MECH 1069 MATERIALS 2 - REVISION GUIDANCE 2022 – 2023

STRENGTHENING OF MATERIALS

Definitions of stress and strain

• Stress: the strength of a material per unit area of unit strength.
• Strain: ratio of change length into original length.
Stress versus strain curves for metals, ceramics, and polymers

Hardness
Is the resistance of a material to localised plastic deformation.
Idealised strength and effect of crystalline imperfections
Crystalline imperfections are defects that occur in the regular lattice structure of a crystalline material. These
imperfections can include point defects, line defects, and planar defects. In an ideal crystal, all atoms or ions are
perfectly arranged in a regular lattice structure. However, imperfections always exist due to numerous factors such
as thermal energy, mechanical stress, or impurities in the crystal. In general, imperfections can decrease the
strength of the material by providing sites for crack initiation and propagation.
Dislocations and plastic flow
• Dislocations: a defect in the lattice structure in which a few ions in a layer are missing.
• Plastic flow: a rheological phenomenon in which flowing behaviour of the material occurs after the applied
stress reaches a critical value (yield)
Effect of “obstacles” to dislocation flow on increasing strength
The effect of obstacles on the strength of a material is dependent on several factors, including the strength and
density of the obstacles, the crystal structure and orientation of the material, and the temperature and strain rate
at which the material is deformed.
Solid Solution hardening
The act of dissolving one metal into another, like dissolving sugar into coffee.
Particle and precipitation hardening
Is a heat treatment technique in which extremely tiny particles of aluminium or copper are uniformly spread in the
original material to increase its strength and hardness.
Work hardening
Increase in hardness of a metal induced, deliberately or accidentally, by hammering, rolling, drawing or other
physical processes.
Grain boundaries
The interface between two grains or crystallites in a polycrystalline material.
Effect of Strength on ductility
An increase in strength can lead to a decrease in ductility. This is because as the strength of a material increases,
it becomes harder to initiate and propagate plastic deformation. As a result, the material may fracture before it has
undergone significant plastic deformation, reducing its ductility.
Processing of Metals
Casting (casting defects)
Involve the use of molten material, usually metal.
Defects: it is an unwanted irregularity that appear in the casting during metal casting processes.
• Gas porosity – blowholes, open holes, pinholes
• Shrinkage defects – shrinkage cavity
• Mould material defects – cut and washes, swell, drops, metal penetration, rat tail.
• Pouring metal defects – cold shut, misrun, slag inclusion.
• Metallurgical defects – hot tears, hot spot.
Deformation processing (cold and hot rolling)
Cold rolling manipulates the steel at room temperature whereas hot rolling involves reheating the steel to
temperatures above 1700 °F.
If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature (Hot rolling)
Is the temperature being below (cold rolling)
Recovery and recrystallisation during annealing
In annealing, recovery is a process that acts to recover the physical properties of the metals such as thermal
expansion, electrical conductivity, and internal energy. It is this initial step that softens the metal.
PHASES
Definition of phase
Is a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically distinct, and often mechanically separable.
What are phase diagrams?
Is a diagram with T and composition an axis showing the equilibrium constitution.
Phase diagrams with
One solid solution
A solid solution phase diagram is a graphical representation of the relationships between temperature, composition,
and the phases present in a solid solution alloy system.
Two separated solid solutions
In this phase diagram, the horizontal axis represents the composition of the alloy, while the vertical axis represents
temperature. The shaded regions represent the various phases that can be present in the alloy at different
compositions and temperatures.
One solid solution and chemical compound
Reading phase diagrams
Melting points, liquidus, solidus lines, solvus lines, eutectic points, eutectoid points
Two phase regions
Chemical composition of each phase
Proportion of each phase (Lever Rule)

PLAIN CARBON STEELS (NORMALISED)

Properties of low, medium, and high carbon steels

• Low carbon steels: Contains up to 0.3% carbon, relatively soft and ductile metal, easy to form and shape,
often used in applications such us structural supports and wires due to its malleability and weldability, it
has low strength to weight ratio and is less resistant to corrosion than higher carbon steels, it has been
developed to use in temperatures below -150°C.
• Medium carbon steels: excellent hardness, strength, wear resistance, ductility, and shock resistance,
making them highly machinable and weldable materials for many applications. Excellent thermal
conductivity and can easily be heat-treated for improved surface hardness, fatigue life and wear resistance.
They contain between 0.3% - 0.6% carbon, more robust than low carbon but not as strong as high carbon.
Ductile.
• High carbon steel: High carbon steel is often chosen for its high strength and resistance properties. It is
moderately ductile, which means it can be deformed without breaking. High carbon steel has “memory,”
which means once the material is stretched, it will expand back into the shape it was formed in.
Microstructures of low, medium, and high carbon steels (ferrite, cementite, pearlite)
• Low carbon steels: Ferrite is a soft and ductile form of iron with a body-centred cubic crystal structure.
Ferrite has a low carbon content and is weak, but it is also very ductile and easily deformable. Cementite
is a hard and brittle form of iron carbide (Fe3C) with a crystal structure that is orthorhombic. Cementite is
extremely hard and provides strength to the steel, but it is also brittle and can cause the steel to fracture
if it is present in copious amounts. Pearlite is a two-phase microstructure that consists of alternating layers
of ferrite and cementite. It forms when austenite, a high-temperature phase of iron, is slowly cooled below
the eutectoid temperature. Pearlite provides a good balance of strength and ductility, making it a desirable
microstructure for many applications.
• Medium carbon steels: Ferrite is still the primary phase in medium carbon steel, but it is present in smaller
amounts than in low carbon steel. The additional carbon in medium carbon steel promotes the formation
of cementite, which is a hard and brittle phase that provides strength to the steel. Cementite forms in the
spaces between ferrite grains and can appear as either a network or a lamellar structure, depending on
the cooling rate. The amount of cementite present in the microstructure can be controlled by adjusting the
cooling rate during the transformation from austenite to ferrite and cementite. Pearlite is still a two-phase
microstructure consisting of alternating layers of ferrite and cementite, but it is finer than in low carbon
steel due to the higher carbon content. The smaller spacing between the layers of ferrite and cementite
gives medium carbon steel greater strength and hardness than low carbon steel, but also reduces its
ductility.
• High carbon steels have a microstructure that consists of cementite and pearlite, with little to no ferrite
present. Cementite is a hard and brittle form of iron carbide (Fe3C) with an orthorhombic crystal structure.
In high carbon steel, it is the primary phase and can make up more than 50% of the microstructure. The
high carbon content promotes the formation of cementite, which provides the steel with high hardness
and wear resistance. Pearlite is still a two-phase microstructure consisting of alternating layers of ferrite
and cementite, but it is much finer than in low and medium carbon steel due to the higher carbon content.
The small spacing between the layers of ferrite and cementite gives high carbon steel extremely high
strength and hardness, but also reduces its ductility and toughness.
How microstructure effects properties: strength, ductility, toughness
• Strength: The strength of a material is determined by the types and amounts of the phases present in its
microstructure. In general, a material with a more homogeneous and finely dispersed microstructure will
be stronger than one with a coarser or more irregular microstructure.
 • Ductility: Ductility is the ability of a material to deform plastically without fracturing. Materials that have a
high percentage of ductile phases, such as ferrite, are typically more ductile than those with a high
percentage of brittle phases, such as cementite.
• Toughness: Toughness is a measure of a material's ability to absorb energy before fracturing. The
toughness of a material can also be improved through the addition of specific alloying elements or through
heat treatment processes that modify its microstructure.
Structural steels and Weathering steels
• Structural steels: are commonly used in construction and engineering applications, where they are
required to have high strength, good ductility, and excellent toughness. These steels typically have a
carbon content of less than 0.5% and are alloyed with lesser amounts of other elements such as
manganese, silicon, and phosphorus to improve their strength and toughness.
• Weathering steels: Weathering steels, also known as corrosion-resistant steels, are a group of structural
steels that are designed to have improved atmospheric corrosion resistance. These steels contain alloying
elements such as copper, nickel, and chromium, which form a protective layer of rust-like patina on the
surface of the steel when exposed to the atmosphere.
High Carbon Steel Wires
Production
Carbon steel wire is made by drawing hot rolled rod through progressively smaller dies. The drawing process
hardens the steel, making it stronger and harder. The wire is then annealed, or heated, to relieve some of the stress
from the drawing process. This makes the wire more ductile, or malleable, so that it can be easily formed into the
desired shape. The specific ratio of iron to carbon can vary depending on the desired properties of the final product.
Patenting process
Lead patenting process of hot rolled wires is a phase transformation process; it involves heating of wires up to
austenitic temperature then followed by sudden quenching in lead bath. The lead bath has enough molten lead to
provide the uniform temperature throughout its length and breadth.
Why is it so strong?
Carbon steel wire is made by drawing hot rolled rod through progressively smaller dies. The drawing process
hardens the steel, making it stronger and harder.
High Strength Steels: rephosphorised, bake hardening, HSLA, Dual phase, TRIP.
• Rephosphorised Steel: This type of steel contains a low amount of carbon and a high amount of
phosphorus.
• Bake Hardening Steel: This type of steel is designed to increase its strength and hardness after it has
been formed and painted.
• High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) Steel: This type of steel contains insignificant amounts of alloying
elements such as chromium, nickel, and molybdenum.
• Dual Phase Steel: This type of steel is composed of a mixture of ferrite and martensite phases, which
gives it a unique combination of strength, ductility, and formability.
• Transformation-Induced Plasticity (TRIP) Steel: This type of steel is designed to undergo a transformation
from austenite to martensite during deformation.
Microstructure of these steels and strengthening mechanisms
Overall assessment of candidate materials based on strength and stiffness.
Consideration of candidate materials based on other properties and manufacturing.
STEELS FOR CAR ENGINES (HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS)
Property requirements
• High strength
• Fatigue resistance
• Wear resistance
• Elevated temperature resistance
• Corrosion resistance
• Machinability
• Weldability
Fast cooling – Transformation Diagrams (CCT, TTT diagrams)
• CCT diagrams show the relationship between cooling rate, temperature, and the resulting microstructure.
• TTT diagrams, on the other hand, show the relationship between time, temperature, and the resulting
microstructure for a specific cooling rate.
Martensite/ Tempered Martensite – why is it so strong?
The strength of martensite and tempered martensite is due to their unique crystal structure and the mechanism by
which they form. During quenching, the steel is rapidly cooled from elevated temperatures, which suppresses the
diffusion of carbon and other alloying elements, resulting in a supersaturated solution of carbon in the iron matrix.
This supersaturation of carbon creates a high internal energy state in the steel.
Bainite
Bainite is a microstructure that forms in steels because of a slow cooling process. Bainite consists of a mixture of
ferrite and cementite and has a unique microstructure that is different from both martensite and pearlite.
Difference between Hardness and Hardenability
• Hardness refers to the ability of a material to resist indentation or deformation.
 • Hardenability, on the other hand, refers to the ability of a material to be hardened by heat treatment,
particularly quenching.
Effect of alloy additions
• Carbon: Carbon is the most important alloying element in steel. The addition of carbon increases the
strength, hardness, and wear resistance of steel. It also decreases the ductility and toughness of steel.
• Chromium: Chromium is added to steel to increase its corrosion resistance and oxidation resistance. It
also increases the hardness and wear resistance of steel. Stainless steel, which contains chromium, is
highly resistant to corrosion and is commonly used in applications that require high strength and corrosion
resistance.
• Nickel: Nickel is added to steel to increase its strength and toughness. It also increases the resistance of
steel to corrosion and oxidation. Nickel is commonly added to austenitic stainless steels to improve their
toughness and ductility.
• Molybdenum: Molybdenum is added to steel to increase its strength and hardness at elevated
temperatures. It also improves the corrosion resistance of steel in certain environments.
• Copper: Copper is added to steel to increase its strength, hardness, and corrosion resistance. It also
improves the machinability of steel.
• Aluminium: Aluminium is added to steel to increase its strength and corrosion resistance. It also improves
the formability of steel and reduces its density.

