Solar Mathematica

Solar Math
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
This collection of activities is based on a weekly series of space

science problems distributed to thousands of teachers during the 20052012 school years. They were intended for students looking for
additional challenges in the math and physical science curriculum in
grades 5 through 12. The problems were created to be authentic
glimpses of modern science and engineering issues, often involving
actual research data.
The problems were designed to be one-pagers with a Teachers
Guide and Answer Key as a second page. This compact form was
deemed very popular by participating teachers.
This book is an expanded edition of the previous Hinode math
solar problem book, with many new problems added to the original
collection that were created by SpaceMath@NASA since 2009
For more weekly classroom activities about astronomy and space visit
the NASA website,
http://spacemath.gsfc.nasa.gov
Add your email address to our mailing list by contacting Dr. Sten
Odenwald at
[email protected]
Front and back cover credits: Front) Main image: SDO Solar Image of Transit
of Venus, June 6, 2012; Small images, top left to right - SOHO/EIT Helium 304A
image; Optical image KPNO; 20cm Radio Image, NRAO/VLA Back) Hinode soft
x-ray imagery (Hinode/JAXA/NRL)
This booklet was created through an education grant NNH06ZDA001NEPO from NASA's Science Mission Directorate.
Space Math
Table of Contents
ii
Grade
Page
i
ii
v
ix
x
xi
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-5
6-8
6-8
6-8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
Acknowledgments
Table of Contents
Mathematics Topic Matrix
How to use this Book
Alignment with Standards
Teacher Comments
The Relative Sizes of the Sun and Stars
Monster Sunspots
Solar Surface Details with the Swedish Vacuum Telescope
Close-up of a Sunspot by Hinode
An Extreme Ultraviolet Image of the Sun
Radio Image of the Sun
A Gamma-Ray Image of the Sun
X-Ray Image of the Sun
Hinode Sees Mysterious Solar Micro-flares
Solar Storm Timeline - Narrative
Solar Storm Timeline - Tabular
Solar flares
Sunspots and Solar Flares
Solar Flares and the Sunspot Cycle
How Common are X-Class Solar Flares?
SPEs and the Sunspot Cycle
Solar Dynamics Observatory: Giga,Tera, Peta and Exabytes
Hinode Satellite Power
Sunspot Size and the Sunspot Cycle
Sunspot Cycles Since 1900
Are you ready for Sunspot Cycle 24?
Solar Storms: Odds, Fractions and Percentages
Studying Solar Storms with Venn Diagrams
Space Weather Indicators
Sunspot cycles
Solar Irradiance Changes and the Sunspot Cycle
Sunspots and Satellite Re-entry
Satellite Failures and Outages During Cycle 23
Changing Perspectives on the Sun's Diameter
The Sun in Visible Light
SDO Reveals Details on the Surface of the Sun
Getting an Angle on the Sun and Moon
The Last Total Solar EclipseEver!
STEREO Spacecraft give 360o Solar View
Space Math
Table of Contents (contd)
General Angles and Radian Measure

The Magnetic Classification of Sunspots
How fast does the sun spin?
The Speed of a Coronal Mass Ejection
Measuring the Speed of a Prominence with SDO
Estimating Magnetic Field Speeds on the Sun
Exploring the Solar Wind and Coronal Mass Ejections
STEREO Watches the Sun Kick Up a Storm!
Measuring the Speed of a Solar Tsunami!
Estimating Halo CME Speeds
An Interplanetary Shock Wave
Estimating Halo CME Arrival Times
Histogram of Halo CME Speeds: 1996-2008
Predicting the Direction of Motion of a CME
Fastest Halo CME Speeds by Year and Month
Solar Storms: Sequences and Probabilities I
Solar Storm Energy and Pie Graphs
Probability of Compound Events
How often do solar storms occur?
Cosmic Rays and the Sunspot Cycle
Active Region Evolution and Energy Release
M-flares as Predictors of X-flares
Find the mystery lines...if you can!
Death Stars
Exploring the Nighttime Launch of STEREO
Do fast CMEs produce intense SPEs?
Seeing Solar Storms in STEREO - II
Seeing Solar Storms in STEREO
Right Triangle Trigonometry
Hinode Studies Loopy Sunspots!
The Most Important Equation in Astronomy!
The Sun in Hydrogen Light
Radio Image of the Sun - I
Radio Image of the Sun - II
Radio Image of the Sun - III
The Solar Spectrum from Gamma to Radio
The Energy of Light - I
The Energy of Light - II
Space Math
iii
Grade
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
6-8
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
Page
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
Table of Contents (contd)
The Flow of Light Energy: Power

CME Kinetic Energy and Mass
Combinations and the Binomial Theorem
Finding Binomial Probabilities using Combinations
Finding Trinomial Probabilities
Normal Distributions
Solar Probe Plus: Working with angular diameter
Solar Probe Plus- Having a hot time near the sun!
Finding Mass in the Cosmos
A Mathematical Model of the Sun
The Law of Sines
The Law of Cosines
Law of Cosines
Functions and their Graphs: Sunspot numbers
Matrix operations
Algebraic Expressions and Models
Polynomial Modeling with Technology
Graphing Simple Rational Functions
Hot Gas and Cold Gas
Using the Doppler Shift to Study Gas
Spectroscopy and Gas Density - Elementary
Density Structure of an Active Region
Plasma Speeds in Active Regions
Useful Links
Space Math
iv
Grade
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-12
Page
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
Mathematics Topic Matrix

Topic
Problem
Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1
Inquiry
XX
Technology,
rulers
Numbers,
patterns,
percentages
Averages
XXXXXXXXX
XX
XXXXXXXX
XXX
Time, distance,
speed
Areas and
volumes
Scale
drawings
Geometry
X
XXXXXXXXX
XX
X
XX
XX
X
X
X
Graph or Table
Analysis
Solving for X
XXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXX
Evaluating Fns
Modeling
Probability
XX
Rates/Slopes
Logarithmic
Fns
Polynomials
Power Fns
Conics
Piecewise Fns
Trigonometry
Integration
Differentiation
Limits
Space Math
XX
X
Scientific
Notation
Unit
Conversions
Fractions
XXX
Mathematics Topic Matrix (cont'd)
Topic
Problem
vi
Numbers
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2
Inquiry
Technology,
rulers
Numbers,
patterns,
percentages
Averages
Time, distance,
speed
Areas and
volumes
Scale
drawings
Geometry
X
XX
XXXXX
XX
X
X
XXXXXXX
X X
XXX
XXX
XX
XX
X
X
XX
XXXXX
Scientific
Notation
Unit
Conversions
Fractions
Graph or Table
Analysis
Solving for X
XX
Evaluating Fns
XX
XXXXXXXX
XX
Modeling
Probability
Rates/Slopes
X
X
Logarithmic
Fns
Polynomials
Power Fns
Conics
Piecewise Fns
Trigonometry
Integration
Differentiation
Limits
Space Math

Topic
Problem
vii
Numbers
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3
Inquiry
Technology,
rulers
Numbers,
patterns,
percentages
Averages
Time, distance
,speed
Areas and
volumes
Scale
drawings
Geometry
X
X
XX
XXX
XXX
Scientific
Notation
Unit
Conversions
XX
XXXX
X
XX
X X
Fractions
Graph or Table
Analysis
Solving for X
Evaluating Fns
X
X
XXXX
X X XX X
XX
Modeling
X
X
XXXX
Rates/Slopes
X
X
X
Power Fns
Exponential
Fns
Conics
Piecewise Fns
Trigonometry
XX X
Matrices
Integration
Differentiation
Limits
Space Math
Probability
Logarithmic
Fns
Polynomials
Topic
Problem
Numbers
9 9 9 9 9 9
4 5 6 7 8 9
Inquiry
X
X
Technology,
rulers
Numbers,
patterns,
percentages
Averages
Time, distance
,speed
Areas and
volumes
Scale
drawings
Geometry
Scientific
Notation
Unit
Conversions
Graph or Table
Analysis
Solving for X
XX
Evaluating Fns
Fractions
Modeling
Probability
Rates/Slopes
Logarithmic
Fns
Polynomials
Power Fns
Exponential
Fns
Conics
Piecewise Fns
Trigonometry
Integration
Differentiation
Limits
Space Math
viii
How to use this book
ix
Teachers continue to look for ways to make math meaningful by providing students
with problems and examples demonstrating its applications in everyday life. Space Math
offers math applications through one of the strongest motivators-Space. Technology makes it
possible for students to experience the value of math, instead of just reading about it.
Technology is essential to mathematics and science for such purposes as access to outer
space and other remote locations, sample collection and treatment, measurement, data
collection and storage, computation, and communication of information. 3A/M2 authentic
assessment tools and examples. The NCTM standards include the statement that "Similarity
also can be related to such real-world contexts as photographs, models, projections of
pictures" which can be an excellent application for all of the Space Math applications.
Solar Math is one in a series of booklets developed by Space Math @ NASA,
designed to be used as a supplement for teaching mathematical topics. The problems can be
used to enhance understanding of the mathematical concept, or as a good assessment of
student mastery.
An integrated classroom technique provides a challenge in math, science and, as in
this scenario, technology classroom, through a more intricate method for using Solar Math.
Read the scenario that follows:
Ms. Black teaches a class about the use of technology. She integrates math and science in
her class; she was excited when she saw the possibilities in the Solar Math book. She
wanted her students to learn about the technology that is used on a single spacecraft to
research space, in this case the Sun. She challenged each student team with math problems
from the Solar Math book. The students were to use the facts available in the Solar Math
book to develop an observing the Sun bulletin board display. What we can learn through the
use of Technology!
NASAs YouTube gives some additional
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSfAI6_7bjU
information
that
students
can
use,
Solar Math can be used as a classroom challenge activity, assessment tool,

enrichment activity or in a more dynamic method as is explained in the above scenario. It is
completely up to the teacher, their preference and allotted time. What it does provide,
regardless of how it is used in the classroom, is the need to be proficient in math. It is needed
especially in our world of advancing technology and physical science.
Space Math
Alignment with Standards
AAAS: Project:2061 Benchmarks

(3-5) - Quantities and shapes can be used to describe objects and events in the world around
us. 2C/E1 --- Mathematics is the study of quantity and shape and is useful for describing
events and solving practical problems. 2A/E1 (6-8) Mathematicians often represent things with
abstract ideas, such as numbers or perfectly straight lines, and then work with those ideas
alone. The "things" from which they abstract can be ideas themselves; for example, a
(9-12) proposition about "all equal-sided triangles" or "all odd numbers". 2C/M1
Mathematical modeling aids in technological design by simulating how a proposed system
might behave. 2B/H1 ---- Mathematics provides a precise language to describe objects and
events and the relationships among them. In addition, mathematics provides tools for solving
problems, analyzing data, and making logical arguments. 2B/H3 ----- Much of the work of
mathematicians involves a modeling cycle, consisting of three steps: (1) using abstractions to
represent things or ideas, (2) manipulating the abstractions according to some logical rules,
and (3) checking how well the results match the original things or ideas. The actual thinking
need not follow this order. 2C/H2
NCTM:
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
Grades 68 :
work flexibly with fractions, decimals, and percents to solve problems;
understand and use ratios and proportions to represent quantitative relationships;
develop an understanding of large numbers and recognize and appropriately use

exponential, scientific, and calculator notation; .
understand the meaning and effects of arithmetic operations with fractions, decimals,
and integers;
develop, analyze, and explain methods for solving problems involving proportions, such
as scaling and finding equivalent ratios.
represent, analyze, and generalize a variety of patterns with tables, graphs, words, and,
when possible, symbolic rules;
model and solve contextualized problems using various representations, such as

graphs, tables, and equations.
use graphs to analyze the nature of changes in quantities in linear relationships.
understand both metric and customary systems of measurement;
understand relationships among units and convert from one unit to another within the
same system.
Grades 912 :
judge the reasonableness of numerical computations and their results.
generalize patterns using explicitly defined and recursively defined functions;
analyze functions of one variable by investigating rates of change, intercepts, zeros,

asymptotes, and local and global behavior;
understand and compare the properties of classes of functions, including exponential,

polynomial, rational, logarithmic, and periodic functions;
draw reasonable conclusions about a situation being modeled.
Space Math
Teacher Comments
xi
"Your problems are great fillers as well as sources of interesting questions. I have
even given one or two of your problems on a test! You certainly have made the
problems a valuable resource!" (Chugiak High School, Alaska)
"I love your problems, and thanks so much for offering them! I have used them for
two years, and not only do I love the images, but the content and level of
questioning is so appropriate for my high school students, they love it too. I have
shared them with our math and science teachers, and they have told me that their
students like how they apply what is being taught in their classes to real problems
that professionals work on." (Wade Hampton High School ,SC)
"I recently found the Space Math problems website and I must tell you it is
wonderful! I teach 8th grade science and this is a blessed resource for me. We do
a lot of math and I love how you have taken real information and created
reinforcing problems with them. I have shared the website with many of my middle
and high school colleagues and we are all so excited. The skills summary allows
any of us to skim the listing and know exactly what would work for our classes and
what will not. I cannot thank you enough. I know that the science teachers I work
with and I love the graphing and conversion questions. The "Are U Nuts"
conversion worksheet was wonderful! One student told me that it took doing that
activity (using the unusual units) for her to finally understand the conversion
process completely. Thank you!" (Saint Mary's Hall MS, Texas)
"I know Im not your usual clientele with the Space Math problems but I actually
use them in a number of my physics classes. I get ideas for real-world problems
from these in intro physics classes and in my astrophysics classes. I may take
what you have and add calculus or whatever other complications happen, and then
they see something other than Consider a particle of mass m and speed v
that (Associate Professor of Physics)
Space Math
The relative sizes of the sun and stars

Stars come in many sizes, but their
true appearances are impossible to see
without special telescopes. The image to the
left was taken by the Hubble Space
telescope and resolves the red supergiant
star Betelgeuse so that its surface can be
just barely seen. Follow the number clues
below to compare the sizes of some other
familiar stars!
Problem 1 - The sun's diameter if 10 times the diameter of Jupiter. If Jupiter is

11 times larger than Earth, how much larger than Earth is the Sun?
Problem 2 - Capella is three times larger than Regulus, and Regulus is twice as
large as Sirius. How much larger is Capella than Sirius?
Problem 3 - Vega is 3/2 the size of Sirius, and Sirius is 1/12 the size of Polaris.
How much larger is Polaris than Vega?
Problem 4 - Nunki is 1/10 the size of Rigel, and Rigel is 1/5 the size of Deneb.
How large is Nunki compared to Deneb?
Problem 5 - Deneb is 1/8 the size of VY Canis Majoris, and VY Canis Majoris is
504 times the size of Regulus. How large is Deneb compared to Regulus?
Problem 6 - Aldebaran is 3 times the size of Capella, and Capella is twice the
size of Polaris. How large is Aldebaran compared to Polaris?
Problem 7 - Antares is half the size of Mu Cephi. If Mu Cephi is 28 times as

large as Rigel, and Rigel is 50 times as large as Alpha Centauri, how large is
Antares compared to Alpha Centauri?
Problem 8 - The Sun is 1/4 the diameter of Regulus. How large is VY Canis
Majoris compared to the Sun?
Inquiry: - Can you use the information and answers above to create a scale
model drawing of the relative sizes of these stars compared to our Sun.
Space Math
Answer Key
The relative sizes of some popular stars is given below, with the diameter of the sun =
1 and this corresponds to an actual physical diameter of 1.4 million kilometers.
Betelgeuse 440
Regulus
4
Sirius
2
Vega
3
Nunki
5
Alpha Cen
1
Antares
700
Mu Cephi 1400
VY CMa
2016
Rigel
50
Aldebaran
36
Polaris
24
Delta Bootis 11
Schedar 24
Capella 12
Deneb 252
Problem 1 - Sun/Jupiter = 10, Jupiter/Earth = 11 so Sun/Earth = 10 x 11 = 110 times.

Problem 2 - Capella/ Regulus = 3.0, Regulus/Sirius = 2.0 so Capella/Sirius = 3 x 2 = 6
times.
Problem 3 - Vega/Sirius = 3/2
1/8 times
Sirius/Polaris=1/12 so
Problem 4 - Nunki/Rigel = 1/10

1/50.
Vega/Polaris = 3/2 x 1/12 =
Rigel/Deneb = 1/5 so Nunki/Deneb = 1/10 x 1/5 =
Problem 5 - Deneb/VY = 1/8 and VY/Regulus = 504 so Deneb/Regulus = 1/8 x 504 =

63 times
Problem 6 - Aldebaran/Capella = 3
2 = 6 times.
Capella/Polaris = 2 so Aldebaran/Polaris = 3 x
Problem 7 - Antares/Mu Cep = 1/2 Mu Cep/Rigel = 28

Antares/Alpha Can = 1/2 x 28 x 50 = 700 times.
Rigel/Alpha Can = 50, then
Problem 8 - Regulus/Sun = 4 but VY CMA/Regulus = 504 so VY Canis Majoris/Sun

= 504 x 4 = 2016 times the sun's size!
Inquiry: Students will use a compass and millimeter scale. If the diameter of the Sun is 1
millimeter, the diameter of the largest star VY Canis Majoris will be 2016 millimeters or about 2
meters!
Space Math
Monster Sunspots!
Sunspots have been observed for thousands of years because, from time
to time, the sun produces spots that are so large they can be seen from Earth
with the naked eyewith the proper protection. Ancient observers would look at
the sun near sunrise or sunset when Earth's atmosphere provided enough
shielding to very briefly look at the sun for a few minutes. Astronomers keep
track of these large 'super spots' because they often produce violent solar
storms as their magnetic fields become tangled up into complex shapes.
Below are sketches and photographs of some large sunspots that have
been observed during the last 150 years. They have been reproduced at scales
that make it easy to study their details, but do not show how big they are
compared to each other.
Problem: By using a millimeter ruler, use the indicated scales for each
image to compute the physical sizes of the three sunspots in kilometers. Can
you sort them by their true physical size?
Top is the sunspot drawn by Richard

Carrington on August 28, 1859 at a scale of 5,700
kilometers/mm.
Middle is a photograph of a sunspot seen on
March 29, 2000 at a scale of 23,500 kilometers/cm.
Bottom is a sunspot seen on April 8, 1947 at
a scale of 100,000 kilometers/inch
Space Math
Answer Key:
Images ordered from largest to smallest and to scale:
Sunspot seen on April 8, 1947 reproduced at a scale of

100,000
kilometers/inch. The linear extent on the page is 7 centimeters, so the length in inches
is 7 / 2.5 = 2.8 inches. The true length is then 2.8 x 100,000 = 280,000 kilometers.
The sunspot drawn by Richard Carrington on August 28, 1859 at a scale of

5,700 kilometers/mm. With a ruler, the distance from the left to the right of the group is
about 40 millimeters, so the true length is about 40 x 5,700 = 228,000 kilometers.
A photograph of a sunspot seen on March 29, 2000 at a scale of 23,500

kilometers/cm. The length of the spot is 90 millimeters or 9 centimeters. The true
length is then 211,500 kilometers.
Space Math
Solar Surface Details with the Swedish Vacuum Telescope
The sun is our nearest star. From Earth we can see its surface in great detail. The images
below were taken with the 1-meter Swedish Vacuum Telescope on the island of La Palma, by
astronomers at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The image to the right is a view of sunspots
on July 15, 2002. The enlarged view to the left shows never-before-seen details near the edge of the
largest spot. Use a millimeter ruler, and the fact that the dimensions of the left image are 19,300 km x
29,500 km, to determine the scale of the photograph, and then answer the questions. See the arrows
below to identify the various solar features mentioned in the questions.
Problem 1 - What is the scale

of the image in km/mm?
Problem 2 What is the
smallest feature you can see
in the image?
Problem 3 What is the
average size of a solar
granulation region?
Problem 4 How long and
wide are the Dark Filaments?
Problem 5 How large are
the Bright Spots?
Problem 6 Draw a circle
centered on this picture that is
the size of Earth (radius =
6,378 km). How big are the
features you measured
compared to familiar Earth
features?
Granulation
Boundary
Space Math
Dark Filament
Bright Spot
Solar Granulation
Answer Key
Problem 1 - What is the scale of the image in km/mm? Answer: the image is
about 108mm x 164mm so the scale is 19300/108 = 179 km/mm.
Problem 2 What is the smallest feature you can see in the image? Answer:
Students should be able to find features, such as the Granulation Boundaries,
that are only 0.5 mm across, or 0.5 x 179 = 90 km across.
Problem 3 What is the average size of a solar granulation region? Answer:
Students should measure several of the granulation regions. They are easier to
see if you hold the image at arms length. Typical sizes are about 5 mm so that
5 x 179 is about 900 km across.
Problem 4 How long and wide are the Dark Filaments? Answer: Students
should average together several measurements. Typical dimensions will be
about 20mm x 2mm or 3,600 km long and about 360 km wide.
Problem 5 How large are the Bright Spots? Answer: Students should average
several measurements and obtain values near 1 mm, for a size of about 180 km
across.
Problem 6 Draw a circle centered on this picture that is the size of Earth
(radius = 6,378 km). How big are the features you measured compared to
familiar Earth features? Answer: See below.
Granulation Region Size of a large US

state.
Bright Spot Size of a small US state or
Hawaii
Filament As long as the USA, and as
narrow as Baja California or Florida.
Space Math
Close-up of a Sunspot by Hinode
After a successful launch on September 22, 2006 the Hinode solar observatory
caught a glimpse of a large sunspot on November 4, 2006. An instrument called the Solar
Optical Telescope (SOT) captured this image, showing sunspot details on the solar surface.
Problem 1 - Based on the distance between the arrow points, what is the scale of the image
on the right in units of kilometers per millimeter?
Problem 2 - What is the size of the smallest detail you can see in the image?
Problem 3 - Compared to familiar things on the surface of Earth, how big would the smallest
feature in the solar image be?
Problem 4 - The gold-colored, textured surface is the photosphere of the sun. The texturing
is produced by heated gas that is flowing up to the surface from the hot interior of the sun.
The convecting gases form cells, called granulations, at the surface, with upwelling gas
flowing from the center of each cell, outwards to the cell boundary, where it cools and flows
back down to deeper layers. What is the average size of a granulation cell within the square?
Problem 5 - Measure several granulation cells at different distances from the sunspot, and
plot the average size you get versus distance from the spot center. Do granulation cells have
about the same size near the sunspot, or do they tend to become larger or smaller as you
approach the sunspot?
Space Math
Answer Key
Problem 1 - From the 40 millimeter length of the 50,000 km arrow marker, the scale of the
image is 50,000 km/40 mm = 1250 kilometers per millimeter
Problem 2 - Depending on the copy quality, the smallest detail is about 0.5 millimeters or
0.5 x 1250 = 625 kilometers across but details that are 1 or 2 mm across are also
acceptable.
Problem 3 - Similar features on Earth would be continents like Greenland (1,800 km) or
England (700 km).
Problem 4 - Measure about 5 cells to get: 1.5 mm, 1.0 mm, 0.8mm, 1.2mm and 1.4 mm. The
average is about 1.2 mm, so the average size is (1.2) x 1250km = 1,500 km.
Problem 5 - Students should measure about 5 granulation cells in three groups; Group 1
should be far from the center of the spot. Group 3 should be as close to the outer, tancolored, 'penumbra' of the spot as possible, and Group 2 should be about half-way in
between Group 1 and 3. The average granulation sizes do not change significantly.
Space Math
An Extreme Ultraviolet Image of the Sun
False-color image taken by the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOH))

satellite's Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT) using ultraviolet light
emitted by helium ions at temperatures between 60,000 and 80,000 K.
The image, obtained at a wavelength of 30 nm and a frequency of
10 petaHertz (1.0x1016 Hz) shows large active regions associated with sunspot
groups (yellow-white); prominences and other filamentary features caused by
matter being ejected from the sun into the corona; dark swaths of cooler
hydrogen plasma that are prominences seen from above projected onto the solar
disk; and the speckled surface caused by solar granulation cells.
Problem Use a millimeter ruler to determine the scale of the image. What was
the height and diameter of the huge prominence seen at the upper right edge of
the sun? (Sun diameter = 1,300,000 km)
Space Math
Answer Key
Problem - What was the height and diameter of the huge prominence seen at the
upper right edge of the sun? (Sun diameter = 1,300,000 km)
Answer: The sun disk has a diameter of about 95 millimeters, so the scale is
1,300,000 km/95 mm = 14,000 km/mm. The maximum height of the center of the
prominence is about 25 mm above the disk edge, for a height of 25 mm x 14,000
km/mm = 350,000 kilometers. The diameter of one of its 'legs' is about 4 mm near
the photosphere or about 56,000 kilometers. At the top of the loop, the diameter is
about 10 mm or 140,000 kilometers.
The brightness of the sun at this wavelength varies depending on how many active
regions are present. Near sunspot minimum the brightness is about
F = 3 x 10-29 watts/meter2
But near sunspot maximum it can be higher than
Space Math
High resolution false-color image obtained at a frequency of 4.7 GHz (0.06

meters) or 5.0 gigaHertz (5.0x109 Hz) by the Very Large Array radio telescope
(VLA) of the 'quiet sun' at a resolution of 12 arcseconds, from plasma emitting at
30,000 K. The brightest features (red) in this false-color image have temperatures
of about 100,000 degrees K and coincide with sunspots. The green features are
cooler and show where the Sun's atmosphere is very dense. At this frequency the
radio-emitting surface of the Sun has an average temperature of 30,000 K, and
the dark blue features are cooler yet. (Courtesy: Stephen White, University of
Maryland, and NRAO/AUI).
Problem - From the scale of this image, what is the size of the smallest feature
compared to the diameter of Earth (12,500 km)? (Sun diameter = 1,300,000 km)
Space Math
Answer Key
Problem - From the scale of this image, what is the size of the smallest feature
compared to the diameter of Earth (12,500 km)?
Answer: The sun disk is about 115 millimeters in diameter so the scale is 1,300,000
km/115 mm = 11,300 km/mm. The smallest features are the dark blue 'freckles'
which hare about 1-2 millimeters across, corresponding to a physical size of 11,000 to
23,000 kilometers. This is about 1 to 2 times the size of Earth.
The brightness of the sun at this wavelength varies from
to
depending on the level of solar 'sunspot' activity.
Space Math
A Gamma-Ray Image of the Sun
This is a colorized plot of the 40 MeV gamma-ray light from the sun during
a major solar flare event on June 15, 1991. The equivalent wavelength of the light
is 0.00003 nm and a frequency of 1.0x1022 Hertz. The image was created by
NASA's Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO). The squares in the grid
measure 10 degrees on a side, so the sun ( 0.5 degrees) cannot be resolved.
This image provided the first evidence that the sun can accelerate particles
for several hours. This phenomenon was not observed before CGRO and
represents a new understanding of solar flares. (Courtesy: COMPTEL team,
University of New Hampshire).
Problem - How big would the disk of the sun be at the scale of this gamma-ray
image?
Space Math
Answer Key
Problem - How big would the disk of the sun be at the scale of this gamma-ray
image?
Answer: The grid interval measures 45 millimeters, so the scale is 0.22 degrees/mm.
The sun disk would be 2 millimeters in diameter at this scale.
The brightness of the sun at gamma-ray energies is generally
F = 0.0 watts/meter2
But during intense flares it can brighten to
F = 10-35 watts/meter2
Space Math
This image was taken by the Yohkoh X-ray Satellite using X-rays emitted by the
Sun at energies between 0.25 - 4 keV. The equivalent wavelength is 5.0 nm
corresponding to a frequency of 60 petaHertz (6.0x1016 Hz). The Yohkoh satellite had
a resolution of 2.5 arcseconds, which is similar to the newer, more sensitive, x-ray
imager on the Hinode satellite.
The image shows a very active sun during the maximum activity period of
sunspot cycle 23 in 2000. The billowy clouds are plasma heated to several million
degrees above intense sunspot groups on the surface. The magnetically-confined
plasma can be detected through the light produced by heavily ionized iron atoms at
these temperatures. Most of this structure is located in the Sun's inner corona.
Problem 1 - What features of these clouds in this image suggest that magnetic fields
may be confining them?
Problem 2 - How far above the solar photosphere does the coronal structure extend?
(Sun diameter = 1,300,000 km).
Space Math
Answer Key
Problem 1 - What features of these clouds in this image suggest that magnetic fields
may be confining them?
Answer: There appear to be faint filaments within the cloud shapes that resemble the
magnetic fields you see when you sprinkle iron filings on a bar magnet.
Problem 2 - How far above the solar photosphere does the coronal structure extend?
(Sun diameter = 1,300,000 km).
Answer: The diameter of the sun disk is about 115 mm, so the scale of the image is
1,300,000 km/115mm = 11,000 km/mm. Measuring the height of the clouds on the
edge of the Sun, they seem to be about 20 mm above the disk edge ,for a height of 20
mm x 11,000 km/mm = 220,000 kilometers.
Space Math
Hinode Sees Mysterious Solar Micro-flares
The Sun's surface is not only speckled with sunspots, it is also dotted with intense
spots of X-ray light called 'X-ray Bright Points'. Although sunspots can be over 100,000
kilometers across and easily seen with a telescope, X-ray Bright Points are so small even the
largest solar telescope only sees a few of them with enough detail to reveal their true shapes.
X-ray Bright Points release their energy by converting tangled magnetic fields into smoother
ones. This liberates large quantities of stored magnetic energy. For that reason, these Bright
Points can be thought of as micro-flares.
Hinode's X-ray Telescope (XRT) can now see the details in some of the Bright Points
and allow scientists to see small magnetic loops. In the image above, individual bright points
are circled in green. A few of them can be resolved into tiny magnetic loops. These data were
taken on March 16, 2007. The image is 300 x 300 pixels in size. Each pixel views an area on
the sun that is 1 arcsecond x 1 arcsecond on a side.
Problem 1: If the diameter of the Sun is 1800 arcseconds, and has a radius of
696,000 km, what is the scale of the above image in A) kilometers per arcsecond? B)
kilometers/millimeter?
Problem 2: What are the dimensions, in kilometers, of the smallest circled Bright
Point in the image?
Problem 3: How many Bright Points cover the solar surface if the above picture is
typical?
Space Math
9
Answer Key:
Problem 1: If the diameter of the sun measures 1800 arcseconds and has a radius of 696,000
km, what is the scale of the above image in kilometers per arcsecond?
Answer: A) The solar radius is 1800 arcseconds/2 = 900 arcseconds which physically equals
696,000 km, so the scale is 696,000/900 = 773 kilometers/arcsecond.
B) The image is 300 pixels across, which measures 115 millimeters with a ruler. Each pixel is 1
arcsecond in size, so this represents 773 km/arcsec x 300 = 232,000 km. The ruler says that
this equals 115 mm, so the image scale is 232,000 km/115 mm = 2,020 km/mm.
Problem 2: What are the dimensions of the smallest circled Bright Point in the image?
Answer: With a ruler, the circled Bright Point at the top of the picture seems to be the smallest. It
measures about 2 millimeters across and 1 millimeter wide. This corresponds to about 4000 x
2000 km.
Problem 3: How many Bright Points cover the solar surface if the above picture is typical?
Answer:
The sun is a sphere with a radius of 696,000 kilometers. The area of a sphere is given
2
12
by 4 R , so the surface area of the sun is 4 x 3.141 x (696,000 km) = 6.1 x 10

2
kilometers .
The size of the Hinode image is
300 pixels x 773 km/pixel = 232,000 km on a side. The

10
area covered is about (232,000 km x 232,000 km) = 5.4 x 10 km . Note, this is an

approximation because of the distortion of a flat image attempting to represent a curved spherical
surface. The actual solar surface area covered is actually a bit larger.
The solar surface is about 6.1 x 10
Hinode image.
12
km / 5.4 x 10
10
km = 113 times larger than the
There are 16 Bright Points in the Hinode image, so there would be 15 x 113 = 1,695
Bright Points covering the full solar surface if the Hinode image is typical.
Space Math
Image taken by the Hinode satellite's X-ray Telescope (XRT) using x-rays
emitted by the sun at energies between 1,000 to 10,000 electron volts (1 to 10
keV). The equivalent wavelength is 0.2 nm or a frequency of 1.5 petaHertz
(1.5x1018 Hz). The resolution is 2 arcseconds. At these energies, only plasma
heated to over 100,000 degrees K produce enough electromagnetic energy to be
visible. The solar surface, called the photosphere, at a temperature of 6,000 K is
too cold to produce x-ray light, and so in X-ray pictures it appears black.
The Hinode image shows for the first time that the typically dark areas of
the sun can contain numerous bright 'micro-flares' that speckle the surface,
releasing energy into the corona.
Problem 1 - How big are the micro-flares compared to Earth? (Sun diameter =
1,300,000 km; Earth diameter = 12,500 km).
Problem 2 - About how many micro-flares can you see on this hemisphere of the
Sun, and how many would you estimate exist at this time for the entire solar
surface?
Space Math
10
10
Answer Key
Problem 1 - How big are the micro-flares compared to Earth? (Sun diameter =
1,300,000 km; Earth diameter = 12,500 km).
Answer: The disk of the Sun measures about 110 millimeters in diameter, so the
scale is 1,300,000 km/110 mm = 12,000 km/mm. The micro-flares are just over 1
millimeter in diameter or 12,000 kilometers, which is similar to the diameter of Earth.
Problem 2 - About how many micro-flares can you see on this hemisphere of the Sun,
and how many would you estimate exist at this time for the entire solar surface?
Answer: A careful count should find about 200 of these 'spots' some bright and some
faint. Over the entire solar surface there would be about 400.
The brightness of the sun at x-ray wavelengths varies depending on the level of solar
activity from
to
Space Math
Solar Storm Timeline - Narrative

