

Types of lightning arrestors:-There are several types of lightning arrestors are in use,
differs only in their constructional detail but they are electrically identical & operate on
the same principle.

They are-
a. Rod gap arrestor
b. Horn gap arrestor
c. Valve type arrestor

a. Rod type arrestor: It consists of two rods which are bent in right angles with a
gap in between them. One rod is connected to the line circuit & the other one is
connected to the earth. They are usually connected across the string of insulators
& bushings of various transformers. The rod gap should be set to breakdown at
about 20% below the impulse spark over voltage of insulation at the point where it
is installed. To protect the insulator it should be one 3 rd of the rod gap. Under the
normal condition the gap remains non-conductive. On the occurrence of high
voltage surge on the line, the gap sparks over & the surge current is connected to
earth.

b. Horn gap arrestor: It consists of two horn shaped metals rods separated by a
small air gap. The horns are so constructed that distance between them gradually
increase towards the top. The horns are mounted on the porcelain insulators. On
end of the horn is connected to the line & other end is efficiently grounded.
Undernormal condition the gap is non-conductive. On the occurrence of high
voltage spark takes place across the gap & the arc to travel up the gap. At some
 position of arc, the distance may be for the voltage to maintain the arc.
Consequently, the arc is extinguished, & the excess charge on the line is thus
conducted to ground through arrestor.

c. Valve type arrestors: It consists of a no. of flat disc of a porous material stacked
one above the other & separated by a thin mica rings. The porous material is made
of specially prepared clay with a small admixture of powdered conducting
substance. The discs are arranged in such a way that the normal voltage may not
cause the discharge to occur. The mica rings provide insulations during normal
operation. At time of over voltage, the glow discharge occurs in the capillaries of
the material& the voltage drops to about 350 volts per unit.
POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION
Introduction:
Reliable & fast communication is necessary for safe efficient &economical power
supply. To reduce the power failure in extent & time, to maintain the interconnected grid
system in optimum working condition; to coordinate the operation of various generating
unit communication network is indispensable for state electricity board.
In state electricity boards, the generating & distribution stations are generally located at
a far distance from cities. Where P & T communication provided through long overhead
lines in neither reliable nor quick.As we have available very reliable physical paths viz.
the power lines, which interconnected, hence power line carrier communication is found
to be most economical and reliable for electricity boards.

APPLICATIONS:

The PLCC can be used for the following facilities:

• Telephony
• Teleportation
• Remote control or indication
• Telemetry
• Teleprinting
 EARTHING MATERIALS
Conductors:
Bare copper conductor is usually used for the substation earthing grid. The copper bars
themselves usually have a cross-sectional area of 95 square millimeters, and they are laid
at a shallow depth of 0.25-0.5m, in 3-7m squares. In addition to the buried potential earth
grid, a separate above ground earthing ring is usually provided, to which all metallic
substation plant is bonded.

Connections:

Connections to the grid and other earthing joints should not be soldered because the heat
generated during fault conditions could cause a soldered joint to fail. Joints are usually
bolted, and in this case, the face of the joints should be tinned.

Earthing Rods:

The earthing grid must be supplemented by earthing rods to assist in the dissipation of
earth fault currents and further reduce the overall substation earthing resistance. These
rods are usually made of solid copper, or copper clad steel.

Switchyard Fence Earthing:

The switchyard fence earthing practices are possible and are used by different utilities.
These are:

• Extend the substation earth grid 0.5m-1.5m beyond the fence perimeter. The
fence is then bonded to the grid at regular intervals.
• Place the fence beyond the perimeter of the switchyard earthing grid and bond
the fence to its own earthing rod system. This earthing rod system is not coupled
to the main substation earthing grid.