These are just a few examples of the effects of alloy additions on the properties of metals. The specific effect of an
alloy addition will depend on many factors, including the type and amount of the element added, as well as the
base metal being alloyed.
Case hardening
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Wrought Al alloys grades.
The following are some common wrought aluminium alloy grades:
1. 1000 Series: These alloys are pure aluminium, with a minimum aluminium content of 99%. They are very
ductile, have excellent corrosion resistance, and are often used in electrical and chemical applications.
2. 2000 Series: These alloys are alloyed with copper and are known for their high strength, good fatigue
resistance, and excellent machinability. They are often used in aerospace and military applications.
3. 3000 Series: These alloys are alloyed with manganese and are known for their excellent corrosion
resistance and formability. They are often used in food and chemical processing equipment.
4. 5000 Series: These alloys are alloyed with magnesium and have good weldability, excellent corrosion
resistance, and moderate to high strength. They are often used in marine and architectural applications.
5. 6000 Series: These alloys are alloyed with magnesium and silicon and are known for their good formability,
weldability, and corrosion resistance. They are often used in structural and architectural applications.
6. 7000 Series: These alloys are alloyed with zinc and are known for their high strength, good fatigue
resistance, and excellent toughness. They are often used in aerospace and military applications.
Non-heat treatable alloys – how are they strengthened?
Instead, they are strengthened through a process called strain hardening, also known as cold working or work
hardening.
Strain hardening involves deforming the alloy through mechanical processes such as rolling, extruding, or drawing.
This deformation causes dislocations in the crystal structure of the material, which increases its strength and
hardness.
Heat-treatable alloys-
Precipitation/age – hardened.
Age hardening is a process that involves heating a metal until it reaches a certain temperature, or “age”, while it
cools slowly in air or oil.
Age hardening, also known as natural ageing, is a process that occurs over time and does not require any external
heat or cold treatment. This type of hardening usually occurs slowly, over the course of weeks or months, and
results in a stronger metal.
Phase diagram for heat treatable alloys
Heat treatment process for precipitation hardening.
Precipitation hardening is slightly different from age hardening in that it does not involve heat treatment. Instead,
this process involves introducing chemical compounds into the metal, which react with other elements present in
the material to form precipitates—tiny particles of solid matter—that become suspended throughout the material.
Phase changes that take place during each stage of heat treatment
here are three stages of heat treatment:
• Heat the metal slowly to ensure that the metal maintains a uniform temperature.
• Soak, or hold, the metal at a specific temperature for an allotted period.
• Cool the metal to room temperature.
Why do precipitates cause strengthening – reasons!
These precipitate out and form small particles that strengthen the metal by impeding the movement of dislocations
through the crystal structure of the alloy.
Age hardening (hardness versus time curve)

How the shape of the curve varies with temperature

Age-hardening curves of the alloys contain the initial hardness increase, maximum hardness, and subsequently
decreased hardness with aging time, which are called the under-aging, peak-aging, and over-aging stages,
respectively. It varies with temperature because when temperature increases, the hardness increase as well, but
can produce failure of the alloy.
Explain why the curve has the shape it does.
Applications of Al alloys (heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable)
1. Heat-treatable aluminium alloys:
These alloys contain copper, magnesium, and silicon as the main alloying elements. Some examples of heat-
treatable aluminium alloys and their applications are:
• 2024: Used in aircraft structures, rivets, and screws.
• 6061: Used in bicycle frames, marine fittings, and electrical fittings.
• 7075: Used in aircraft and missile parts, and bicycle frames.
2. Non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys:
These alloys contain manganese as the main alloying element. Non-heat-treatable alloys are used in applications
where corrosion resistance is the most key factor, such as in food and chemical industries. Some examples of non-
heat-treatable aluminium alloys and their applications are:
• 1100: Used in chemical and food industries, and heat exchangers.
• 3003: Used in cooking utensils, chemical equipment, and lighting reflectors.
• 5005: Used in marine applications and architectural panels.
Aerospace limitations of Al alloys
1. Low melting point
2. Fatigue
3. Corrosion
4. Limited strength
5. Weldability
Cast aluminium alloys in Automotive Engines
Cast aluminium alloys are widely used in automotive engines due to their excellent properties such as good
castability, high strength-to-weight ratio, and good thermal conductivity. Here are some examples of cast aluminium
alloys used in automotive engines:
1. Al-Si alloys: These alloys contain silicon as the main alloying element and are commonly used to produce
cylinder heads due to their excellent thermal conductivity and good wear resistance.
2. Al-Si-Cu alloys: These alloys contain silicon, copper, and magnesium as the main alloying elements and
are commonly used to produce engine blocks due to their high strength and good castability.
3. Al-Si-Mg alloys: These alloys contain silicon and magnesium as the main alloying elements and are
commonly used to produce pistons due to their high strength and good wear resistance.
 4. Al-Si-Cu-Mg alloys: These alloys contain silicon, copper, magnesium, and iron as the main alloying
elements and are commonly used to produce engine blocks due to their high strength and good castability.
Properties of cast Al alloys – comparison with cast irons
• Density: Cast aluminium alloys have a lower density than cast irons, making them lighter and more
suitable for applications where weight is a concern.
• Strength: Cast iron has a higher compressive strength and wear resistance than most cast aluminium
alloys, making it suitable for applications that require high strength and durability.
• Heat conductivity: Cast aluminium alloys have a higher thermal conductivity than cast irons, making them
more suitable for applications where heat dissipation is important.
• Corrosion resistance: Cast aluminium alloys are more resistant to corrosion than cast irons, making them
more suitable for applications where exposure to moisture or corrosive environments is a concern.
• Machinability: Cast iron is easier to machine than most cast aluminium alloys, making it more suitable for
applications that require complex shapes or precise tolerances.
Use of cast Al-Si alloys
• Automotive industry: Cast Al-Si alloys are commonly used in the production of cylinder heads, engine
blocks, and pistons for automotive engines. These alloys offer good thermal conductivity, which helps
dissipate heat from the engine, and good wear resistance, which helps to prolong the life of the engine
components.
• Aerospace industry: Cast Al-Si alloys are used in the production of aircraft engine components, such as
turbine blades and compressor parts. These alloys offer high strength-to-weight ratio, which is important
in aircraft applications where weight reduction is a critical factor.
• Electronics industry: Cast Al-Si alloys are used in the production of electronic housings, heat sinks, and
other components that require good thermal conductivity and dimensional stability.
• Building and construction industry: Cast Al-Si alloys are used in the production of architectural
components such as curtain walls, window frames, and door frames. These alloys offer good corrosion
resistance and high strength, which is important in outdoor applications.
• Sports equipment: Cast Al-Si alloys are used in the production of sports equipment such as bicycle frames,
golf club heads, and fishing reels. These alloys offer good strength-to-weight ratio and good corrosion
resistance, which is important in outdoor sporting applications.
COMPOSITES

What are composites?