On July 15, 2001 a solar storm
was tracked from the Sun to Earth by a
number of research satellites and
observatories.
This activity lets you
perform time and day arithmetic to figure
out how long various events lasted. This
is a very basic process that scientists go
through to study an astronomical
phenomenon. The image to the left was
taken by the TRACE satellite and shows
the x-ray flare on the Sun.
Photo courtesy SOHO/NASA
The Story: On July 14, 2000, NASAs TRACE satellite spotted a major X5.7class solar flare erupting at 09:41 from Active Region 9077. The flare continued to
release energy until 12:31. At 10:18:27, radio astronomers using the Nancay
radio telescope detected the start of a radio-frequency Type-I noise storm. This
storm strengthened, and at 10:27:27, four moving radio sources appeared.
Meanwhile, the satellite, GOES-10 detected the maximum of the x-ray light from
this flare at 10:23. The SOHO satellite, located 92 million miles from the Sun,
and 1 million miles from Earth, recorded a radiation storm from fast-moving
particles, that caused data corruption at 10:41. The SOHO satellites LASCO
imager also detected the launch of a coronal mass ejection (CME) at 10:54. The
CME arrived at the satellite at 14:17 on July 15. Then at 14:37 on July 15, the
CME shock wave arrived at Earth and compressed Earths magnetic field. The
IMAGE satellite recorded the brightening of the auroral oval starting at 14:25.
Aurora were at their brightest at 14:58. The aurora expanded to the lowest
latitude at 17:35. By 20:00, Earths magnetic field has slightly decreased in
strength in the equatorial regions. By 16:47 on July 16, the IMAGE satellite
recorded the recovery of Earths magnetosphere to normal conditions. On
January 12, 2001, the CME was detected by the Voyager I satellite located 63 AU
from the Sun.
Problem 1 - From this information, create a time line of the events mentioned.
Problem 2 How long did it take for the CME to reach Earth?
Inquiry: What other questions can you explore using this timing information?
Space Math
11
11
Answer Key
Problem 1
July 14,
09:41 - X5.7-class solar flare
10:19 - Radio astronomers detect Type-I radio storm.
10:23 - GOES-10 detected the maximum of the x-ray light from this flare
10:27 - Four moving radio sources appeared on sun.
10:41 - SOHO satellite radiation storm and data corruption.
10:54 - SOHO sees launch of CME
July 15,
14:17 - CME shock wave arrived at Earth
14:25 IMAGE satellite sees brightening of the auroral oval
14:58 - Aurora at brightest
17:35 Aurora expand to lowest latitudes
20:00 - Earths magnetic field has slightly decreased in strength
July 16
16:47 - IMAGE satellite recorded the recovery of Earths magnetosphere
January 12, 2001, CME detected by Voyager I satellite 63 AU from the Sun.
Problem 2 - The CME was launched on July 14 at 10:54 and arrived at Earth on July
15 at 14:17. The elapsed time is 1 full day (24 hours) and the difference between 10:54
and 14:17 which is 14:17 10:54 = 13:77 10:54 = 3hours and 77-54 = 23 minutes.
The total elapsed time is then 24h + 3h 23m = 27hours 23minutes.
Inquiry There are many possibilities, for example, how long did it take for the CME
to reach Voyager in days? Hours? What was the speed of the CME as it traveled to
Earth? How long after the flare did SOHO experience a radiation storm?
Space Math
Solar Storm Timeline - Tabular

The sun is an active star that
produces explosions of matter
and
energy.
The
space
between the planets is filled
with invisible clouds of gas that
sometimes collide with Earth.
Scientists call them Coronal
Mass Ejections. They can travel
at millions of miles per hour
and carry several billion tons of
gas called a plasma. When
CMEs collide with Earth, they
produce the Northern Lights
and magnetic storms.
In this exercise, you will
examine one of these solar
storm events by examining a
timeline of events that it
caused.
The picture to the right was taken by
the SOHO spacecraft
showing a
spectacular CME. The white circle is
the size of the sun.
Solar Storm Timeline

Day
Time
What Happened
Tuesday
Thursday
Thursday
Thursday
Thursday
Thursday
4:50 PM
3:36 AM
5:20 AM
5:35 AM
11:29 AM
2:45 PM
Gas eruption on Sun

Plasma storm reaches Earth.
Storm at maximum intensity.
Auroral power at maximum.
Aurora power at minimum.
Space conditions normal
1) How much time passed

between the solar gas
eruption and its detection
near Earth?
2) How long after the plasma storm reached Earth did the aurora reach their
maximum power?
3) How long did the storm last near Earth from the time the plasma was detected, to
the time when space conditions returned to normal?
Extra for Experts!
If the Earth is 150 million kilometers from the sun, how fast did the storm travel from
the Sun in kilometers per hour? How long will the trip to Pluto take is Pluto is 40 times
farther away from the sun than Earth?
Space Math
12
12
Answer Key
Goal: Students will

interpret a timeline
table to extract
information about a
solar storm using
time addition and
subtraction skills.
Day
Time
What Happened
Tuesday
Thursday
Thursday
Thursday
Thursday
Thursday
4:50 PM
3:36 AM
5:20 AM
5:35 AM
11:29 AM
2:45 PM
Gas eruption on Sun

Plasma storm reaches Earth.
Storm at maximum intensity.
Auroral power at maximum.
Aurora power at minimum.
Space conditions normal
1) How much time passed between the solar gas eruption and its detection near
Earth?
Answer: There are various ways to do this problem. You want to subtract the final
time from the initial time so: (Tuesday 4:50 PM ) (Thursday, 3:36 AM) = (Thursday
Tuesday) + ( 3:36 AM 4:50 PM) = 48 hrs (4:50PM 3:36AM) = 48h 13h 14m =
34hours and 46minutes.
2) How long after the plasma storm reached Earth did the aurora reach their
maximum power?
Answer: Storm arrived at 3:36 AM. Aurora at maximum at 5:35AM. Difference in
time is 1 hour and 59 minutes.
3) How long did the storm last near Earth from the time the plasma was detected, to
the time when space conditions returned to normal?
Answer: On Thursday, the storm started at 3:36 AM and ended at 2:45 PM, so the
storm effects at Earth lasted from 03:36 to 14:45 so the difference is 14:45 03:36 = 11
hours and (45-36 =) 9 minutes.
Extra for Experts!
If the Earth is 150 million kilometers from the sun, how fast did the storm travel from
the Sun in kilometers per hour? How long will the trip to Pluto take is Pluto is 40 times
farther away from the sun than Earth?
Answer: The answer to Problem 1 is 34hours and 46minutes, which in decimal form
is 34 + (46/60) = 34.8 hours with rounding. The speed is therefore 150 million km/34.8
hours or 4.3 million km/h. The trip to Pluto would take 40 x 34.8 hours = 1,392 hours or
about 58 days. Note, the Space Shuttle is our fastest manned spacecraft and travels
at about 27,000 km/h so it would take about 58 x (4.3 million/27,000) = 9,237 days to
make this trip, which equals 25 years!!!! Of course, the Space Shuttle will be out of
fuel and supplies within a week.
Space Math
13
Solar flares
Solar flares are powerful
explosions of energy and
matter from the Sun's surface.
One explosion, lasting only a
few minutes, could power the
entire United States for a full
year. Astronauts have to be
protected from solar flares
because the most powerful
ones can kill an astronaut if
they were
working outside
their spacecraft.
In this exercise, you will learn
how scientists classify flares,
and how to decode them.
Image of Sun showing flare-like eruption.
Scientists create alphabetic and numerical scales to classify

phenomena, and to assign names to specific events.
Here's how to do it!

Simple equations can
serve as codes.
Now you try!
A solar flare scale uses three multipliers defined by the

letter codes C = 1.0, M=10.0, X=1000.0.
A solar flare might be classified as M5.8 which means a
brightness of (10.0) x (5.8) = 58.0.
A second solar flare might be classified as X15.6 which
means (1000.0) x (15.6) = 15,600.0
The X15.6 flare is (15,600/58) = 269 times brighter than
the M5.8 flare.
The GEOS satellite has an X-ray monitor that records daily solar flare
activity. The table below shows the flares detected between January 11
and March 3, 2000.
Flare Codes for Major Events

Date
1-11
1-12
1-18
1-22
1-24
1-25
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-8
Code
M1.5
M2.8
M3.9
M1.0
C5.3
C6.8
C8.4
M3.0
X1.2
C2.4
M1.3
Date
2-12
2-17
2-18
2-20
2-21
2-22
2-23
2-24
2-26
3-1
3-2
Code
M1.7
M2.5
C2.7
M2.4
M1.8
M1.2
C6.8
M1.1
M1.0
C6.9
X1.1
1) What was the brightest flare

detected during this time?
2) What was the faintest flare
detected during this time?
3) How much brighter was the
brightest flare than the faintest
flare?
4) What percentage of the
flares were brighter than M1.0?
Answer Key
Problem 1 - X1.2 on February 5 with a brightness of (1000) x 1.2 = 1,200
Problem 2 - C2.4 on February 6 with a brightness of (1.0) x 2.4 = 2.4

Problem 3 - 1200/2.4 = 500 times brighter
Problem 4 - There are a total of 22 flares in this table. There are 13 flares
brighter than M1.0 but not equal to M1.0. The percentage is then (13/22)x100%
= 59%
13
Sunspots and Solar Flares

Sunspots are some of the most interesting, and longest studied, phenomena on the suns
surface. The table below shows the areas of several sunspots observed between November 6 and
January 19, 2004. In comparison, the surface area of Earth is 169 units on the sunspot scale. The
table also shows the brightest flare seen from the vicinity of the sunspots. Flares are ranked by their
brightness C, M and X with M-class flares being 10x more luminous that C-class flares, and Xclass flares being 10x brighter than M-class flares.
Date
Nov 6
Nov 7
Nov 8
Nov 10
Nov 11
Dec 2
Dec 3
Dec 9
Dec 29
Dec 30
Dec 31
Jan 1
Jan 2
Jan 4
Jan 10
Jan 14
Jan 15
Jan 16
Jan 17
Jan 18
Jan 19
Spot #
#696
#696
#696
#696
#696
#708
#708
#709
#713
#715
#715
#715
#715
#715
#719
#718
#720
#720
#720
#720
#720
Area
820
910
650
730
470
130
150
20
150
260
350
220
180
130
100
160
1540
1620
1630
1460
1400
Flare
M
M
X
M
X
M
M
C
M
M
M
M
X
C
M
C
M
X
M
X
M
During the 75 day time period

covered by this table, there were a
total of (720-696=) 24 catalogued
sunspots. The table shows only those
cataloged sunspots that were active
in producing flares during this time.
Sunspot areas are in terms of
millionths of the solar hemisphere
area, so 1630 means 0.163% of the
Suns face. Earths area = 169
millionths by comparison!
Sunspot and solar flare data from NOAA
SWN data archive at
http://www.sec.noaa.gov/Data/index.html
Problem 1 - Construct a pie chart for the X, M and C-class flare data. During this 75-day period, what
percentage of flares are X-class?
Problem 2 - What percentage of sunspots produce X-class flares?
Problem 3 - What percentage of sunspots did not produce any flares during this time?
Problem 4 - What seems to be the minimum size for a sunspot that produces an X-class flare? An
M-class flare? A C-class flare?
Problem 5 - If the area of Earth is 169 in the sunspot units used in the above tables, what are the
maximum and minimum size of the sunspots compared to the area of Earth?
Space Math
14
Answer Key
14
Note, there are 21 flares in the table.

X = 5 flares
M = 13 flares
C = 3 flares.
The pie chart angles are
21 = 360 degrees
X = (5/21)x360 = 86 degrees
M = (13/21)x360 = 223 degrees
C = (3/21)x360 = 51 degrees.
And to check: 223+86+51 = 360.
Problem 1: With a pie chart, what percentage of flares were X-type?

Answer: 5 out of 21 or (5/21)x100% = 24%
Problem 2: During this 75-day period, what percentage of flares are X-class flares?
Answer: There are 24 sunspots in the sample because the catalog numbers run from 720 to 698
as stated in the table caption (A reading to be informed activity). There were three sunspots
listed in the table that produced X-class flares: #696, #715, #720. The percentage is
(3/24)x100% = 12.5% which may be rounded to 13%.
Problem 3: What percentage of sunspots did not produce flares during this time?
Answer: There were only 8 sunspots in the table that produced flares, so there were 16 out of 24
that did not produce any flares. This is (16/24)x100% = 67%. An important thing for students to
note is that MOST sunspots do not produce any significant flares.
Problem 4: What seems to be the minimum size for a sunspot that produces an X-class flare?
An M-class flare? A C-class flare?
Answer: Students may reasonably answer by saying that there doesnt seem to be any definite
correlation for the X and M-class flares! For X-class flares, you can have them if the area is
between 180 and 1620. For M-class flares, spots with areas from 130 to 1630 can have them.
The two possibilities overlap. For C-class flares, they seem to be most common in the smaller
spots from 20 130 in area, but the sample in the table is so small we cant really tell if this is a
genuine correlation or not. Also, we have only shown in the table the largest flares on a given
day, and smaller flares may also have occurred for many of these spots.
Problem: If the area of Earth is 169 in the sunspot units used in the above tables, what are the
maximum and minimum size of the sunspots compared to the area of Earth?
Answer: The smallest spot size occurred for #709 with an equivalent size of (20/169)x100% =
11% of Earths area. The largest spot was #720 with a size equal to (1630/169) = 9.6 times
Earths area.
Space Math
Solar Flares and the Sunspot Cycle

Year
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Cclass
76
288
1198
1860
2265
3107
2319
1315
912
578
150
73
8
Mclass
4
20
96
170
215
311
219
160
122
103
10
10
1
Xclass
1
3
14
4
17
20
12
20
12
18
4
0
0
Solar flares are the most dramatic

explosions on the sun, which have been
known for some time. An average-sized
flare can release more energy in a few
hours than thousands of hydrogen bombs
exploding all at once.
Solar flares do not happen randomly,
but like many other solar phenomena follow
the rise and fall of the sunspot cycle.
The table to the left is a tally of the
number of C, M and X-class flares identified
during each year of the previous sunspot
cycle.
Problem 1 - During the entire sunspot cycle, how many solar flares occur?
Problem 2 - What percentage of solar flares during an entire sunspot cycle are A)
C-class? B) M-class? C) X-class?
Problem 3 - During a single week, how many flares of each type would the sun
produce during A) Sunspot maximum in the year 2001? B) Sunspot minimum
during the year 1996?
Problem 4 - During sunspot maximum, what is the average time in hours

between flares for, A) C-class? B)M-class? and C) X-class? (Hint: 1 year =
8,760 hours)
Problem 5 - Do as many flares occur in the time before sunspot maximum (19962000) as after sunspot maximum (2002-2008) for A) C-class? B) M-class? C) Xclass?
Space Math
15
15
Answer Key
Problem 1 - During the entire sunspot cycle, how many solar flares occur?
Answer: The sum of all the flares in the table is 15,715.
Problem 2 - What percentage of solar flares during an entire sunspot cycle are A) Cclass? B) M-class? C) X-class?
Answer: A) C-class = 100% x (14149/15715) = 90%
B) M-class = 100% x (1441/15715) = 9%
C) X-class = 100% x (14149/15715) = 1%
Problem 3 - During a single week, how many flares of each type would the sun
produce during A) Sunspot maximum in the year 2001? B) Sunspot minimum during
the year 1996?
Answer: A) C-type = 3107/52 = 60
M-type = 311/52 = 6
X-type = 20/52 = 0.4
B) C-type = 76/52 = 1.4
M-type = 4/52 = 0.08
X-type = 1/52 = 0.02
Problem 4 - During sunspot maximum, what is the average time in hours between
flares for, A) C-class? B)M-class? and C) X-class? (Hint: 1 year = 8,760 hours)
Answer: C-class = 1 year/3107 flares x (8760 hours/year) = 2.8 hours/flare.
M-class = 1 year/311 flares x (8760 hours/year) = 28 hours/flare. ( 1 day)
X-class = 1 year/20 flares x (8760 hours/year) = 438 hours/flare. (18 days)
Problem 5 - Do as many flares occur in the time before sunspot maximum (19962000) as after sunspot maximum (2002-2008) for A) C-class? B) M-class? C) X-class?
Answer: Between 1996-2000 there were 6,231 and between 2001-2008 there were
6,046 so although the numbers are nearly the same, there were slightly fewer flares
after sunspot maximum.
1/2
Note: In statistics, the sampling error is n = (6231) = 79, so the range of random
variation for 1996-2000 is between 6231+79 and 6231-79 or [6151, 6310] for 20021/2
2008 we have (6046) = 78, so the range of random variation for 2002-2008 is
between 6046+78 and 6046-78 or [5968, 6124]. Because of this sampling uncertainty,
the counts between each side of solar maximum are statistically similar. They do not
differ by more than 3-sigma (3x78 = 234) which means they are the same to better
than 98% certainty.
Space Math
16
How Common are X-Class Solar Flares?
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
CY
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
3
1
2
8
1
5
2
4
1
1
3
J
1
3
5
1
4
1
1
4
6
1
3
5
1
5
2
4
1
7
1
4
2
10
2
X-Class solar flares are among the most powerful, explosive events on the
solar surface. They can cause short-wave radio interference, satellite
malfunctions and can even cause the premature re-entry of satellites into the
atmosphere.
The table above lists the number of X-class flares detected on the sun
during the last sunspot cycle which lasted from 1996 to about 2008. The second
column also gives the year from the start of the 11-year sunspot cycle in 1996.
The counts are listed by year (rows) and by month (columns). Study this table
and answer the following questions to learn more about how common these flares
are.
Problem 1 For the years and months considered, is the distribution of months
with flares a uniform distribution? Explain.
Problem 2 - The sunspot cycle can be grouped into pre-maximum (1997,1998,
1999), maximum (2000,2001,2002) and post-maximum (2003,2004,2005). For
each group, calculate A) The percentage of months with no flares; and B) The
average number of weeks between flares.
Problem 3 For each group, what is the median number of flares that occurs in
the months that have flares?
Problem 4 Taken as a whole, what is the average number of flares per month
during the entire 11-year sunspot cycle?
Problem 5 We are currently in Year-3 of the current sunspot cycle, which
began in 2007. About how many X-class flares would you predict for this year
using the tabulated flares from the previous sunspot cycle as a guide, and what is
the average number of weeks between these flares for this year?
Space Math
16
Answer Key
Problem 1 For the years and months considered, is the distribution of months with
flares a uniform distribution? Explain. Answer; If you shaded in all the months with
flares you would see that most occur between 1999-2002 so the distribution is not
random, and is not uniform.
Problem 2 - The sunspot cycle can be grouped into pre-maximum (1997,1998, 1999),
maximum (2000,2001,2002) and post-maximum (2003,2004,2005). For each group,
calculate A) the percentage of months with no flares, and B) The average number of
weeks between flares. Answer: A) Pre-Maximum, N = 28 months so P = 100%x28/36
= 78% . Maximum; N = 17 months so P = 100% x 17/36 = 47%; post-maximum N= 24
months so P = 100% x 24/36 = 67%. B) pre-maximum N = 22 flares so T = 36
months/22 flares = 1.6 months. Maximum: N = 50 flares so T = 36 mo/50 = 0.7
months; post-maximum: N = 48 flares so T = 36 mo/48 = 0.8 months.
Problem 3 For each group, what is the median number of flares that occurs in the
months that have flares? Answer: Pre-maximum: 1,1,2,2,2,3,5,5
median = 3.
Maximum: 1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,2,3,3,3,4,4,4,5,8
median = 4; post-maximum
1,1,2,2,2,3,4,6,6,7 median = 6
Problem 4 Taken as a whole, what is the average number of flares per month during
the entire 11-year sunspot cycle? Answer: There were 122 flares detected during the
132 months of the sunspot cycle, so the average is 122 flares/132 months = 0.9 ,
which can be rounded to 1 flare/month.
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
CY
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
2
1
3
1
8
1
2
4
1
1
3
3
5
11
1
4
1
1
4
6
1
5
2
6
6
J
1
16
3
5
1
5
2
4
1
7
1
4
2
10
14
12
14
22
2
5
1
3
14
4
17
21
12
20
11
17
2
Problem 5 We are in Year-3 of the current sunspot cycle, which began in 2007.
About how many X-class flares would you predict for this year using the tabulated
flares from the previous sunspot cycle as a guide, and what is the average number of
weeks between these flares for this year? Answer: From the table we find for Year 3
that there were 14, X-class flares. Since there are 12 months in a year, this means
that the average time between flares is about 14/12 = 1.2 months.
Space Math
SPEs and the Sunspot Cycle
17
Yr 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
5
5
5
4
4
1
2
4
3
2
3
6
19
2
4
4
3
2
4
5
8
2
2
3
6
3
11
2
5
9
7
3
8
3
3
8
4
6
9 7
4
3
3
5
9
5
4
3
10
2
11
12
3
13
Note: The columns indicate the corresponding sunspot cycles from 1 to 23. The calendar year for
'Year 1' for each cycle is as follows:1755, 1765, 1775, 1785, 1798, 1810, 1823, 1833, 1843, 1856,
1867, 1878, 1889, 1901, 1913, 1923, 1933, 1944, 1954, 1964, 1975, 1986, 1996
The table above gives the intensity of Solar Proton Events (SPEs) detected
since 1751 (Cycle 1) through the end of the last sunspot cycle in 2008 (Cycle 23).
An SPE is an intense burst of high-energy protons from the sun that reach Earth
traveling at nearly the speed of light. The data for Cycle 1 - 22 were obtained by
Dr. Robert McCracken in a study of ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica,
which recorded the atmospheric changes caused by the most intense SPEs
during each year.
Although the ice core data was assembled chronologically as a continuous
record of events since 1562, the above table folds the intensity of SPEs each year
by the year of the sunspot cycle in which the SPE was recorded. The calendar
year for 'Year 1' in the far-left column is given in the legend for the table.
Problem 1 - Create a histogram that tallies the number of SPEs occurring in each
of the 13 years of the sunspot cycle. What is the total number of SPEs recorded for
the 23 sunspot cycles?
Problem 2 - For each year in the average sunspot cycle, what is the percentage of
SPEs that one expects to find?
Problem 3 - Which year of the sunspot cycle has the greatest historical
percentage of SPEs?
Space Math
17
Answer Key
Problem 1 - Create a histogram that tallies the number of SPEs occurring in each of
the 13 years of the sunspot cycle. What is the total number of SPEs recorded for the
23 sunspot cycles?
9
8
Number
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
10
11
12
13
Year
Answer: Total = 43
Problem 2 - For each year in the average sunspot cycle, what is the percentage of
SPEs that one expects to find?
Answer:
Year
Number
Percent
1
5
12
2
3
7
3
0
0
4
4
9
5
3
7
6
4
9
7
5
12
8
5
12
9
8
19
10
4
9
11
1
2
12
0
0
13
1
2
Problem 3 - Which year of the sunspot cycle has the greatest historical percentage of
SPEs?
Answer: Year 9.
Space Math
Solar Dynamics Observatory: Working with Giga,Tera, Peta and Exabytes

The 15 instruments on NASA's
latest solar observatory will usher in a new
era of solar observation by providing
scientists with 'High Definition'-quality
viewing of the solar surface in nearly a
dozen different wavelength bands.
One of the biggest challenges is
how to handle all the data that the satellite
will return to Earth, every hour of the day,
for years at a time! It is no wonder that the
design and construction of this data
handling network has taken nearly 10 years
to put together! To make sense of the rest
of this story, here are some units and
prefixes you need to recall (1 byte = 8 bits):
Kilo = 1 thousand
Mega = 1 million
Giga = 1 billion
Tera = 1 trillion
Peta = 1,000 trillion
Exa = 1 million trillion
Problem 1 - In 1982 an IBM PC desktop computer came equipped with a 25 megabyte
hard drive (HD) and cost $6,000. In 2010, a $500 desktop comes equipped with a 2.5
gigabyte hard drive. By what factor do current hard drives have more storage space than
older models?
Problem 2 - A 2.5 gigabyte hard drive is used to store music from iTunes. If one typical
4-minute, uncompressed, MPEG-4 song occupies 8 megbytes, about A) How many
uncompressed songs can be stored on the HD? B) How many hours of music can be
stored on the HD? (Note: music is actually stored in a compressed format so typically
several thousand songs can be stored on a large HD)
Problem 3 - How long will it take to download 2 gigabytes of music from the iTunes store
A) Using an old-style 1980's telephone modem with a bit rate of 56,000 bits/sec? B)With
a modern fiber-optic cable with a bit rate of 16 megabits/sec?
Problem 4 - The SDO satellite's AIA cameras will generate 67 megabits/sec of data as
they take 4096x4096-pixel images every 3/4 of a second. The other two instruments, the
HMI and the EVE, will generate 62 megabits/sec of data. The satellite itself will also
generate 20 megabits/sec of 'housekeeping' information to report on the health of the
satellite. If a single DVD can store 5 gigabytes of information, how many DVDs-worth of
data will be generated by the SDO: A) Each day? B) Each year?
Problem 5 - How many petabytes of data will SDO generate during its planned 5-year
mission?
Problem 6 - It has been estimated that the total amount of audio, image and video
information generated by all humans during the last million years through 2009 is about
50 exabytes including all spoken words (5 exabytes). How many DVDs does this equal?
Space Math
18
18
Answer Key
Problem 1 - In 1982 an IBM PC desktop computer came equipped with a 25 megabyte hard
drive (HD) and cost $6,000. In 2010, a $500 desktop comes equipped with a 2.5 gigabyte hard
drive. By what factor do current hard drives have more storage space than older models?
Answer: Take the ratio of the modern HD to the one in 1982 to get 2.5 billion / 25 million =
2,500,000,000/25,000,000 = 2,500/25 = 100 times.
Problem 2 - A 2.5 gigabyte hard drive is used to store music from iTunes. If one typical 4minute MPEG-4 song occupies 8 megbytes, about A) how many songs can be stored on the
HD? B) How many hours of music can be stored on the HD?
Answer: A) Number of songs = 2.5 gigabytes/8 megabytes = 2,500 megabytes/8 megabytes =
312 B) Time = 312 songs x 4 minutes/song = 1,248 minutes = 20.8 hours.
Problem 3 - How long will it take to download 2 gigabytes of music from the iTunes store A)
Using an old-style 1980's telephone modem with a bit rate of 56,000 bits/sec? B)With a
modern fiber-optic cable with a bit rate of 16 megabits/sec?
Answer; A) 2 gigabytes x 8 bits/1 byte = 16 gibabits. Then 16,000,000,000 bits x ( 1
second/56,000 bits) = 285,714 seconds or 79.4 hours. B) 16,000,000,000 bits x ( 1
second/16,000,000 bits) = 1,000 seconds or about 17 minutes.
Problem 4 - The SDO satellite's AIA cameras will generate 67 megabits/sec of data as they
take 4096x4096-pixel images every 3/4 of a second. The other two instruments, the HMI and
the EVE, will generate 62 megabits/sec of data. The satellite itself will also generate 20
megabits/sec of 'housekeeping' information to report on the health of the satellite. If a single
DVD can store 5 gigabytes of information, how many DVDs-worth of data will be generated by
the SDO each A) Day? B) Year? Answer: Adding up the data rates for the three instruments
plus the satellite housekeeping we get 67+63+20 = 150 megabits/sec. A) In one day this is
150 megabits/sec x (86,400 sec/1day) = 12.96 terabites or since 1 byte = 8 bits we have 1.6
terabytes. This equals 1,600 gigabytes x (1 DVD/8 gigabytes) = 200 DVDs each day. B) In
one year this equals 365 days x 1.6 terabytes/day = 584 terabytes per year or 365 days/1
year x 200 DVDs/1 year = 73,000 DVDs/year.
Problem 5 - How many petabytes of data will SDO generate during its planned 5-year
mission? Answer: In 5 years it will generate 5 years x 584 terabytes/year = 2,920 terabytes.
Since 1 petabyte = 1,000 terabytes, this becomes 2.9 petabytes.
Problem 6 - It has been estimated that the total amount of audio, image and video information
generated by all humans during the last million years through 2009 is about 50 exabytes
including all spoken words (5 exabytes). How many DVDs does this equal? Answer: 1 exabyte
= 1,000 petabytes = 1,000,000 terabytes = 1,000,000,000 gigabytes. So 50 exabytes equals
50 billion gigabytes. One DVD stores 5 gigabytes, so the total human information 'stream'
would occupy 50 billion / 5 billon = 10 billion DVDs.
Space Math
Hinode Satellite Power
19
The Hinode satellite weighs approximately 700 kg (dry) and carries 170 kg of gas for
its steering thrusters, which help to maintain the satellite in a polar, sun-synchronous orbit for
up to two years. The satellite has two solar panels (blue) that produce all of the spacecraft's
power. The panels are 4 meters long and 1 meter wide, and are covered on both sides by
solar cells.
Problem 1 - What is the total area of the solar panels covered by solar cells in square
centimeters?
Problem 2 - If a solar cell produces 0.03 watts of power for each square centimeter of area,
what is the total power produced by the solar panels when facing the sun? Can the satellite
supply enough power to operate the experiments which require 1,150 watts?
Problem 3 - Suppose engineers decided to cover the surface of the cylindrical satellite body
with solar cells instead. If the satellite is 4 meters long and a diameter of 1 meter, how much
power could it produce if only half of the area was in sunlight at a time? Can the satellite
supply enough power to keep the experiments running, which require 1,150 watts?
Space Math
19
Answer Key:
Problem 1 - What is the total area of the solar panels covered by solar cells in square
centimeters?
Answer: The surface area of a single panel is 4 meters x 1 meter = 4 square meter per side.
There are two sides, so the total area of one panel is 8 square meters. There are two solar
panels, so the total surface area covered by solar cells is 16 square meters. Converting this
to square centimeters:
2 2
2
16 square meters x (10,000 cm /m ) = 160,000 cm
Problem 2 - If a solar cell produces 0.03 watts of power for each square centimeter of area,
what is the total power produced by the solar panels when facing the sun? Can the satellite
supply enough power to operate the experiments which require 1,150 watts?
Answer:
Only half of the solar cells can be fully illuminated at a time, so the total exposed
2
area is 80,000 cm . The power produced is then:
2
Power = 80,000 cm
X 0.03 watts/cm
2,400 watts.
Yes, the satellite solar panels can keep the experiments running, with 2400-1150 = 1,250
watts to spare!
Problem 3 - Suppose engineers decided to cover the surface of the cylindrical satellite body
with solar cells instead. If the satellite is 4 meters long and a diameter of 1 meter, how much
power could it produce if only half of the area was in sunlight at a time? Can the satellite
supply enough power to keep the experiments running, which require 1,150 watts?
Answer - Surface area of a cylinder = Area of 2 circular end caps + area of side of cylinder
2
=2 R
+2 Rh
S = 2 x (3.14) (0.5 meters) 2 + 2 x (3.14) (0.5 meters) (4 meters)

= 1.57 square meters + 12.56 square meters
= 14.13 square meters.
Only half of the solar cells can be illuminated, so the usable area is 7.06 square meters or
70,600 square centimeters. The power produced is 70600 x 0.03 = 2,100 watts.
Yes..the satellite can keep the experiments running with this solar cell configuration.
Space Math
Sunspot Size and the Sunspot Cycle
20
Sunspots are some of the most interesting, and longest studied, phenomena on the
suns surface. They were known to ancient Chinese observers over 2000 years ago. Below is
a list of the largest sunspots seen since 1859. Their sizes are given in terms of the area of the
solar hemisphere facing earth. For example, 3600 means 3600 millionths of the solar area or
(3600/1000000). On this scale, the area of Earth is 169. All of these spots were large enough
to be seen with the naked eye when proper (and safe!) viewing glasses were used.
Date
February 10, 1917
January 25, 1926
January 18, 1938
February 6, 1946
July 27, 1946
March 10, 1947
April 7, 1947
May 16, 1951
Nov. 14, 1970
August 23, 1971
October 30, 1972
Nov. 11, 1980
July 28, 1981
Size
3600
3700
3650
5250
4700
4650
6150
4850
3500
3500
4120
3820
3800
Years of Peak Sunspot

Activity:
Sunspot
Cycle
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Space Math
Peak
Year
1906
1917
1928
1937
1947
1958
1968
1979
1989
Earths
21.3
Date
October 14, 1981
October 19, 1981
February 10, 1982
June 18, 1982
July 15, 1982
April 28, 1984
May 13, 1984
March 13, 1989
September 5, 1989
Size
4180
4500
3800
4400
4900
5400
3700
5230
3500
Earths
Question 1: The peaks of the 11-year sunspot

cycle during the 20th century occurred during the
years shown to the left. On average, how close to
sunspot maximum do the largest spots occur?
Question 2: From this sample, do more of these

spots happen in the 5 years before sunspot
maximum, or within 5 years after sunspot
maximum?
Question 3: Convert the sunspot areas into an

equivalent area of the Earth. (Note the first one has
been done as an example). What is the average
large spot size in terms of Earth?
Answer Key
Date
February 10, 1917

January 25, 1926
January 18, 1938
February 6, 1946
July 27, 1946
March 10, 1947
April 7, 1947
May 16, 1951
Nov. 14, 1970
August 23, 1971
October 30, 1972
Nov. 11, 1980
July 28, 1981
October 14, 1981
October 19, 1981
February 10, 1982
June 18, 1982
July 15, 1982
April 28, 1984
May 13, 1984
March 13, 1989
September 5, 1989
20
Size
3600
3700
3650
5250
4700
4650
6150
4850
3500
3500
4120
3820
3800
4180
4500
3800
4400
4900
5400
3700
5230
3500
Area
In
Earths
21.3
21.9
21.6
31.1
27.8
27.5
36.4
28.7
20.7
20.7
24.4
22.6
22.5
24.7
26.6
22.5
26.0
29.0
32.0
21.9
31.0
20.7
Nearest
Sunspot
Max. Year
1917
1928
1937
1947
1947
1947
1947
1951
1968
1968
1968
1979
1979
1979
1979
1979
1979
1979
1989
1989
1989
1989
Difference
In
Years
0
-2
+1
-1
-1
0
0
0
+2
+3
+4
+1
+2
+2
+2
+3
+3
+3
-5
-5
0
0
Question 1: On average, how close to sunspot maximum do the largest spots

occur? Answer: Find the average of the differences in last column = 0 years. So,
the largest sunspots occur, on average, close to the peak of the sunspot cycle.
Question 2: For this sample, do more of these spots happen in the 5 years
before sunspot maximum, or within 5 years after sunspot maximum? Answer:
More happen after the peak. Five happen before the peak (negative differences)
and 11 happen after the peak (Positive differences).
Question 3: What is the average large spot size in terms of Earth? Answer:
Average = (561.6/22) = 25.5 Earth Areas.
Space Math
21
Sunspot Cycles Since 1900

Table of Sunspot Numbers Since 1900
Year
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
SSN
9
3
5
24
42
63
54
62
49
44
19
6
4
1
10
47
57
104
81
64
38
26
14
6
17
44
64
69
Year
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
SSN
78
65
36
21
11
6
9
36
80
114
110
89
68
47
31
16
10
33
93
152
136
135
84
69
31
14
4
38
Year
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
SSN
142
190
185
159
112
54
38
28
10
15
47
94
106
106
105
67
69
38
34
15
13
27
93
155
155
140
116
67
Year
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
SSN
46
18
13
29
100
158
142
146
94
55
30
18
9
21
64
93
120
111
104
64
40
30
15
8
3
2
In 1843, the German astronomer Samuel Schwab plotted the number of

sunspots on a graph and discovered that the number of sunspots on the sun
was not the same every year, but goes through a cyclical increase and decrease
over time. The table above gives the average number of sunspots (SSN)
detected each year since 1900.
Problem 1 - Graph the data in the table over the domain [1900, 2009] and range
[0,200]. How many sunspot cycles can you count over this time interval?
Problem 2 - What is the average period of the sunspot cycle during this time
interval?
Space Math
21
Answer Key
200
180
Annual SSN
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Year
Problem 1 - Graph the data in the table over the domain [1900, 2009] and range [0,200].
How many sunspot cycles can you count over this time interval?
Answer: There are 10 complete cycles.
Problem 2 - What is the average period of the sunspot cycle during this time interval?
Answer: The time interval is 109 years during which 10 cycles occur for an average period
of 10.9 years.
Note: Additional sunspot data can be found at
Spaceweather.com
http://www.spaceweather.com/java/archive.html
NASA Marshall Spaceflight Center

http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SunspotCycle.shtml
NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center

http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/ftpmenu/warehouse.html
Select year from list, select file 'DSD.txt' and open. Column 5 gives average SSN for given
day.
Space Math

In 2007, the best estimates and observations suggested that we had just entered sunspot
minimum, and that the next solar activity cycle might begin during the first few months of 2008. In
May, 2007, solar physicist Dr. William Pesnell at the NASA, Goddard Spaceflight Center tabulated
all of the current predictions for when the next sunspot cycle (2008-2019) will reach its peak.
These predictions, reported by many other solar scientists are shown in the table below.
Current Predictions for the Next Sunspot Maximum
Author
Prediction
Year
Spots
Year
Method Used
Horstman
Thompson
Tsirulnik
Podladchikova
Dikpati
Hathaway
Pesnell
Maris & Onicia
Hathaway
Gholipour
Chopra & Davis
Kennewell
Tritakis
Tlatov
Nevanlinna
Kim
Pesnell
Tlatov
Tlatov
Prochasta
De Meyer
Euler & Smith
Hiremath
Tlatov
Lantos
Kane
Pesnell
Wang
Roth
Duhau
Baranovski
Schatten
Choudhuri
Javariah
Svalgaard
Kontor
Badalyan
Cliverd
Maris
2005
2006
1997
2006
2006
2006
2006
2006
2004
2005
2006
2006
2006
2006
2007
2004
2006
2006
2006
2006
2003
2006
2007
2006
2006
1999
2006
2002
2006
2003
2006
2005
2007
2007
2005
2006
2001
2006
2004
185
180
180
174
167
160
160
145
145
145
140
130
133
130
124
122
120
115
115
119
110
122
110
110
108
105
101
101
89
87
80
80
80
74
70
70
50
38
50
2010.5
Last 5 cycles
Precurser
Global Max
Integral SSN
Dynamo Model
AA Index
Cycle 24 = Cycle22
Neural Network Forecast
Meridional Circulation
Spectral Analysis
Disturbed Day Analysis
H-alpha synoptic charts
Statistics of Rz
H-alpha Charts
AA at solar minimum
Cycle parameter study
Cycle 24 = Cycle 23
Unipolar region size
Large Scale magnetic field
Average of Cycles 1 to 23
Transfer function model
McNish-Lincoln Model
Autoregressive Model
Magnetic Moments
Even/Odd cycle pattern
Spectral Components
Linear Prediction
Solar Cycle Statistics
Moving averages
Sunspot Maxima and AA
Non-Linear Dynamo model
Polar Field Precurser
Flux Transport Dynamo
Low-Lat. Spot Groups
Polar magnetic field
Statistical extrapolation
Coronal Line
Atmospheric Radiocarbon
Flare energy during Cycle 23
2014
2010.6
2009.9
2010
2011.5
2012.5
2009.5
2010.9
2010
2011.2
2012
2011
2010.5
2012.6
2012.3
2011.1
2012
2012
2012.9
2010.5
Problem 1: What is the average year for the predicted sunspot maximum?
Problem 2: What is the average prediction for the total number of sunspots during the next
sunspot maximum?
Problem 3: Which scientist has offered the most predictions? Do they show any trends?
Problem 4: What is the average prediction for the total sunspots during each prediction year
from 2003 to 2006?
Problem 5: As we get closer to sunspot minimum in 2008, have the predictions for the peak
sunspots become larger, smaller, or remain unchanged on average?
Problem 6: Which methods give the most different prediction for the peak sunspot number,
compared to the average of the predictions made during 2006?
Space Math
22
22
Answer Key:
Answer: There are 21 predictions, with an average year of 2011.3.
This corresponds to about March, 2011.
sunspot maximum?
Answer: The average of the 39 estimates in column 3 is 116 sunspots at sunspot maximum.
Answer: Tlatov has offered 4 predictions, all made in the year 2006. The predicted numbers
were 130, 115, 115 and 110. There does not seem to be a significant trend towards
larger or smaller predictions by this scientist. The median value is 115 and the mode is
also 115.
from 2003 to 2006?
Answer: Group the predictions according to the prediction year and then find the average for
that year.
2003: 110, 87 average = 98
2004: 145, 122, 50 average= 106
2005: 185,145,80,70 average= 120
2006: 180,174,167,160,160,145,140,130,133,130,120,
115,115,119,122,110,108,101,89,80,70,38 average= 123
Answer: Based on the answer to problem 4, it appears that the predictions have tended to get
larger, increasing from about 98 to 123 between 2003 and 2006.
Answer: Cliverds Atmospheric Radiocarbon Method (38 spots), Badalyans Coronal Line
Method (50 spots), and Mariss Flare Energy during Cycle 23 (50 spots) seem to be the
farthest from the average predictions that have been made by other forecasting
methods.
Space Math
Solar Storms: Odds, Fractions and Percentages

One of the most basic activities that scientists perform with their data is to look for correlations
between different kinds of events or measurements in order to see if a pattern exists that could suggest
that some new 'law' of nature might be operating. Many different observations of the Sun and Earth
provide information on some basic phenomena that are frequently observed. The question is whether
these phenomena are related to each other in some way. Can we use the sighting of one phenomenon as
a prediction of whether another kind of phenomenon will happen?
During most of the previous sunspot cycle (January-1996 to June-2006), astronomers detected 11,031
coronal mass ejections, (CME: Top image) of these 1186 were 'halo' events. Half of these were directed
towards Earth.
During the same period of time, 95 solar proton events (streaks in te bottom image were caused by a
single event) were recorded by the GOES satellite network orbiting Earth. Of these SPEs, 61 coincided
with Halo CME events.
Solar flares (middle image) were also recorded by the GOES satellites. During this time period, 21,886
flares were detected, of which 122 were X-class flares. Of the X-class flares, 96 coincided with Halo
CMEs, and 22 X-class flares also coincided with 22 combined SPE+Halo CME events. There were 6 Xflares associated with SPEs but not associated with Halo CMEs. A total of 28 SPEs were not associated
with either Halo CMEs or with X-class solar flares.
From this statistical information, construct a Venn Diagram to interrelate the numbers in the above
findings based on resent NASA satellite observations, then answer the questions below.
1 - What are the odds that a CME is directed towards Earth?

2 - What fraction of the time does the sun produce X-class flares?
3 - How many X-class flares are not involved with CMEs or

SPEs?
4 - If a satellite spotted both a halo coronal mass ejection and an

X-class solar flare, what is the probability that a solar proton
event will occur?
5 - What percentage of the time are SPEs involved with Halo

CMEs, X-class flares or both?
6 - If a satellite just spots a Halo CME, what are the odds that an
X-class flare or an SPE or both will be observed?
7 - Is it more likely to detect an SPE if a halo CME is observed, or

if an X-class flare is observed?
8 - If you see either a Halo CME or an X-class flare, but not both,
what are the odds you will also see an SPE?
9 - If you observed 100 CMEs, X-class flares and SPEs, how
many times might you expect to see all three phenomena?
Space Math
23
23
Answer Key
Venn Diagram Construction.

1. There are 593 Halo CMEs directed
to Earth so 593 = 74 with flares + 39
with SPEs + 22 both SPEs and Flares
+ 458 with no SPEs or Flares..
2. There are 95 SPEs. 95 = 39 with
CMEs + 6 with flares + 22 with both
flares and CMEs + 28 with no flares or
CMEs
3. There are 122 X-class flares. 122 =
74 With CMEs only + 6 with SPEs only
+ 22 both CMEs and SPEs + 20 with
no CMEs or SPEs.
1 - What are the odds that a CME is directed towards Earth? 593/11031 = 0.054 odds = 1 in 19
2 - What fraction of the time does the sun produce X-class flares? 122/21886 = 0.006
3 - How many X-class flares are not involved with CMEs or SPEs?
122 - 74 - 22 - 6 = 20.
4 - If a satellite spotted BOTH a halo coronal mass ejection and an X-class solar flare, what is the
probability that a solar proton event will occur? 22/(74+22) = 0.23
5 - What percentage of the time are SPEs involved with Halo CMEs, X-class flares or both?
100% x (39+22+6 / 95) = 70.1 %
6 - If a satellite just spots a Halo CME, what are the odds that an X-class flare or an SPE or both will
be observed?
39+22+74 / 593 = 0.227 so the odds are 1/0.227 or about 1 in 4.
7 - Is it more likely to detect an SPE if a halo CME is observed, or if an X-class flare is observed?
(6+22)/95 = 0.295 or 1 out of 3 times for X-flares
(39+22)/95 = 0.642 or 2 out of 3 for Halo CMEs
It is more likely to detect an SPE if a Halo CME occurs by 2 to 1.
8 - If you see either a Halo CME or an X-class flare, but not both, what are the odds you will also see
an SPE?
39+6 / 95 = 0.50 so the odds are 1/0.50 or 2 to 1 .
9 - If you observed 100 CMEs, X-class flares and SPEs, how many times might you expect to see all
three phenomena?
100 x 22/(95+122+593) = 3 times
Space Math
Studying Solar Storms with Venn Diagrams

Solar storms come in two varieties:
Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) are clouds of
gas ejected from the sun that can reach Earth
and cause the Aurora Borealis (Northern
Lights). These clouds can travel at over 2
million kilometers/hr, and carry billions of tons
of matter in the form of charged particles
(called a plasma). The picture to the left
shows one of many CMEs witnessed by the
SOHO satellite.
Solar Flares are intense bursts of X-ray
energy that can cause short-wave radio
interference on Earth. The picture to the left
shows a powerful X-ray flare seen by the
SOHO satellite on October 28, 2003.
Between 1996 and 2006, astronomers
detected 11,031 coronal mass ejections
(CMEs), and of these, 593 were directed
towards Earth. These are called Halo CMEs
because the ejected gas surrounds the suns
disk on all sides and looks, like a halo around
the sun.
During these same years,
astronomers also witnessed 122 solar flares
that were extremely intense X-flares. Of these
X-flares, 96 happened at the same time as
the Halo CMEs.
Problem 1 - From this statistical information,
fill-in the missing numbers in the circular Venn
Diagram to the left.
Problem 2 What percentage of X-Flares
also happened at the same time as a Halo
CME?
Problem 3 What percentage of Halo CMEs
happened at the same time as an X-Flare?
Problem 4 What percentage of all CMEs
detected between 1996 and 2006 produced
X-Flares?
Space Math
24
24
Answer Key:
Answer 1 The total number of
Halo CMEs is 593 and the total
number of X-Flares is 122. The
intersecting area of the two circles in
the Venn Diagram shows the 96
events in which a Halo CME and XFlare are BOTH seen together. The
areas of the circles not in the
intersection represent all of the Xflares that are not spotted with Halo
CMEs (top ring) and all of the Halo
CMEs that are not spotted with XFlares (bottom ring).
The missing number in the X-Flare
ring is just 122 96 = 26, and for the
Halo CMes we have 593 96 =
497.
Answer 2 The total number of X-Flares is 122 and of these only 96 occurred with
a Halo CME, so the fraction of X-Flares is just 96/122 = 0.79. In terms of
percentage, this represents 79 %.
Answer 3 The total number of Halo CMEs is 593 and of these only 96 occurred
with an X-Flare, so the fraction of Halo CMEs is just 96/593 = 0.16. In terms of
percentage, this represents 16 %.
Answer 4 There were 11,031 CMEs detected, and of these only 96 coincided
with X-Flares, so the fraction is 96/11031 = 0.0087. In terms of percentage, this
represents 0.87 % or less than 1 % of all CMEs.
Space Math
25
Space Weather Indicators

Sunspots are a sign that the
Sun is in a stormy state.
Sometimes these storms can
affect Earth and cause all
kinds of problems such as
satellite
damage
and
electrical power outages. They
can even harm astronauts
working in space.
Scientists use many different
kinds of measurements to
track this stormy activity. In this
exercise, you will learn how to
use some of them!
This sunspot is as big as Earth!

Looking at sequences of numbers can help you identify unusual
events that depart from the average trend.

An astronomer counts sunspots for 5 days and gets the following sequence:
149, 136, 198, 152, 145

Maximum
Minimum
Mean
Median
= 198
= 136
= (149+136+198+152+145)/5 = 156
= 149
Find the maximum, minimum, mean and median of each sequence.
1) Number of Sunspots
241
240
243
229
268
335
342
401
325
290
276
232
214
2) Number of Solar Flares

5
13
14
13
16
14
15
3) Aurora Power (measured in billions of watts!)

171.2
Space Math
122.2
219.4
107.9
86.2
112.4
76.2
39.8
153.9
25
Answer Key
Problem 1 - Maximum= 401, minimum=214;
Ordered = 214, 229 ,232 ,240, 241, 243 ,268, 276, 290, 325, 335 ,342, 401
Median = 268
Mean = 264
Problem 2 - Maximum= 16, minimum= 5

Ordered = 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 9, 13, 13, 14, 14, 15
Median = 9
Mean = 10
Problem 3 - Maximum = 219.4; minimum=39.8

Ordered = 39.8 ,76.2 ,86.2 ,107.9 ,112.4, 122.2, 153.9, 171.2, 219.4
Median = 112.4
Mean = 121.0
Space Math
Sunspot cycles
The Sun is an active star that
goes through cycles of high
and low activity. Scientists
mark these changes by
counting
sunspots.
The
numbers of spots increase and
decrease about every 11
years in what scientists call the
Sunspot Cycle.
This activity will let you
investigate how many years
typically elapse between the
sunspot cycles. Is the cycle
really, exactly 11-years long?
The sunspot cycle between 1994 and 2008
Scientists study many phenomena that run in cycles. The Sun provides a
number of such 'natural rhythms' in the solar system.
Sequences of numbers
often have maximum
and minimum values
that re-occur
periodically.
Consider the following measurements taken

every 5 minutes:
100, 200, 300, 200, 100, 200, 300, 200
1.
2.
3.
4.
Now you try!

Sunspot Numbers
Solar Maximum | Solar Minimum
Year
2000
1990
1980
1969
1957
1947
1937
1928
1917
1905
1893
1883
1870
Number
125
146
154
106
190
152
114
78
104
63
85
64
170
Space Math
Year
1996
1986
1976
1964
1954
1944
1933
1923
1913
1901
1889
1879
1867
Number
9
14
13
10
4
10
6
6
1
3
6
3
7
There are two maxima (value '300').

The maxima are separated by 4 intervals.
The cycle has a period of 4 x 5 = 20 minutes.
The pairs of minima (value = 100) are also
separated by this same period of time.
This table gives the sunspot numbers for pairs

of maximums and minimums in the sunspot
cycle.
1) From the solar maximum data, calculate
the number of years between each pair of
maxima.
2) From the solar minimum data, calculate
the number of years between each pair of
minima.
3) What is the average time between solar
maxima?
4) What is the average time between solar
minima?
5) Combining the answers to #3 and #4, what
is the average sunspot cycle length?
26
26
Answer Key
Problem 1 - Maxima Table
Year
Difference
2000
1990
10
1980
10
1969
11
1957
12
1947
10
1937
10
1928
9
1917
11
1905
12
1893
12
1883
10
1870
13
Problem 2 - Minima Table

Year
Difference
1996
1986
10
1976
10
1964
12
1954
10
1944
10
1933
11
1923
10
1913
10
1901
12
1889
12
1879
10
1867
12
Problem 3 - Average time = 130/12 = 10.8 years between sunspot maxima

Problem 4 - Average time = 129/12 = 10.8 years between minima
Problem 5 - Average length = (10.8 + 10.8)/2 = 10.8 years.
Space Math
Irradiance (also called insolation) is a measure of the amount of sunlight power

that falls upon one square meter of exposed surface, usually measured at the 'top' of
Earth's atmosphere. This energy increases and decreases with the season and with your
latitude on Earth, being lower in the winter and higher in the summer, and also lower at
the poles and higher at the equator. But the sun's energy output also changes during the
sunspot cycle!
The figure above shows the solar irradiance and sunspot number since January
1979 according to NOAA's National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC). The thin lines
indicate the daily irradiance (red) and sunspot number (blue), while the thick lines
indicate the running annual average for these two parameters. The total variation in solar
irradiance is about 1.3 watts per square meter during one sunspot cycle. This is a small
change compared to the 100s of watts we experience during seasonal and latitude
differences, but it may have an impact on our climate. The solar irradiance data obtained
by the ACRIM satellite, measures the total number of watts of sunlight that strike Earth's
upper atmosphere before being absorbed by the atmosphere and ground.
Problem 1 - About what is the average value of the solar irradiance between 1978 and
2003?
Problem 2 - What appears to be the relationship between sunspot number and solar
irradiance?
Space Math
27
27
Answer Key
Problem 1 - About what is the average value of the solar irradiance between 1978 and 2003?
Answer: Draw a horizontal line across the upper graph that is mid-way between the highest
and lowest points on the curve. An approximate answer would be 1366.3 watts per square
meter.
irradiance?
Answer: When there are a lot of sunspots on the sun (called sunspot maximum) the amount of
solar radiation is higher than when there are fewer sunspots. The solar irradiance changes
follow the 11-year sunspot cycle.
Space Math
Sunspots and Satellite Re-entry

Satellite technology is everywhere! Right now, there are over 1587 working satellites
orbiting Earth. They represent over $160 billion in assets to the worlds economy. In the United
States alone, satellites and the many services they provide produce over $225 billion every
year. But satellites do not work forever. Typically they have to be replaced every 10 to 15 years
as new services are created, and better technology is developed. Satellites in the lowest orbits,
called Low Earth Orbit (LEO) orbit between 300 to 1000 kilometers above the ground. Because
Earths atmosphere extends hundreds of kilometers into space, LEO satellites eventually
experience enough frictional drag from the atmosphere that at altitudes below 300 km, they fall
back to Earth and burn up. The table below gives the number of LEO satellites that re-entered
Earths atmosphere, and the average sunspot number, for each year since 1969.
Year
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
1986
1985
1984
1983
1982
1981
1980
1979
1978
1977
1976
1975
1974
1973
1972
1971
1970
1969
Sunspots
43
66
109
123
124
96
62
20
8
18
31
54
93
144
145
162
101
29
11
16
43
65
115
146
149
145
87
26
12
14
32
37
67
66
107
105
Space Math
Satellites
19
31
38
41
37
25
30
21
22
20
17
28
41
40
30
45
33
13
16
17
14
28
19
32
41
42
33
18
16
15
21
14
12
19
25
26
Figure: A typical weather satellite
Problem 1: On the same graph, plot the number of

sunspots and decayed satellites (vertical axis) for
each year (horizontal axis). During what years did
the peaks in the sunspots occur?
Problem 2: When did the peaks in the satellite reentries occur?
Problem 3: Is there a correlation between the two
sets of data?
Problem 4: If you are a satellite operator, should
you be concerned about the sunspot cycle?
Problem 5: Do some research on the topic of how
the sun affects Earth. Can you come up with at
least two ways that the sun could affect a satellites
orbit?
Problem 6: Can you list some different ways that
you rely on satellites, or satellite technology, during
a typical week?
28
Answer Key
28
Problem 1: On the same graph, plot the number of sunspots (divided by 4) and decayed satellites for
each year. During what years did the peaks in the sunspots occur? Answer: From the graph or the
table, the sunspot maximum years were 2000, 1989, 1980 and 1970.
Problem 2: When did the peaks in the satellite re-entries occur? Answer: The major peaks occurred
during the years 2001, 1989, 1979 and 1969.
Problem 3: Is there a correlation between the two sets of data? Answer: A scientist analyzing the two
plots by eye would be impressed that there were increases in the satellite decays that occurred within a
year or so of the sunspot maxima years. This is more easy to see if you subtract the overall trend line
which is increasing from about 10 satellites in 1970 to 20 satellites in 2004. What remains is a pretty
convincing correlation between sunspots numbers and satellite re-entries.
Problem 4: If you were a satellite operator, should you be concerned about the sunspot cycle? Answer:
Yes, because for LEO satellites there seems to be a good correlation between satellite re-entries near
the times of sunspot maxima.
Problem 5: Do some research on the topic of how the sun affects Earth. Can you come up with at least
two ways that the sun could affect a satellites orbit? Answer: The answers may vary, but as a guide,
space physicists generally believe that during sunspot maxima, the suns produces more X-rays and
ultraviolet light, which heat Earths upper atmosphere. This causes the atmosphere to expand into space.
LEO satellites then experience more friction with the atmosphere, causing their orbits to decay and
eventually causing the satellite to burn-up. There are also more solar storms, flares and CMEs during
sunspot maximum, than during sunspot minimum. These storms affect satellites in space, causing loss of
data or operation, and can also cause electrical blackouts and other power problems.
Problem 6: Can you list some different ways that you rely on satellites, or satellite technology, during
a typical week? Answer: Satellite TV, ATM banking transactions, credit card purchases, paying for gas
at the gas pump, weather forecasts, GPS positions from your automobile, news reports from overseas,
airline traffic management, tsunami reports in the Pacific Basin, long distance telephone calls, internet
connections to pages overseas.
Space Math
Satellite Failures and Outages During Cycle 23

Event Date
AP*
SSN
SPE
Flare
Satellite
Condition
1-11-1997
------
---------
--------
Telstar-401
Satellite failure - Pointing/attitude
4-11-1997
------
23
72
--------
Tempo-2
Transponder loss
9-20-1997
46
14
---------
M1.7
Adeos-1
Main computer malfunction - GCR
3-21-2000
------
150
---------
M1.8
Hotbird-2
Loss of service for 9 hours
4-9-2000
137
108
55
M3.1
Brazilsat-A2
Loses TWTA
4-28-2000
------
124
--------
M7.8
Turksat-1C
ESD causes 55-minute service loss
7-15-2000
192
148
24,000
X5.7
GOES-8
Electron sensor problems- power
7-15-2000
192
148
24,000
X5.7
GOES-10
Data corruption
7-15-2000
192
148
24,000
M1.3
ASCA
Satellite Failure and reentry
8-27-2000
45
113
--------
--------
Solidaridad-1
Backup SCP fails
10-31-2000
41
111
---------
M4.4
Echostar-4
26/44 transponders lost
11-4-2000
78
130
---------
-------
Insat-2B
Service outage
9-6-2001
------
141
---------
M2.2
PAS-7
25% power loss
10-23-2001
105
143
24
X1.2
Echostar-6
Solar array string loss announced
12-7-2001
------
138
---------
M1.0
Arabsat-3A
Loss of transponders
10-25-2003
42
88
---------
--------
Adeos-2
Satellite Failure - Solar array malfunction
10-28-2003
252
165
29,500
X17.2
DRTS
Enters Safe Mode
10-28-2003
252
165
29,500
X17.2
FEDSAT
Magnetometer data corrupted
10-28-2003
252
165
29,500
X17.2
GOES-8
X-ray sensor disabled
10-30-2003
252
167
29,500
X10.0
INMARSAT
CPU outages and attitude errors
10-30-2003
252
167
29,500
X10.0
KODAMA
Goes into Safe Mode
10-30-2003
252
167
29,500
X10.0
DMSP F14
One microwave sounder damaged
9-23-2006
-----
---------
--------
Meteosat-8
SEU
12-5-2006
120
20
1,980
X9.0
GOES-13
X-ray imager damaged
The table gives a short list of the publicly-admitted satellite failures and
outages during sunspot cycle 23 (1996-2008).
Problem 1 - The annual sunspot counts for Cycle 23 between 1996 and 2008
(inclusive) were as follows: [9,21,64,93,120,111,104,64,40,30,15,8,3]. How do the
outages compare in time with the sunspot cycle? (Hint: Graph the sunspot cycle
and then indicate on the graph when the outages occurred)
Problem 2 - Assuming that this list is complete, what is the probability that a
satellite outage/failure will occur during a solar proton event?
Space Math
29
29
Answer Key
Problem 1 - The annual sunspot counts for Cycle 23 between 1996 and 2008
(inclusive) were as follows: [9,21,64,93,120,111,104,64,40,30,15,8,3]. How do the
outages compare in time with the sunspot cycle? (Hint: Graph the sunspot cycle and
then indicate on the graph when the outages occurred) Answer: The graph below
shows the sunspot cycle (line) and dots representing the approximate dates of
the outages. The outages can come at any time in the cycle, but are most
common close to the peak of the cycle.
Problem 2 - Assuming that this list is complete, what is the probability that a satellite
outage/failure will occur during a solar proton event?
Answer: The total number of satellite outages is 24, of which 13 were reported during
SPE events so the probability is 100% x 13/24 = 54%.
Space Math
Changing Perspectives on the Sun's Diameter
Earth's orbit is not a perfect circle centered on the sun, but an ellipse!
Because of this, in January, Earth is slightly closer to the sun than in July. This
means that the sun will actually appear to have a bigger disk in the sky in January
than in Julybut the difference is impossible to see with the eye, even if you
could do so safely!
The figure above shows the sun's disk taken by the SOHO satellite. The
left side shows the disk on January 4 and the right side shows the disk on July 4,
2009. As you can see, the diameter of the sun appears to change slightly
between these two months.
Problem 1 - What is the average diameter of the Sun, in millimeters, in this

figure?
Problem 2 - By what percentage did the diameter of the Sun change between
January and July compared to its average diameter?
Problem 3 - If the average distance to the Sun from Earth is 149,600,000

kilometers, how much closer is Earth to the Sun in July compared to January?
Space Math
30
30
Answer Key
Problem 1 - What is the average diameter of the Sun, in millimeters, in this figure?
Answer: Using a millimeter ruler, and measuring vertically along the join between the
two images, the left-hand, January, image is 72 millimeters in diameter, while the righthand image is 69 millimeters in diameter. The average of these two is (72 + 69)/2 =
70.5 millimeters.
Problem 2 - By what percentage did the diameter of the Sun change between January
and July compared to its average diameter?
Answer: In January the moon was larger then the average diameter by 100% x (72 70.5)/70.5 = 2.1 %. In July it was smaller then the average diameter by 100% x (70.5 69)/70.5 = 2.1%.
Problem 3 - If the average distance to the Sun from Earth is 149,600,000 kilometers,
how much closer is Earth to the Sun in July compared to January?
Answer: The diameter of the sun appeared to change by 2.1% + 2.1% = 4.2%
between January and June. Because the apparent size of an object is inversely related
to its distance (i.e. the farther away it is the smaller it appears), this 4.2% change in
apparent size occurred because of a 4.2% change in the distance between Earth and
the Sun, so since 0.042 x 149,600,000 km = 6,280,000 kilometers, the change in the
Sun's apparent diameter reflects the 6,280,000 kilometer change in earth's distance
between January and June. The Earth is 6,280,000 kilometers closer to the Sun in
July than in January.
Space Math
The Sun in Visible Light
This picture shows the Sun in white light as seen by the Global
Oscillation Network Group (GONG) instrument in Big Bear, California on
March 30, 2001. The image was obtained at a wavelength of 500 nm, or a
frequency of 600 teraHertz (6.0x1014 Hz). The large sunspot is more than
140,000 kilometers across; about 22 times the diameter of Earth. (Image
courtesy: NSO/AURA/NSF).
Visible light images of the sun have been used for hundreds of years to
study its sunspots and other features, since the advent of the telescope by
Galileo in 1609. Ancient Chinese astrologers viewed the sun near sunset and
often saw large sunspots. Recently, the intense study of sunspots, their cycles
of activity, and other features such as prominences and coronal mass
ejections, have led to a comprehensive understanding of solar activity and
'space weather'.
Problem - If the solar diameter is 0.5 degrees and the human eye can see
features about 2 arcminutes across, how large would a naked-eye sunspot be
on the scale of the image above? (Note: 1 degree = 60 arcminutes)
Space Math
31
31
Answer Key
Problem - If the solar diameter is 0.5 degrees and the human eye can see features
about 2 arcminutes across, how large would a naked-eye sunspot be on the scale
of the image above?
Answer: Since 1 degree = 60 arc minutes, 0.5 degrees is 30 arcminutes. For a sun
disk diameter of about 90 mm, the proportion would be: 90 mm x (2 arcminutes/30
arcminutes) = 6 millimeters. That is about as large as the main clump of spots in the
largest group in the image to the lower right.
The brightness of the sun at visible wavelengths is about
Space Math
SDO Reveals Details on the Surface of the Sun
32
On April 21, 2010 NASAs Solar Dynamics Observatory released its muchawaited First Light images of the sun. The image above shows a full-disk, multiwavelength, extreme ultraviolet image of the sun taken by SDO on March 30,
2010. False colors trace different gas temperatures. Black indicates very low
temperatures near 10,000 K close to the solar surface (photosphere). Reds are
relatively cool plasma (a gas consisting of atoms stripped of some of their
electrons) heated to 60,000 Kelvin (100,000 F); blues, greens and white are
hotter plasma with temperatures greater than 1 million Kelvin (2,000,000 F).
Problem 1 The radius of the sun is 690,000 kilometers. Using a millimeter ruler,
what is the scale of this image in kilometers/millimeter?
Problem 2 What are the smallest features you can find on this image, and how
large are they in kilometers, and in comparison to Earth if the radius of Earth is
6378 kilometers?
Problem 3 Where is the coolest gas (coronal holes), and the hottest gas (micro
flares), located in this image?
Space Math
32
Answer Key
Problem 1 The radius of the sun is 690,000 kilometers. Using a millimeter ruler,
what is the scale of these images in kilometers/millimeter?
Answer: The diameter of the Sun is 98 millimeters, so the scale is 1,380,000 km/98
mm = 14,000 km/mm.
Problem 2 What are the smallest features you can find on this image, and how large
are they in kilometers, and in comparison to Earth if the radius of Earth is 6378
kilometers?
Answer: Students should see numerous bright points speckling the surface, the
smallest of these are about 0.5 mm across or 7,000 km. This is slightly larger
than the diameter of Earth.
Problem 3 Where is the coolest gas (coronal holes), and the hottest gas (micro
flares), located in this image?
Answer: There are large irregular blotches all across the disk of the sun that are
dark blue-black. These are regions where there is little of the hot coronal gas
and only the cold photosphere can be seen. The hottest gas seems to reside in
the corona, and in the very small point-like microflare regions that are generally
no larger than the size of Earth.
Note: Microflares were first observed, clearly, by the Hinode satellite between 20072009. Some solar physicists believe that these microflares, which erupt violently, are
ejecting hot plasma that eventually ends up in the corona to replenish it. Because the
corona never disappears, these microflares happen all the time no matter what part of
the sunspot cycle is occurring.
Space Math
Getting an Angle on the Sun and Moon
The Sun (Diameter = 1,400,000 km) and Moon (Diameter = 3,476 km) have very
different physical diameters in kilometers, but in the sky they can appear to be nearly the
same size. Astronomers use the angular measure of arcseconds (asec) to measure the
apparent sizes of most astronomical objects. (1 degree equals 60 arcminutes, and 1
arcminute equals 60 arcseconds). The photos above show the Sun and Moon at a time
when their angular diameters were both about 1,865 arcseconds.
Problem 1 - Using a metric ruler, what is the angular scale of each image in arcseconds
per millimeter?
Problem 2 - In arcseconds, what is the size of the smallest feature you can see in the
images of the Sun and Moon?
2
Problem 3 - About what is the area, in square arcseconds (asec ) of the circular Mare
Serenitatis (A) region in the photo of the Moon?
Problem 4 - At the distance of the Moon, 1 arcsecond of angular measure equals 1.9
kilometers. The Sun is exactly 400 times farther away than the Moon. On the photograph
of the Sun, how many kilometers equals 1 arcsecond of angle?
Problem 5 - What is the area of Mare Serenitatis in square kilometers?
Problem 6 - What would be the physical area, in square-kilometers, of an identical

angular area to Mare Serenitatis if it were located on the surface of the sun?
Space Math
33
33
Answer Key
Problem 1 - Using a metric ruler, what is the angular scale of each image in arcseconds per
millimeter? Answer: Moon diameter = 65 mm and sun diameter = 61 mm so the lunar image
scale is 1,865 asec/65mm = 28.7 asec/mm and the solar scale is 1865 asec/61 mm = 30.6
asec/mm.
Problem 2 - In arcseconds, what is the size of the smallest feature you can see in the images
of the Sun and Moon? Answer: the smallest feature is about 0.5 mm or 0.5 x 28.7 asec/mm =
14.4 asec for the Moon and 0.5 x 30.6 asec/mm = 15.3 asec for the Sun.
Problem 3 - About what is the area, in square arcseconds (asec ) of the circular Mare
Serenitatis (A) region in the photo of the Moon? Answer: The diameter of the mare is 1
centimeter, so the radius is 5 mm or 5 mm x 28.7 asec/mm = 143.5 asec. Assuming a circle,
2
2
the area is A = x ( 143.5 asec) = 64,700 asec .
Problem 4 - At the distance of the Moon, 1 arcsecond of angular measure equals 1.9
kilometers. The Sun is exactly 400 times farther away than the Moon. On the photograph of
the Sun, how many kilometers equals 1 arcsecond of angle? Answer: The angular scale at
the sun would correspond to 400 x 1.9 km = 760 kilometers per arcsecond.
Problem 5 - What is the area of Mare Serenitatis in square kilometers? Answer: We have to
convert from square arcseconds to square kilometers using a two-step unit conversion 'ladder'.
2
64,700 asec x ( 1.9 km/asec) x (1.9 km/asec) = 233,600 km .
Problem 6 - What would be the physical area, in square-kilometers, of an identical angular

area to Mare Serenitatis if it were located on the surface of the sun? Answer: The angular
area is 400-times further away, so we have to use the scaling of 760 kilometers/asec deduced
in Problem 4. The unit conversion for the solar area becomes:
2
64,700 asec x (760 km/asec) x (760 km/asec) = 37,400,000,000 km .
Space Math
The Last Total Solar EclipseEver!
34
Total solar eclipses happen

because the angular size of the moon is
almost exactly the same as the sun's,
despite their vastly different distances
and sizes.
The moon has been steadily
pulling away from earth over the span of
billions of years. There will eventually
come a time when these two angular
sizes no longer match up. The moon will
be too small to cause a total solar
eclipse.
When will that happen?