A material made from two or more varied materials that, when combined, are stronger than those individual,
materials by themselves.
Benefits of composites
• Have a high strength to weight ratio.
• Are durable.
• Composites open contemporary design options.
• Composites are now easy to produce.
Types of composites (matrix/reinforcement materials)
• Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs): These composites consist of a polymer resin matrix and a reinforcing
material, such as glass fibres, carbon fibres, or aramid fibres. PMCs are lightweight, corrosion-resistant,
and have high strength-to-weight ratios, which make them suitable for a wide range of applications,
including automotive, aerospace, and sporting goods.
• Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs): These composites consist of a metal matrix and a reinforcing material,
such as ceramic fibres or particles. MMCs are often used in high-temperature and high-stress applications
because of their high strength, good wear resistance, and excellent thermal properties.
• Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs): These composites consist of a ceramic matrix and a reinforcing
material, such as ceramic fibres or particles. CMCs are often used in high-temperature and wear-resistant
applications because of their high strength, good thermal shock resistance, and excellent corrosion
resistance.
• Carbon-Carbon Composites (CCCs): These composites consist of carbon fibres in a carbon matrix. CCCs
have high strength and stiffness, excellent thermal properties, and are often used in high-temperature and
high-stress applications, such as in aerospace and defence applications.
• Natural Fibre Composites (NFCs): These composites consist of a polymer matrix and a natural fibre
reinforcement, such as hemp, flax, or jute. NFCs are renewable, biodegradable, and often used in
applications such as automotive interiors, construction, and packaging.
Types of reinforcing phase
There are several types of reinforcing phases that can be used, including:
• Fibers: Fibers are often used as reinforcing phases in composites, such as carbon fibres, glass fibres,
aramid fibres, and natural fibres. These fibres are typically long and thin, and they provide high strength
and stiffness to the composite material.
• Particles: Particles can be added to the matrix to improve its properties, such as strength, stiffness, and
wear resistance. Examples of particle reinforcing phases include silicon carbide particles, aluminium oxide
particles, and titanium dioxide particles.
 • Whiskers: Whiskers are single crystals that are used as reinforcing phases in composites, such as silicon
carbide whiskers and aluminium oxide whiskers. Whiskers are typically very thin, and they provide high
strength and stiffness to the composite material.
• Platelets: Platelets are flat particles that are used as reinforcing phases in composites, such as graphite
platelets and mica platelets. Platelets provide improved stiffness and dimensional stability to the
composite material.
• Nanoparticles: Nanoparticles are small particles that are used as reinforcing phases in composites, such
as carbon nanotubes, graphene, and nano clay particles. Nanoparticles provide improved mechanical
properties, such as strength and stiffness, as well as improved electrical and thermal properties.
Polymer matrix fibre composites – properties
1. High Strength: Polymer matrix fibre composites have high strength-to-weight ratios, which makes them
attractive for applications that require high strength and stiffness, such as aerospace and automotive
applications.
2. Low Density: Polymer matrix fibre composites have low densities, which makes them lightweight and
attractive for applications where weight is a concern, such as in aerospace and sporting goods.
3. Corrosion Resistance: Polymer matrix fibre composites are often resistant to corrosion, which makes them
attractive for use in harsh environments where corrosion can be a problem.
4. Good Fatigue Resistance: Polymer matrix fibre composites have good fatigue resistance, which makes
them attractive for applications that require repetitive loading, such as in aerospace and wind energy
applications.
5. Good Impact Resistance: Polymer matrix fibre composites have good impact resistance, which makes
them attractive for applications that require impact resistance, such as in automotive and sporting goods.
6. Tailorable Properties: The properties of polymer matrix fibre composites can be tailored by changing the
type and amount of reinforcement material, as well as the type and amount of polymer matrix material,
which makes them attractive for a wide range of applications.
7. Good Damping Properties: Polymer matrix fibre composites have good damping properties, which makes
them attractive for applications that require vibration damping, such as in sporting goods and aerospace
applications.
Use of composites in Civil Eng
• Reinforcement of concrete: Fiberglass, carbon fibre, and other types of composites can be used as
reinforcement for concrete structures such as bridges, tunnels, and buildings. The composites can be
used to increase the strength and durability of concrete and can also be used to repair and strengthen
existing concrete structures.
• Bridge decks and girders: Composites can be used to construct lightweight, corrosion-resistant bridge
decks and girders. These materials can be used to replace traditional steel and concrete materials,
reducing the weight of the bridge, and reducing maintenance costs over time.
• Pipes and tanks: Composites can be used to construct pipes and tanks that are resistant to corrosion and
chemical attack. These materials are lightweight, easy to install, and require minimal maintenance.
• Façade panels: Composites can be used to construct façade panels for buildings. These panels can be
designed to provide insulation, reduce the weight of the building, and improve its aesthetic appearance.
• Wind turbine blades: Composites are widely used in the construction of wind turbine blades, which require
high strength and stiffness, as well as resistance to fatigue and harsh environmental conditions.
Properties of continuous fibre composites
Stiffness
Stiffness is a measure of a material's resistance to deformation under an applied load.
Strength (stress-strain curve of composite)
Strength is another important property of continuous fibre composites. The strength of a composite material is
determined by the properties of the reinforcing fibres, the matrix material, and the interface between the fibres and
matrix.
Anisotropy of properties
The properties of composites can vary depending on the orientation of the fibres, resulting in anisotropy in
mechanical, physical, or chemical properties.
The anisotropy of composites can be both advantageous and disadvantageous depending on the application. For
example, the anisotropy of the properties in composite materials can be utilized to design components that are
strong and lightweight, such as aircraft wings. On the other hand, in some applications, such as isotropic pressure
vessels, the anisotropy can be a disadvantage.
The degree of anisotropy in composites depends on several factors, including the type, orientation, and volume
fraction of the reinforcing fibres, as well as the properties of the matrix material. The orientation of the fibres can
be controlled during the manufacturing process, which allows designers to tailor the anisotropy of the composite
for specific applications.
The anisotropy of the properties in composites can be measured using several techniques, such as tensile testing,
compressive testing, and flexural testing. The data from these tests can be used to characterize the mechanical
behaviour of the composite in different directions and to calculate material constants for anisotropic materials.
Methods to achieve more directionally uniform properties.
• Tailored fibre placement: Tailored fibre placement involves positioning the fibres in a specific orientation
to achieve more uniform properties in the composite. This method can be used to control the orientation
and volume fraction of the fibres in specific regions of the composite, resulting in a more uniform
distribution of properties.
• Hybrid composites: Hybrid composites are made by combining diverse types of fibres in the same matrix
material. By carefully selecting the types and orientations of the fibres, hybrid composites can be designed
to have more uniform properties in different directions.
• Multi-directional laminates: multi-directional laminates are composites made by stacking several layers of
fibres in different orientations. By carefully selecting the orientations of the fibres in each layer, multi-
directional laminates can be designed to have more uniform properties in different directions.
• Continuous filament winding: Continuous filament winding involves winding continuous fibres in a specific
orientation around a mandrel. By controlling the orientation and volume fraction of the fibres, continuous
filament winding can be used to achieve more uniform properties in the composite.
• Fibre spreading fibre spreading involves spreading the fibres in a specific orientation before they are
embedded in the matrix material. This method can be used to achieve more uniform properties by
controlling the orientation and volume fraction of the fibres.
CORROSION
Wet corrosion anode and cathode reactions
Wet corrosion, also known as electrochemical corrosion, occurs when a metal is exposed to an electrolyte (such
as water or saltwater) and undergoes a chemical reaction that results in the degradation of the metal.
• Anode Reaction: At the anode, the metal loses electrons and undergoes oxidation to form metal ions and
release electrons into the surrounding electrolyte.
• Cathode Reaction: At the cathode, the electrons released by the anode reaction combine with water and
oxygen from the air to form hydroxide ions. These hydroxide ions then react with the metal ions from the
anode to form metal hydroxides.
Standard electrode potentials
Standard electrode potential is a measure of the relative tendency of an electrode to undergo reduction or oxidation
in an electrochemical cell. It is also known as standard reduction potential (SRP) or standard electrode potential
(SEP). The standard electrode potential of a half-cell is measured under standard conditions of temperature (298
K), pressure (1 atm), and concentration (1 mol/L).
The standard electrode potential is denoted by E° and is measured in volts (V). A positive E° value indicates that
the electrode is more likely to undergo reduction, while a negative E° value indicates that the electrode is more
likely to undergo oxidation.
Uncomplicated design rules to avoid corrosion.
• Avoid entrapped dirt and water.
• Allow for drainage.
• Avoid crevices.
• Avoid contact between dissimilar metals – bimetallic (galvanic) corrosion.
Protection From Corrosion
• Non-reactive metals
• Coatings: self-generated, passive, active
• Sacrificial Protection
• Cathodic Protection
• Corrosion Inhibition
STAINLESS STEELS

Localised corrosion attack

• Pitting - This is a type of corrosion that causes small pits or holes in the metal surface, resulting in
localized thinning of the metal. Pitting can occur in both passive and active metals, and it is usually caused
by an imbalance in the anodic and cathodic reactions on the surface.
 • Intergranular - This is a form of localized corrosion that occurs along the grain boundaries of a metal,
typically due to sensitization of the metal to corrosion. This type of corrosion can be caused by exposure
to elevated temperatures during welding or heat treatment.
• Stress Corrosion - This is a form of localized corrosion that occurs in metals under tensile stress and in
the presence of a corrosive environment.
• Corrosion Fatigue - This is a type of localized corrosion that occurs in metals subjected to cyclic loading
in a corrosive environment. Corrosion fatigue occurs when cyclic loading leads to crack initiation and
propagation.
Stainless steels – addition of 11-13% chromium (Cr)
Stainless steel is a type of steel that contains a minimum of 10.5% chromium (Cr) by mass. The addition of
chromium provides several important properties to stainless steel, including corrosion resistance, high-temperature
strength, and improved surface finish.
Stainless steel with 11-13% chromium is classified as a "ferritic" stainless steel. Ferritic stainless steels are
magnetic, and their structure is based on the body-centred cubic (BCC) crystal lattice. These alloys are known for
their good corrosion resistance, especially in mildly acidic environments, and their low cost compared to other
stainless-steel types.
Protective through formation of “passive” layer
The chromium in stainless steel forms a passive oxide layer on the surface of the steel, which protects it from
corrosion by oxygen and other corrosive agents. This passive oxide layer is self-repairing, which means that if it is
damaged, it will reform spontaneously in the presence of oxygen.
Stainless Iron
The most common types of stainless steel are austenitic, ferritic, and martensitic stainless steels.
• Austenitic stainless steels are the most widely used type of stainless steel and contain elevated levels of
chromium (usually 18-20%) and nickel (usually 8-10%). These alloys have a face-centred cubic (FCC)
crystal structure, which provides them with excellent ductility, toughness, and corrosion resistance.
• Ferritic stainless steels, on the other hand, contain lower levels of chromium (usually 10-27%) and no
nickel. These alloys have a body-centred cubic (BCC) crystal structure and are magnetic. They are
commonly used in automotive and architectural applications.
• Martensitic stainless steels contain higher levels of carbon (usually around 0.1%) and lower levels of
chromium (usually 12-14%). These alloys have a body-centred tetragonal (BCT) crystal structure and are
heat treatable, making them suitable for applications requiring high strength and hardness.
Hardenable stainless steels
Hardenable stainless steels are a subclass of martensitic stainless steels that can be heat-treated to achieve high
strength and hardness. These alloys typically contain higher levels of carbon (usually around 0.1%) and lower
levels of chromium (usually 12-14%) compared to other stainless-steel types.
The hardening process involves heating the steel to a hot temperature (usually around 1000°C) and then quenching
it in a liquid medium, such as oil or water, to rapidly cool the steel and transform its microstructure into a martensitic
structure. The martensitic structure is characterized by an elevated level of hardness and strength but lower levels
of ductility and toughness.
Austenitic stainless steels – role of Nickel
Austenitic stainless steels are a type of stainless steel that contains prominent levels of nickel (usually around 8-
10%) and chromium (usually 18-20%) as the primary alloying elements. The nickel content plays a critical role in
the properties and characteristics of austenitic stainless steels.
One of the most important properties of austenitic stainless steels is their corrosion resistance. The elevated levels
of nickel and chromium form a passive oxide layer on the surface of the steel, which protects it from corrosion by
oxygen and other corrosive agents. The nickel content also enhances the stability of the passive oxide layer,
making it more resistant to chemical attack and preventing it from breaking down over time.
Advantages – disadvantages of austenitic stainless steels
Advantages of austenitic stainless steels:
• Corrosion resistance: Austenitic stainless steels have excellent corrosion resistance due to the prominent
levels of chromium and nickel content, which forms a passive oxide layer that protects the steel from
corrosion.
• Ductility and toughness: Austenitic stainless steels have high ductility and toughness due to their face-
centred cubic (FCC) crystal structure and high nickel content, making them easy to form and fabricate.
• Weldability: Austenitic stainless steels are highly weldable, allowing them to be easily joined to other
materials or components.
• High-temperature resistance: Austenitic stainless steels retain their mechanical properties at elevated
temperatures due to their high nickel content, making them suitable for high-temperature applications.
• Aesthetic appeal: Austenitic stainless steels have a bright, polished appearance that can be easily
maintained, making them a popular choice for decorative applications.
Disadvantages of austenitic stainless steels:
• Cost: Austenitic stainless steels are more expensive than other types of stainless steels due to their high
nickel content.
• Low strength: Austenitic stainless steels have lower strength compared to other types of stainless steels,
which may limit their use in certain high-stress applications.
 • Magnetic properties: Some austenitic stainless steels are not magnetic, which may be a disadvantage in
certain applications where magnetic properties are required.
• Sensitivity to stress corrosion cracking: Austenitic stainless steels can be sensitive to stress corrosion
cracking (SCC) in certain environments, which may limit their use in corrosive environments.
Schaeffler diagram

Improved Stainless Steels

improved stainless steels refer to a group of alloys that have been developed to offer superior properties
compared to traditional stainless-steel types. These alloys may contain a combination of various alloying
elements, including nickel, chromium, molybdenum, nitrogen, and others. Some of the properties that improved
stainless steels may offer include:

• Corrosion resistance
• Strength
• Weldability
• Wear resistance
• Hot temperatures resistance