Image courtesy Fred Espenak
http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/eclipse.html
Problem 1 - The minimum distance to the moon, called the perigee, is 356,400 kilometers. At
that distance, the angular size of the moon from the surface of Earth is 0.559 degrees. Suppose
you doubled the distance to the moon. What would its new angular size be, as seen from the
surface of Earth?
Problem 2 - Suppose you increased the moon's distance by 50,000 kilometers. What would the
angular size now be?
Problem 3 - The smallest angular size of the sun occurs near the summer solstice at a distance
of 152 million kilometers, when the sun has an angular diameter of 0.525 degrees. How far
away, in kilometers, does the moon have to be to match the sun's apparent diameter?
Problem 4 - How much further away from Earth will the moon be at that time?
Problem 5 - The moon is moving away from Earth at a rate of 3.8 centimeters per year. How
many years will it take to move 3.8 kilometer further away?
Problem 6 - How many years will it take to move the distance from your answer to Problem 4?
Problem 7 - When will the last Total Solar Eclipse be sighted in the future?
Space Math
34
Answer Key:
Problem 1 - The minimum distance to the moon, called the perigee, is 356,400 kilometers. At that distance, the
angular size of the moon from the surface of Earth is 0.559 degrees. Suppose you doubled the distance to the moon.
What would its new angular size be, as seen from the surface of Earth?
Answer: Because objects appear smaller the farther away they are, if you double the distance,
the moon will appear half its former size, or 0.559/2 = 0.279 degrees across.
Problem 2 - Suppose you increased the moon's distance by 50,000 kilometers. What would the angular size now be?
Answer: The distance is now 356,400 kilometers + 50,000 kilometers = 406,400 kilometers. The
distance has increased by 406,400/356,400 = 1.14, so that means that the angular size has
been reduced to 0.559 / 1.14 = 0.49 degrees.
Problem 3 - The smallest angular size of the sun occurs near the summer solstice at a distance of 152 million
kilometers, when the sun has an angular diameter of 0.525 degrees. How far away, in kilometers, does the moon have
to be to match the sun's apparent diameter?
Answer: 0.559/0.525 = 1.06 times further away from Earth or 356,400 km x 1.06 = 377,800
kilometers.
Problem 4 - How much further away from Earth will the moon be at that time?
Answer: 377,800 kilometers - 356,400 kilometers = 21,400 kilometers.

Problem 5 - The moon is moving away from Earth at a rate of 3.8 centimeters per year. How many years will it take
to move 3 kilometer further away?
Answer: ( 380,000 centimeters ) / ( 3.8 centimeters / year) = 100,000 years.

Problem 6 - How many years will it take to move the distance from your answer to Problem 4?
Answer:
( 21,400 kilometers / 3.8 kilometers) x 100,000 years = 713 million years.
Problem 7 - When will the last Total Solar Eclipse be sighted in the future?
Answer: About 713 million years from now.
Space Math
STEREO Spacecraft give 360 Solar View
This remarkable pair of images of the sun was taken on February 14, 2011
by NASAs STEREO A (left) and B (right) spacecraft. The spacecraft are close to
Earths orbit, however as viewed looking down on Earths orbit with the sun at the
center, STEREO-A is 90-degrees counter-clockwise of Earths orbit location, and
STEREO-B is 90-degrees clockwise. This means that when the two images
above are combined, the entire 360-degree span of the solar surface can be seen
at the same time, making this an historical moment for Humanity.
Problem 1 From the information in the text, draw a diagram that shows the
location of the sun, Earths orbital path (assume it is a circle, whose plane passes
through the equator of the sun) and the locations of the STEREO spacecraft. In
each of the two images, draw an arrow that points in the direction of Earth.
Problem 2 The images were taken in the light of iron atoms heated to 1.1
million degrees. The bright (white) features are solar active regions that
correspond to the locations of sunspots. At the time the images were taken, what
active regions in the above images: A) Could be observed from Earth? B) Could
not be observed from Earth?
Problem 3 Relative to the location of Earth in its orbit, the STEREO-A and B
spacecraft move 22 degrees farther from Earth each year. On your diagram from
Problem 1, about what will be the positions of the spacecraft along Earths orbit in
February of A) 2013? B) 2015? C) 2017? and D) 2022?
Space Math
35
35
Answer Key
Problem 1 From the information in the text, draw a diagram that shows the location of the
sun, Earths orbital path (assume it is a circle whose plane passes through the equator of the
sun) and the locations of the STEREO spacecraft. In each of the two images, draw an arrow
that points in the direction of Earth.
Problem 2 The images were taken in the light of iron atoms heated to 1.1 million degrees.
The bright (white) features are solar active regions that correspond to the locations of
sunspots. At the time the images were taken, what active regions in the above images: A)
Could be observed from Earth? B) Could not be observed from Earth? Answer A) Features
on the left half of Image A and the right half of Image B. B) Features on the right half of
Image A and the left half of Image B.
Problem 3 Relative to the location of Earth in its orbit, the STEREO-A and B spacecraft
move 22 degrees farther from Earth each year. On your diagram from Problem 1, about what
will be the positions of the spacecraft along Earths orbit in February of A) 2013? B) 2015? C)
2017? and D) 2022? Answer: If the satellites move 22 degrees along Earth's orbit each
year, then for A) 2013, Spacecraft A will be (2013 - 2011) x 22 = 44 degrees counterclockwise of its February 2011 position. Spacecraft B will be 44 degrees clockwise of its
February 2011 position. B) For 2015, Spacecraft A = (2015 - 2011) x 22 = 88 degrees
CCW; Spacecraft B = (2015 - 2011) x 22 = 88 degrees CW C) For 2017, Spacecraft A =
(2017 - 2011) x 22 = 132 degrees CCW; Spacecraft B = (2017 - 2011) x 22 = 132 degrees
CW; For 2022, Spacecraft A = (2022 - 2011) x 22 = 242 degrees CCW; Spacecraft B =
(2022 - 2011) x 22 = 242 degrees CW. See diagram below: - Angles approximate at this
scale
Note: The spacecraft were launched in October 2006, so the time for the spacecraft to drift
back to earth's vicinity will be 360/22 = 16 1/3 years after October 2006 or about February
2023.
Space Math
General Angles and Radian Measure

The relationship between
the distance to an object, R, the
objects size, L, and the angle that it
subtends at that distance, , is
given by:
To use these formulae, the units for length, L, and distance, R, must be
identical.
Problem 1 - You spot your friend (L = 2 meters) at a distance of 100 meters. What is
her angular size in arcminutes?
Problem 2 - The sun is located 150 million kilometers from Earth and has a radius of
696.000 kilometers. What is its angular diameter in arcminutes?
Problem 3 - How far away, in meters, would a dime (1 centimeter) have to be so that
its angular size is exactly one arcsecond?
Problem 4 - The spectacular photo above was taken by Jerry Lodriguss (Copyright
2007, http://www.astropix.com/HTML/SHOW_DIG/055.HTM ) and shows the
International Space Station streaking across the disk of the sun. If the ISS was located
379 kilometers from the camera, and the ISS measured 73 meters across, what was its
angular size in arcseconds?
Problem 5 - The orbital speed of the space station is 7.4 kilometers/second. If its
distance traveled in 1 second is 7.4 kilometers, A) what was the angle, in arcminutes,
that it moved through in one second as seen from the location of the camera? B) What
was its angular speed in arcminutes/second?
Problem 6 - Given the diameter of the sun in arcminutes (Problem 2), and the ISS
angular speed (Problem 5) how long, in seconds, did it take the ISS to travel across the
face of the sun?
Space Math
36
36
Answer Key
Problem 1 - Answer: Angle = 3,438 x (2 meters/100 meters) = 68.8 arcminutes.
Problem 2 - Answer: 3,438 x (696,000/150 million) = 15.9 arcminutes in radius, so the

diameter is 2 x 15.9 = 31.8 arcminutes.
Problem 3 - Answer: From the second formula R = 3438 * L/A = 3438 * 1 cm/1 arcsecond so
R = 3,438 centimeters or a distance of 34.4 meters.
Problem 4 - Answer: From the third formula, Angle = 206,265 * (73 meters/379,000 meters) =
39.7 arcseconds.
Problem 5 - Answer: The orbital speed of the space station is 7.4 kilometers/second. If its
distance traveled in 1 second is 7.4 kilometers, A) The ISS traveled L = 7.4 kilometers so from
the second formula Angle = 3,438 * (7.4 km/379 km) = 67 arcminutes. B) The angular speed
is just 67 arcminutes per second.
Problem 6 - Answer: The time required is T = 31.8 arcminutes/ (67 arcminutes/sec) = 0.47
seconds.
The spectacular photo by Jerry Lodriguss had to be taken with careful planning
beforehand. He had to know, to the second, when the sun and ISS would be in the right
configuration in the sky as viewed from his exact geographic location. Here's an example of
the photography considerations in his own words:
" I considered trying to monitor the transit visually with a remote release in my hand and just firing
(the camera) when I saw the ISS in my guidescope. Then I worked out the numbers. I know that my
reaction time is 0.19 seconds. This is actually quite good, but I make my living shooting sports where
this is critical, so I better be good at it. I also know that the Canon 1D Mark IIn has a shutter lag of
55 milliseconds. Adding these together, plus a little bit of a fudge factor, the best I could hope for
was about 1/4 of a second from when I saw it to when the shutter opened. Since the entire duration
of the transit was only 1/2 of a second, in theory, I could capture the ISS at about the center of the
disk if I fired as soon as I saw it start to cross. This was not much of a margin for error. I could
easily blink and miss the whole thing Out of 49 frames that the Mark IIn recorded, the ISS is visible
in exactly one frame."
Space Math
The Magnetic Classification of Sunspots

Solar flares are produced by magnetic
releases of energy in sunspots. The more complex
the magnetic field, the more likely a solar flare will
result.
Sunspots are magnetically classified
according to the alpha, beta, gamma, and delta 'Mt
Wilson' scheme:
September 29, 2008
Alpha-Pores
.. A group having only one polarity.

A group of magnetic polarities, with a simple division
between them.
A bipolar group in which no continuous line can

be drawn separating spots of opposite polarities.
..
.
June 2, 2009
Beta - Simple spot
A complex active region not classifiable as a bipolar

group.
A complex magnetic configuration consisting of
opposite polarity umbrae within the same penumbra.
The images to the left are from the

SOHO/MDI instrument in which North polarities are
white and South polarities are black. Solar flares are
more common in sunspots with complex magnetic
classifications such as , or .
October 29, 2003

Gamma - Complex spot
Space Math
Problem 1 - What classifications would you assign

to the sunspots in the bottom image obtained on
September 12, 1999?
37
37
Answer Key
The SOHO/MDI instrument website has a complete archive of full-sun magnetograms

at http://soi.stanford.edu/production/mag_gifs.html. Classifications can be found
in the Solar Region Summaries at the Space Weather Prediction Center:
http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/ftpmenu/forecasts/SRS.html
Problem 1 - What classifications would you assign to the sunspots in the bottom
image obtained on September 12, 1999?
Answer: The image below has the suggested classifications for the major active
regions. Assignment of a classification to the more complex spots can be difficult for
non-professionals, but students should be able to distinguish the major classes, ,
and .
Space Math
Irradiance (also called insolation) is a measure of the amount of sunlight power

that falls upon one square meter of exposed surface, usually measured at the 'top' of
Earth's atmosphere. This energy increases and decreases with the season and with your
latitude on Earth, being lower in the winter and higher in the summer, and also lower at
the poles and higher at the equator. But the sun's energy output also changes during the
sunspot cycle!
The figure above shows the solar irradiance and sunspot number since January
1979 according to NOAA's National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC). The thin lines
indicate the daily irradiance (red) and sunspot number (blue), while the thick lines
indicate the running annual average for these two parameters. The total variation in solar
irradiance is about 1.3 watts per square meter during one sunspot cycle. This is a small
change compared to the 100s of watts we experience during seasonal and latitude
differences, but it may have an impact on our climate. The solar irradiance data obtained
by the ACRIM satellite, measures the total number of watts of sunlight that strike Earth's
upper atmosphere before being absorbed by the atmosphere and ground.
Problem 1 - About what is the average value of the solar irradiance between 1978 and
2003?
irradiance?
Problem 3 - A homeowner built a solar electricity (photovoltaic) system on his roof in
1985 that produced 3,000 kilowatts-hours of electricity that year. Assuming that the
amount of ground-level solar power is similar to the ACRIM measurements, about how
much power did his system generate in 1989?
Space Math
38
38
Answer Key
Problem 1 - About what is the average value of the solar irradiance between 1978 and 2003?
Answer: Draw a horizontal line across the upper graph that is mid-way between the highest
and lowest points on the curve. An approximate answer would be 1366.3 watts per square
meter.
irradiance? Answer: When there are a lot of sunspots on the sun (called sunspot maximum)
the amount of solar radiation is higher than when there are fewer sunspots. The solar
irradiance changes follow the 11-year sunspot cycle.
Problem 3 - A homeowner built a solar electricity (photovoltaic) system on his roof in 1985 that
produced 3,000 kilowatts-hours of electricity that year. Assuming that the amount of groundlevel solar power is similar to the ACRIM measurements, about how much power did his
system generate in 1989?
Answer: In 1985, the amount of insolation was about 1365.5 watts per square meter when the
photovoltaic system was built. Because of changes in the sunspot cycle, in 1989 the insolation
increased to about 1366.5 watts per square meter. This insolation change was a factor of
1366.5/1365.5 = 1.0007. That means that by scaling, if the system was generating 3,000
kilowatt-hours of electricity in 1985, it will have generated 1.0007 x 3,000 kWh = 2 kWh more
in 1989 during sunspot maximum! That is equal to running one 60-watt bulb for about 1 day
(actually 33 hours).
Space Math
How fast does the sun spin?
The sun, like many other celestial bodies, spins around on an axis that passes through
its center. The rotation of the sun, together with the turbulent motion of the sun's outer surface,
work together to create magnetic forces. These forces give rise to sunspots, prominences,
solar flares and ejections of matter from the solar surface.
Astronomers can study the rotation of stars in the sky by using an instrument called a
spectroscope. What they have discovered is that the speed of a star's rotation depends on its
age and its mass. Young stars rotate faster than old stars, and massive stars tend to rotate
faster than low-mass stars. Large stars like supergiants, rotate hardly at all because they are
so enormous they reach almost to the orbit of Jupiter. On the other hand, very compact
neutron stars rotate 30 times each second and are only 40 kilometers across.
The X-ray telescope on the Hinode satellite creates movies of the rotating sun, and
makes it easy to see this motion. A sequence of these images is shown on the left taken on
June 8, 2007 (Left); June 10 2007 (Right) at around 06:00 UT.
Although the sun is a sphere, it appears as a flat disk in these pictures when in fact the
near-side surface of the sun is bulging out of the page at you! We are going to neglect this
distortion and estimate how many days it takes the sun to spin once around on its axis.
The radius of the sun is 696,000 kilometers.
Problem 1 - Using the information provided in the images, calculate the speed of the sun's
rotation in kilometers/sec and in miles/hour.
Problem 2 About how many days does it take to rotate once at the equator?
Inquiry Question: What geometric factor produces the largest uncertainty in your estimate,
and can you come up with a method to minimize it to get a more accurate rotation period?
Weekly Math Problems
39
39
Answer Key:
Problem 1 - Using the information provided in the images, calculate the speed of the sun's
rotation in kilometers/sec and in miles/hour.
First, from the diameter of the sun's disk, calculate the image scale of each picture in kilometers
per millimeter.
Diameter=
76 mm. so radius = 38 mm. Scale = (696,000 km)/38 mm = 18,400 km/mm
Then, find the center of the sun disk, and using this as a reference, place the millimeter ruler
parallel to the sun's equator, measure the distance to the very bright 'active region' to the right of
the center in each picture. Convert the millimeter measure into kilometers using the image scale.
Picture 1: June 8
Picture 2; June 10
distance =
distance =
4 mm
22 mm
d = 4 mm (18,400 km/mm) = 74,000 km

d = 22 mm (18,400 km/mm) = 404,000 km
Calculate the average distance traveled between June 8 and June 10.
Distance =
(404,000 - 74,000) = 330,000 km
Divide this distance by the number of elapsed days (2 days)..
165,000 km/day
Convert this to kilometers per hour...
6,875 km/hour
Convert this to kilometers per second...
1.9 km/sec
Convert this to miles per hour
4,400 miles/hour
Problem 2 About how many days does it take to rotate once at the equator?
The circumference of the sun is 2 (696,000 km) = 4,400,000 kilometers.
The equatorial speed is 66,000 km/day so the number of days equals
4,400,000/165,000 = 26.6 days.
Inquiry Question:
Because the sun is a sphere, measuring the distance of the spot from the center of the
sun on June 10 gives a distorted linear measure due to foreshortening.
The sun has rotated about 20 degrees during the 2 days, so that means a full rotation
would take about (365/20) x 2 days = 36.5 days which is closer to the equatorial speed
of the sun of 35 days.
The Speed of a Coronal Mass Ejection

The last few days from November 6 - 9, 2004 were very active days
for solar and auroral events. A major sunspot group, AR 0696, with a
complex magnetic field produced several Coronal Mass Ejections (CME) and
flares during this time. (A CME is billion-ton cloud of gas ejected by the sun
at millions of kilometers per hour). The latest ones were an X2.0-class solar
flare on Nov 7, 16:06 UT and a CME. On November 9 and 12:00 UT, the
beginnings of a major geomagnetic storm started. The NOAA Space
Weather Bulletin announced that:
The Geomagnetic field is expected to be at unsettled to major storm
levels on 09 November due to the arrival of a CME associated with
the X2.0 flare observed on 07 November.
Unsettled to minor storm
levels are expected on 10 November.
Quiet to active levels are
expected on 11 November.
Many observers as far south as Texas and Oklahoma reported seeing

beautiful aurora on Sunday night from an earlier CME/flare combination on
Saturday, November 6th. In the space provided below, calculate the speed of
the CME as it traveled to Earth between November 7th - 9th assuming that
the distance to Earth is 93 million miles, or 147 million kilometers.
Problem 1 - How long did it take for the CME to arrive?
Problem 2 - What is the speed of the CME in miles per hour?
Problem 3 - What is the speed of the CME in kilometers per hour?
Problem 4 - What is the speed of the CME in miles per second?
Problem 5 - What is the speed of the CME in kilometers per second?
Space Math
40
Answer Key
40
The distance to the Earth is 93 million miles or 147 million kilometers.

Start time = November 7 at 16:06 UT
Arrival time = November 9 at 12:00 UT
Problem 1 - How long did it take for the CME to arrive?
Answer: November 7 at 16:06 UT to November 8 at 16:06 UT is 24 hours.
From Nov 8 at 16:06 to Nov 9 at 12:00 UT is
(24:00 - 16:06) + 12:00
= 7:54 + 12:00
= 19 hours and 54 minutes.
Total time = 24 hours + 19 hours and 54 minutes = 43 hours and 54 minutes.
Problem 2 - What is the speed of the CME in miles per hour?

Answer: In decimal units, the travel time from question 1 equals 43.9 hours.
The distance is 93 million miles so the speed is 93 million miles/43.9hours
or 2.1 million miles per hour.
Problem 3 - What is the speed of the CME in kilometers per hour?

Answer: Use the conversion that 1.0 miles = 1.6 kilometers, then
2.1 million miles/hour x 1.6 km/mile = 3.4 million kilometers per hour
Problem 4 - What is the speed of the CME in miles per second?

Answer: Convert hours to seconds by
1 hour x 60 minutes/hour x 60 seconds/minute = 3,600 seconds.
Then from question 2: 2.1 million miles/hour divided by 3600 seconds/hour
= 583 miles/second.
Problem 5 - What is the speed of the CME in kilometers per second?

Answer: From question 3 and the conversion of 1 hour = 3600 seconds:
3.4 million kilometers / second divided by 3600 seconds/hour
= 944 kilometers/sec.
Space Math
Measuring the Speed of a Prominence with SDO

On April 21, 2010 NASAs
Solar
Dynamics
Observatory
released its much-awaited First
Light images of the Sun. Among
them was a sequence of images
taken on March 30, showing an
eruptive
prominence
ejecting
millions of tons of plasma into
space. A plasma is a gas
consisting of atoms stripped of
some of their electrons.
The three images to the left
show selected scenes from the
first high definition movie of this
event. The top image was taken
at 17:50:49, the middle image at
18:02:09 and the bottom image at
18:13:29.
Problem 1 The width of the
image is 300,000
kilometers.
Using a millimeter ruler, what is
the scale of these images in
Problem 2 If the Earth were
represented by a disk the size of a
penny (10 millimeters), on this
same scale how big was the loop
of the eruptive prominence in the
bottom image if the radius of
Earth is 6,378 kilometers?
Problem 3 What was the
average speed of the prominence
in A) kilometers/second? B)
Kilometers/hour? C) Miles/hour?
For additional views of this prominence, see the NASA/SDO movies at:
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a003600/a003693/index.html
or to read the Press Release:
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sdo/news/first-light.html
Space Math
41
41
Answer Key
Problem 1 The width of the image is 300,000 kilometers. Using a millimeter ruler,
what is the scale of these images in kilometers/millimeter?
Answer: The width is 70 millimeters so the scale is 300,000 km/70 mm = 4,300
km/mm
Problem 2 If the Earth were represented by a disk the size of a penny (10
millimeters), on this same scale how big was the loop of the eruptive prominence in the
bottom image if the radius of Earth is 6,378 kilometers?
Answer:
The diameter of the loop is about 35 millimeters or 35mm x
4300km/mm = 150,000 km. The diameter of Earth is 13,000 km, so the loop is 12
times the diameter of Earth. At the scale of the penny, 13 penny/Earths can fit
across a scaled drawing of the loop.
Problem 3 What was the average speed of the prominence in A) kilometers/second?
B) Kilometers/hour? C) Miles/hour?
Answer: Speed = distance traveled / time elapsed.
In the bottom image, draw a straight line from the lower right corner THROUGH the
peak of the coronal loop. Now draw this same line at the same angle on the other two
images. With a millimeter ruler, measure the distance along the line from the lower
right corner to the edge of the loop along the line. Example:
Top: 47 mm ;
Middle: 52 mm,
Bottom: 67 mm.
The loop has moved 67mm 47mm = 20 millimeters. At the scale of the image this
equals 20mm x 4,300 km/mm so D = 86,000 km.
The time between the bottom and top images is 18:13:29 17:50:49 or 22minutes
and 40 seconds or 1360 seconds.
A) The average speed of the loop is then S = 86,000 km/1360 sec = 63 km/sec.
B) 63 km/sec x 3600 sec/hr = 227,000 km/hour.
C) 227,000 km/hr x 0.62 miles/km = 140,000 miles/hour.
Space Math
Estimating Magnetic Field Speeds on the Sun

On March 6, 2012
Active Region 1429 produced
a spectacular X5.4 solar flare
shown in the pair of images
taken by the NASA Solar
Dynamics Observatory. The
time between the two images
is 2 seconds, and the width of
each image is 318,000
kilometers.
Problem 1 - The arrowed line
indicates how far the milliondegree gas produced by the
flare traveled in the time
interval between the images.
What was the speed of the
gas, called a plasma, in
kilometers/sec?
Problem 2 - By carefully
looking at the two images,
what other features can you
find that changed their
position in the time between
the images?
Problem 3 - What would you
estimate the speeds to be for
the features that you identified
in Problem 2?
The explosion can be seen in the movie located on YouTube at

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4xKRBkBBEP0
The above 'high definition' images of the spectacular March 6 solar flare
were taken by the NASA Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) located in
geosynchronous orbit around Earth. Within a few minutes, this flare produced
more energy than a thousand hydrogen bombs going off all at once. This energy
caused gasses nearby to be heated to millions of degrees, and produced a blastwave that traveled across the face of the sun at over 4 million km/hour. In the
movie above, watch for magnetic loops and filaments to be disturbed by the
explosion as the blast wave passes by them.
Space Math
42
42
Answer Key
Problem 1 - The arrowed line indicates how far the million-degree gas produced by
the flare traveled in the time interval between the images. What was the speed of the
gas, called a plasma, in kilometers/sec?
Answer: Students should compare the length of the arrowed line to the width of the
image and solve the proportion to get the physical distance that the plasma traveled.
Example, for standard printing onto an 81/2 x 11 page, the line width is about 14
millimeters long, and the width of the image is about 84 millimeters so the proportion
for the true length of the line in kilometers is just
14
X
=
84 318, 000km
so X = 53,000 km
The speed of the flare is simply the distance traveled (53,000 km) divided by the time
between the two images (2 seconds) so V = 53,000/2 = 26,500 km/sec.
The actual speed of the plasma will be much less than this because some of the
brightening you see in the second image is because gases trapped in the magnetic
field loops were heated in place and brightened rapidly without much movement. As
one region dims and another brightens we have the appearance of something moving
between the two locations when in fact there was little of no actual movement.
Space Math
Exploring the Solar Wind and Coronal Mass Ejections
This pair of computed images shows the spiral pattern of the solar wind inside
the orbit of Mars. It was created by the NASA Goddard, Coordinated Community
Modeling Center to show the condition of the solar wind just after the March 6, 2012
solar storm. The images correspond to March 8 (00:00) and March 9 (00:00).
The planets are indicated at their correct positions by circles (yellow=earth;
red=mars; orange=mercury and green=venus). Also shown are the positions of the
STEREO A and B spacecraft (red and blue squares) and the Spitzer Space
Telescope (pink square). The black concentric circles are drawn at intervals of 75
million kilometers.
The pinwheel pattern is formed from the high-speed gas streams leaving the
sun through coronal holes. The crescent shaped cloud is the coronal mass ejection
(CME) from the sun, which caused brilliant aurora on Earth.
Problem 1 - About what was the speed, in km/h, of the CME when it reached Earth?
Problem 2 - The dark cavity behind the CME represents a very low density region of
space. How do you think this was created? Where did the gas go that once filled the
cavity?
Problem 3 - At the orbit of Earth, about how fast do the high-speed gas streams
sweep past the Earth in kilometers/hour?
Problem 4 - Assuming that the CME does not slow down, on what date will it arrive at
Neptune, which is located 4.5 billion kilometers from the sun?
Space Math
43
43
Answer Key
Problem 1 - About what was the speed, in km/h, of the CME when it reached Earth?
Answer: Students can estimate from the scaled figures that between the two days the
crescent-shaped CMRE moves about one division or 75 million kilometers. This took 1
day or 24 hours, so the speed was 75 million km/24 h = about 3 million km/h.
Problem 2 - The dark cavity behind the CME represents a very low density region of
space. How do you think this was created? Where did the gas go that once filled the
cavity?
Answer: The CME traveled through the gas and swept it up like a snow-plow in
front of the CME.
Problem 3 - At the orbit of Earth, about how fast do the high-speed gas streams
sweep past the Earth in kilometers/hour?
Answer: It will be a challenge to find a feature in the spiral gas streams that can be
tracked between the two days, but a reasonable answer would be that the pattern
rotated by about 25 million km in 1 day, so the speed is about 1 million km/h.
Problem 4 - Assuming that the CME does not slow down, on what date will it arrive at
Neptune, which is located 4.5 billion kilometers from the sun?
Answer: The CME travels about 3 million km/h so it traveled about 4500 million km
during the transit time, so T = 4500/3 = 1500 hours which equals 62.5 days. When this
is added to the launch date of March 6 in the first frame, we get a date of about May
7.
Space Math
STEREO Watches the Sun Kick Up a Storm!
A solar tsunami that occurred in February 13, 2009 has recently been identified in
the data from NASA's STEREO satellites. It was spotted rushing across the Sun's
surface. The blast hurled a billion-ton Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) into space and sent
a tsunami racing along the sun's surface. STEREO recorded the wave from two positions
separated by 90 degrees, giving researchers a spectacular view of the event. Satellite A
(STA) provided a side-view of the CME, while Satellite B (STB) viewed the CME from
directly above.
The technical name for the 'tsunami' is a "fast-mode
magnetohydrodynamic wave" or "MHD wave" for short. The one STEREO saw raced
outward at 560,000 mph (250 km/s) packing as much energy as 2,400 megatons of TNT.
Problem 1 - In the lower strip of images, the sun's disk is defined by the mottled circular
area, which has a physical radius of 696,000 kilometers. Use a millimeter ruler to
determine the scale of these images in kilometers/mm.
Problem 2 - The white circular ring defines the outer edge of the expanding MHD wave.
How many kilometers did the ring expand between 05:45 and 06:15? ( Note '05:45'
means 5:45 o'clock Universal Time).
Problem 3 - From your answers to Problem 1 and 2, what was the approximate speed of
this MHD wave in kilometers/sec?
2
Problem 4 - Kinetic Energy is defined by the equation K.E. = 1/2 m V where m is the
mass of the object in kilograms, and V is its speed in meters/sec. Suppose the mass of
the CME was about 1 million metric tons, use your answer to Problem 3 to calculate the
K.E., which will be in units of Joules.
Problem 5 - If 1 kiloton of TNT has the explosive energy of 4.1 x 10
megatons of TNT does the kinetic energy of the tsunami represent?
Space Math
12
Joules, how many
44
44
Answer Key
Problem 1 - In the lower strip of images, the sun's disk is defined by the mottled circular area,
which has a physical radius of 696,000 kilometers. Use a millimeter ruler to determine the
scale of these images in kilometers/mm.
Answer: The diameter is 31 millimeters ,which corresponds to 2 x 696,000 km or 1,392,000
km. The scale is then 1,392,000 km/31mm = 45,000 km/mm.
Problem 2 - The white circular ring defines the outer edge of the expanding MHD wave. How
many kilometers did the ring expand between 05:45 and 06:15? ( Note '05:45' means 5:45
o'clock Universal Time).
Answer: From the scale of 45,000 km/mm, the difference in the ring radii is 12mm - 5 mm =
7mm which corresponds to 7 mm x (45,000 km/1 mm) = 315,000 kilometers. Students
answers may vary depending on where they defined the outer edge of the ring.
Problem 3 - From your answers to Problem 1 and 2, what was the approximate speed of this
MHD wave in kilometers/sec?
Answer: The time difference is 06:15 - 05:45 = 30 minutes. The speed was about 315,000
km / 30 minutes = 11,000 kilometers/minute, which is 11,000 km/minute x (1 minute/60
seconds) = 180 kilometers/sec.
Problem 4 - Kinetic Energy is defined by the equation K.E. = 1/2 m V where m is the mass of
the object in kilograms, and V is its speed in meters/sec. Suppose the mass of the CME was
about 1 million metric tons, use your answer to Problem 3 to calculate the K.E., which will be in
units of Joules.
Answer: The mass of the CME was 1 billion metric tons. There are 1,000 kilograms in 1 metric
12
ton, so the mass was 1.0 x 10 kilograms. The speed is 180 km/sec which is 180,000
12
2
22
meters/sec. The kinetic energy is then about 0.5 x 1.0 x 10 x (180,000) = 1.6 x 10
Joules.
Problem 5 - If 1 kiloton of TNT has the explosive energy of 4.1 x 10

megatons of TNT does the kinetic energy of the tsunami represent?
22
12
12
Joules, how many
Amswer: 1.6 x 10 Joules x (1 kiloton TNT/4.1 x 10 Joules) = 3.9 x 10 kilotons TNT. Since 1
megaton = 1,000 kilotons, we have an explosive yield of 3,900,000 megatons TNT. (Note; this answer
differs from the STEREO estimate because the speed is approximate, and does not include the
curvature of the sun).
Teacher Note: Additional information, and movies of the event, can be found at the STEREO
website: http://stereo.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/SolarTsunami.shtml. Also published in the
Astrophysical Journal Letters (ApJ 700 L182-L186)
Space Math
Measuring the Speed of a Solar Tsunami!

Moments after a major class X-6 solar flare erupted
at 18:43:59 Universal Time on December 6, 2006,
the National Solar Observatory's new Optical Solar
Patrol Camera captured a movie of a shock wave
'tsunami' emerging from Sunspot 930 and traveling
across the solar surface. The three images to the
left show the progress of this Morton Wave. The
moving solar gasses can easily be seen. You can
watch the entire movie and see it more clearly
(http://image.gsfc.nasa.gov/poetry/weekly/MortonW
ave.mpeg).
Note: because the event is seen near the
solar limb, there is quite a bit of fore-shortening so
the motion will appear slower than what the images
suggest.
Problem 1: From the portion of the sun's edge
shown in the images, complete the solar 'circle'.
What is the radius of the sun's disk in millimeters?
Problem 2: Given that the physical radius of the
sun is 696,000 kilometers, what is the scale of each
image in kilometers/millimeter?
Problem 3: Select a spot near the center of the
sunspot (large white spot in the image), and a
location on the leading edge of the shock wave.
What is the distance in kilometers from the center of
the sunspot, to the leading edge of the shock wave
in each image?
Problem 4: The images were taken at 18:43:05,
18:47:03 and 18:50:11 Universal Time. How much
elapsed time has occurred between these images?
Problem 5: From your answers to Problem 3 and 4,
what was the speed of the Morton Wave in
kilometers per hour between the three images? B)
did the wave accelerate or decelerate as it
expanded?
Problem 6: The speed of the Space Shuttle is
44,000 kilometers/hour. The speed of a passenger
jet is 900 kilometers/hour. Would the Morton Wave
have overtaken the passenger jet? The Space
Shuttle?
Space Math
45
45
Answer Key:
Problem 1: From the portion of the sun's edge shown in the

images, complete the solar 'circle'. What is the radius of the
sun's disk in millimeters?
Answer: About 158 millimeters using a regular

dessert plate as a guide.
Problem 2:
Given that the physical radius of the sun is
696,000 kilometers, what is the scale of each image in
Answer: 696,000/158 = 4,405 kilometers/millimeter

Problem 3: What is the distance in kilometers from the center
of the sunspot, to the leading edge of the shock wave in each
image?
Answer:
Image 2 = 27 mm = 27x4405 = 119,000 km
Image 3 = 38 mm = 167,000 km
Problem 4: The images were taken at 18:43:05, 18:47:03 and
18:50:11 Universal Time. How much elapsed time has occurred
between these images?
Answer: Image 1 - Image 2 = 3 minutes 58 seconds

Image 2 - Image 3 = 3 minutes 8 seconds
Problem 5: From your answers to Problem 3 and 4, A) what
was the speed of the Morton Wave in kilometers per hour
between the three images?
Answer:
V12 = 119,000 km/3.9 min x (60 min/1 hr)
= 1.8 million kilometers/hour
V23 = 167,000/3.1 min x (60 min/1 hr)
= 3.2 million kilometers/hour
B) Did the speed of the wave accelerate or decelerate?
Answer: Because V23 > V12 the wave accelerated.