FAILURE OF STRUCTURES - BRITTLE FRACTURE

Dangers of welds
Welding is a process that involves joining two pieces of metal by melting them together using high heat and
pressure.
• Electric shock
• Fire and explosion
• Toxic fumes
• Eye damage
• Noise exposure
• Burns and injuries.
Why are high C steel welds dangerous?
High carbon steel contains a high amount of carbon (typically between 0.6% and 1.5%), which makes it harder and
more brittle than other types of steel. When high carbon steel is welded, the heat from the welding process can
cause the steel to become even more brittle, increasing the risk of cracking and failure.
Brittle fracture under elastic conditions
Can occur in all materials.
Requires cracks of a certain size (cracks are stress raisers)
Stress Intensity Factor
Stress Intensity Factor (SIF) is a material property that describes the amount of stress concentration at the tip of a
crack or flaw in a material. It is defined as the ratio of the applied stress to the square root of the crack length. SIF
is an important parameter in fracture mechanics, which is the study of how materials behave under the conditions
of stress and strain that can cause them to break. The SIF helps to predict whether a material will fail when
subjected to a certain amount of stress, and to determine the critical stress intensity factor at which a crack will
propagate.
Determination of Y factor in equation through use of charts
The Y factor, also known as the geometric factor, is a dimensionless parameter used in fracture mechanics to
calculate the stress intensity factor (SIF) for a particular crack geometry. The Y factor depends on the shape and
size of the crack and is typically determined using charts or tables based on empirical data.
To determine the Y factor using a chart, you first need to measure the dimensions of the crack, such as the crack
length and the thickness of the material. Then, you can use a chart or table that relates the Y factor to these
dimensions.
Conditions for Brittle Fracture – Critical Stress Intensity
Brittle fracture occurs when a material fails without undergoing significant plastic deformation or yielding. The
critical stress intensity factor (KIC) is a material property that represents the resistance of a material to brittle
fracture. It is a measure of the stress required to propagate a pre-existing crack through the material and is typically
determined through standardized testing methods.
Fracture Stress – dependent on crack size
The fracture stress of a material is the stress required to cause it to fail due to cracking or fracture. When a crack
is present in a material, it acts as a stress concentration point. This means that the stress around the crack is
amplified, leading to a higher likelihood of fracture. As the size of the crack increases, the stress concentration also
increases, and the fracture stress of the material decreases.
FATIGUE
What is fatigue?
fatigue refers to the weakening and eventual failure of a material or component due to repeated cyclic loading over
time. This type of failure is known as fatigue failure and can occur even when the applied loads are below the
material's ultimate strength.
Loading conditions for fatigue to occur
For fatigue to occur in a material, it typically needs to be subjected to cyclic loading conditions, which means it
experiences repeated and varying levels of stress or strain over time.
• Mechanical loading
• Thermal loading
• Corrosion
• Creep
• Residual stresses
How does fatigue take place?
Fatigue failure occurs through a series of stages that involve the formation and propagation of cracks in the material.
The stages of fatigue failure can be summarized as follows:
1. Crack initiation
2. Crack propagation
3. Final fracture
What affects fatigue lifetime?
• Material properties
• Loading conditions
• Surface finish
• Environmental conditions
• Manufacturing processes
• Design considerations
• Material processing
Testing of fatigue
• Axial fatigue testing
• Bending fatigue testing
• Torsional fatigue testing
• Combined loading fatigue testing
Completely reversed and repeated stress cycles
Completely reversed stress cycles are those in which the stress alternates between a maximum tensile stress and
a maximum compressive stress of equal magnitude, with no static load present. In other words, the stress cycles
are symmetrical with respect to the mean stress level.
Definition of max stress, min stress, stress range, stress amplitude, mean stress
1. Maximum stress: This is the highest stress level reached during a stress cycle.
2. Minimum stress: This is the lowest stress level reached during a stress cycle.
3. Stress range: This is the difference between the maximum and minimum stresses and represents the total
amount of stress variation during a stress cycle.
4. Stress amplitude: This is half the stress range and represents the average magnitude of the stress
variation during a stress cycle. Mathematically, stress amplitude is expressed as (max stress - min
stress)/2.
5. Mean stress: This is the average stress level over a full stress cycle and represents the static load that is
superimposed on the cyclic loading. The mean stress can be either tensile or compressive and is
expressed as (max stress + min stress)/2.
S-N curves: What are they?
S-N curves, also known as Wohler curves, are graphical representations of the relationship between cyclic stress
amplitude (S) and the number of cycles to failure (N) for a given material under specific loading conditions. The
curves are used to determine the fatigue strength of a material and to estimate its expected fatigue life under cyclic
loading.
Reading S-N curves
Definition of fatigue limit and fatigue strength
• Fatigue limit: also known as endurance limit, is the maximum stress level below which a material can
withstand an infinite number of cycles without experiencing fatigue failure.
• Fatigue strength: is the maximum stress level at which a material can withstand a given number of cycles
without experiencing fatigue failure.
Basquin’s Law
Basquin's Law, also known as Basquin's equation, is an empirical relationship that describes the relationship
between the stress amplitude and the number of cycles to failure for a given material under cyclic loading conditions.
The Basquin’s equation can be expressed as follows:
• N = (C/ S)^m
Variable amplitude loading – Miners Law
Variable amplitude loading is a type of cyclic loading that involves a varying stress amplitude over time. Miner's
Law, also known as the Palmgren-Miner linear damage rule, is an empirical model used to predict the fatigue life
of a structure or component subjected to variable amplitude loading. The law assumes that the damage caused by
each cycle is proportional to the fraction of the component's fatigue life consumed by that cycle.
Effect of mean stress – Goodman`s Relationship
Goodman's relationship is an empirical model used to estimate the fatigue life of a material subjected to cyclic
loading conditions with a non-zero mean stress. The model assumes that the fatigue life of a material is inversely
proportional to the alternating stress amplitude, and that the effect of mean stress can be accounted for by adjusting
the allowable stress amplitude.
Design against fatigue
Minimising stress raisers
• Smooth out any abrupt changes in geometry, such as sharp corners or sudden transitions.
• Use smooth and polished surfaces to reduce surface roughness and prevent the formation of stress
concentration points.
• Avoid the use of sharp notches or holes and use rounded shapes or fillets instead.
• Use materials with high fatigue strength and toughness and avoid materials with defects or inclusions.
• Employ good manufacturing practices, such as careful machining, surface treatment, and inspection, to
minimize the risk of surface defects or irregularities.
Improving fatigue resistance
Case hardening - Case hardening is a surface hardening technique that is used to increase the surface hardness
and fatigue resistance of materials. In this process, the surface of the material is heated and then quenched in a
bath of oil or water.
Surface heat treatment - Surface heat treatment is another surface hardening technique used to improve the
fatigue resistance of materials. In this process, the surface of the material is heated and then rapidly cooled to
create a hard and wear-resistant surface layer.
Shot peening - is a surface treatment technique that involves bombarding the surface of the material with small
spherical particles at high velocity. This process can create compressive residual stresses in the surface layer.
CERAMICS
What is a ceramic?
any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant materials made by shaping and then firing an
inorganic, non-metallic material, such as clay, at an elevated temperature. ceramics refer to inorganic, non-metallic
materials that are typically made from a combination of metallic and non-metallic elements.
General characteristics of ceramics
Ceramic materials possess a range of desirable properties, including high hardness, high melting points, excellent
electrical and thermal insulation, and excellent resistance to wear, corrosion, and high-temperature environments.
These properties make ceramics useful for a wide range of engineering applications, including cutting tools, high-
temperature furnace linings, electrical insulators, and biocompatible implants, among many others.
Five Generic Classes of Ceramics (their characteristics and applications)
Glasses:
Characteristics:
• Amorphous (lack long-range order of atoms)
• Transparent or translucent
• Brittle
• Good electrical insulators
Applications:
• Windows and lenses for optics
• Tableware and glassware
• Electronic components, such as LCD screens
• Fibber-optic cables for telecommunications
Vitreous Ceramics:
Characteristics:
• Non-crystalline (like glasses)
• Hard and brittle
• Good electrical and thermal insulators
• Resistant to chemicals and wear
Applications:
• Porcelain and ceramic tableware
• Ceramic tiles for flooring and walls
• Bathroom fixtures, such as sinks and toilets.
• Laboratory equipment, such as crucibles and beakers
Rocks and Minerals (Natural Ceramics):
Characteristics:
• Naturally occurring
• Wide range of properties depending on the specific mineral or rock type
• Often brittle and hard
• May exhibit piezoelectric or pyroelectric properties.
Applications:
• Building and construction materials, such as granite countertops and marble flooring
• Gemstones and jewellery
• Refractory materials for furnace linings and kiln furniture
• Piezoelectric materials for sensors and actuators
Cement and Concrete:
Characteristics:
• Composed of a mixture of minerals, including calcium silicates
• Hardens and gains strength over time through a chemical reaction with water.
• Can be reinforced with steel to improve strength.
Applications:
• Building and construction materials, such as walls, floors, and bridges
• Infrastructure materials, such as roads and tunnels
• Precast concrete products, such as pipes and culverts
• Decorative concrete applications, such as stamped concrete and exposed aggregate finishes
High Performance Engineering Ceramics:
Characteristics:
• High strength and hardness
• High melting points and thermal stability
• Good wear and corrosion resistance
• Excellent electrical and thermal properties
Applications:
• Aerospace components, such as turbine blades and heat shields
• Automotive components, such as brake discs and spark plugs
• Cutting tools, such as drill bits and grinding wheels
• Biomedical implants, such as dental implants and joint replacements
Ceramic Composites
Ceramic composites are materials that consist of a combination of two or more ceramic materials, or a combination
of a ceramic material with a non-ceramic material such as a metal or polymer.
• Ceramic matrix composites
• Metal matrix composites
• Polymer matrix composites
• Ceramic-polymer hybrids
Bonding in Ceramics (governs many properties)
• Ionic Bonding - Ionic bonding is the primary type of bonding in ceramics made of ionic compounds. Ionic
compounds are made up of positively charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions), which
 are held together by strong electrostatic forces. The attraction between the oppositely charged ions
creates a strong and rigid bond, resulting in materials that are hard, brittle, and have high melting points.
• Covalent Bonding - Covalent bonding is the primary type of bonding in ceramics made of covalent
compounds. Covalent compounds are made up of atoms that share electrons to form strong bonds. The
sharing of electrons creates a strong bond, resulting in materials that are hard, have high melting points,
and are poor conductors of electricity and heat.
Processing Methods for Ceramics
• Powder Processing - Powder processing is a method of shaping ceramic materials by compacting a
powder mixture and then sintering it at hot temperatures. The powder mixture is usually made up of a
ceramic material, a binder, and a solvent. The binder is used to hold the powder particles together, while
the solvent is used to make the mixture easier to manage.
• Slip Casting - Slip casting is a method of shaping ceramic materials by pouring a slurry of ceramic particles
in a liquid suspension, called a slip, into a porous mould. The slip is then allowed to sit in the mould for a
period, during which the liquid portion of the slip is absorbed by the mould, leaving a solid ceramic shell
on the mould’s surface. The thickness of the shell can be controlled by adjusting the concentration of the
slip.
Advanced Ceramics achieve properties through fine particle size and pore removal.
• Fine Particle Size: Advanced ceramics are often made up of small particles, typically in the range of
nanometres to micrometres in size. The small particle size increases the surface area of the ceramic,
which allows for a greater number of surface atoms to participate in bonding, resulting in stronger and
more durable materials.
• Pore Removal: Pores are small voids or cavities within the structure of a ceramic material. Pores can
weaken the material by providing a pathway for cracks to propagate.
Mechanical Properties of Ceramics (hardness, strength, brittleness)
• Hardness: Ceramics are known for their high hardness, which is the ability to resist indentation or
scratching.
• Strength: Ceramics are also known for their high strength, which is the ability to resist deformation or
fracture under an applied load.
• Brittleness: Ceramics are often characterized by their brittleness, which is the tendency to fracture without
significant deformation.
Plastic deformation in a hardness test (local concentrated loading)
In a hardness test, plastic deformation can occur when a local concentrated load is applied to the surface of the
material being evaluated. This can cause the material to deform plastically, meaning it changes its shape
permanently without breaking. The extent of plastic deformation depends on several factors, including the hardness
of the material, the size of the load, and the duration of the load.
Why is it difficult to get ceramics to plastically deform? (bonding)
It is difficult to get ceramics to plastically deform because of the nature of their bonding. Most ceramics are
composed of atoms that are bonded together through strong covalent or ionic bonds. These bonds are directional
and make the ceramics very rigid and brittle, which means that they are resistant to plastic deformation.
Ceramics usually fracture before yielding (brittle)
Yes, ceramics are brittle materials because they tend to fracture before yielding. This is due to the nature of the
atomic bonding in ceramics, which is often covalent or ionic and leads to directional bonds that make the materials
very rigid.
Brittle Fracture Strength (dependence on crack size)
When a ceramic material is subjected to stress, the stress is concentrated at the tips of any cracks or flaws present
in the material. As the stress concentration becomes too high, the material will fracture suddenly along the crack,
even if the applied stress is well below the theoretical strength of the material. As the size of a pre-existing crack
or flaw in a ceramic material increase, the material becomes increasingly likely to fracture under stress.
Modulus of Rupture (why it differs from tensile strength)
Is a measure of the strength of a brittle material under bending. It represents the maximum bending stress that a
material can withstand before fracturing. The reason MOR differs from tensile strength has to do with the nature of
brittle materials. When a brittle material is subjected to tensile forces, stresses tend to concentrate at the tips of
any pre-existing cracks or flaws in the material, which can cause the material to fracture suddenly.
Failure in Compression - Why is compressive strength higher than tensile.
In other words, compressive strength resists compression (being pushed together), whereas tensile strength resists
tension (being pulled apart)
Crack propagation and failure in compression (comparison to tensile)
When a material is subjected to compressive stress, any pre-existing cracks or flaws in the material can begin to
propagate and grow under the compressive forces. This can lead to localized deformation and eventually to
macroscopic failure of the material.
However, the mechanisms of crack propagation and failure in compression are different from those in tension. In
tension, cracks tend to propagate perpendicular to the applied tensile stress, as the stresses at the tip of the crack
are highest in this direction.
Thermal Shock
Thermal shock refers to the damage or failure of a material due to rapid and uneven temperature changes. This
can occur when a material is exposed to sudden and extreme temperature changes, such as when it is heated or
cooled too quickly, or when it is exposed to alternating hot and cold temperatures.
CERAMICS PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS
Powder processing techniques
1. Mixing and blending
2. Power compaction
3. Sintering
4. Spray drying
5. Sol gel processing
Powder processing microstructure
1. Powder compaction involves pressing the mixed powders into a specific shape, which can influence the
microstructure of the material.
2. Sintering, which involves heating the compacted powders to a hot temperature to promote particle bonding
and densification.
CEMENT AND CONCRETE

Pozzolona Cements
Pozzolana cement is a type of cement that includes pozzolanic materials in addition to clinker, such as volcanic
ash, fly ash, or silica fume. Pozzolana is a naturally occurring volcanic ash that was first used by the Romans to
make concrete structures. The addition of pozzolanic materials to cement improves its strength, durability, and
resistance to chemicals and water.
Chemistry of Pozzolona cements
The overall chemical composition of a pozzolan is considered as one of the parameters governing long-term
performance (e.g., compressive strength) of the blended cement binder, ASTM C618 prescribes that a pozzolan
should contain SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 ≥ 70 wt.
What binds the cement particles?
The binding agent in cement is calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel. C-S-H gel is formed because of the chemical
reaction between the cement particles and water during the curing process. This gel is a complex structure that
consists of a network of calcium, silicon, and oxygen atoms linked together by hydrogen bonds.
Portland Cement
Portland cement is a type of hydraulic cement that is commonly used in construction. It is composed of four main
compounds: tricalcium silicate (C3S), dicalcium silicate (C2S), tricalcium aluminate (C3A), and tetra calcium
aluminoferrite (C4AF). These compounds are produced by heating a mixture of limestone, clay, and other minerals
to an elevated temperature in a kiln.
How is it produced?
Portland cement is produced through a process called cement clinkerization, which involves several steps:
• Raw material preparation
• Clinker production
• Clinker griding
• Packaging and distribution
The production of Portland cement is energy-intensive and results in significant greenhouse gas emissions.
Setting and hardening of Portland cement
The setting and hardening of Portland cement are the result of a chemical reaction called hydration, which occurs
when water is added to the cement powder.
• Initial setting: The initial setting time of cement is the time required for the cement to begin hardening after
the addition of water. It typically occurs within the first 30 to 45 minutes of mixing. During this stage, the
cement begins to form a gel-like substance as the C-S-H gel starts to form.
• Final setting: The final setting time of cement is the time required for the cement to reach its full strength
and hardness after the addition of water. It typically occurs within six to eight hours after mixing. During
this stage, the C-S-H gel continues to form and harden, resulting in a strong and durable cement matrix.
Structure of Portland Cement
The four main compounds in Portland cement are:
• Tricalcium silicate (C3S): C3S is the most abundant compound in Portland cement, making up about 50-
60% of the total composition. It has a complex crystal structure that is composed of interconnected layers
of calcium and oxygen atoms, with silicon atoms in the centre. C3S is responsible for the early strength
of cement.
• Dicalcium silicate (C2S): C2S makes up about 15-30% of the total composition of Portland cement. It has
a similar crystal structure to C3S, but it reacts more slowly and contributes to the later strength of cement.
• Tricalcium aluminate (C3A): C3A makes up about 5-10% of the total composition of Portland cement. It
has a cubic crystal structure and is responsible for the initial setting and early strength development of
cement.
• Tetra calcium aluminoferrite (C4AF): C4AF makes up about 10-15% of the total composition of Portland
cement. It has a similar crystal structure to C3A and contributes to the early strength of cement.
Heat evolution during setting and hardening
Heat evolution during the setting and hardening of Portland cement is a result of the exothermic chemical reactions
that occur during the hydration process. As water is added to the cement powder, the compounds in the cement
react with the water to form calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel and calcium hydroxide (CH), releasing heat in the
process. The heat evolution during the setting and hardening of Portland cement is an important consideration in
the construction industry, as it can affect the strength and durability of the concrete. In some cases, excessive heat
can cause thermal cracking and other damage to the concrete. To control the temperature during hydration, various
techniques can be used, such as using cooler water, shading the concrete, or using chemical admixtures to reduce
the heat of hydration.
Consequences of setting and hardening for large structures
1. Cracking
2. Shrinkage
3. Strength
4. Durability
High alumina cement
High alumina cement (HAC) is a type of cement that is made by sintering a mixture of limestone and bauxite or
other sources of alumina at a temperature of about 1500°C. HAC contains a high percentage of alumina (between
35% and 50%) and is characterized by its rapid strength development, high early strength, and high heat of
hydration.
Concrete
Concrete is a composite material made up of cement, water, aggregates (such as sand and gravel), and sometimes
additives and/or admixtures. It is one of the most widely used building materials in the world, due to its durability,
strength, and versatility.
Achieving high packing density of particles – benefits
• Improved strength and durability
• Enhanced mechanical properties.
• Increased surface area
• Reduced void spaces.
Workability of Cement and Concrete (Slump Test)
Workability is an essential property of both cement and concrete that describes how easily they can be mixed,
placed, and compacted without segregation. Workability is determined by several factors such as water-cement
ratio, aggregate size and shape, and admixtures. The procedure for the slump test is as follows:
1. A mould in the shape of a truncated cone is placed on a flat, non-absorbent surface.
2. The mould is filled with fresh concrete in three layers, each layer being tamped twenty-five times with a
standard tamping rod.
3. After filling the mould, the excess concrete is struck off with a trowel.
4. The mould is carefully lifted off the concrete, and the amount of slump (deformation) is measured by the
difference between the height of the mould and the highest point of the concrete surface.
5. The slump is measured in millimetres and is used to determine the workability of the concrete.
Factors affecting workability.
• Water-cement ratio
• Aggregate characteristics
• Admixtures
• Cement characteristics
• Temperature
• Mixing time and method
Mechanical properties of cement and concrete
• Elastic Modulus - also known as Young's modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of a material. It represents
the ratio of stress to strain in a material under linear deformation. A high elastic modulus indicates that a
material is stiff and resistant to deformation, while a low elastic modulus indicates that a material is more
flexible and easier to deform.
• Strength - refers to the ability of a material to withstand stress without failure. In cement and concrete,
compressive strength is the most used measure of strength.
Effect of water on strength
Water has a significant effect on the strength of cement and concrete. However, if too much water is added, the
strength of the concrete can be reduced. a lower water-cement ratio results in higher compressive strength and
greater durability.
Achieving high strength cement and concrete
• Use high quality materials.
• Optimize the mix design.
• Use appropriate curing methods.
• Consider the use of admixtures.
• Use proper construction techniques.
Toughness of Concrete
In concrete, toughness is related to the ability of the material to resist cracking and deformation, even under high
stress conditions.
Compression of concrete
Concrete is a strong and durable material in compression, which means it can resist being pushed together or
compressed without breaking or deforming. This property makes concrete an ideal material for applications such
as building foundations, columns, and walls that need to support heavy loads.
The compressive strength of concrete is typically measured in pounds per square inch (psi) or megapascals (MPa).
Compression testing (stress -strain curve) and compressive failure of concrete
The test involves applying a compressive load to a cylindrical or cubical concrete specimen until it fails. The
compressive strength of the concrete is calculated by dividing the maximum load that the specimen can withstand
by its cross-sectional area.
During the compression test, the stress-strain curve of the concrete can be plotted, which shows the relationship
between the applied load and the deformation of the specimen. The compressive failure of concrete typically occurs
due to the formation and growth of microcracks, which eventually coalesce into larger cracks and lead to the
complete failure of the material.
Durability of concrete – what is it?
Durability of concrete refers to its ability to resist deterioration and maintain its structural integrity over time under
various environmental and load conditions.
Factors affecting durability.
• Exposure conditions
• Quality of materials
• Mix design.
• Curing procedures
• Construction practices
• Maintenance and repair
Reinforcing concrete
Reinforced concrete is a composite material that is widely used in construction due to its combination of strength,
durability, and versatility. Reinforcing concrete involves the use of reinforcing steel (rebar) or other materials to
enhance its strength and load-bearing capacity.
The reinforcing steel is typically placed in the concrete before it sets, and then the concrete is allowed to harden
around the steel. The steel provides additional tensile strength to the concrete, which is necessary to withstand
loads that would cause plain concrete to crack and fail.
Fibres
fibre-reinforced concrete (FRC) is a type of composite material that incorporates fibres into the concrete mix to
improve its properties.
Fibers can be made of various materials, such as glass, steel, polypropylene, nylon, and carbon. The fibres are
typically short and randomly distributed throughout the concrete matrix, providing reinforcement in all directions.
The addition of fibres can improve the toughness, ductility, impact resistance, and fatigue resistance of concrete.
Pre-tensioning and Post-tensioning concrete
• Pre-tensioning involves the use of pre-stressing steel strands or cables that are tensioned before the
concrete is poured.
• Post-tensioning involves the use of steel cables or tendons that are placed in the concrete after it has
hardened.
Environmental issues regarding concrete and reinforced concrete
• Greenhouse gas emissions
• Land use and biodiversity loss
• Water consumption
• Waste generation
TIMBER
Hardwood and softwood
• Hardwood: Hardwood trees come from deciduous trees, which are trees that lose their leaves annually.
Examples of hardwood trees include oak, maple, and cherry. Hardwood trees tend to grow more slowly
and have a denser, more complex cellular structure, which makes them harder, more durable, and more
resistant to wear and tear. They are often used in high-end furniture, cabinetry, flooring, and other
applications where strength and durability are important.
• Softwood: Softwood trees, on the other hand, come from coniferous trees, which are trees that have
needles or scale-like leaves and produce cones. Examples of softwood trees include pine, spruce, and
cedar. Softwood trees tend to grow more quickly and have a simpler cellular structure, which makes them
less dense and less durable than hardwoods. They are often used in construction, such as in framing and
decking, and in furniture and decorative items.
Structure of Wood
Macroscopic – rays, growth rings
• Rays are structures in wood that extend radially from the centre of the tree to the bark. They are visible
as lighter-coloured lines in some types of wood, such as oak and hickory. Rays have several essential
functions in the tree, including transporting water and nutrients from the centre of the tree to the outer
layers, and providing support and stability to the trunk.