Problem 6: The speed of the Space Shuttle is 44,000
kilometers/hour. The speed of a passenger jet is 900
kilometers/hour. Would the Morton Wave have overtaken the
passenger jet? The Space Shuttle?
Answer: It would easily have overtaken the Space

Shuttle! Because of fore-shortening, the actual
speed of the wave was even higher than the
estimates from the images, so the speed could have
been well over 4 million km/hr.
Space Math
46
Estimating Halo CME Speeds

Frames
1
2
3
4
5
Cadence (seconds)
10
15
20
2333 1556 1167
1167 778 583
778 519 389
583 389 292
467 311 233
25
933
467
311
233
187
30
778
389
259
194
156
35
667
333
222
167
133
The
SOHO
satellite
LASCO
instrument takes images of the sun every
24 seconds in order to detect the
movement of coronal mass ejections such
as the one shown in the image to the left.
The circles indicate the scale of the image
in multiples of the solar radius (690,000
kilometers). By counting the number of
consecutive frames required for the CME
to move between circles B and D, the
speed of the CME can be estimated.
The table above gives the speed of the CME in kilometers/sec, based on the time
between the frames (cadence) and the number of frames required for the CME to move
from Circle B to D.
Problem 1 - An astronomer watches the CME on one satellite which has a cadence of
15 seconds between frames, and it moves from B to D in 5 frames. A second satellite has
a cadence of 35 seconds. How many frames will the second satellite require to see the
CME move the same distance?
Problem 2 - Using this method, an astronomer wants to observe very fast CMEs with
speeds between 934 and 4,666 km/sec. What must the cadence be for these
measurements to be possible?
Space Math
46
Answer Key
Problem 1 - An astronomer watches the CME on one satellite which has a cadence of
15 seconds between frames, and it moves from B to D in 5 frames. A second satellite
has a cadence of 35 seconds. How many frames will the second satellite require to
see the CME move the same distance?
Answer: From the first satellite and the table, the speed is 311 km/sec. If the
cadence of the second satellite is 35 seconds, it will see the CME move the same
distance in about 2 frames.
Problem 2 - Using this method, an astronomer wants to observe very fast CMEs with
speeds between 934 and 4,666 km/sec. What must the cadence be for these
measurements to be possible?
Answer: The speeds are twice as fast as the range of speeds measurable with a
cadence of 10 seconds/frame. Because for a given number of frames the speed
is linear with the cadence, reducing the cadence to 5 seconds/frame the required
speeds can be measured within an interval of 5 frames.
Space Math
An Interplanetary Shock Wave
Sun - CME
Earth - Aurora
Saturn - Aurora
On November 8, 2000 the sun ejected a billion-ton cloud of gas called a

coronal mass ejection or CME. On November 12, the CME collided with Earth and
produced a brilliant aurora detected from space by the IMAGE satellite.
On December 8, the Hubble Space Telescope detected an aurora on Saturn.
During the period from November to December, 2000, Earth, Jupiter and Saturn
were almost lined-up with each other. Assuming that the three planets were located
on a straight line drawn from the sun to Saturn, with distances from the sun of 150
million, 778 million and 1.43 billion kilometers respectively, answer the questions
below:
Problem 1 How many days did the disturbance take to reach Earth and Saturn?
Problem 2 What was the average speed of the CME in its journey between the
Sun and Earth in millions of km per hour?
Problem 3 What was the average speed of the CME in its journey between Earth
and Saturn in millions of km per hour?
Problem 4 Did the CME accelerate or decelerate as it traveled from the Sun to
Saturn?
Problem 5 How long would the disturbance have taken to reach Jupiter as it
passed Earths orbit?
Problem 6 On what date would you have expected to see aurora on Jupiter?
Space Math
47
47
Answer Key
On November 8, 2000 the sun ejected a billion-ton cloud of gas called a coronal mass
ejection or CME. On November 12, the CME collided with Earth and produced a brilliant
aurora detected from space by the IMAGE satellite. On December 8, the Hubble Space
telescope detected an aurora on Saturn. During the period from November to December,
2000, Earth, Jupiter and Saturn were almost lined-up with each other. Assuming that the
three planets were located on a straight line drawn from the sun to Saturn, with distances
from the sun of 150 million, 778 million and 1.43 billion kilometers respectively, answer the
questions below:
1 How many days did the disturbance take to reach Earth and Saturn?
Answer: Earth = 4 days; Saturn = 30 days.
2 What was the average speed of the CME in its journey between the Sun and Earth in
millions of km per hour? Answer: Sun to Earth = 150 million km. Time = 4 days x 24 hrs =
96 hrs so Speed = 150 million km/96hr = 1.5 million km/hr.
3 What was the average speed of the CME in its journey between Earth and Saturn in
millions of km per hour? Answer: Distance = 1,430 150 = 1,280 million km. Time = 30
days x 24h = 720 hrs so Speed = 1,280 million km/720hrs = 1.8 million km/hr.
4 Did the CME accelerate or decelerate as it traveled from the Sun to Saturn? Answer:
The CME accelerated from 1.5 million km/hr to 1.8 million km/hr.
5 How long would the disturbance have taken to reach Jupiter as it passed Earths orbit?
Answer: Jupiter is located 778 million km from the Sun or (778 150 = ) 628 million km
from Earth. Because the CME is accelerating, it is important that students realize that it is
more accurate to use the average speed of the CME between Earth and Saturn which is
(1.8 + 1.5)/2 = 1.7 million km/hr. The travel time to Jupiter is then 628/1.7 = 369 hours.
6 On what date would you have expected to see aurora on Jupiter? Answer: Add 369
hours ( ~ 15 days) to the date of arrival at Earth to get November 23. According to radio
observations of Jupiter, the actual date of the aurora was November 20. Note: If we had
used the Sun-Earth average speed of 1.5 million km/hr to get a travel time of 628/1.5 = 418
hours, the arrival date would have been November 29, which is 9 days later than the actual
storm. This points out that the CME was accelerating after passing Earth, and its speed was
between 1.5 and 1.8 million km/hr.
For more details about this interesting research, read the article by Renee Prange et al. An
Interplanetary Shock Traced by Planetary Auroral Storms from the Sun to Saturn published
in the journal Nature on November 4, 2004, vol. 432, p. 78. Also visit the Physics Web online
article Saturn gets a shock at http://www.physicsweb.org/articles/news/8/11/2/1
Space Math
48
Estimating Halo CME Arrival Times

Speed
(km/s)
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
Distance from the Sun in Astronomical Units

1
139
104
83
69
60
52
46
42
38
35
32
30
28
26
25
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
17
16
15
15
14
14
1.1
153
115
92
76
65
57
51
46
42
38
35
33
31
29
27
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
18
17
16
16
15
1.2
167
125
100
83
71
63
56
50
45
42
38
36
33
31
29
28
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
19
18
17
17
1.3
181
135
108
90
77
68
60
54
49
45
42
39
36
34
32
30
29
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
19
18
1.4
194
146
117
97
83
73
65
58
53
49
45
42
39
36
34
32
31
29
28
27
25
24
23
22
22
21
20
19
1.5
208
156
125
104
89
78
69
63
57
52
48
45
42
39
37
35
33
31
30
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
22
21
1.6
222
167
133
111
95
83
74
67
61
56
51
48
44
42
39
37
35
33
32
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
1.7
236
177
142
118
101
89
79
71
64
59
54
51
47
44
42
39
37
35
34
32
31
30
28
27
26
25
24
24
1.8
250
188
150
125
107
94
83
75
68
63
58
54
50
47
44
42
39
38
36
34
33
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
1.9
264
198
158
132
113
99
88
79
72
66
61
57
53
49
47
44
42
40
38
36
34
33
32
30
29
28
27
26
2
278
208
167
139
119
104
93
83
76
69
64
60
56
52
49
46
44
42
40
38
36
35
33
32
31
30
29
28
The shaded values in the table above give the arrival times (in hours) to the
various distances in Astronomical Units, given the speed of the coronal mass ejection
(CME) indicated in the first column. The distance from Earth to the sun (150 million
km) is defined to be exactly 1 Astronomical Unit (1.0 AU). A 'Halo' CME is an
explosive expulsion of heated gas from the sun directed towards Earth.
Problem 1 - Suppose that the planet Earth and Mars are in opposition, which means
that a straight line can be drawn from the center of the sun directly through the
centers of Earth and Mars. Astronomers at Earth detect a CME leaving the sun at a
speed of 1500 km/sec. When will this CME arrive at Earth and how long afterwards
will it arrive at Mars located at a distance of 1.5 AU?
Problem 2 - A CME leaves the sun at a speed of 900 km/sec on July 4, 2015 at
13:00 UT. On what dates and times will it arrive at A) Earth? B) Mars? C) An asteroid
located at 1.9 AU?
Space Math
48
Answer Key
Problem 1 - Suppose that the planet Earth and Mars are in opposition, which means
that a straight line can be drawn from the center of the sun directly through the centers
of Earth and Mars. Astronomers at Earth detect a CME leaving the sun at a speed of
1500 km/sec. When will this CME arrive at Earth (1.0 AU) and how long afterwards will
it arrive at Mars located at a distance of 1.5 AU?
Answer: From the table, look at the row for '1500' in Column 1 and under '1.0' AU the
time for arrival at Earth is about 26 hours. In the column for Mars at '1.5' the arrival
time is 39 hours, so it takes 13 additional hours for the CME to arrive at Mars.
Problem 2 - A CME leaves the sun at a speed of 900 km/sec on July 4, 2015 at 13:00
UT. On what dates and times will it arrive at A) Earth? B) Mars? C) An asteroid
located at 1.9 AU?
Answer: A) The transit time to Earth is 46 hours so adding 46 hours to the given date
and time we get an additional 1 day and 22 hours so July 4, 2015 at 13:00 + 1 day
and 22:00 gives July 5, 2015 at 35:00 which becomes July 6, 2015 at 11:00 UT.
B) The transit time is 69 hours or 2 days + 21 hours, which gives July 6, 2015 and
34:00 or July 7, 2015 at 10:00 UT.
C) The transit time is 88 hours or 3 days and 16:00 which becomes July 7, 2015 at
29:00 or July 8, 2015 at 05:00 UT.
Space Math
Histogram of Halo CME Speeds: 1996-2008

Speed
(km/s)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
N
1
6
8
19
38
33
33
25
30
30
Speed
(km/s)
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
N
20
22
14
21
13
14
11
12
9
7
Speed
(km/s)
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
N
9
3
4
3
4
4
2
0
1
During the past sunspot cycle,

there were nearly 2,000 events, called
coronal mass ejections (CMEs) in
which the sun ejected huge clouds of
plasma into space. When directed at
earth, these clouds can arrive within a
few days and cause disturbances in
Earth's
magnetic
field,
called
geomagnetic storms.
The arrival time is determined by
the transit speed. The table to the left
gives the speeds for a sample of Earthdirected CMEs.
Problem 1 - Create a histogram of the frequency data in the table.
Problem 2 - For this distribution of CME speeds, what are the A) mean speed?
B) median speed?
Problem 3 - If the distance to the sun from Earth is 150 million kilometers, what is
the average transit time, in days, represented by the histogram of CME speeds?
Space Math
49
49
Answer Key
Problem 1 - Create a histogram of the frequency data in the table.
Number of Halo CMEs
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
28
00
26
00
24
00
22
00
20
00
18
00
16
00
14
00
12
00
10
00
80
0
60
0
40
0
20
0
Speed (km/s)
Problem 2 - For this distribution of CME speeds, what are the A) mean speed? B)
median speed?
Answer: A) From the table, the average speed is found by the sun of the products of
the speeds and Ns divided by the total number of tabulated CMEs which equals 395
events, so Va = (388700/395) so Va = 984 km/sec.
B) The median speed is the speed for which half of the events are below and half are
above. From the table, N = 395/2 = 197, so Vm = 800 km/sec.
Problem 3 - If the distance to the sun from Earth is 150 million kilometers, what is the
average transit time, in days, represented by the histogram of CME speeds?
Answer: T = 150 million km / 984 km/s so T = 152,632 seconds which is about 42.4
hours or T = 1.8 days.
Space Math
Predicting the Direction of Motion of a CME

Although we cannot accurately
determine the direction of travel of a
coronal mass ejection (CME), images
taken from one vantage point can
often be used to learn the approximate
direction of travel.
The diagram shows four CMEs
ejected by the sun in 4 quadrants. The
lower quadrant includes Earth. CMEs
ejected into this quadrant often look
like halos of gas (lower left image) as
do CMEs ejected from the far-side of
the sun (top quadrant). CMEs in the
other two quadrants look like the
remaining two images.
Problem 1 - The red dot in the diagram is the planet Mars. Which of the CMEs
shown in the views above may be directed towards an eventual arrival at Mars?
Problem 2 - Suppose the above images were taken by a solar observatory orbiting
Mars. Which of the CMEs might eventually collide with Earth - the blue dot in the
diagram?
Problem 3 - Halo CMEs, such as the one in the right-hand image, are moving either
towards the observer or directly away, having been ejected either from active regions
on the near-side of the sun or the far-side. Radio bursts are often detected just
before a CME is ejected. If a radio burst was not detected from a halo CME, is it
headed towards Earth or away from Earth?
Space Math
50
50
Answer Key
Problem 1 - The red dot in the diagram is the planet Mars. Which of the CMEs shown
in the view above may be directed towards an eventual arrival at Mars?
Answer: The first CME on the far-left is most likely headed in the general
direction of Mars.
Problem 2 - Suppose the above images were taken by a solar observatory orbiting
Mars. Which of the CMEs might eventually collide with Earth - the blue dot in the
diagram?
Answer: From the location of Mars, the first CME on the far-left would be headed
directly away from Earth. The CME on the far-right is headed towards Mars, and
so the middle CME is headed in the general direction of Earth.
Problem 3 - Halo CMEs, such as the one in the right-hand image, are moving either
towards the observer or directly away, having been ejected either from active regions
on the near-side of the sun or the far-side. Radio bursts are often detected just before
a CME is ejected. If a radio burst was not detected from a halo CME, is it headed
towards Earth or away from Earth?
Answer: Because radio waves cannot pass through the sun, halo CMEs that are
not accompanied by radio bursts are probably far-side events traveling directly
away from Earth, while halo CMEs with radio bursts are on the near-side of the
sun and may be headed towards Earth.
Space Math
51
Fastest Halo CME Speeds by Year and Month

Table of Fast CMEs between 1996 - 2006
Year
Month
Speed
Year
Month
Speed
Year
Month
Speed
Year
Month
Speed
2004
11
3387
2002
2047
1999
1772
2001
10
1537
2005
2861
2003
11
2036
2004
11
1759
2005
1527
2003
11
2657
2003
10
2029
2002
1750
2003
11
1523
2000
2604
2005
2020
1998
12
1749
2001
1507
2003
11
2598
2003
11
2008
2002
1748
2001
12
1506
2005
2547
2004
11
2000
2001
1701
1998
11
1505
2005
2528
1998
1992
2002
10
1694
1999
1495
2000
11
2519
2005
1968
1999
1691
2002
1492
2001
2465
2002
1941
2005
1689
2003
10
1484
2003
10
2459
2005
1929
2005
1679
2001
1475
2001
2411
2005
1922
2000
1674
2005
1458
2001
2402
2002
1913
2005
1672
2004
1444
2002
2393
2005
1893
2003
11
1661
2001
11
1443
2005
2378
2005
1866
2005
1660
2001
11
1437
2005
2326
2002
11
1838
2002
1636
2001
1433
2002
2285
2003
1835
1998
1618
2002
1429
2005
2257
2003
1813
2005
1600
2005
1423
2003
11
2237
2001
11
1810
2000
1594
2001
1407
2001
12
2216
2005
1808
2002
1585
2001
10
1405
2002
2191
1998
1802
1999
1584
1998
1397
2002
10
2115
1998
11
1798
2001
1575
2001
1390
2005
2115
2002
1794
2002
1557
1999
1389
2005
2094
2005
1787
1997
11
1556
1998
1385
2003
2053
2000
1781
2000
1550
2005
1384
2005
2049
2001
12
1773
2005
1540
2005
1380
Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) are billion-ton clouds of gas that can leave the
solar surface at many different speeds as shown in the table above. This table gives the
speeds of the 100-fastest CMEs seen during the last sunspot cycle between 1996-2008.
Problem 1 - Create a histogram of the CME speeds using bins that are 100 km/sec
wide over the domain of speeds [1300, 2600].
Problem 2 - What is the: A) Average speed? B) Median speed? C) Mode speed?
Problem 3 - If the transit time to Earth is 42 hours for a CME traveling at a speed of
1,000 km/s, to the nearest hour, what is A) the range of speeds spanned by this
complete sample of 100 CMES? B) The average transit time of a CME?
Space Math
51
Answer Key
16
14
12
Number
10
8
6
4
2
0
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2600
Speed (km/s)
Problem 1 - Create a histogram of the CME speeds using bins that are 100 km/sec
wide over the domain of speeds [1300, 2600]. Answer: See above.
Problem 2 - What is the: A) Average speed? B) Median speed? C) Mode speed?

Answer: A) The average speed is found by adding all 100 speeds and dividing by 100.
The answer is <V> = 1,851 km/sec. B) The median speed is the speed for which half
of the CME speeds are below and half are above the value. The table is ranked from
fastest to slowest so CME #50 will be close to the median speed for this 'even'
numbered set. Vm = 1,773 km/sec. C) The mode speed is the most frequently
occurring speed in the sample which is V = 2,115 km/sec.
Problem 3 - If the transit time to Earth is 42 hours for a CME traveling at a speed of
1,000 km/s, to the nearest hour, what is A) the range of speeds spanned by this
complete sample of 100 CMES? B) The average transit time of a CME?
Answer: A) The range is from 1,380 to 3,387 km/sec B) so by scaling we get 42 x
(1000/1380) = 30 hours for the slowest and 42 x (1000/3387) = 12 hours. the average
transit time is T = 42 x (1000/1851) = 23 hours.
Space Math
Solar Storms: Sequences and Probabilities
52
The Sun is an active star, which

produces solar flares (F) and explosions of
gas (C). Astronomers keep watch for these
events because they can harm satellites and
astronauts in space. Predicting when the
next storm will happen is not easy to do.
The problems below are solved by writing
out all of the possibilities, then calculating
the probability of the particular outcome!
Solar flare photo courtesy TRACE/NASA
1 During a week of observing the sun, astronomers detected 1 solar flare (F). What
was the probability (as a fraction) that it happened on Wednesday?
2 During the same week, two gas clouds were ejected (C), but not on the same days.
What is the probability (as a fraction) that a gas cloud was ejected on Wednesday?
3 Suppose that the flares and the gas clouds had nothing to do with each other, and
that they occurred randomly. What is the probability (as a fraction) that both a flare and a
gas cloud were spotted on Wednesday? (Astronomers would say that these phenomena
are uncorrelated because the occurrence of one does not mean that the other is likely to
happen too).
Space Math
52
Answer Key
1 Answer: There are only 7 possibilities:
FXXXXXX
XXXFXXX
XXXXXXF
XFXXXXX
XXXXFXX
XXF XXXX
XXXXXFX
So the probability for any one day is 1/7.
2 Here we have to distribute 2 storms among 7 days. For advanced students, there
are 7! / (2! 5!) = 7 x 6 / 2 = 21 possibilities which the students will work out by hand:
CCXXXXX
XCCXXXX
XXCCXXX
XXXCCXX
CXCXXXX
XCXCXXX
XXCXCXX
XXXCXCX
CXXCXXX
XCXXCXX
XXCXXCX
XXXCXXC
CXXXCXX
CXXXXCX
CXXXXXC
XCXXXCX
XCXXXXC
XXCXXXC
XXXXCCX
XXXXCXC
XXXXXCC
There are 6 possibilities (in red) for a cloud appearing on Wednesday (Day 3), so the
probability is 6/21.
3 We have already tabulated the possibilities for each flare and gas cloud to appear
separately on a given day. Because these events are independent of each other, the
probability that on a given day you will spot a flare and a gas cloud is just 1/7 x 6/21 or
6/147. This is because for every possibility for a flare from the answer to Problem 1,
there is one possibility for the gas clouds.
There are a total of 7 x 21 = 147 outcomes for both events taken together. Because
there are a total of 1 x 6 outcomes where there is a flare and a cloud on a particular
day, the fraction becomes (1 x 6)/147 = 6/147.
Space Math

In 2007, the best estimates and observations suggested that we had just entered sunspot
minimum, and that the next solar activity cycle might begin during the first few months of 2008. In
May, 2007, solar physicist Dr. William Pesnell at the NASA, Goddard Spaceflight Center tabulated
all of the current predictions for when the next sunspot cycle (2008-2019) will reach its peak.
These predictions, reported by many other solar scientists are shown in the table below.
Current Predictions for the Next Sunspot Maximum
Author
Prediction
Year
Spots
Year
Method Used
Horstman
Thompson
Tsirulnik
Podladchikova
Dikpati
Hathaway
Pesnell
Maris & Onicia
Hathaway
Gholipour
Chopra & Davis
Kennewell
Tritakis
Tlatov
Nevanlinna
Kim
Pesnell
Tlatov
Tlatov
Prochasta
De Meyer
Euler & Smith
Hiremath
Tlatov
Lantos
Kane
Pesnell
Wang
Roth
Duhau
Baranovski
Schatten
Choudhuri
Javariah
Svalgaard
Kontor
Badalyan
Cliverd
Maris
2005
2006
1997
2006
2006
2006
2006
2006
2004
2005
2006
2006
2006
2006
2007
2004
2006
2006
2006
2006
2003
2006
2007
2006
2006
1999
2006
2002
2006
2003
2006
2005
2007
2007
2005
2006
2001
2006
2004
185
180
180
174
167
160
160
145
145
145
140
130
133
130
124
122
120
115
115
119
110
122
110
110
108
105
101
101
89
87
80
80
80
74
70
70
50
38
50
2010.5
Last 5 cycles
Precurser
Global Max
Integral SSN
Dynamo Model
AA Index
Cycle 24 = Cycle22
Neural Network Forecast
Meridional Circulation
Spectral Analysis
Disturbed Day Analysis
H-alpha synoptic charts
Statistics of Rz
H-alpha Charts
AA at solar minimum
Cycle parameter study
Cycle 24 = Cycle 23
Unipolar region size
Large Scale magnetic field
Average of Cycles 1 to 23
Transfer function model
McNish-Lincoln Model
Autoregressive Model
Magnetic Moments
Even/Odd cycle pattern
Spectral Components
Linear Prediction
Solar Cycle Statistics
Moving averages
Sunspot Maxima and AA
Non-Linear Dynamo model
Polar Field Precurser
Flux Transport Dynamo
Low-Lat. Spot Groups
Polar magnetic field
Statistical extrapolation
Coronal Line
Atmospheric Radiocarbon
Flare energy during Cycle 23
2014
2010.6
2009.9
2010
2011.5
2012.5
2009.5
2010.9
2010
2011.2
2012
2011
2010.5
2012.6
2012.3
2011.1
2012
2012
2012.9
2010.5
sunspot maximum?
from 2003 to 2006?
Space Math
53
53
Answer Key:
Answer: There are 21 predictions, with an average year of 2011.3.
This corresponds to about March, 2011.
sunspot maximum?
Answer: The average of the 39 estimates in column 3 is 116 sunspots at sunspot maximum.
Answer: Tlatov has offered 4 predictions, all made in the year 2006. The predicted numbers
were 130, 115, 115 and 110. There does not seem to be a significant trend towards
larger or smaller predictions by this scientist. The median value is 115 and the mode is
also 115.
from 2003 to 2006?
Answer: Group the predictions according to the prediction year and then find the average for
that year.
2003: 110, 87 average = 98
2004: 145, 122, 50 average= 106
2005: 185,145,80,70 average= 120
2006: 180,174,167,160,160,145,140,130,133,130,120,
115,115,119,122,110,108,101,89,80,70,38 average= 123
Answer: Based on the answer to problem 4, it appears that the predictions have tended to get
larger, increasing from about 98 to 123 between 2003 and 2006.
Answer: Cliverds Atmospheric Radiocarbon Method (38 spots), Badalyans Coronal Line
Method (50 spots), and Mariss Flare Energy during Cycle 23 (50 spots) seem to be the
farthest from the average predictions that have been made by other forecasting
methods.
Space Math
Solar Storm Energy and Pie Graphs

The pie charts below show approximately how various forms of energy
are involved in a solar flare. Flares occur when stored magnetic energy is
suddenly released. The chart on the left shows how much of this magnetic
energy is available for creating a flare (purple) and how much is lost (blue). The
chart on the right shows how much of the available magnetic flare energy goes
into four different phenomena: Light green represents forms of radiation such as
visible light and x-rays. Blue represents (kinetic) energy in ejected clouds of gas
called Coronal Mass Ejections. Purple represents flare energy that goes into
heating local gases to millions of degrees Celsius, and white is the portion of the
flare energy that is lost to working against gravity.
Graph of stored magnetic energy
Graph of solar flare energy forms
Problem 1 - About what percentages of each of the four forms of energy are
represented in the right-hand chart?
Problem 2 - About what percentage of the original, stored magnetic energy is
available for flares?
Problem 3 - About what fraction of the original magnetic energy ends up as solar
flare radiation, assuming all forms of energy can be interchanged with each
other?
Problem 4 - About what fraction of the original magnetic energy ends up in CME
ejection?
Problem 5 - A typical large flare has enough total energy to meet the world-wide
power demands of human civilization for 10,000 years. How many years would be
equivalent to A) causing the flare to shine and B) ejecting a CME?
Space Math
54
54
Answer Key
Problem 1 What percentages of each of the four forms of energy are represented in
the right-hand chart?
Answer: Radiation = 40%, CME = 30%, Gas heating = 20 % and Gravity = 10%
Problem 2 - What percentage of the original, stored magnetic energy is available for
flares?
Answer: The size of the purple sector is 40%
Problem 3 What fraction of the original magnetic energy ends up as solar flare
radiation?
Answer: 40% of the original magnetic energy is available for a flare, and 40% of the
flare energy ends up as radiation, so the fraction of the original magnetic energy
involved is 0.40 x 0.40 = 0.16
Problem 4 What fraction of the original magnetic energy ends up in CME ejection?
Answer: 40% of the original magnetic energy is available for a flare, and 30% of the
flare energy ends up as CME (kinetic) energy, so the fraction of the original magnetic
energy involved is 0.40 x 0.30 = 0.12
Problem 5 A typical large flare has enough total energy to meet the power demands
of human civilization for 10,000 years. How many years would be equivalent to A)
causing the flare to shine and B) ejecting a CME?
Answer: A) 40% of the flare energy ends up as radiation so this is equivalent to 0.40
x 10,000 years = 4,000 years of human energy consumption.
B) 30% of the flare energy is available for CME kinetic energy, so this equals
an equivalent of 0.30 x 10,000 years = 3,000 years of human energy consumption.
Space Math
Probability of Compound Events
55
One of the most basic activities that scientists perform with their data is to look for correlations
between different kinds of events or measurements in order to see if a pattern exists that could suggest
that some new 'law' of nature might be operating. Many different observations of the Sun and Earth
provide information on some basic phenomena that are frequently observed. The question is whether
these phenomena are related to each other in some way. Can we use the sighting of one phenomenon as
a prediction of whether another kind of phenomenon will happen?
During most of the previous sunspot cycle (January-1996 to June-2006), astronomers detected 11,031
coronal mass ejections, (CME: Top image) of these 1186 were 'halo' events. Half of these were directed
toward Earth.
During the same period of time, 95 solar proton events (streaks in the bottom image were caused by a
single event) were recorded by the GOES satellite network orbiting Earth. Of these SPEs, 61 coincided
with Halo CME events.
Solar flares (middle image) were also recorded by the GOES satellites. During this time period, 21,886
flares were detected, of which 122 were X-class flares. Of the X-class flares, 96 coincided with Halo
CMEs, and 22 X-class flares also coincided with 22 combined SPE+Halo CME events. There were 6 Xflares associated with SPEs but not associated with Halo CMEs. A total of 28 SPEs were not associated
with either Halo CMEs or with X-class solar flares.
From this statistical information, construct a Venn Diagram to interrelate the numbers in the above
findings based on resent NASA satellite observations, then answer the questions below.
1 - What are the odds that a CME is directed toward Earth?

2 - What fraction of the time does the sun produce X-class flares?
3 - How many X-class flares are not involved with CMEs or

SPEs?
4 - If a satellite spotted both a halo coronal mass ejection and an

X-class solar flare, what is the probability that a solar proton
event will occur?
5 - What percentage of the time are SPEs involved with Halo

CMEs, X-class flares or both?
6 - If a satellite just spots a Halo CME, what are the odds that an
X-class flare or an SPE or both will be observed?
7 - Is it more likely to detect an SPE if a halo CME is observed, or

if an X-class flare is observed?
8 - If you see either a Halo CME or an X-class flare, but not both,
what are the odds you will also see an SPE?
9 - If you observed 100 CMEs, X-class flares and SPEs, how
many times might you expect to see all three phenomena?
Space Math
55
Answer Key:
Venn Diagram Construction.

1. There are 593 Halo CMEs directed
to Earth so 593 = 74 with flares + 39
with SPEs + 22 both SPEs and Flares
+ 458 with no SPEs or Flares..
2. There are 95 SPEs. 95 = 39 with
CMEs + 6 with flares + 22 with both
flares and CMEs + 28 with no flares or
CMEs
3. There are 122 X-class flares. 122 =
74 With CMEs only + 6 with SPEs only
+ 22 both CMEs and SPEs + 20 with
no CMEs or SPEs.
1 - What are the odds that a CME is directed toward Earth? 593/11031 = 0.054 odds = 1 in 19
2 - What fraction of the time does the sun produce X-class flares? 122/21886 = 0.006
3 - How many X-class flares are not involved with CMEs or SPEs?
122 - 74 - 22 - 6 = 20.
4 - If a satellite spotted BOTH a halo coronal mass ejection and an X-class solar flare, what is the
probability that a solar proton event will occur? 22/(74+22) = 0.23
5 - What percentage of the time are SPEs involved with Halo CMEs, X-class flares or both?
100% x (39+22+6 / 95) = 70.1 %
6 - If a satellite just spots a Halo CME, what are the odds that an X-class flare or an SPE or both will
be observed?
39+22+74 / 593 = 0.227 so the odds are 1/0.227 or about 1 in 4.
7 - Is it more likely to detect an SPE if a halo CME is observed, or if an X-class flare is observed?
(6+22)/95 = 0.295 or 1 out of 3 times for X-flares
(39+22)/95 = 0.642 or 2 out of 3 for Halo CMEs
It is more likely to detect an SPE if a Halo CME occurs by 2 to 1.
8 - If you see either a Halo CME or an X-class flare, but not both, what are the odds you will also see
an SPE?
39+6 / 95 = 0.50 so the odds are 1/0.50 or 2 to 1 .
9 - If you observed 100 CMEs, X-class flares and SPEs, how many times might you expect to see all
three phenomena?
100 x 22/(95+122+593) = 3 times
Space Math
56
How often do solar storms occur?

Table of Event Frequencies for Cycle 23
C
Flares (Class)
M
10
SPEs (pfu)
100
1000
10000
Halo
CMEs
1996
76
1997
288
20
1998
1198
96
14
29
1999
1860
170
42
2000
2265
215
17
48
2001
3107
311
20
41
2002
2319
219
12
30
2003
1315
160
20
21
2004
912
122
12
87
2005
578
103
18
110
2006
150
10
33
2007
73
10
11
2008
12
The term 'solar storm' can refer to many different kinds of energetic phenomena
including solar flares, Solar Proton Events (SPEs) and coronal mass ejections (CMEs).
Solar flares are the most well-known, and are classified according to their x-ray power
as C, M or X, with X being the most powerful. SPEs are classed according to the
number of protons that pass through a surface area per second at Earth's orbit in units
of particle Flux Units (pFUs). SPEs with 10,000 pFUs or higher can be deadly to
astronauts not properly shielded. The table above gives the number of flares detected
during each year of the previous solar activity cycle
Problem 1 - During sunspot maximum in 2001, what was the average number of hours
you would have to wait between A) each of the three classes of X-ray flares? Each of
the four classes of SPEs? And C) Each of the Halo CMEs? (Hint: There are 8,760 hours
in 1 year)
Problem 2 - Assuming that Halo CMEs and X-class flares occur randomly over the
year, what is the probability that during 2001 you will see both a Halo CME and an Xclass flare on the same day?
Space Math
56
Answer Key
Problem 1 - During sunspot maximum in 2001, what was the average number of hours
you would have to wait between A) each of the three classes of X-ray flares? Each of
the four classes of SPEs? and C) Each of the Halo CMEs? (Hint: There are 8,760
hours in 1 year)
Answer: From the table we have
Flares (Class)
M
C
2001
A)
3107
311
10
20
SPEs (pfu)
100
1000
5
10000
Halo
CMEs
41
C-class flares: 8760 hours /3107 flares = 2.8 hours.

M-class flares: 8760 / 311 = 28 hours = 1 day
X-class flares: 8760 / 20 = 438 hours = 18 days
B) 10 pFU:
100 pFU:
1000 pFU:
10000 pFU:
C) Halo CME:
8760/8 =
8760/5 =
8760/2 =
8760/1 =
1,095 hours = 1.5 months

1,752 hours = 2.5 months
4,380 hours = 6 months
8,760 hours = 1 year
8760 / 41 = 214 hours or 9 days.
Problem 2 - Assuming that Halo CMEs and X-class flares occur randomly over the
year, what is the probability that during 2001 you will see both a Halo CME and an Xclass flare on the same day?
Answer: During this year there were 20 X-class flares and 41 Halo CMEs. Each day
the probability is 20/365 = 1/18 that an X-class flare will occur, and 41/365 = 1/9 that a
Halo CME will occur. The probability is then P(Halo) x P(Xflare) = 1/18 x 1/9 =
P(both) = 1/162 = 0.006 that both will happen on the same day.
Space Math
57
Cosmic Rays and the Sunspot Cycle

Year
SSN
Flux
Year
SSN
Flux
Year
SSN
Flux
1950
84
93
1970
105
86
1990
142
76
1951
69
94
1971
67
88
1991
146
80
1952
31
95
1972
69
98
1992
94
86
1953
14
96
1973
38
96
1993
55
94
1954
98
1974
34
100
1994
30
96
1955
38
100
1975
15
97
1995
18
98
1956
142
98
1976
13
99
1996
99
1957
190
94
1977
27
100
1997
21
99
1958
185
80
1978
93
96
1998
64
100
1959
159
84
1979
155
90
1999
93
96
1960
112
82
1980
155
89
2000
120
88
1961
54
84
1981
140
84
2001
111
86
1962
38
88
1982
116
88
2002
104
88
1963
28
92
1983
67
80
2003
64
86
1964
10
96
1984
46
90
2004
40
86
1965
15
98
1985
18
92
2005
30
94
1966
47
98
1986
13
96
2006
15
96
1967
94
93
1987
29
98
2007
98
1968
106
90
1988
100
94
2008
100
1969
106
88
1989
158
84
Cosmic rays are high-energy particles that enter our solar system from
distant sources in the Milky Way galaxy and beyond. These particles are a
radiation hazard for satellite electronics and for astronauts exposed to them for
prolonged periods of time. The table above presents the intensity of the cosmic
rays measured by instruments located in Climax, Colorado during the period from
1950 to 2008, along with the annual sunspot counts.
Problem 1 - On the same graph, plot the sunspot numbers and the cosmic ray
intensities.
Problem 2 - What do you notice about the relationship between cosmic rays and
sunspots?
Problem 3 - If you were planning a 1-year trip to Mars, what time would you
make your journey relative to the sunspot cycle?
Space Math
57
Answer Key
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
07
20
04
20
01
19
98
19
95
19
92
19
89
19
86
19
83
19
80
19
77
19
74
19
71
19
68
19
65
19
62
19
59
19
56
19
53
20
0
19
50
Number/Intensity
Problem 1 - On the same graph, plot the sunspot numbers and the cosmic ray
intensities. Answer: See below.
Year
Problem 2 - What do you notice about the relationship between cosmic rays and
sunspots?
Answer: When the sunspot number is highest, the cosmic ray intensity is lowest.
The sunspot number peaks (maxima) match up with the cosmic ray valleys
(minima).
Problem 3 - If you were planning a 1-year trip to Mars, what time would you make your
journey relative to the sunspot cycle?
Answer: You would probably want to make the journey during sunspot maximum
conditions when the cosmic ray intensity is lowest. This will reduce your total
accumulated radiation dosage during the 1-year trip by 20%.
Space Math
58
Active Region Evolution and Energy Release

Day 1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
-7
11
-6
15
13
-5
-4
11
15 14 10
16
11
-3
13
12
11
13 15
-2
12 14
12 18 15
10
15 13 15
-1
11 30
10 12 14
15
14 22 14
10 18
12
15
19 13 11
16
20
14 11 12 10
16
The table above gives the number of C and M-class flares recorded in the 7
days just before the eruption of an X-class flare from the solar surface. On Day-0 the
X-class flare appeared. We would like to know if there is some way to predict whether
an X-class flare will occur based on the amount of solar activity during previous days
leading up to the X-class flare.
Problem 1 - For each day, what is the average number of C and M-class flares
recorded?
Problem 2 - Graph the average number of flares versus the number of days prior to
the X-class flare event. What do you notice about the data?
Problem 3 - A statistical measure of the possible range in a measured value is the

'sigma' or 'standard deviation'. For a given day, subtract the average value from each
of the 25 events. Next compute the square of this difference and sum these squared
quantities. Finally, divide the sum by (25-1) = 24 and take the square root of the
answer. The most likely range of the measurement, A, (1-sigma) is then A +s and A-s.
Compute the sigma for each day, and add 'error bars' to your graph to show the
possible range of values due to statistical sampling.
Space Math
58
Answer Key
18
16
Number of flares
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
Days Since Flare
Problem 1 - For each day, what is the average number of C and M-class flares
recorded? Answer: See the dots plotted on the graph above, and column 2 of the
table below.
Problem 2 - Graph the average number of flares versus the number of days prior to
the X-class flare event. What do you notice about the data? Answer: See the table
below, column 2, for the averages. These are found by summing the total
number of flares each day, N, and dividing by 25 'events'. The trend is that there
is an increasing number of flares as you get closer to the day of the X-class
flare.
Day
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
Average
3
3
2
6
5
8
10
10
N
63
74
59
144
123
194
257
240
Sigma
3
4
3
5
5
6
7
5
Problem 3 - A statistical measure of the possible range in a measured value is the

'sigma' or 'standard deviation'. For a given day ,subtract the average value from each
of the 25 events. Next compute the square of this difference and sum these squared
quantities. Finally, divide the sum by (25-1) = 24 and take the square root of the
answer. The most likely range of the measurement, A, (1-sigma) is then A +s and A-s.
Compute the sigma for each day, and add 'error bars' to your graph to show the
possible range of values due to statistical sampling. Answer: See graph above.
2
2
2
2
Example, Day -7, Average = 3. Sum = (0-3) + (8-3) + (0-3) + (1-3) + . = 280.3,
sigma = (280.3/24) = 3.4, so the error bar for day -7 should extend from 3-3.4 = -0.4 to
3+3.4 = 6.4.
Space Math
59
M-flares as Predictors of X-flares
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
0
0
0
1
0
2
5
3
3
4
1
1
2
0
1
0
0
3
5
4
0
1
0
0
0
0
4
6
0
0
0
0
2
2
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
4
2
1
0
4
2
2
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
7
5
2
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
2
7
3
0
0
0
2
2
4
0
0
0
1
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
2
4
2
3
2
4
1
2
1
0
3
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
2
1
0
2
1
0
0
1
2
2
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
2
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
The table above lists the number of M-class flares that occurred on the sun
in the 7 days preceding the appearance of an X-class flare for 28 separate solar
events.
Problem 1 - For each day, what is the average number of M-class flares that
occurred?
Problem 2 - What is the variance (sigma) for the average value during each day?
Problem 3 - Graph the average number of M-class flares counted for each day
including the range determined by 1-sigma error bars.
Problem 4 - Is the M-flare activity a good predictor of whether an X-class flare will
occur or not?
Space Math
59
Answer Key
Problem 1 - For each day, what is the average number of M-class flares that
occurred? Answer: See table below.
Problem 2 - What is the variance (sigma) for the average value during each day?
Answer: See table below.
Day Average Sigma
-7
-6
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.1
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
0.4
0.7
0.9
0.8
1.7
1.4
1
1.6
1.3
1.3
1.8
1.6
Problem 3 - Graph the average number of M-class flares counted for each day
including the range determined by 1-sigma error bars. Answer: See below.
4.0
3.5
M-flares
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
Day
Problem 4 - Is the M-flare activity a good predictor of whether an X-class flare will
occur or not? Answer: The averages show a weak trend upwards, but the 1sigma error bars are so large that the apparent trend is not statistically
significant. All of the daily averages are within 1-sigma of each other.
Space Math
60
Find the mystery lines...if you can!
This is an image from the Hinode satellite's Extreme Ultraviolet

Spectrometer (EIS). The graph below the spectrum provides the wavelength
scale and line locations for the Hinode image. Each line in the bottom graph
has an intensity that is indicated by its length along the vertical axis of the
figure. The most intense lines have a value of 30 % of larger. The helium II
(He II) line is about 40% on this intensity scale. The table to the right gives the
wavelengths of some spectral lines that fall within the wavelength range of the
figure. Let's use this information to identify a 'mystery line' in the above
spectrum.
The scale of the horizontal axis is 0.31 Angstroms/millimeter For
example, the difference in wavelength between He II and the next strong line
to the right of He II is 27 mm or 27 x 0.31 = 8.4 Angstroms. Since the
wavelength of He II is 256.32 Angstroms and the scale increases in
wavelength to the right, the wavelength of the mystery line is 256.32 + 8.4 =
264.7 A. the table to the right suggests that this is the ion iron-14 (Fe XIV).
Problem 1 - From the wavelengths of the tabulated lines, calculate from the
graph scale where these lines should be in the Hinode spectrum. Match up
the tabulated lines with the lines shown in the above figure. Which lines can
you match up?
Problem 2 - A careful count will show that there are about 127 lines in the
above spectrum. What percentage of lines in the Hinode solar data are not
identified in the table?
Table 1: List of ionic lines

Ion
Wavelength
---------------------------------He II
256.32 A
Fe XVI
262.98
SX
264.23
Fe XIV
264.79
Si VII
275.35
Fe XV
284.16
Note: Wavelengths are given in the
traditional Angstrom (A) units used
by spectroscopists in which 10
Angstroms = 1 nanometer
Ionic Notation: The naming

convention for atoms that have
lost some of their electrons (to
be come ions) is as follows for
the case of iron (Fe) which has
26 electrons:
Fe I - neutral atom
Fe II - 1 electron lost
Fe III - 2 electrons lost
Fe IV - 3 electrons lost
Fe XIV - 13 electrons lost

Fe XV - 14 electrons lost
Fe XXVII - All 26 electrons lost
60
Answer Key:
Problem 1 - From the wavelengths of the tabulated lines, calculate from the graph scale where
these lines should be in the Hinode spectrum. Match up the tabulated lines with the lines shown
in the above figure. Which lines can you match up?
Answer: For example, Select the He Ii line at 256.32 A and subtract its wavelength from 250.0
.Convert this to millimeters using the scale 0.31 A/mm to get its location at 20.4 mm to the right of
'250 Angstroms'. Do the same for the other tabulated lines, and locate them based on their
distance in mm from the '250' mark.
A
B
C
D
E
F
He II
Fe XII
SX
Fe XIV
Si VII
Fe XV
(256.32 - 250) / 0.31 = 20.4 mm to the right of '250'

(262.98 - 250)/0.31 = 41.9 mm to the right of '250'
(264.23-250)/0.31 = 45.9 mm to the right of '250'
(264.79 - 250) / 0.31 = 47.7 mm to the right of '250'
(275.35 - 250) / 0.31 = 81.8 mm to the right of '250'
(284.16 - 250) / 0.31 = 110.2 mm to the right of '250'
Problem 2 - What percentage of lines in the Hinode solar data are not identified?
Answer: There are about 127 lines in the top Hinode spectrum, but only 6 lines
are known from the table, so (121/127) x 100 = 95% of the lines in the Hinode
spectrum are unknown.
61
Death Stars
Artist rendering courtesy NASA/G. Bacon (STScI)
Our sun is an active star that

produces a variety of storms, such as
solar flares and coronal mass
ejections. Typically, these explosions
of matter and radiation are harmless to
Earth and its living systems, thanks to
our great distance from the sun, a
thick atmosphere, and a strong
magnetic field. The most intense solar
21
flares rarely exceed about 10 Watts
and last for an hour, which is small
compared to the sun's luminosity of
26
3.8 x 10 Watts.
A long-term survey with the
Hubble Space Telescope of 215,000
red dwarf stars for 7 days each
revealed 100 'solar' flares during this
time. Red dwarf stars are about
1/20000 times as luminous as our sun.
Average flare durations were about 15
minutes, and occasionally exceeded
21
2.0 x10 Watts.
Problem 1 - By what percentage does a solar flare on our sun increase the
brightness of our sun?
Problem 2 - By what percentage does a stellar flare on an average red dwarf

increase the brightness of the red dwarf star?
Problem 3 - Suppose that searches for planets orbiting red dwarf stars have
studied 1000 stars for a total of 480 hours each. How many flares should we expect
to see in this survey?
Problem 4 - Suppose that during the course of the survey in Problem 3, 5

exoplanets were discovered orbiting 5 of the surveyed red dwarf stars. To two
significant figures, about how many years would inhabitants on each planet have to
wait between solar flares?
Space Math
61
Answer Key
Problem 1 - By what percentage does a solar flare on our sun increase the
brightness of our sun?
21
26
Answer: P = 100% x (1.0 x 10 Watts)/( 3.8 x 10 Watts)
P = 0.00026 %
Problem 2 - By what percentage does a stellar flare on an average red dwarf
increase the brightness of the red dwarf star?
Answer: The average luminosity of a red dwarf star is stated as 1/20000 times our
26
sun's luminosity, which is 3.8 x 10 Watts, so the red dwarf star luminosity is about
1.9 x 10
22
Watts.
P = 100% x (2.0 x 10
P = 10 %
21
22
Watts)/(1.9 x 10
Watts)
Problem 3 - Suppose that searches for planets orbiting red dwarf stars have studied
1000 stars for a total of 480 hours each. How many flares should we expect to see
in this survey?
Answer: We have two samples: N1 = 215,000 stars for 7 days each producing 100
flares. N2 = 1000 stars for 480 hours each, producing x flares.
From the first survey, we calculate a rate of flaring per star per day:
Rate = 100 flares x ( 1/215,000 stars) x (1 / 7days)
= 0.000066 flares/star/day
Now we multiply this rate by the size of our current sample to get the number of
flares to be seen in the 480-hour (20-day) period.
N = 0.000066 flares/star/day) x (1000 stars) x (20 days)
= 1.32 or 1 flare event.
Problem 4 - Suppose that during the course of the survey in Problem 3, 5

exoplanets were discovered orbiting 5 of the surveyed red dwarf stars. To two
significant figures, about how long would inhabitants on each planet have to wait
between solar flares?
Answer: The Flare rate was 0.000066 flares/star/day. For 1 star, we have
T = 0.000066 flares/star/day x ( 1 star) = 0.000066 flares/day so the time between
flares (days/flare) is just T = 1/0.000066 = 15,151 days. Since there are 365
days/year, this is about 42 years between flares on the average.
Space Math
Exploring the Nighttime Launch of STEREO
This spectacular night-time image taken by photographed Dominic Agostini

shows the launch of the STEREO mission from Pad 17B at the Kennedy Space Center.
The duration of the time-lapse image was 2.5 minutes. The distance to the horizon was
10 km, and the width of the image was 40 degrees. Assume that the trajectory is at the
distance of the horizon, and in the plane of the photograph (the camera was exactly
perpendicular to the plane of the launch trajectory).
Problem 1 By using trigonometry formula, what is the horizontal scale of this image in
meters/mm at the distance of the horizon?
Problem 2 - What was the altitude, in kilometers, of the rocket when it crossed the point
directly in front of the cameras field of view at a position 2.4 km from the launchpad?
Problem 3 From three measured points along the trajectory, what is the formula for the
simplest parabola that can be fitted to this portion of the rockets trajectory with the form
2
H(x) = ax + bx + c? (use kilometers for all measurements)
Problem 4 Because of projection effects, although the rocket is continuing to gain

altitude beyond the vertex of the parabola shown in the photograph, it appears as though
the rocket reaches a maximum altitude and then starts to lose altitude as it travels further
from the launch pad. About what is the apparent maximum altitude, in kilometers, that the
rocket attains from the vantage point of the photographer?
Space Math
62
62
Answer Key
More of Dominics excellent night launch images can be found at www.dominicphoto.com
Problem 1 By using trigonometry formula, what is the horizontal scale of this image in
meters/mm at the distance of the horizon?
Answer: Solve the right-triangle to determine the hypotenuse h as h = 10 km/cos(20) = 11
km, then the width of the field of view at the horizon is just 2(11sin(20)) = 2(3.8 km) = 7.6 km.
This is the width of the photograph along the distant horizon. With a millimeter ruler, the width
of the mage is 125 mm, so the scale of this image at the horizon is about 7600m/125mm = 61
meters/mm.
Problem 2 - What was the altitude, in kilometers, of the rocket when it crossed the point
directly in front of the cameras field of view at a position 2.4 km from the launchpad? Answer:
Draw a vertical line through the center of the image. Measure the length of this line between
the distant horizon and the point on the trajectory. Typical values should be about 40 mm.
Then from the scale of the image of 61 meters/mm, we get an altitude of H = 40 mm x 61
m/mm = 2440 meters or 2.4 kilometers.
Problem 3 From three measured points along the trajectory, what is the formula for the
2
simplest parabola that can be fitted to this trajectory with the form H(x) = ax + bx + c? (use
kilometers for all measurements with the launch pad as the origin of the coordinates)
Answer: Because the launch pad is the origin of the coordinates, one of the two x-intercepts
must be at (0,0) so the value for c = 0. We already know from Problem 2 that a second point is
2
(2.4,2.4) so that 2.4 = a (2.4) + b(2.4) and so the first equation for the solution is just
1 = 2.4a + b. We only need one additional point to solve for a and b. If we select a point at
2
(1.2,1.5) we have a second equation 1.5 = a(1.2) + 1.2b so that 1.5 = 1.4a + 1.2b. Our two
equations to solve are now just
2.4 a + 1.0 b = 1.0
1.4 a + 1.2 b = 1.5
which we can solve by elimination of b to get a = -0.2 and then b = 1.48
2
so H(x) = -0.2 x + 1.48 x
Problem 4 Because of projection effects, although the rocket is continuing to gain altitude
beyond the vertex of the parabola shown in the photograph, it appears as though the rocket
reaches a maximum altitude and then starts to lose altitude as it travels further from the launch
pad. About what is the apparent maximum altitude, in kilometers, that the rocket attains from
the vantage point of the photographer?
Answer: Students can use a ruler to determine this as about 2.7 kilometers. Alternatively they
can use the formula they derived in Problem 3 to get the vertex coordinates at
x = -b/2a
= +3.7 km and so h = 2.7 km.
Space Math
Do fast CMEs produce intense SPEs?

The sun produces two basic kinds of storms; coronal mass
ejections (SOHO satellite: top left) and solar flares (SOHO satellite:
bottom left). These are spectacular events in which billions of tons of
matter are launched into space (CMEs) and vast amounts of
electromagnetic energy are emitted (Flares). A third type of 'space
weather storm' can also occur.
Solar Proton Events (SPEs) are invisible, but intense,
showers of high-energy particles near Earth that can invade satellite
electronics and cause serious problems, even malfunctions and
failures. Some of the most powerful solar flares can emit these
particles, which streak to Earth within an hour of the flare event.
Other SPE events, however, do not seem to arrive at Earth until
several days latter.
Here is a complete list of Solar Proton Events between
1976-2005: http://umbra.nascom.nasa.gov/SEP/
Here is a complete list of coronal mass ejections 1996 2006: http://cdaw.gsfc.nasa.gov/CME_list/
Between January 1, 1996 and June 30, 2006 there were
11,031 CMEs reported by the SOHO satellite. Of these, 1186 were
halo events. Only half of the halo events are actually directed
towards Earth. The other half are produced on the far side of the
sun and directed away from Earth. During this same period of time,
90 SPE events were recorded by GOES satellite sensors orbiting
Earth. On the next page, is a list of all the SPE events and Halo
CMEs that corresponded to the SPE events. There were 65 SPEs
that coincided with Halo CMEs. Also included is the calculated
speed of the CME event.
From the information above, and the accompanying
table, draw a Venn Diagram to represent the data, then answer
the questions below.
Problem 1: A) What percentage of CMEs detected by the SOHO satellite were identified
as Halo Events? B) What are the odds of seeing a halo Event? C) How many of these Halo
events are directed towards Earth?
Problem 2: A) What fraction of SPEs were identified as coinciding with Halo Events? B)
What are the odds that an SPE occurred with a Halo CME? C) What fraction of all halo
events directed towards earth coincided with SPEs?
Problem 3: A) What percentage of SPEs coinciding with Halo CMEs are more intense
than 900 pFUs? B) What are the odds that, if you detect a 'Halo- SPE', it will be more
intense than 900 pFUs?
Problem 4: A) What percentage of Halo-SPEs have speeds greater than 1000 km/sec? B)
What are the odds that a Halo-SPE in this sample has a speed of > 1000 km/sec?
Problem 5: From what you have calculated as your answers above, what might you
conclude about SPEs and CMEs? How would you use this information as a satellite owner
and operator?
Space Math
63
63
Data Tables showing dates and properties of Halo CMEs and Solar
Proton Events.
Date
November 4, 1997
November 6, 1997
April 20, 1998
May 2, 1998
May 6, 1998
May 3, 1999
June 1, 1999
June 4, 1999
February 18, 2000
April 4, 2000
June 6, 2000
June 10, 2000
July 14, 2000
July 22, 2000
September 12, 2000
October 16, 2000
October 25, 2000
November 8, 2000
November 24, 2000
January 28, 2001
March 29, 2001
April 2, 2001
April 10, 2001
April 15, 2001
April 18, 2001
April 26, 2001
August 9, 2001
September 15, 2001
September 24, 2001
October 1, 2001
October 19, 2001
October 22, 2001
November 4, 2001
November 17, 2001
November 22, 2001
December 26, 2001
Space Math
CME
Speed
(km/s)
785
1556
1863
938
1099
1584
1772
2230
890
1188
1119
1108
1674
1230
1550
1336
770
1738
1289
916
942
2505
2411
1199
2465
1006
479
478
2402
1405
901
618
1810
1379
1437
1446
SPE
(pfu)
72
490
1700
150
210
14
48
64
13
55
84
46
24000
17
320
15
15
14800
940
49
35
1100
355
951
321
57
17
11
12900
2360
11
24
31700
34
18900
779
Date
January 8, 2002
January 14, 2002
February 20, 2002
March 15, 2002
March 18, 2002
March 22, 2002
April 17, 2002
April 21, 2002
May 22, 2002
July 15, 2002
August 14, 2002
August 22, 2002
August 24, 2002
September 5, 2002
November 9, 2002
May 28, 2003
May 31, 2003
June 17, 2003
October 26, 2003
November 4, 2003
November 21, 2003
April 11, 2004
July 25, 2004
September 12, 2004
November 7, 2004
January 15, 2005
July 13, 2005
July 27, 2005
August 22, 2005
CME
Speed
(km/s)
1794
1492
952
957
989
1750
1240
2393
1557
1151
1309
998
1913
1748
1838
1366
1835
1813
1537
2657
494
1645
1333
1328
1759
2861
1423
1787
2378
SPE
(pfu)
91
15
13
13
19
16
24
2520
820
234
24
36
317
208
404
121
27
24
466
353
13
35
2086
273
495
5040
134
41
330
Note: Solar Proton Event strengths are measured

in the number of particles that pass through a
square centimeter every second, and is given in
units called Particle Flux Units or PFUs.
82
Problem 1: Answers: A) 1186/11031 = 11% B) 1 / 0.11 = 1 chance in 9 C)

From the text, only half are directed to Earth so 1186/2 = 593 Halos.
Problem 2: Answers: A) 65 table entries / 90 SPEs = 72% B) 1 / 0.72 = 1
chance in 1.38 or about 2 chances in 3 C) 65 in Table / (528+65) Halos = 11%
Problem 3: Answers: A) From the table, there are 12 SPEs out of 65 in this list
or 12/65 = 18 % B) 1 / 0.18 = 1 chance in 5.
Problem 4: Answers: A) There are 50 out of 65 or 50/65 = 77% B) 1 / 0.77 =
1 chance in 1.3 or 2 chances in 3.
Problem 5: From what you have calculated as your answers above, what might
you conclude about Solar Proton Events and CMEs? How would you use this
information as a satellite owner and operator?
A reasonable student response is that Halo CMEs occur only 11% of the time, and
of the ones directed towards Earth only 1 out of 9 coincide with SPEs. However, in
terms of SPEs, virtually all of the SPEs coincide with Halo events ( 2 out of 3) and
SPEs are especially common when the CME speed is above 1000 km/sec. As a
satellite owner, I would be particularly concerned if scientists told me there was a
halo CME headed towards Earth AND that it had a speed of over 1000 km/sec.
Because the odds are now 2 chances out of 3 that an SPE might occur that could
seriously affect my satellite. I would try to put my satellite in a safe condition to
protect it from showers of high-energy particles that might damage it.
Space Math
The January 20, 2005 solar proton event (SPE) was by some
measures the biggest since 1989. It was particularly rich in high-speed
protons packing more than 100 million electron volts (100 MeV) of
energy. Such protons can burrow through 11 centimeters of water. A
thin-skinned spacesuit would have offered little resistance, and the
astronaut would have been radiation poisoned, and perhaps even killed.
The above image was taken by the SOHO satellite during this
proton storm. The instrument, called LASCO, was taking an image of the
sun in order for scientists to study the coronal mass ejection (CME)
taking place. Each of the individual white spots in the image is a track left
by a high-speed proton as it struck the imaging CCD (similar to the 'chip'
in your digital camera). As you see, the proton tracks corrupted the data
being taken.
The high-speed particles from these proton storms also penetrate
satellites and can cause data to be lost, or even false commands to be
given by on-board computers, causing many problems for satellite
operators.
Space Math
Seeing Solar Storms in STEREO - II

The
two
STEREO
spacecraft are located along
Earth's orbit and can view gas
clouds ejected by the sun as they
travel to Earth. From the
geometry,
astronomers
can
accurately
determine
their
speeds, distances, shapes and
other properties.
By studying the separate
'stereo' images, astronomers can
determine the speed and direction
of the cloud before it reaches
Earth.
Use the diagram, (angles
and distances not drawn to the
same scale of the 'givens' below)
to answer the following question.
The two STEREO satellites are located at points A and B, with Earth located
at Point E and the sun located at Point S, which is the center of a circle with a radius
ES of 1.0 Astronomical unit (150 million kilometers). Suppose that the two satellites
spot a Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) cloud at Point C. Satellite A measures its angle
from the sun mSAC as 45 degrees while Satellite B measures the corresponding
angle to be mSBC=50 degrees. In the previous math problem the astronomers knew
the ejection angle of the CME, mESC, but in fact they didn't need to know this in
order to solve the problem below!
Problem 1 - The astronomers want to know the distance that the CME is from Earth,
which is the length of the segment EC. The also want to know the approach angle,
mSEC. Use either a scaled construction (easy: using compass, protractor and
millimeter ruler) or geometric calculation (difficult: using trigonometric identities) to
determine EC from the available data.
Givens from satellite orbits:
SB = SA = SE = 150 million km
AE = 136 million km
BE = 122 million km
mASE = 54 degrees
mBSE = 48 degrees
mEAS = 63 degrees
mEBS = 66 degrees
mAEB = 129 degrees
Find the measures of all of the angles and segment lengths in thee above diagram
rounded to the nearest integer.
Problem 2 - If the CME was traveling at 2 million km/hour, how long did it take to
reach the distance indicated by the length of segment SC?
Space Math
64
64
Answer Key
AE = 136 million km
BE = 122 million km
mASE = 54 degrees
mBSE = 48 degrees
mEAS = 63 degrees
mEBS = 66 degrees
mAEB = 129 degrees
use units of megakilometers i.e. 150 million km = 150 Mkm.
Method 1: Students construct a scaled model of the diagram based on the angles and measures, then
use a protractor to measure the missing angles, and from the scale of the figure (in millions of kilometers
per millimeter) they can measure the required segments. Segment EC is about 49 Mkm at an angle,
mSEB of 28 degrees.
Method 2 use the Law of Cosines and the Law of Sines to solve for the angles and segment lengths
exactly.
mASB = mASE+mBSE = 102 degrees
mASC = theta
mACS = 360 - mCAS - mASC = 315 - theta
mBSC = mASB - theta = 102 - theta
mBCS = 360 - mCBS - mBSC = 208 + theta
Use the Law of Sines to get
sin(mCAS)/L = sin(mACS)/150 Mkm
Eliminate L :
and
sin(mBCS)/L = sin(mBCS)/150 Mkm.
150sin(45)/sin(315-Theta) = 150 sin(50)/sin(208+theta)
Re-write using angle-addition and angle-subtraction:

sin50 [sin(315)cos(theta)-cos(315)sin(theta)] = sin(45) [sin(208)cos(theta) + cos(208)sin(theta)]
Compute numerical factors by taking indicated sines and cosines:
-0.541cos(theta) - 0.541sin(theta) = -0.332cos(theta) - 0.624sin(theta)
Simplify:
cos(theta) = 0.397sin(theta)
Use definition of sine:

Solve for cosine:
cos(theta)2 = 0.158 ( 1 - cos(theta)2 )
cos(theta) = ( 0.158/1.158)1/2 so theta = 68 degrees. And so mASC=68
Now compute segment CS = 150 sin(45)/sin(315-68) = 115 Mkm.

BC = 115 sin(102-68)/sin(50) = 84 Mkm.
Then
EC2 = 1222 + 842 - 2(84)(122)cos(mEBS-mCBS)
EC2 = 1222 + 842 - 2(84)(122)cos(66-50)
mCEB from Law of Cosines:
And since
842 = 1222 + 472 - 2(122)(47)cos(mCEB)
So EC = 47 Mkm.
so mCEB = 29 degrees
mAES = 180 - mASE - mEAS = 180 - 54 - 63 = 63 degrees

so mSEC = mAEB - mAES - mCEB = 129 - 63 - 29 = 37 degrees
So, the two satellites are able to determine that the CME is 49 million kilometers from Earth and
approaching at an angle of 37 degrees from the sun.
Answer: 115 million kilometers / 2 million km/hr = 58 hours or 2.4 days.
Space Math
Seeing Solar Storms in STEREO

Two NASA, STEREO satellites take images of the sun and its surroundings from two
separate vantage points along Earth's orbit. From these two locations, one located ahead of
the Earth, and the other located behind the Earth along its orbit, they can create stereo images
of the 3-dimensional locations of solar storms on or near the solar surface.
The three images below, taken on December 12, 2007, combine the data from the two
STEREO satellites (left and right) taken from these two locations, with the single image taken
by the SOHO satellite located half-way between the two STEREO satellites (middle). Notice
that there is a large storm event, called Active Region 978, located on the sun. The changing
location of AR978 with respect to the SOHO image shows the perspective change seen from
the STEREO satellites. You can experience the same Parallax Effect by holding your thumb at
arms length, and looking at it, first with the left eye, then with the right eye. The location of your
thumb will shift in relation to background objects in the room.
The diagram to the right shows

the relevant parallax geometry for the two
satellites A and B, separated by an angle
of 42 degrees as seen from the sun. The
diagram lengths are not drawn to scale.
The radius of the sun is 696,000 km.
Problem 1: With a millimeter ruler,
determine the scale of each image in
km/mm. How many kilometers did AR978
shift from the center position (SOHO
location for AR) between the two
STEREO images? This is the average
measure of 'L' in the diagram.
Problem 2: Using the Pythagorean
Theorem, determine the equation for the
height, h, in terms of R and L. Assume
the relevant triangle is a right triangle.
Problem 3: How high (h) above the sun's
surface, called the photosphere, was the
AR978 viewed by STEREO and SOHO
on December 12, 2007?
Space Math
65
65
Answer Key
Problem 1: With a millimeter ruler, determine the scale of each image in km/mm. How
many kilometers did AR978 shift from the center position (SOHO location for AR) between
the two STEREO images? This is the measure of 'L' in the diagram.
Answer:
STEREO-Left image, sun diameter = 28 mm, actual = 1,392,000 km, so the scale is
1392000 km / 28mm = 49,700 km/mm
SOHO-center sun diameter = 36 mm, so the scale is
1392000 km/36mm = 38,700 km/mm
STEREO-right sun diameter = 29 mm, so the scale is
1392000 km / 29 mm = 48,000 km/mm
Taking the location of the SOHO image for AR978 as the reference, the left-hand image
shows that AR978 is about 5 mm to the right of the SOHO location which equals 5 mm x
49,700 km/mm = 248,000 km. From the right-hand STEREO image, we see that AR978 is
about 5 mm to the left of the SOHO position or 5 mm x 48,000 km/mm = 240,000 km.
The average is 244,000 kilometers.
Problem 2: Using the Pythagorean Theorem, determine the equation for the height, h, in
terms of R and L.
2
Answer:
( R + h) = R + L
h
2
2 1/2
- R
= (R +L )
Problem 3: How high (h) above the sun's surface, called the photosphere, was the AR978
viewed by STEREO and SOHO on December 12, 2007?
Answer:
Space Math
2
2 1/2
( (244,000) + (696,000) )
737,500 - 696,000
41,500 kilometers
696,000
Right Triangle Trigonometry