• Growth rings are visible as concentric circles on the end-grain of a piece of wood. They are formed as the
tree grows, with one ring forming each year. The growth rings can provide valuable information about the
 age and growth rate of the tree, as well as the environmental conditions that the tree experienced during
its growth.
Microscopic – cells
At the microscopic level, wood is composed of cells that have specific functions and roles in the overall structure
of the material. The main types of cells found in wood include:
• Tracheids: These are the most abundant cells in softwood and some hardwood species. They are
elongated cells with tapered ends and are responsible for transporting water and nutrients up and down
the tree.
• Fibers: These cells are also elongated and tapered, but they are thicker and more rigid than tracheids.
They provide structural support to the tree and contribute to the strength and stiffness of wood.
• Parenchyma cells: These cells are less common in wood and are usually found in hardwood species.
They are small, rounded cells that store and transport nutrients and play a role in repairing damaged
tissue.
• Ray cells: These cells are also found in hardwood species and are responsible for transporting nutrients
horizontally across the tree. They are arranged in radial rows and give wood its distinctive grain pattern.
Molecular
At the molecular level, wood is composed of three primary polymers: cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. These
polymers are synthesized by the tree during growth and serve distinct functions in the structure and properties of
the wood.
• Cellulose: Cellulose is a long-chain polymer made up of glucose units linked together in a linear fashion.
Cellulose is highly resistant to both chemical and biological degradation, making it a durable and long-
lasting material.
• Hemicellulose: Hemicellulose is a complex polymer made up of a variety of sugar molecules.
Hemicellulose is less stable than cellulose and is more susceptible to degradation, but it contributes to
the overall flexibility and toughness of the wood.
• Lignin: Lignin is a complex polymer that fills the spaces between the cellulose and hemicellulose fibres in
the cell walls. It provides additional strength and stiffness to the material and helps to prevent the cellulose
fibres from sliding past one another.
Anisotropy of Wood
Wood is an anisotropic material, meaning it exhibits different physical and mechanical properties in different
directions. This anisotropy arises from the orientation and arrangement of the wood cells and the molecular
structure of the wood polymers.
At the macroscopic level, wood is stronger and stiffer in the direction parallel to the grain (longitudinal direction)
than in the perpendicular direction (radial or tangential direction).
At the microscopic level, the anisotropy of wood is due to the orientation and arrangement of the wood cells and
the molecular structure of the wood polymers. The cellulose and hemicellulose fibres are oriented parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the cell, contributing to the overall anisotropy of the material.
Mechanical properties – dependence on water
Wood is a hygroscopic material, which means that it can absorb and release water depending on the surrounding
environment. As the moisture content of wood increases, its strength and stiffness decrease, and it becomes more
prone to deformation and failure under load. This is since water weakens the intermolecular bonds between the
cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin polymers that make up the wood, leading to reduced strength and stiffness.
Mechanical properties – dependence on density
The mechanical properties of wood are also influenced by its density. Density is the mass of a unit volume of wood
and is typically measured in units of kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3).
The strength and stiffness of wood increase with increasing density. This is because denser wood contains more
wood fibres per unit volume, leading to a higher number of load-bearing elements and greater resistance to
deformation and failure under load.
How structure effect properties
Elasticity
The elasticity of wood is closely related to its mechanical properties such as strength and stiffness. The higher the
elasticity of wood, the greater its resistance to deformation and failure under load.
Strength
For example, wood with high strength may be preferred for applications where high load-bearing capacity is
required, such as in construction or furniture. On the other hand, wood with lower strength may be more suitable
for applications where weight is a primary concern, such as in the aerospace industry.
Toughness
In general, wood that is high in toughness will also exhibit high strength and elasticity. This is because a tough
material must be able to absorb energy without fracturing, which requires a combination of strength and elasticity.
In addition, wood with high toughness may also exhibit good resistance to wear and abrasion, making it suitable
for applications where durability is important.
The relationship between toughness and other mechanical properties of wood can be complex and dependent on
many factors such as species, moisture content, and the direction of applied forces.
Why is wood tough across grain.
Wood is tough across the grain because of its fibrous structure. The fibres in wood are oriented along the length
of the tree trunk, which means that they are perpendicular to the direction of the grain. When a force is applied to
the wood across the grain, the fibres can flex and bend, absorbing energy and preventing the wood from cracking
or breaking.
Grading of timber
Grading of timber refers to the process of evaluating and sorting wood based on its strength, stiffness, and other
mechanical properties.
There are two main grading systems for timber: visual grading and machine grading.
Case studies
Timber modification processes.
Timber modification refers to any process that alters the physical, chemical, or biological properties of wood to
improve its performance or extend its lifespan. There are several timber modification processes, including:
1. Thermal Modification: In this process, timber is heated to elevated temperatures (typically between 160-
240°C) in a low-oxygen environment to reduce its moisture content and change its chemical structure.
This improves the wood's dimensional stability, resistance to decay, and reduces its ability to absorb water.
2. Chemical Modification: Chemical modification involves treating wood with chemicals to alter its properties.
Common chemical modifications include acetylation, in which wood is treated with acetic anhydride to
increase its dimensional stability and resistance to decay, and furfurylthiol, in which wood is treated with
furfuryl alcohol to improve its hardness and durability.
3. Impregnation: In this process, wood is treated with a preservative solution under pressure to impregnate
the wood cells and improve its resistance to decay and insect damage.
4. Lamination: Lamination involves bonding two or more layers of wood together using adhesives to create
a stronger and more stable product.
5. Micronization: This process involves reducing the size of wood particles to increase their surface area and
improve their performance as a filler material in composite products.
GLASS
What is glass?
Is an organic solid material that is usually transparent or translucent as well as hard, brittle, and impervious to the
natural elements.
Amorphous structure
Glass can be widely defined as an amorphous solid. An amorphous solid can be considered to have a random
arrangement of atoms, such as observed in a gas but more realistically can considered to only lack long-range
order such as those found in crystalline solids.
Types of glass – modifiers
Modifiers are chemicals that can be added to glass in small quantities to further alter the properties of a glass.
These include lithium, sodium, potassium, and calcium. Glass modifiers such as lithium oxide, calcium oxide and
zinc oxide can be used to fine-tune the properties of silicate and borate glass to suit several niche engineering
applications.
Production and forming of glass – effect of viscosity.
The production and forming of glass are heavily influenced by the viscosity of the glass material. Viscosity refers
to the resistance of a material to flow or deformation, and it is a function of temperature and chemical composition.
During the production of glass, raw materials are melted and formed into a molten glass state. The viscosity of the
molten glass determines how easily it can be processed and formed into its final shape. Higher viscosity glasses
are more resistant to flow and require higher processing temperatures and longer processing times to achieve the
desired shape. The viscosity of the glass also affects the cooling rate and the resulting properties of the final product.
Rapid cooling of the glass can result in a more amorphous, or non-crystalline, structure, while slower cooling can
result in a more ordered, or crystalline, structure.
Toughened glass – tempered and laminated glass
• Toughened glass is a type of glass that is specially treated to improve its strength and durability. There
are two main types of toughened glass: tempered glass and laminated glass.
• Tempered glass is made by heating the glass to a hot temperature and then rapidly cooling it with a blast
of cold air. Tempered glass is also more resistant to thermal stress, which makes it ideal for use in
applications where temperature fluctuations are common
• Laminated glass, on the other hand, is made by sandwiching a layer of transparent plastic between two
sheets of glass.
CREEP
What is creep?
Is indicated when strain in a solid increase with time while the stress producing the strain is kept constant. The
increased strain or deformation of a structural element under a constant load.
Conditions for creep
1. The magnitude of the sustained loading
2. The age and strength of the concrete when the stress is applied.
3. The total amount of time that the concrete is stressed.
Effect of temperature on creep
As the temperature increases and the creep time increases, the average creep modulus of similar materials in soft
rock decreases.
Effect of stress on creep
The higher the stress, the greater the creep deformation.
Creep design
 Displacement limited - Design displacement limits are typically set by considering the time-dependent
properties of the material, such as the creep rate, as well as the loading conditions and the desired service life of
the structure.
Fracture limited - The design fracture limit is the maximum stress or strain level that a structure can
sustain without experiencing failure or cracking.
Creep relaxation - Creep relaxation refers to the gradual decrease in stress or load over time for a
constant strain or deformation, and it is an indication of the ability of the material to maintain its shape and
performance over time.
Displacement limited creep - Displacement limited creep is a design approach used to limit the amount of
deformation that a structure can experience over time due to creep.
Creep curves – secondary creep rate
Creep curves are graphical representations of the time-dependent deformation behaviour of materials under a
constant load or stress. A typical creep curve consists of three distinct regions: primary, secondary, and tertiary
creep.
• The secondary creep rate is an important parameter for designing structures made from amorphous
thermoplastics, as it can help to predict the amount of time-dependent deformation that the structure will
experience over its service life. Materials with higher secondary creep rates will experience greater
deformation over time, which can lead to issues such as buckling, cracking, or failure.
Creep equations
Power Law creep
• ε̇ ∞ σn exp(−Q/RT)
Diffusion creep
Creep relaxation
Relaxation equation
𝜎(𝑡)
• 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝜀
0
Creep failure – creep rupture curves
Is characterized by the permanent deformation of material under constant load and temperature.

Accelerated testing – Larsen Miller Parameter

Is the most extensively used extrapolation technique for predicting creep life of metallic materials. In this technique,
Larson-Miller parameter (p) is empirically expressed as: P = T [C + log(t)] where C is considered as a constant.
POLYMERS
Molecular structure of polymers
Polymers have large molecules, the atoms in a polymer molecule are joined together by strong covalent bonds in
long chains.
Bonding forces
Are forces of attraction or repulsion which act between neighbouring particles such as atoms, molecules, or ions.
Effect of chain length on properties
Types of polymers (and their bonding)
Thermoplastics: polymers that can be melted and recast indefinitely. Bonding – mechanical fastening,
adhesive bonding, solvent bonding, co-consolidation, and fusion bonding or welding.
Thermosets: are polymers in which a crosslinking reaction occurs promoting chemical bonding between
macromolecular chains and creating a three-dimensional network.
Elastomers: polymers that have viscosity and elasticity – Hydrogen bonding:
Applications of different polymers
• Thermoplastics: Sports equipment, toys, CDs, and DVDs, drinking bottles, eyeglasses lenses, shampoo
bottles, bullet-proof vests.
• Thermosets: gas and water pipelines, automotive parts, medical equipment, storage boxes, construction
machinery parts, electrical plugs, kitchen appliances, toys.
• Elastomers: seals, hoses, tires, animal tags, conveyor belts, gloves (medical), implants and prosthetics.
Thermoplastics – polymers that can be melted and recast indefinitely.
Crystallisation (what is it? Volume changes. What effects ease of crystallisation?)
Is the solidification of a liquid substance into a highly structured solid whose atoms or molecules are placed in a
well-defined three-dimensional crystal lattice.
Volume changes: During the process of crystallization, there can be volume changes that occur. These volume
changes can be due to numerous factors, such as the formation of new solid crystals, changes in temperature or
pressure, or the presence of impurities.
• Solubility: The solubility of a substance in a particular solvent is a key factor in determining its ease of
crystallization. If a substance has low solubility in a solvent, it is more likely to form crystals as the solvent
is cooled or evaporated.
• Temperature: The temperature at which a substance is cooled or evaporated can also affect its ease of
crystallization. If a substance is cooled or evaporated too quickly, it may not have enough time to form
well-defined crystals. On the other hand, if the cooling or evaporation process is too slow, other
undesirable forms such as amorphous solids may form.
• Concentration: The concentration of the substance in the solution can also affect its ease of crystallization.
If the concentration is too low, there may not be enough molecules to form crystals, whereas if it is too
high, the solution may become supersaturated, making it more difficult for crystals to form.
• Presence of impurities: The presence of impurities in a substance can also affect its ease of crystallization.
Impurities can either facilitate or hinder the formation of crystals by acting as nucleation sites or by
disrupting the crystal lattice structure.
• Stirring: Agitation of the solution can also affect the ease of crystallization by providing a more
homogeneous environment for crystal formation, promoting nucleation, and increasing crystal growth
rates.
Amorphous thermoplastics – are easy to thermoform and as such an excellent choice for most injection moulding
applications, whereas semi-crystalline plastics tend to be opaque in their solid state, amorphous thermoplastics
are usually translucent.
Volume changes - Amorphous thermoplastics can experience changes in volume due to a variety of
factors such as temperature, pressure, and moisture absorption. These materials can absorb moisture from the
surrounding environment, which can cause them to swell and increase in volume. The degree of swelling will
depend on the specific material and the level of humidity in the environment.
Glass Transition Temperature
The glass transition is an important characteristic of amorphous thermoplastics, and it refers to the temperature
range over which the material transitions from a glassy, rigid state to a more flexible, rubbery state.
At temperatures below the glass transition temperature (Tg), amorphous thermoplastics are in a glassy state,
meaning they are rigid and brittle. At temperatures above Tg, the material becomes more flexible and rubberier,
and it can undergo significant deformation without breaking.
Effect of temperature on Elastic Modulus and different regimes
• Glass-like regime: In this regime, the elastic modulus of a material is high, and the material behaves in a
brittle manner. The material is also characterized by a high yield strength and low ductility. At low
temperatures, many materials exhibit glass-like behaviour.
• Viscoelastic (glass transition) regime: In this regime, the material begins to exhibit more elastic behaviour
but also has some degree of viscous behaviour. The elastic modulus of the material decreases with
increasing temperature, and the material becomes more ductile. The viscoelastic regime is characterized
by the glass transition temperature, at which the material transitions from a glassy to a rubbery state.
• Rubbery regime: In this regime, the elastic modulus of the material continues to decrease with increasing
temperature, and the material exhibits significant ductility and elasticity. The rubbery regime is
characterized by the rubber transition temperature, at which the material transitions from a rubbery to a
viscous state.
• Viscous regime: In this regime, the elastic modulus of the material is very low, and the material exhibits
significant flow and deformation under an applied load. In this regime, the material behaves like a liquid
and its mechanical properties are dominated by viscous behaviour.
Explanation of modulus changes through molecular behaviour
The elastic modulus is a measure of the stiffness or rigidity of a material, and it is related to the force required to
deform the material under an applied load. The molecular behaviour of a material refers to the behaviour of the
individual molecules and their interactions with each other.
Stress – Strain Curve of Polymer
• Brittle fracture: In a brittle fracture, the polymer fractures suddenly without any significant plastic
deformation. This is characterized by a steep slope on the stress-strain curve and a low elongation at
break. This behaviour is typically observed in polymers that have weak intermolecular forces and low
molecular weight.
• Crazing: Crazing is a type of deformation that occurs in some polymers, where the material forms small
cracks or voids in the region of high tensile stress. This behaviour is characterized by a plateau on the
stress-strain curve and a decrease in stress without a corresponding decrease in strain. Crazing is
typically observed in polymers that have high molecular weight and high intermolecular forces.
• Shear bands: Shear bands are localized regions of intense plastic deformation that occur in some
polymers under high shear stresses. This behaviour is characterized by a sharp drop in stress and a
significant increase in strain. Shear bands are typically observed in polymers that have a high degree of
crystallinity or a highly oriented structure.
 • Plastic deformation/drawing: In this behaviour, the polymer undergoes significant plastic deformation
before finally breaking.
Viscoelastic Behaviour
Viscoelastic behaviour refers to the combined behaviour of viscosity and elasticity in a material. This behaviour is
observed in materials that exhibit both viscous (liquid-like) and elastic (solid-like) behaviour when subjected to
deformation.
Creep Recovery and Stress Relaxation
• Creep recovery refers to the ability of a material to return to its original shape after being subjected to a
constant stress for a period.
• Stress relaxation, on the other hand, refers to the decrease in stress over time when a material is
subjected to a constant strain.
Creep curves, Isochronous/Isometric graphs
Design calculations