Two NASA, STEREO satellites take images of the sun and its surroundings from two
separate vantage points along Earth's orbit. From these two locations, one located ahead of
the Earth, and the other located behind the Earth along its orbit, they can create stereo images
of the 3-dimensional locations of coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and storms on or near the
solar surface.
The three images below, taken on December 12, 2007, combine the data from the two
STEREO satellites (left and right) taken from these two locations, with the single image taken
by the SOHO satellite located half-way between the two STEREO satellites (middle). Notice
that there is a large storm event, called Active Region 978, located on the sun. The changing
location of AR978 with respect to the SOHO image shows the perspective change seen from
the STEREO satellites. You can experience the same Parallax Effect by holding your thumb at
arms length, and looking at it, first with the left eye, then with the right eye. The location of your
thumb will shift in relation to background objects in the room.
The diagram to the right shows

the relevant parallax geometry for the two
satellites A and B, separated by an angle
of 42 degrees as seen from the sun. The
diagram lengths are not drawn to scale.
The radius of the sun is 696,000 km.
Problem 1: With a millimeter ruler,
determine the scale of each image in
km/mm. How many kilometers did AR978
shift from the center position (SOHO
location for AR) between the two
STEREO images? This is the average
measure of 'L' in the diagram.
Problem 2: Using the Pythagorean
Theorem, determine the equation for the
height, h, in terms of R and L. Assume
the relevant triangle is a right triangle.
Problem 3: How high (h) above the sun's
surface, called the photosphere, was the
AR978 viewed by STEREO and SOHO
on December 12, 2007?
Space Math
66
66
Answer Key
Problem 1: With a millimeter ruler, determine the scale of each image in km/mm. How
many kilometers did AR978 shift from the center position (SOHO location for AR) between
the two STEREO images? This is the measure of 'L' in the diagram.
Answer:
STEREO-Left image, sun diameter = 28 mm, actual = 1,392,000 km, so the scale is
1392000 km / 28mm = 49,700 km/mm
SOHO-center sun diameter = 36 mm, so the scale is
1392000 km/36mm = 38,700 km/mm
STEREO-right sun diameter = 29 mm, so the scale is
1392000 km / 29 mm = 48,000 km/mm
Taking the location of the SOHO image for AR978 as the reference, the left-hand image
shows that AR978 is about 5 mm to the right of the SOHO location which equals 5 mm x
49,700 km/mm = 248,000 km. From the right-hand STEREO image, we see that AR978 is
about 5 mm to the left of the SOHO position or 5 mm x 48,000 km/mm = 240,000 km.
The average is 244,000 kilometers.
Problem 2: Using the Pythagorean Theorem, determine the equation for the height, h, in
terms of R and L.
2
Answer:
( R + h) = R + L
h
2
2 1/2
= (L + R )
- R
Problem 3: How high (h) above the sun's surface, called the photosphere, was the AR978
viewed by STEREO and SOHO on December 12, 2007?
Answer:
Space Math
2
2 1/2
( (244,000) + (696,000) )
737,500 - 696,000
41,500 kilometers
696,000
Hinode Studies Loopy Sunspots!
The solar surface is not only a hot, convecting ocean of gas, but is laced with
magnetism. The sun's magnetic field can be concentrated into sunspots, and when solar
gases interact with these magnetic fields, their light lets scientists study the complex 'loopy'
patterns that the magnetic fields make as they expand into space. The above image was
taken by NASA's TRACE satellite and shows one of these magnetic loops rising above the
surface near two sunspots. The horseshoe shape of the magnetic field is anchored at its two
'feet' in the dark sunspot regions. The heated gases become trapped by the magnetic forces
in sunspot loops, which act like magnetic bottles. The gases are free to flow along the lines
of magnetic force, but not across them. The above image only tells scientists where the
gases are, and the shape of the magnetic field, which isn't enough information for scientists
to fully understand the physical conditions within these magnetic loops. Satellites such as
Hinode carry instruments like the EUV Imaging Spectrometer, which lets scientists measure
the temperatures of the gases and their densities as well.
Problem 1: The Hinode satellite studied a coronal loop on January 20, 2007 associated with
Active Region AR 10938, which was shaped like a semi-circle with a radius of 20,000
kilometers, forming a cylindrical tube with a base radius of 1000 kilometers. What was the
total volume of this magnetic loop in cubic centimeters assuming that it is shaped like a
cylinder?
Problem 2: The Hinode EUV Imaging Spectrometer was able to determine that the density
of the gas within this magnetic loop was about 2 billion hydrogen atoms per cubic centimeter.
-24
If a hydrogen atom has a mass of 1.6 x 10
grams, what was the total mass of the gas
trapped within this cylindrical loop in metric tons?
67
67
Answer Key:
Problem 1:
The Hinode satellite studied a coronal loop on January 20, 2007 associated
with Active Region AR 10938, which was shaped like a semi-circle with a radius of 20,000
kilometers, forming a cylindrical tube with a base radius of 1000 kilometers. What was the
total volume of this magnetic loop in cubic centimeters assuming that it is shaped like a
cylinder?
Answer: The length (h) of the cylinder is 1/2 the circumference of the circle with a
radius of 20,000 km or h = 1/2 (2 R) = 3.14 x 20,000 km = 62,800 km
2
The volume of a cylinder is V = R h so that the volume of the loop is

2
V = (1000 km) x 62,800 km
11
= 2.0 x 10 cubic kilometers.
15
1 cubic kilometer = 10 cubic centimeters so
26
= 2.0 x 10
cubic centimeters
Problem 2:
The Hinode EUV Imaging Spectrometer was able to determine that the
density of the gas within this magnetic loop was about 2 billion hydrogen atoms per cubic
-24
centimeter. If a hydrogen atom has a mass of 1.6 x 10 grams, what was the total mass of
the gas trapped within this cylindrical loop in metric tons?
Answer: The total mass is the product of the density times the volume, so
9
Density = 2 x 10 particles/cc x (1.6 x 10
-24
grams/particle) = 3.2 x 10
-15
grams/cm
The approximate volume of the magnetic loop in cubic centimeters is

11
3
15
3
3
V = ( 2.0 x 10 km ) x (1.0 x 10 cm /km
26
3
= 2.0 x 10 cm
-15
26
Mass = Density x Volume = (3.2 x 10 grams/cm ) x (2.0 x 10 cm

11
8
= 6.4 x 10 grams or 6.4 x 10 kilograms or 640,000 metric tons.
) = 6.4 x 10
26-15
The Most Important Equation in Astronomy!
R =1.22 L
D
There are many equations that astronomers use

to describe the physical world, but none is more
important and fundamental to the research that we
conduct than the one to the left! You cannot design a
telescope, or a satellite sensor,
without paying
attention to the relationship that it describes.
In optics, the best focused spot of light that a
perfect lens with a circular aperture can make, limited
by the diffraction of light. The diffraction pattern has a
bright region in the center called the Airy Disk. The
diameter of the Airy Disk is related to the wavelength of
the illuminating light, L, and the size of the circular
aperture (mirror, lens), given by D. When L and D are
expressed in the same units (e.g. centimeters, meters),
R will be in units of angular measure called radians ( 1
radian = 57.3 degrees).
You cannot see details with your eye, with a
camera, or with a telescope, that are smaller than the
Airy Disk size for your particular optical system. The
formula also says that larger telescopes (making D
bigger) allow you to see much finer details. For
example, compare the top image of the Apollo-15
landing area taken by the Japanese Kaguya Satellite
(10 meters/pixel at 100 km orbit elevation: aperture =
about 15cm ) with the lower image taken by the LRO
satellite (0.5 meters/pixel at a 50km orbit elevation:
aperture = ). The Apollo-15 Lunar Module (LM) can be
seen by its 'horizontal shadow' near the center of the
image.
Problem 1 - The Senator Byrd Radio Telescope in
Green Bank West Virginia with a dish diameter of
D=100 meters is designed to detect radio waves with a
wavelength of L= 21-centimeters. What is the angular
resolution, R, for this telescope in A) degrees? B) Arc
minutes?
Problem 2 - The largest, ground-based optical
telescope is the D = 10.4-meter Gran Telescopio
Canaris. If this telescope operates at optical
wavelengths (L = 0.00006 centimeters wavelength),
what is the maximum resolution of this telescope in A)
microradians? B) milliarcseconds?
Problem 3 - An astronomer wants to design an infrared
telescope with a resolution of 1 arcsecond at a
wavelength of 20 micrometers. What would be the
diameter of the mirror?
Space Math
68
Answer Key
68
Problem 1 - The Senator Byrd Radio Telescope in Green Bank West Virginia with a dish
diameter of D=100 meters is designed to detect radio waves with a wavelength of L= 21centimeters. What is the angular resolution, R, for this telescope in A) degrees? B) Arc
minutes?
Answer: First convert all numbers to centimeters, then use the formula to calculate the
resolution in radian units: L = 21 centimeters, D = 100 meters = 10,000 centimeters, then R =
1.22 x 21 cm /10000 cm so R = 0.0026 radians. There are 57.3 degrees to 1 radian, so A)
0.0026 radians x (57.3 degrees/ 1 radian) = 0.14 degrees. And B) There are 60 arc minutes
to 1 degrees, so 0.14 degrees x (60 minutes/1 degrees) = 8.4 arcminutes.
Problem 2 - The largest, ground-based optical telescope is the D = 10.4-meter Gran
Telescopio Canaris. If this telescope operates at optical wavelengths (L = 0.00006 centimeters
wavelength), what is the maximum resolution of this telescope in A) microradians? B)
milliarcseconds?
Answer: R = 1.22 x (0.00006 cm/10400 cm) = 0.000000069 radians. A) Since 1 microradian =
0.000001 radians, the resolution of this telescope is 0.069 microradians. B) Since 1 radian =
57.3 degrees, and 1 degree = 3600 arcseconds, the resolution is 0.000000069 radians x (57.3
degrees/radian) x (3600 arcseconds/1 degree) =
0.014 arcseconds. One thousand
milliarcsecond = 1 arcseconds, so the resolution is 0.014 arcsecond x (1000 milliarcsecond /
arcsecond) = 14 milliarcseconds.
Problem 3 - An astronomer wants to design an infrared telescope with a resolution of 1

arcsecond at a wavelength of 20 micrometers. What would be the diameter of the mirror?
Answer: From R = 1.22 L/D we have R = 1 arcsecond and L = 20 micrometers and need to
calculate D, so with algebra we re-write the equation as D = 1.22 L/R.
Convert R to radians:
R = 1 arcsecond x (1 degree/3600 arcsecond) x (1 radian / 57.3 degrees) = 0.0000048
radians.
L = 20 micrometers x (1 meter/1,000,000 micrometers) = 0.00002 meters.
Then D = 1.22 (0.00003 meters)/( 0.0000048 radians) = 5.1 meters.
Space Math
The Sun in Hydrogen Light
This is an image taken by the National Solar Observatory on Sacramento

Peak using light from hydrogen atoms (H-alpha). It was obtained at a wavelength
of 635 nm, or a frequency of 460 teraHertz (4.6x1014 Hz), and reveals hydrogen
gas at temperatures between 10,000 and 30,000 K,. These gases are found in
prominences and near sunspots. The image shows considerable detail in the
photosphere and chromosphere of the sun that cannot be as well seen in broadband optical light. Once reserved only for the most advanced observatories,
these H-alpha images can routinely be produced by amateur astronomers using
equipment costing less than $1,000.
Problem - A cloud of gas in front of a light source will absorb light at the specific
wavelengths of its atoms, and then re-emit this light in different directions at
exactly the same wavelengths. From one vantage point, the cloud will appear
dark, while from other vantage point the cloud can appear to be emitting light.
This is an example of Kirchoff's Law in spectroscopy. Can you explain how this
principle accounts for the details seen in the H-alpha image of the sun above?
Space Math
69
69
Answer Key
Problem - A cloud of gas in front of a light source will absorb light at the specific
wavelengths of its atoms, and then re-emit this light in different directions at exactly the
same wavelengths. From one vantage point the cloud will appear dark, while from
other vantage points the cloud can appear to be emitting light. This is an example of
Kirchoff's Law in spectroscopy. Can you explain how this accounts for the details seen
in the H-alpha image of the sun above?
Answer: A dense hydrogen gas cloud (prominence) seen against the hot solar surface
absorbs and re-emits light at the specific wavelengths of hydrogen such as the H-alpha
spectral line. When we see a cloud on the face of the sun, most of the scattered light
does not travel towards the observer, so the cloud appears to dim the light from the
sun at this wavelength. When seen against the dark sky at the limb of the sun, the
same hydrogen cloud appears to glow with a reddish color.
At this wavelength, the sun has a brightness of about
2.6 x 10-21 watts/meter2
Space Math
This solar image at a wavelength of 1 millimeter (0.001 meters) or a

frequency of 300 gigaHertz (3.0x1011 Hz) was obtained by the Atacama Large
Millimeter Array (ALMA). The telescope array consists of 64 antennas each 12
meters in diameter. The antennas may all be grouped together in an area 150
meters in diameter to provide about 1.0 arcsecond angular resolution, or they
may be distributed over an area 14 kilometers in extent to provide an angular
resolution as high as 0.01 arcseconds (10 milliarcsec). Millimeter radio emission
is extremely sensitive to dynamic processes in the chromosphere; a layer of the
sun located just above the photosphere but below the corona. The image above
shows features that coincide with large sunspot groups in the photosphere.
Problem - At these frequencies, electrons are emitting radio-wave energy by
spiraling in magnetic fields. This causes them to lose energy very rapidly. The
lifetime of an electron before it can no longer emit much energy is given by the
2
formula T = 422 / (B E) where T is in seconds, B is the magnetic field strength in
Gauss, and E is the electron energy in electron-Volts (eV). If B = 100 Gauss and
E = 0.001 eV, how long do these electrons continue to radiate radio waves?
Space Math
70
70
Answer Key
Problem - At these frequencies, electrons are emitting radio-wave energy by spiraling
in magnetic fields. This causes them to lose energy very rapidly. The lifetime of an
electron before it can no longer emit much energy is given by the formula T = 422 /
(B2E) where T is in seconds, B is the magnetic field strength in Gauss, and E is the
electron energy in eV. If B = 100 gauss and E = 0.001 eV, how long doe these
electrons continue to radiate radio waves?
422
Answer: T = -------------------- = 42 seconds.
2
(100) (0.001)
Note: At the typical speed of the electrons of about 500 km/sec, they can travel a
distance of about 42 sec x 500 km/sec = 21,000 kilometers. At the scale of the radio
image (1,300,000 km/90mm) of
14,500 km/mm, this distance is about
1 - 2
millimeters.
Space Math
False-color image of the sun obtained at a wavelength of 20 centimeters

(0.2 meters) or a frequency of 1.5 gigaHertz (1.5x109 Hz) with the Very Large
Array (VLA) radio telescope in New Mexico on September 26, 1981.
The image shows a dozen intense sources of radio emission forming two
belts of activity parallel to the solar equator. The radio emission comes from
electrons at temperatures of over 2 million degrees K. The fainter 'blue' regions
are produced by plasma at lower temperatures near 50,000 K. The corona
appears as a patchwork of cloudy regions and 'holes' depending on whether
magnetic fields are confining the plasma (bright) or whether the plasma is free to
escape into interplanetary space (dark).
Problem - If you approximated each active region as a sphere, about what is the
total volume occupied by the radio-emitting hot plasma compared to the volume
3
of Earth (1 trillion km ).
Space Math
71
71
Answer Key
Problem - If you approximated each active region as a sphere, about what is the total
volume occupied by the radio-emitting hot plasma compared to the volume of Earth (1
3
trillion km ).
Answer: The diameter of the solar disk is about 90 millimeters, so the scale is
1,300,000 km/90 mm = 14,500 km/mm. The active regions are about 5 mm in
diameter or 5 mm x 14,500 km/mm = 73,000 km. Assuming a spherical volume, each
3
14
3
km so for 12 regions
active region is about V = 4/3 (3.14) (73,000/2) = 2.0 x 10
we have a total volume of 2.4 x 10
is just
15
2.4 x 10
12
km . The number of equivalent Earth volumes
km .
N = ------------------------1.0 x 10
15
2,400 Earths
km .
The brightness of the Sun at these wavelengths is about
F = 6.0 x 10-21 watts/meter2

But during disturbed conditions near sunspot maximum, the brightness is about
F = 8.0 x 10-19 watts/meter2
Space Math
This radio map of the sun at a wavelength of 91 centimeters (0.92 meters),

or a frequency of 327 megaHertz (3.27x106 Hz), was obtained with the Very Large
Array (VLA) during a solar flare episode on February 22, 2004. This is the
longest wavelength at which this high-resolution array can operate, revealing
features larger than about 56 arcseconds. High resolution VLA observations of
the Sun at 20 and 91 cm have made it possible to locate and resolve sites of
impulsive energy release at two different heights in the solar corona.
Investigations of microwave burst emission have also yielded insights to the preflare heating of coronal loops, the successive interaction of adjacent loops . The
VLA map shows intense Type I noise storm emission above the active region at
the limb. This time-variable radio emission followed, by a few minutes, a solar
flare and coronal mass ejection detected by SOHO and TRACE, This suggests
that these evolving EUV sources may have played a role in accelerating electrons
that were eventually seen in the noise storm at greater heights. (Courtesy; Tufts
Solar Physics Group and NRAO/VLA)
3
Problem - The volume of Earth is 1 trillion km . From the scale of this image
and the size of the radio burst in the upper left corner of the solar image, about
how many Earth's could fit inside the plasma volume of the radio burst? (Sun
Space Math
72
72
Answer Key
3
Problem - The volume of Earth is 1 trillion km . From the scale of this image and the
size of the radio burst in the upper left corner of the solar image, about how many
Earth's could fit inside the plasma volume of the radio burst? (Sun diameter =
1,300,000 km)
Answer: The disk of the sun has a diameter of about 85 millimeters, so the scale of
the image is 1,300,000 km / 85 mm = 15,000 km/mm .The approximate diameter of
the radio burst region is 30 mm, so its physical size is about 30 mm x 15,000 km/mm
= 450,000 km. The volume of a sphere with this diameter is just
3
16
3
V = 4/3 (3.141) (450000/2) = 4.8 x 10 km .
The number of equivalent Earth volumes is just
16
4.8 x 10 km
N = -------------------------------- = 48,000 Earths.
12
1.0 x 10
Space Math
km
The Solar Spectrum from Gamma to Radio

The
sun
emits
electromagnetic energy at all
wavelengths from gamma-ray to
radio. Astronomers study the
sun at each wavelength band in
order to examine different
aspects
of
how
solar
phenomena work.
To see all of this
information
at
one
time,
astronomers use a Log-Log plot
to graph the emission at each
wavelength (or frequency).
In a Log-Log graph, instead of using the units of 'x' and 'y', we use the
units Log10(x) and Log10(y). For example, the point (100, 100000) would be
graphed at (2.0, 5.0). The x-axis scale would be marked in uniform intervals of
'1.0, 2.0, 3.0' as before, but these would represent magnitudes of '10, 100 and
2.5
1000' An x-value of '2.5' represents 10
which is 316 on the usual 'linear'
scale.
Problem - In this book, the problems showing the face of the sun at a variety of
wavelengths also indicate the brightness of the sun at these wavelengths. The
numbers are indicated in the table below. From the brightness data, create a
Log(w) vs Log(F) grid, and plot the wavelength and brightness of the sun, F in
2
watts/meter , in each electromagnetic wavelength, w, in meters.
-35
Example: For the Gamma ray point, F = log10(1.0 x 10 ) = -35.0; and W =
22
log10(1.0 x 10 ) = +22.0, so plot this point at ( +22,-35) on your graph.
Band
Gamma ray
Hard X-ray
Soft X-ray
Extreme Ultraviolet
Visible
Millimeter
Microwave
Microwave
Radio
Space Math
Frequency
(Hertz)
1.0 x 1022
1.5 x 1018
6.0 x 1016
1.0 x 1016
6.0 x 1014
3.0 x 1011
5.0 x 109
1.5 x 109
3.3 x 106
Brightness
2
(watts/meter )
1.0 x 10-35
3.0 x 10-27
5.0 x 10-27
3.0 x 10-26
2.0 x 10-21
5.0 x 10-20
1.0 x 10-19
8.0 x 10-19
1.0 x 10-19
73
73
Answer Key
Problem 1 - Answer: In each of the 10 solar images, a notation has been made as to
the brightness of the Sun at the indicated wavelength. Students should calculate
Log(W) and Log(F) for each image, and plot this point on a Log-Log graph. The result
should resemble the graph below:
-15
Log(F)
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
Log(W)
Space Math
74
The Energy of Light
Light is defined as electromagnetic radiation, but 'EM radiation' comes in many

other forms too. The X-rays that doctors use to probe your body carry enough energy
to penetrate skin and bones, while infrared radiation does nothing more than warm you
on a summer's day. EM radiation can be conveniently classified according to its
frequency (or wavelength). But there is another way to classify it that helps physicists
study its interaction with matter: the energy that it carries.
Light consists of particles called photons that travel at the speed of light 300,000 km/s. Each of these particles carry a different amount of energy depending on
their frequency. The formula that relates the energy in Joules (E) of a photon to its
frequency in Hertz (F) is just
E = 6.6 x 10-34 F Joules.

Another form of this formula takes advantage of the fact that, for an electron, 1
-19
'electron Volt' (eV) equals 1.6 x 10
Joules so
E = 4.1 x 10-15 F electron-Volts

Problem 1 - A photon of visible light has a frequency of 6 x 1014 Hertz, so how much energy
does it carry in A)Joules? B) Electron volts.
Problem 2 - A radio station broadcasts at 100 megaHertz, how many eVs of energy do these
radio-wave photons carry in the FM band?
Problem 3 - A dental X-ray machine uses X-rays that carry 150 keV of energy. A) What is the
frequency of these X-rays? B) How many times more energy do they carry than visible light?
Problem 4 - If Frequency(Hertz) x Wavelength(meters) = 3 x 108 meters/sec, re-write the
second equation in terms of the wavelength of light given in units of nanometers (10-9 meters).
Check your equation with your answer for the visible light photons in Problem 1.
Space Math
74
Answer Key
Problem 1 - A photon of visible light has a frequency of 6 x 10
energy does it carry in
14
A) Joules: E = 6.6 x 10-34 x 6 x 10
= 4.0 x 10-19 Joules.
14
B) Electron volts: E = 4.1 x 10-15 x 6 x 10
14
Hertz, so how much
= 2.5 electron Volts
Problem 2 - A radio station broadcasts at 100 megaHertz, how many eVs of energy do
these radio-wave photons carry in the FM band?
8
Answer: E = 4.1 x 10-15 x 1 x 10 = 4.1 x 10-7 electron Volts
Problem 3 - A dental X-ray machine uses X-rays that carry 150 keV of energy. A)
What is the frequency of these X-rays? B) How many times more energy do they carry than
visible light?
Answer: A) Use the energy formula in electron volts and solve for F to get F = 2.4 x
14
14
19
10 E(volts) and so F = 2.4 x 10
(150,000) = 3.6 x 10 Hertz.
B) From Problem 1, E = 2.6 eV, so the X-rays carry 150,000 eV/2.5 eV = 60,000
times more energy per photon.
8
Problem 4 - If Frequency(Hertz) x wavelength(meters) = 3 x 10 meters/sec. Re-write

the second equation in terms of the wavelength of light given in nanometers (1.0 x 10
meters).
Answer:
-9
Let W be the wavelength in meters, then

8
F = 3 x 10 / W
17
9
But 1 meter = 10 nanometers so, F = 3 x 10 / W
Then upon substitution for F,
E = 4.41 x 10-15
1230
E = -----------------W(nm)
Visible light F = 6 x 10
Space Math
17
x (3 x 10
/ W) and we get
eV
14
17
Hertz ; W = 3 x 10
/ F = 500 nm, then E = 2.5 eV - check!
The Energy of Light
E = 6.63x10
E = 4.1x10
-34
-15
Joules
eV
where F = frequency in Hertz
The electric and magnetic

properties of electromagnetic
waves allow them to carry
energy from place to place. The
quantum character of this
radiation allows this energy to
be carried in packets called
photons. A simple relationship
connects the frequency of an
EM photon with a specific
amount
of
energy
being
delivered by each photon in the
EM wave.
The two equations above make it convenient to compute the energy in two
different energy units in common usage in the study of EM radiation, once the
frequency of the EM wave is given in Hertz. The 'Joule' is a common measure of
energy used in the so-called MKS or 'SI' system of units, however it is very
cumbersome when measuring the minute energies carried by atomic systems.
The 'electron Volt' is widely used by physicists, chemists and astronomers when
referring to atomic systems measured under laboratory conditions or in the
universe at-large.
For example, the frequency of visible 'yellow' light is about 520 trillion
-34
14
Hertz, so the energy carried by one 'yellow' photon is E = 6.63x10
(5.2 x 10 )
= 3.4 x 10
-19
Joules, or from the second equation we would get 2.1 eV.
Problem 1 - Although these formula refer to the frequency of EM radiation, we

can also re-write them to refer to the wavelength of EM radiation using the
familiar rule that f = c/L where c is the speed of light in meters/sec and L is the
wavelength in meters. If c = 300 million meters/sec, what are the two new energy
laws expressed in terms of wavelength in meters?
Problem 2 - How much energy, in eV, is carried by each photon in the FM radio
band if the frequency of your station is 101.5 MHz?
Problem 3 - How much energy, in eV, is carried by a single photon in the infrared
-6
band if the wavelength of the photon is 25 microns (1 micron = 1.0 x 10
meters)?
Problem 4 - How much energy is carried by a single gamma-ray photon if its
-14
wavelength is the same as the diameter of an atomic nucleus (1 x 10
meters)
computed in A) Joules? B) eV?
Space Math
75
75
Answer Key
Problem 1 - Although these formula refer to the frequency of EM radiation, we can
also re-write them to refer to the wavelength of EM radiation using the familiar rule that
f = c/L where c is the speed of light in meters/sec and L is the wavelength in meters. If
c = 300 million meters/sec, what are the two new energy laws expressed in terms of
wavelength in meters?
-34
Answer: From E = 6.63 x 10
-34
E = 6.63x10
-25
E = 2.0 x 10
-15
From E = 4.1 x 10
E = 4.1x10
-15
f we have, with substitution,

8
(3 x 10 / L) or
/L
f we have, with substitution

8
(3 x 10 / L) or
-6
E = 1.23 x 10
Joules.
/L
eV.
Problem 2 - How much energy, in eV, is carried by each photon in the FM radio band
if the frequency of your station is 101.5 MHz?
Answer: The information is stated in terms of frequency, so use the fact that 1MHz = 1
-15
6
-7
million Hertz and so E = 4.1x10
(101.5 x 1 x 10 ) = 4.2 x 10 eV.
Problem 3 - How much energy, in eV, is carried by a single photon in the infrared
-6
band if the wavelength of the photon is 25 microns (1 micron = 1.0 x 10 meters)?
Answer: Use the relationship for E in terms of wavelength to get
-6
-6
E = 1.32 x 10 /(25.0 x 1.0x10 ) = 0.053 eV.
Problem 4 - How much energy is carried by a single gamma-ray photon if its

-15
wavelength is the same as the diameter of an atomic nucleus (1 x 10
meters)
computed in A) Joules? B) eV?
-25
Answer: A) E = 2.0x10
-15
/1.0x10
-6
-10
= 2 x 10
-15
Joules.
9
B) E = 1.32 x 10 /(1.0x10 ) = 1.32 x 10 eV

or 1.32 giga eV ( also abbreviated as 1.32 GeV)
Space Math
The Flow of Light Energy: Power

Because electromagnetic waves
carry energy from place to place, there
are a number of different ways to express
how rapidly, and how intensely, this
energy is being moved for a given
source. The first of these has to do with
the transmitted power, measured in
watts.
One watt is equal to one Joule of
energy being transmitted, or received,
each second. The watt is the same unit
that you use when you select light bulbs
at the store, or measure the amount of
work that something is doing. (A 350
horse-power car engine delivers 260,000
watts!).
Problem 1 - At a frequency of 100 million Hertz (100 MHz) a single photon of

-26
electromagnetic energy carries about 6 x 10
Joules of energy. If 10 trillion of
these '100 MHz' photons are transmitted every 3 seconds, how many watts of
electromagnetic energy are being moved?
Problem 2 - On your FM dial, the radio signal for station WXYZ is 101.5 MHz.
-12
The weakest signal that your radio can detect at this frequency is 10
watts.
How many photons per second can you detect at this sensitivity level if the
-34
photon energy, in Joules, is given by E = 6.63x10
f, where f is the frequency in
Joules?
Problem 3 - The faintest star you can see in the sky has an apparent magnitude
of +6.0 in the visual band. The light from such a star carries just enough power for
your retinal 'rods' to detect the star. If the frequency of visible light is 520 trillion
-17
Hertz, and the minimum power you can detect is about 3 x 10
watts, how many
photons are being detected by your retina each second at this light threshold?
Problem 4 - Staring at the sun can have harmful consequences, including

blindness! If the sun delivers 0.01 watts of energy to your retina, and the
frequency of a visible light photon is 520 trillion Hertz, how many photons per
second reach your eye?
Space Math
76
76
Answer Key
Problem 1 - At a frequency of 100 million Hertz (100 MHz) a single photon of
-26
electromagnetic energy carries about 6 x 10
Joules of energy. If 10 trillion of these
'100 MHz' photons are transmitted every 3 seconds, how many watts of
electromagnetic energy are being moved?
Answer: We know how much energy is carried by a single photon, so multiplying this
-26
by the number of photons gives the total energy: E = 6 x 10
Joules/photon x (10 x
12
10
-13
photons) = 6 x 10
Joules every 3 seconds. Since the definition of a watt is 1
Joule/1 second, we have the power transmitted as P = 6 x 10

-13
2 x 10
-13
Joules / 3 seconds =
Watts.
Problem 2 - On your FM dial, the radio signal for station WXYZ is 101.5 MHz. The
-12
watts. How many
weakest signal that your radio can detect at this frequency is 10
photons per second can you detect at this sensitivity level if the photon energy, in
-34
Joules, is given by E = 6.63x10
f, where f is the frequency in Joules?
Answer: Each photon carries E = 6.63x10
-34
Joules/photon. Since the minimum detected power is 10

-12
10
Joules/second. Then we do the conversion:
photon/6.7 x 10
-26
-26
(101.5 x 10 ) = 6.7 x 10
-12
watts, we re-write this as
N = 10
-12
Joules/second x ( 1
Joules) = 15 trillion photons/second.
Problem 3 - The faintest star you can see in the sky has an apparent magnitude of
+6.0 in the visual band. The light from such a star carries just enough power for your
retinal 'rods' to detect the star. If the frequency of visible light is 520 trillion Hertz, and
-17
the minimum power you can detect is about 3 x 10
watts, how many photons are
being detected by your retina each second at this light threshold?
-34
-19
Answer: A single photon carries E = 6.63x10
(520 trillion) = 3.4 x 10
Joules.
The threshold power is 3 x 10
-17
N = 3 x 10
-17
-17
watts, or 3 x 10
-19
Joules/sec x (1 photon/3.4 x 10
Joules/sec, so
Joules) = 88 photons/sec.
Problem 4 - Staring at the sun can have harmful consequences, including blindness! If
the sun delivers 0.01 watts of energy to your retina, and the frequency of a visible light
photon is 520 trillion Hertz, what is the threshold level for retinal damage in
photons/sec?
-34
-19
Answer: A single photon carries E = 6.63x10
(520 trillion) = 3.4 x 10
Joules.
The threshold power is 0.01 watts, or 0.01 Joules/sec, so
-19
16
N = 0.01 Joules/sec x (1 photon/3.4 x 10
Joules) = 2.9 x 10 photons/sec.
16
Note: The range of the human eye is then a factor of 2.9x10 /88 = 329 trillion!
Space Math
77
CME Kinetic Energy and Mass
Kinetic energy is the energy that a

body has by virtue of its mass and speed.
Mathematically, it is expressed as one-half
of the product of the mass of the object (in
kilograms), times the square of the objects
speed (in meters/sec).
K.E. = 0.5 m V2
Between October 1996 and May
2006, the SOHO satellite detected and
cataloged 11,031 coronal mass ejections
(CMEs) like the one seen in the figure to the
left. There was enough data available to
determine the properties for 2,131 events.
The table below gives values for ten of these
CMEs.
Date
Speed
(km/s)
K.E.
(Joules)
20
4/8/1996
1.1 x 10
Mass
(kilograms)
9
2.2 x 10
22
8/22/2000
388
1.3 x 10
6/10/2001
731
8.2 x 10
1/18/2002
64
2.6 x 10
5/16/2002
1,310
7.8 x 10
23
10
10
21
10/7/2002
7.8 x 10
18
1/24/2003
387
9.1 x 10
10/31/2003
2,198
1.6 x 10
11/10/2004
24
25
11/2/2003
9.3 x 10
3,387
10
3.0 x 10
13
4.5 x 10
12
9.6 x 10
Problem 1 - Complete the table by determining the value of the missing entries using the
formula for Kinetic Energy.
Problem 2 - What is the minimum and maximum range for the observed kinetic energies for
the 10 CMEs? The largest hydrogen bomb ever tested was the Tsar Bomba in 1961 and was
23
equivalent to 50 megatons of TNT. It had a yield of 5 x 10 Joules. What is the equivalent
yield for the largest CME in megatons, and 'Tsar Bombas'?
Problem 3 - What are the equivalent masses of the smallest and largest CMEs in metric tons?
Problem 4 - Compare the mass of the largest CME to the mass of a small mountain. Assume
2
that the mountain can be represented as a cone with a volume given by 1/3 R H where R
is the base radius and H is the height in meters, and assume the density of rock is 3
3
grams/cm .
Space Math
77
Date
Speed
(km/s)
K.E.
(Joules)
4/8/1996
316
1.1 x 10
8/22/2000
388
1.3 x 10
6/10/2001
731
1/18/2002
20
Mass
(kilograms)
9
2.2 x 10
22
1.7 x 1011
8.2 x 10
23
3.1 x 1012
64
5.3 x 1019
2.6 x 10
5/16/2002
1,310
6.7 x 1022
7.8 x 10
10/7/2002
721
7.8 x 10
1/24/2003
387
9.1 x 10
10/31/2003
2,198
1.6 x 10
11/2/2003
2,033
9.3 x 10
4.5 x 10
11/10/2004
3,387
5.5 x 1025
9.6 x 10
21
10
10
10
3.0 x 10
18
1.2 x 108
24
6.6 x 1011
25
13
12
Problem 1: Complete the table by determining the value of the missing entries using the
formula for Kinetic Energy.
Answer: See above answers.
Problem 2: What is the minimum and maximum range for the observed kinetic energies
for the 10 CMEs?
25
19
Answer: Maximum = 9.3 x 10 Joules. Minimum = 5.3 x 10 Joules
The largest hydrogen bomb ever tested was the Tsar Bomba in 1961 and was equivalent
23
to 50 megatons of TNT. It had a yield of 5 x 10 Joules. What is the equivalent yield for
the largest CME in megatons, and 'Tsar Bombas'?
Answer: The CME on November 2, 2003 was equal to
25
23
(9.3 x 10 /5 x 10 ) = 186 Tsar Bombas,
and an equivalent TNT yield of 186 x 50 megatons = 9,300 megatons!
Problem 3: What are the equivalent masses of the smallest and largest CMEs in metric
tons?
Answer: One metric ton is 1,000 kilograms. The smallest mass was for the
January 24, 2003 CME with about 120,000 tons. The largest mass was for the November
2, 2003 'Halloween Storm' with about 45 billion metric tons.
Problem 4: Compare the mass of the largest CME to the mass of a small mountain.
Assume that the mountain can be represented as a cone with a volume given by
2
V = 1/3 R H where R is the base radius and H is the height in meters, and assume
3
the density of rock is 3 grams/cm .
Answer: One possibility is for a mountain with a base radius of R = 1 kilometers, and a
2
7
height of 50 meters. The cone volume is 0.33 x 3.14 x (1000) x 50 = 5.2 x 10 cubic
3
meters. The rock density of 3 gm/cm converted into kg per cubic meters is 0.003
3
3
kg/(.01) = 3000 kg/m . This yields a mountain with a mass of 156 billion tons, which is
close to the largest CME mass in the table. So CMEs, though impressive in size, carry no
more mass than a small hill on Earth!
Space Math

Solar storms can affect our satellite
and electrical technologies, and can also
produce health risks. For over 100 years,
scientists have kept track of these harsh
space weather events, which come and
go with the 11-year sunspot cycle.
During times when many sunspots
are present on the solar surface, daily
storms are not uncommon. These storms
come in two distinct types: Solar flares,
which cause radio interference and health
risks, and coronal mass ejections, which
affect satellites and cause the Northern
Lights.
Problem 1 During a particular week in 2001, on a given day of the week, the Sun
produced either a coronal mass ejection, S, or an X-ray solar flare, X. Use the
7
Binomial Theorem to compute all of the possible terms for (S + X) that represents
the number of possible outcomes for S and X on each of the seven days.
4 3
4 3
Problem 2 What does the term represented by 7C3 S X = 21 S X represent?
Problem 3 In counting up all of the possible ways that the two kinds of storms can
occur during a 7-day week, what are the most likely number of S and X-type storms
you might expect to experience during this week?
Problem 4 How much more common are weeks with 3 S-type storms and 4 X-type
storms than weeks with 1 S-type storm and 6 X-type storms?
Space Math
78
78
Answer Key
7
Binomial Theorem to compute all of the possible terms for (S + X) .
Answer: The Binomial expansion is
0 7
1 6
2 5
3 4
4 3
5 2
6 1
7C7 S X + 7C6 S X + 7C5 S X + 7C4 S X + 7C3 S X + 7C2 S X + 7C1 S X
7 0
+7C0 S X
which can be evaluated using the definition of nCr to get:

7
1 6
2 5
3 4
4 3
5 2
6 1
7
= X + 7 S X + 21 S X + 35 S X + 35 S X + 21 S X + 7 S X + S
4 3
4 3
Answer:
If you were to tally up the number of ways that 4 S-type storms and 3 X-type
storms could be distributed among the 7 days in a week, you would get 21
different line ups for the sequence of these storms. For instance during the 7
consecutive days, one of these would be S,X,X,S,S,X,S
Problem 3 In counting up all of the possible ways that the two kinds of storms can
occur during a 7-day week, what are the most likely number of S and X-type storms
you might expect to experience during this week?
Answer: The two possibilities consisting of 3 days of S-type and 4 days of Xtype storms, and 4 days of S-type and 3 days of X-type storms each have the
largest number of possible combinations: 35.
1 6
Answer: From the Binomial Expansion, the two relevant terms are 7 S X and 35
3 4
S X . The ratio of the leading coefficients gives the ratio of the relative frequency
from which we see that 35/7 = 5 times more likely to get 3 S-type and 4 X-type
storms.
Space Math

Lights.
produced either a coronal mass ejection, S, or an X-ray solar flare, X. From an
additional study, astronomers determined that it is twice as likely for a coronal mass
ejection to occur than an X-ray solar flare. Use the Binomial Theorem to compute all
7
of the possible terms for (2S + X) .
Space Math
79
79
Answer Key
produced either a coronal mass ejection, S, or an X-ray solar flare, X. From an
additional study, astronomers determined that it is twice as likely for a coronal mass
ejection to occur than an X-ray solar flare. Use the Binomial Theorem to compute all
7
of the possible terms for (2S + X) .
Answer: First let a = 2S and b = X, then use the binomial expansion to determine (a +
7
b) :
0 7
1 6
2 5
3 4
4 3
5 2
6 1
7C7 a b + 7C6 a b + 7C5 a b + 7C4 a b + 7C3 a b + 7C2 a b + 7C1 a b
7 0
+7C0 a b

7
1 6
2 5
3 4
4 3
5 2
6 1
7
= b + 7 a b + 21 a b + 35 a b + 35 a b + 21 a b + 7 a b + a
now substitute a = 2S and b = X to get

7
1 6
2 5
3 4
4 3
5 2
6 1
7
= X + 14 S X + 84 S X + 280 S X + 560 S X + 672 S X + 448 S X + 128S
1 6
5 2
Answer: The two relevant terms are 14 S X and 672 S X . The ratio of the
leading coefficients gives the ratio of the relative frequency from which we see that
672/14 = 48 times more likely to get 5 S-type and 2 X-type storms.
Space Math
Finding Binomial Probabilities using Combinations

Lights.
7
4 3
4 3
Problem 3 During an average month in 2001 there were 25 coronal mass ejections
and 5 X-flares. What is the probability of A) observing a coronal mass ejection
during a given day? B) Observing an X-flare during a given day?
Problem 4 Using the probabilities derived in Problem 3, what is the most likely
number of X-flares and coronal mass ejections spotted during a given week?
Space Math
80
80
Answer Key
7
Answer: The Binomial expansion is
0 7
1 6
2 5
3 4
4 3
5 2
6 1
7C7 S X + 7C6 S X + 7C5 S X + 7C4 S X + 7C3 S X + 7C2 S X + 7C1 S X
7 0
+7C0 S X

7
1 6
2 5
3 4
4 3
5 2
6 1
7
= X + 7 S X + 21 S X + 35 S X + 35 S X + 21 S X + 7 S X + S
4 3
4 3
Answer:
If you were to tally up the number of ways that 4 S-type storms and 3 X-type
storms could be distributed among the 7 days in a week, you would get 21
different line ups for the sequence of these storms. For instance during the 7
consecutive days, one of these would be S,X,X,S,S,X,S
Problem 3 During an average month in 2001 there were 25 coronal mass ejections
and 5 X-flares. What is the probability of A) observing a coronal mass ejection during
a given day? B) Observing an X-flare during a given day?
Answer: P(X) = 5/30 = 0.17 and P(S) = 25/30 = 0.83
Problem 4 Using the probabilities derived in Problem 3, what is the most likely
number of X-flares and coronal mass ejections spotted during a given week?
Answer: Substitute X = P(X) = 0.17 and S = P(S) = 0.83 into the binomial expansion
and evaluate each term.
7
1 6
2 5
3 4
4 3
5 2
6 1
7
X + 7 S X + 21 S X + 35 S X + 35 S X + 21 S X + 7 S X + S
The probabilities are:
0.000004 + 0.00014 + 0.002 + 0.017 + 0.082 + 0.24 + 0.39 + 0.27
so the most likely case would be 6 coronal mass ejections and one x-flare during
an average week.
Space Math
Finding Trinomial Probabilities

The sun is an active star. When it is
stormy it can release giant clouds of
plasma called coronal mass ejections, or
intense bursts of X-rays in events called
solar flares. Solar flares can cause radio
interference or black outs, or be harmful to
astronauts. Meanwhile, coronal mass
ejections can cause satellite and electric
power grid problems.
The sun can produce coronal mass
ejections and flares as separate events, or
sometimes both happen at the same time.
The Binomial Theorem is helpful when two outcomes are possible, such as
the flip of a two-sided coin. But suppose you had three, four or more possible
outcomes? The case of N=3 is a natural extension of the Binomial Theorem and can
be explored by determining the coefficients and terms that result from expanding
N
P = (a + b + c) .
Problem 1 Lets investigate the case where a = probability that only corona mass
ejection events occur, b = probability that only X-flares occur; and c = probability that
both coronal mass ejections and X-flares occur. Expand the factors for the case of:
A) A 2-day study (N=2); B) A 3-day study (N=3); C) A 4-day study (N=4)
Problem 2 A careful study of solar activity determined that for 619 storm events,
497 were only coronal mass ejections, 26 were only solar flares, and 96 were both
solar flares and coronal mass ejections. What are the probabilities P(C), P(X) and
P(both)?
Problem 3 Three days were selected at random from a typical month. What two
combinations of C, X and Both were the most likely to occur given the probabilities
determined in Problem 2?
Space Math
81
81
Answer Key
Problem 1 Lets investigate the case where a = probability that only corona mass
ejection events occur, b = probability that only X-flares occur; and c = probability that
both coronal mass ejections and X-flares occur. Expand the factors for the case of:
A) A 2-day study (N=2); B) A 3-day study (N=3); C) A 4-day study (N=4)
Answer:
2
2
2
(N=2):
P(2) = C + X + B + 2XC + 2CB +2XB
(N=3)
(N=4)
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
P(3) = C + X + B + 3CX +3CB + 3XC + 3BC + 3XB + 3X B + 6XBC
4
4
4
3
3
2 2
2 2
3
3
P(4) = C + X + B + 4CX + 4CB + 6C X + 6C B + 4XC + 4BC + 12
2
2
2
3
2 2
3
3
CXB + 12 CBX + 12XBC + 4XB + 3X B + 3BX + BX
Problem 2 A careful study of solar activity determined that for 619 storm events, 497
were only coronal mass ejections, 26 were only solar flares, and 96 were both solar
flares and coronal mass ejections. What are the probabilities P(C), P(X) and P(both)?
Answer: P(C) = 497/619
P(X) = 26/619
P(Both) = 96 / 619
so P(C) = 0.8
so P(X) = 0.04
so P(Both) = 0.16.
Problem 3 Three days were selected at random from a typical month. What two
combinations of C, X and Both were the most likely to occur given the probabilities
determined in Problem 2?
Answer:
For N=3:
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
P(3) = C + X + B + 3CX +3CB + 3XC + 3BC + 3XB + 3X B + 6XBC
Since X = 0.04,
C=0.8 and
B=0.16 we have
P(3) = 0.51 + 0.000064 + 0.0041 + 0.0038 + 0.061 + 0.077 + 0.31 + 0.0031 + 0.00077
+ 0.031
The two most common combinations are for:
3
1) C : All three days to only have coronal mass ejections (C); and
2
2) 3BC : two coronal mass ejections (C) and one day where both a flare and a
coronal mass ejection occur (B).
Space Math
Normal Distributions
What does it really mean to
determine the average and standard
deviation of a set of measurements?
Astronomers have to deal with this
basic question all the time because they
are dealing with objects that cannot be
visited to make normal measurements as
we would under laboratory conditions.
Here is a step-by-step example!
An astronomer wants to determine the temperature of 10 stars like our own

sun that are identical in mass, diameter and luminosity. From the detailed knowledge
of our Sun, suppose the Sun's exact surface temperature is 5,700 K. If the other
stars are exact duplicates of our Sun, they should also have the same temperature.
The particular ten stars that the astronomer selected are, in fact, slightly different
than the Sun in ways impossible for the astronomer to measure with the best
available instruments. The table below gives the measured temperatures along with
their reasons for not matching our Sun exactly; reasons that the astronomer is not
aware of:
Star
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
Temp. (K)
5,750
5,685
5,710
5,695
5,740
5,690
5,725
5,701
5,735
5,681
Reason for Difference

There is 1% more hydrogen in the star
The star is 100 million years younger than the sun
The radius of the star is 1% smaller than the sun
The radius of the star is 2% larger than the sun
The luminosity of the star is 1 percent larger than the sun
The luminosity is 1% smaller than the sun
The star has 3% more helium than the sun
The star has a bright sunspot with a high temperature
The abundance of calcium is 5% lower than the sun
The amount of sodium is 1% greater than for the sun
Problem 1 What is the average temperature, and standard deviation, , of this

sample of twins to our sun?
Problem 2 How does this sampling compare with a classroom experiment to
determine the distribution of student heights?
Space Math
82
82
Answer Key
Problem 1 What is the average temperature of this sample of twins to our sun?
Answer: Average
Ta = (5750+5685+5710+5695+5740+5690+5725+5701+5735+5681)/10 = 5712 K.
To calculate the S.D first subtract the average temperature, 5712 from each
temperature, square this number, sum all the ten squared numbers; divide by 10-1 =
9, and take the square-root:
Star
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
Temp. (K)
5,750
5,685
5,710
5,695
5,740
5,690
5,725
5,701
5,735
5,681
Sum (squares)= 5514

1/2
= (5514/9)
T-Tave
+38
-27
-2
-17
+28
-22
+13
-11
+23
-31
Squared
1444
729
4
289
784
484
169
121
529
961
Sigma range
1-2
1-2
0-1
0-1
1-2
0-1
0-1
0-1
0-1
1-2
= 25 K
Problem 2 How does this sampling compare with a classroom experiment to

determine the distribution of student heights?
Answer: The table shows the range of sigmas in which the various points fall. For
example, Star B: T=5,685 so 5685-5712 = -27, but 1-sigma = 25K so this point is
between -1 and -2 sigma from the mean value. Counting the number of stars whose
temperatures fall within each rank in the temperature distribution we see that 60% fall
between +/- 1 sigma, and 100% fall between 0 and 2 sigma. This is similar to the
Normal Distribution for which 68% should fall within 1-sigma and 95.4% within 2-sigma
in a random sample (Note: 10 x 0.954 = 9.54 stars or 10 stars). There are no
exceptional points in this limited sample that represent larger deviations from the mean
value than 2-sigma.
Each student has their own physical reason for being the height that they are in
a specific classroom. Most of these reasons cannot be measured such as genetic predisposition, and nutrition. Just as the astronomer selected 10 stars because they are
sun-like we would select a classroom of 30 students in a specific school with students
of a common age, give or take a few months. We measure the height of each student
of the same age range, and calculate an average height for that age, and a standard
deviation that is influenced by the factors that we cannot measure (genetics, nutrition).
If we could, we would further divide our groups and calculate a new average and S.D..
Space Math
Solar Probe Plus: Working with angular diameter

The Solar Probe Plus mission will
be launched in 2018 for a rendezvous
with the sun in 2024. To lose enough
energy to reach the sun, the spacecraft
will make seven fly-bys of Venus.
The 480 kg spacecraft, costing
$740 million, will approach the sun to a
distance of 5.8 million km. Protected by
the heat shield will be five instruments
that will peak over the edge of the heat
shield and measure the particles and
radiation fields in the outer solar corona.
At the closest approach distance,
the sun will occupy a much larger area of
the sky than what it does at the distance
of Earth.
The angular size of an object as it appears to a viewer depends on the

actual physical size of the object, and its distance from the viewer. Although
physical size and diameter are usually measured in terms of meters or kilometers,
the angular diameter of an object is measured in terms of degrees or radians. The
angular size, t, depends on its actual size d and its distance r according to the
simple formula
d
2R
= 2arcTan
For example, the angular size of your thumb with your arm fully extended for
d = 2 centimeters and r = 60 cm is just = 2 arcTan(0.016) so = 1.8 degrees.
Problem 1 At the distance of Earth, 147 million kilometers, what is the angular
diameter of the sun whose physical diameter is 1.4 million kilometers?
Problem 2 At the distance of closest approach to the solar surface Solar Probe
Plus will be at a distance of 5.8 million kilometers from the solar surface. What will
be the angular diameter of the sun if its physical diameter is 1.4 million kilometers?
Problem 3 A DVD disk measures 12 cm in diameter. How far from your eyes will
you have to hold the DVD disk in order for it to subtend the same angular size as
the disk of the sun viewed by Solar Probe Plus at its closest distance?
Space Math
83
83
Answer Key
Problem 1 At the distance of Earth, 147 million kilometers, what is the angular
diameter of the sun whose physical diameter is 1.4 million kilometers?
1.4million
Answer: = 2arcTan
2 x147 million
= 2 arctan(0.0048)
so = 0.55 degrees.
Problem 2 At the distance of closest approach to the solar surface Solar Probe Plus
will be at a distance of 5.8 million kilometers from the solar surface. What will be the
angular diameter of the sun if its physical diameter is 1.4 million kilometers?
Answer:
= 2 arctan (1.4/(2 x 5.8))
so = 14 degrees.
Problem 3 A DVD disk measures 12 cm in diameter. How far from your eyes will you
have to hold the DVD disk in order for it to subtend the same angular size as the disk
of the sun viewed by Solar Probe Plus at its closest distance?
Answer: The desired angular diameter of the sun is = 14 degrees, and for the DVD
disk we have d = 12 cm, so we need to solve the formula for r.
Tan (/2) = d/2r so
2r = d / tan(/2) then
r = 6 cm / tan(7) yields
r = 49 cm. This is about 18 inches.
Note: From the vantage point of the Solar Probe Plus spacecraft, the suns disk at a
temperature of 5570 K is much larger (14 degrees) than it appears in Earths sky (0.5
degrees), and this results in the spacecraft heat shield being heated to over 1600 K.
For more mission details, visit:

http://solarprobe.jhuapl.edu/
http://www.nasa.gov/topics/solarsystem/sunearthsystem/main/solarprobeplus.html
Space Math
Solar Probe Plus- Having a hot time near the sun!

The Solar Probe Plus mission will
be launched in 2018 for a rendezvous
with the sun in 2024. To lose enough
energy to reach the sun, the spacecraft
will make seven fly-bys of Venus.
As the spacecraft approaches the
sun, its heat shield must withstand
o
temperatures exceeding 2500 F and
blasts of intense radiation.
The 480 kg spacecraft, costing
$740 million, will approach the sun to a
distance of 6 million km. Protected by the
heat shield will be five instruments that
will peak over the edge of the heat shield
and measure the particles and radiation
fields in the outer solar corona.
A simple formula that predicts the temperature, in Kelvins, of a surface

exposed to solar radiation is given by
1
(1 A) 4
T = 396
R
where R is the distance to the solar surface in Astronomical Units, and A is the
fraction of the incoming radiation that is reflected by the surface. Because only the
amount of absorbed sunlight determines how hot a body becomes, the final
temperature depends on the quantity (1 A) rather than A alone. (Note 1
Astronomical Unit is the distance of Earth from the center of the sun; 147 million
kilometers).
Problem 1 An astronauts white spacesuit reflects 80% of the incoming radiation
at Earths orbit (1 Astronomical Unit). From the formula, about what is the
temperature of the surface of the spacesuit?
Problem 2 - The Solar Probe Plus spacecraft will use a heat shield facing the sun
with a reflectivity of about A = 0.60. What will be the temperature of the heat shield,
called the Thermal Protection System or TPS, at the distance of 5.9 million km
(0.040 AU), A) In Kelvins? B) In degrees Celsius? C) In degrees Fahrenheit?
Problem 3 Suppose that the TPS consisted of a highly-reflective mirrored coating

with a reflectivity of 99%. What would be the temperature in Kelvins, of the back of
the heat shield when the Solar Probe is closest to the sun at a distance of 0.04 AU?
Space Math
84
84
Answer Key
Problem 1 An astronauts white spacesuit reflects 80% of the incoming radiation at

Earths orbit (1 Astronomical Unit). From the formula, about what is the temperature of
the surface of the spacesuit?
Answer:
T = 396
(1 0.8)
1AU
1
4
so T = 265 Kelvin.
Problem 2 - The Solar Probe Plus spacecraft will use a heat shield facing the sun with
a reflectivity of about A = 0.60. What will be the temperature of the heat shield, called
the Thermal Protection System or TPS, at the distance of 5.9 million km (0.040 AU), A)
In Kelvins? B) In degrees Celsius? C) In degrees Fahrenheit?
Answer: A) T = 1600 K.
o
B) Tc = Tk 273 so Tc = 1,300 C
o
C) Tf = 9/5 (Tc) + 32 so Tf = 2,400 F.

Problem 3 Suppose that the TPS consisted of a highly-reflective mirrored coating
with a reflectivity of 99%. What would be the temperature in Kelvins, of the back of the
heat shield when the Solar Probe is closest to the sun at a distance of 0.04 AU?
Answer: A = 0.99 then
1
(1 0.99) 4
T = 396
0.04 AU
so Tk = 630 Kelvins.
For more mission details, visit:

http://solarprobe.jhuapl.edu/
http://www.nasa.gov/topics/solarsystem/sunearthsystem/main/solarprobeplus.html
Space Math
85
Finding Mass in the Cosmos

One of the neatest things in astronomy is
being able to figure out the mass of a distant object,
without having to 'go there'. Astronomers do this by
employing a very simple technique. It depends only
on measuring the separation and period of a pair of
bodies orbiting each other. In fact, Sir Issac Newton
showed us how to do this over 300 years ago!
Imagine a massive body such as a star, and
around it there is a small planet in orbit. We know
that the force of gravity, Fg, of the star will be pulling
the planet inwards, but there will also be a
centrifugal force, Fc, pushing the planet outwards.
This is because the planet is traveling at a particular speed, V, in its orbit. When
the force of gravity and the centrifugal force on the planet are exactly equal so that
Fg = Fc, the planet will travel in a circular path around the star with the star exactly
at the center of the orbit.
Problem 1) Use the three equations above to derive the mass of the primary body,
M, given the period, T, and radius, R, of the companion's circular orbit.
2 3
Problem 2) Use the formula M = 4 R / (G T ) where G = 6.6726 x 10-11N-m2/kg2

and M is the mass of the primary in kilograms, R is the orbit radius in meters and T
is the orbit period in seconds, to find the masses of the primary bodies in the table
below. (Note: Make sure all units are in meters and seconds first! 1 light years = 9.5
trillion kilometers)
Primary
Companion
Period
Orbit Radius
Earth
24 hrs
42,300 km
Earth
Communications
satellite
Moon
27.3 days
385,000 km
Jupiter
Callisto
16.7 days
1.9 million km
Pluto
Charon
6.38 days
17,530 km
Mars
Phobos
7.6 hrs
9,400 km
Sun
Earth
365 days
149 million km
Sun
Neptune
163.7 yrs
4.5 million km
Sirius A
Sirius B
50.1 yrs
20 AU
Polaris A
Polaris B
30.5 yrs
290 million miles
Milky Way
Sun
225 million yrs
26,000 light years
Space Math
Mass of Primary
85
Answer Key
Problem 1: Answer
Problem 2:
Primary
Companion
Period
Orbit Radius
Earth
24 hrs
42,300 km
6.1 x 10
Earth
Communications
satellite
Moon
27.3 days
385,000 km
6.1 x 10
Jupiter
Callisto
16.7 days
1.9 million km
1.9 x 10
Pluto
Charon
6.38 days
17,530 km
1.3 x 10
Mars
Phobos
7.6 hrs
9,400 km
6.4 x 10
Sun
Earth
365 days
149 million km
1.9 x 10
Sun
Neptune
163.7 yrs
4.5 million km
Mass of Primary
24
24
27
22
23
30
30
2.1 x 10
30
Sirius A
Sirius B
50.1 yrs
298 million km
6.6 x 10
Polaris A
Polaris B
30.5 yrs
453 million km
6.2 x 10
Milky Way
Sun
225 million yrs
26,000 light years
1.7 x 10
28
41
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
Note: The masses for Sirius A and Polaris A are estimates because the companion
star has a mass nearly equal to the primary so that our mass formula becomes less
reliable.
Space Math
86
A Mathematical Model of the Sun
Once an astronomer knows the

radius and mass of a planet or star, one of
the first things they might do is to try to figure
out what the inside looks like.
Gravity would tend to compress a
large body so that its deep interior was at a
higher density than its surface layers.
Imagine that the sun consisted of two
regions, one of high density (the core shown
in red) and a second of low density (the outer
layers shown in yellow). All we know about
the sun is its radius (696,000 km) and its
30
mass (2.0 x 10 kilograms). What we would

like to estimate is how dense these two
regions would be, in order for the final object
to have the volume of the sun and its total
observed mass. We can use the formula for
the volume of a sphere, and the relationship
between density, volume and mass to create
such a model.
Suppose the inner zone has a radius of 417,000 km.

The volume of this 'core' is
4
Vc = ---3
(417,000,000 m)3 = 3.0 x 1026 m3
The volume of the entire sun is
(696,000,000 m)3 = 1.4 x 1027 m3
So the outer shell zone has a volume of

Vs = V* - Vc
So,
so if we estimate the density of the sun's core

3
as Dc = 100,000 kg/m , and the outer shell as

3
Ds = 10,000 kg/m , the masses of the two

parts are:
Mc = 100,000 x (3.0 x 1026 m3) = 3.0 x 1031 kg
4
V* = ---3
Mass = Density x Volume,
27
Vs = 1.1 x 10
km3
Ms = 10,000 x (1.1 x 1027 m3) = 1.1 x 1031 kg

So the total solar mass in our model would be:
M* = Mc + Ms = 4.1 x 1031 kg
This is about 20 times more massive than the
sun actually is!
Inquiry Problem.
With the help of an Excel spreadsheet, program the spreadsheet so that you can adjust the
radius of the core and calculate the volume of the core and shell zones. Then create a
formula so that you can enter various choices for the densities of the core and shell zones
and then sum-up the total mass of your mathematical model for the sun.
What are some possible ranges for the core radius, and zone densities (in grams per cubic
centimeter) that give about the right mass for the modeled sun? How do these compare with
what you find from searching the web literature? How could you improve your mathematical
model to make it more accurate? Show how you would apply this method to modeling the
interior of the Earth, or the planet Jupiter?
86
Inquiry Problem.
With the help of an Excel spreadsheet, program the spreadsheet so that you can adjust the
radius of the core and calculate the volume of the core and shell zones. Then create a
formula so that you can enter various choices for the densities of the core and shell zones
and then sum-up the total mass of your mathematical model for the sun.
Notes: The big challenge for students who haven't used the volume formula is how to work
with it for large objectsrequiring the use of scientific notation as well as learning how to use
the volume formula. Students will program a spreadsheet in whatever way works best for
them, although it is very helpful to lay out the page in an orderly manner with appropriate
column labels. Students, for example, can select ranges for the quantities, and then
generate several hundred models by just copying the formula into several hundred rows.
Those familiar with spreadsheets will know how to do this ,and it saves entering each
number by handwhich would just as easily have been done with a calculator and does not
take advantage of spreadsheet techniques.
What are some possible ranges for the core radius, and zone densities (in grams per cubic
centimeter) that give about the right mass for the modeled sun? How do these compare with
what you find from searching the web literature? How could you improve your mathematical
model to make it more accurate? Show how you would apply this method to modeling the
interior of the Earth, or the planet Jupiter?
Notes:
Most solar models suggest a core density near 160 grams/cc, and an outer
'convection zone' density of about 0.1 grams/cc. The average value for the shell radius is
about 0.7 x the solar radius. Students will encounter, using GOOGLE, many pages on the
solar interior, but the best key words are things like 'solar core density' and 'convection zone
density'. These kinds of interior models are best improver by 1) using more shells to divide
the interior of the body, and 2) developing a mathematical model of how the density should
change from zone to zone. Does the density increase linearly as you go from the surface to
the core, or does it follow some other mathematical function? Students may elect to also test
various models for the interior density change such as
100 gm/cc
D = -----------R
-R/R*
or even
100 gm/cc x e
This method can be applied to any spherical body (planet, asteroid, etc) for which you know
a radius and mass ahead of time.
Alternately, if you know a planet's mass and its composition (this gives an average density),
then you can estimate its radius!
87
The Law of Sines

On June 5, 2012 the planet Venus
will pass across the face of the sun as
viewed from Earth. The last time this
happened was on June 6, 2004. A similar
event, called the Transit of Venus will not
happen again until December 11, 2117.
This image, taken by the TRACE
satellite, shows the black disk of Venus
passing
across
the
solar
disk
photographed with a filter that highlights
details on the solar surface.
Problem 1 The table below gives the location of the other 7 planets at the time of
the 2012 Transit of Venus, with the sun at the origin of the Cartesian coordinate
system. What are the polar coordinates for each planet at the time of the next
transit? Note: All distances are in terms of the Astronomical Unit (AU) for which the
distance between the Sun and Earth equals exactly 1.0 AU.
Planet
Sun
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
X
0.000
-0.157
-0.200
-0.268
-1.450
+2.871
-8.543
+19.922
+26.272
Y
0.000
+0.279
-0.698
-0.979
-0.694
+4.098
-4.635
+1.988
-14.355
Problem 2 In the sky as viewed from Earth, what is the angular distance between
the Sun and Mars if the angle between the Sun and Earth as viewed from Mars is
o
39 ?
Space Math
87
Answer Key
Problem 1 The table below gives the location of the other 7 planets at the time of the
2012 Transit of Venus, with the sun at the origin of the Cartesian coordinate system.
What are the polar coordinates for each planet at the time of the next transit? All
angles are measured in positive direction counterclockwise with respect to the + X
axis. (Note: All distances are in terms of the Astronomical Unit (AU) for which the
distance between the Sun and Earth equals exactly 1.0 AU.)
Planet
Sun
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
X
0.000
-0.157
-0.200
-0.268
-1.450
+2.871
-8.543
+19.922
+26.272
Y
0.000
+0.279
-0.698
-0.979
-0.694
+4.098
-4.635
+1.988
-14.355
0.320
0.726
1.015
1.608
5.003
9.719
20.021
29.938
119
254
255
206
55
208
6
331
2
2
2
Answer: Example for Jupiter: R = (2.871) + (4.098) so R = 5.003 AU.
The angle can be determined from cos() = X/R, for Earth, located in the Third
-1
o
o
o
o
Quadrant: cos (-0.268/1.015) = 105 so 360 -105 = 255 .
o
the Sun and Mars if the angle between the Sun and Earth as viewed from Mars is 39 ?
Answer: Sun-Earth-Mars form a triangle with the Earth at one vertex. You need to
calculate this vertex angle. Use the Law of Sines:
Sin(39)
sin(x)
---------- = --------1.015
1.608
Space Math
so sin(x) = 0.9970 and so x = 86 degrees.
88
The Law of Cosines

On June 5, 2012 the planet Venus
will pass across the face of the sun as
viewed from Earth. The last time this
happened was on June 6, 2004. A similar
event, called the Transit of Venus will not
happen again until December 11, 2117.
This image, taken by the TRACE
satellite, shows the black disk of Venus
passing
across
the
solar
disk
photographed with a filter that highlights
details on the solar surface.
Problem 1 The table below gives the location of the other 7 planets at the time of
the 2012 Transit of Venus, with the sun at the origin of the Cartesian coordinate
system. What are the polar coordinates for each planet at the time of the next
transit? Note: All distances are in terms of the Astronomical Unit (AU) for which the
distance between the Sun and Earth equals exactly 1.0 AU.
Planet
Sun
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
X
0.000
-0.157
-0.200
-0.268
-1.450
+2.871
-8.543
+19.922
+26.272
Y
0.000
+0.279
-0.698
-0.979
-0.694
+4.098
-4.635
+1.988
-14.355
the Sun and Mars?
Space Math
88
Answer Key
Problem 1 The table below gives the location of the other 7 planets at the time of the
2012 Transit of Venus, with the sun at the origin of the Cartesian coordinate system.
What are the polar coordinates for each planet at the time of the next transit? All
angles are measured in positive direction counterclockwise with respect to the + X
axis. (Note: All distances are in terms of the Astronomical Unit (AU) for which the
distance between the Sun and Earth equals exactly 1.0 AU.)
Planet
Sun
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
X
0.000
-0.157
-0.200
-0.268
-1.450
+2.871
-8.543
+19.922
+26.272
Y
0.000
+0.279
-0.698
-0.979
-0.694
+4.098
-4.635
+1.988
-14.355
0.320
0.726
1.015
1.608
5.003
9.719
20.021
29.938
119
254
255
206
55
208
6
331
2
2
2
Answer: Example for Jupiter: R = (2.871) + (4.098) so R = 5.003 AU.
The angle can be determined from cos() = X/R, for Earth, located in the Third
-1
o
o
o
o
Quadrant: cos (-0.268/1.015) = 105 so 360 -105 = 255 .
the Sun and Mars?
Answer: Sun-Earth-Mars form a triangle with the Earth at one vertex. You need to
calculate this vertex angle. Use the Law of Cosines:
2
2
2
L = a + b 2abcosA
Where L = Mars-Sun distance = 1.608 AU

A = Earth-Sun distance = 1.015 AU
2
2
2
B = Earth-Mars distance: B = (-0.269 +1.450) + (-0.979 +0.694) so B = 1.215 AU
Then CosA = 0.032 so A = 88 degrees.
Space Math
89
Law of Cosines
The
two
STEREO
spacecraft are located along
Earth's orbit and can view gas
clouds ejected by the sun as they
travel to Earth. From the
geometry,
astronomers
can
accurately
determine
their
speeds, distances, shapes and
other properties.
By studying the separate
'stereo' images, astronomers can
determine the speed and direction
of the cloud before it reaches
Earth.
Use the diagram, (angles
and distances not drawn to the
same scale of the 'givens' below)
to answer the following question.
The two STEREO satellites are located at points A and B, with Earth located
at Point E and the sun located at Point S, which is the center of a circle with a radius
ES of 1.0 Astronomical unit (150 million kilometers). Suppose that the two satellites
spot a Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) cloud at Point C. Satellite A measures its angle
from the sun mSAC as 45 degrees while Satellite B measures the corresponding
angle to be mSBC=50 degrees. In the previous math problem the astronomers knew
the ejection angle of the CME, mESC, but in fact they didn't need to know this in
order to solve the problem below!
Problem 1 - The astronomers want to know the distance that the CME is from Earth,
which is the length of the segment EC. The also want to know the approach angle,
mSEC. Use either a scaled construction (easy: using compass, protractor and
millimeter ruler) or geometric calculation (difficult: using trigonometric identities) to
determine EC from the available data.
AE = 136 million km
BE = 122 million km
mASE = 54 degrees
mBSE = 48 degrees
mEAS = 63 degrees
mEBS = 66 degrees
mAEB = 129 degrees
Find the measures of all of the angles and segment lengths in thee above diagram
rounded to the nearest integer.
Space Math
89
Answer Key
AE = 136 million km
BE = 122 million km
mASE = 54 degrees
mBSE = 48 degrees
mEAS = 63 degrees
mEBS = 66 degrees
mAEB = 129 degrees
use units of megakilometers i.e. 150 million km = 150 Mkm.
Method 1: Students construct a scaled model of the diagram based on the angles and measures, then
use a protractor to measure the missing angles, and from the scale of the figure (in millions of kilometers
per millimeter) they can measure the required segments. Segment EC is about 49 Mkm at an angle,
mSEB of 28 degrees.
Method 2 use the Law of Cosines and the Law of Sines to solve for the angles and segment lengths
exactly.
mASB = mASE+mBSE = 102 degrees
mASC = theta
mACS = 360 - mCAS - mASC = 315 - theta
mBSC = mASB - theta = 102 - theta
mBCS = 360 - mCBS - mBSC = 208 + theta
Use the Law of Sines to get
sin(mCAS)/L = sin(mACS)/150 Mkm
Eliminate L :
and
sin(mBCS)/L = sin(mBCS)/150 Mkm.
150sin(45)/sin(315-Theta) = 150 sin(50)/sin(208+theta)
Re-write using angle-addition and angle-subtraction:

sin50 [sin(315)cos(theta)-cos(315)sin(theta)] = sin(45) [sin(208)cos(theta) + cos(208)sin(theta)]
Compute numerical factors by taking indicated sines and cosines:
-0.541cos(theta) - 0.541sin(theta) = -0.332cos(theta) - 0.624sin(theta)
Simplify:
cos(theta) = 0.397sin(theta)
Use definition of sine:

Solve for cosine:
cos(theta)2 = 0.158 ( 1 - cos(theta)2 )
cos(theta) = ( 0.158/1.158)1/2 so theta = 68 degrees. And so mASC=68
Now compute segment CS = 150 sin(45)/sin(315-68) = 115 Mkm.

BC = 115 sin(102-68)/sin(50) = 84 Mkm.
Then
EC2 = 1222 + 842 - 2(84)(122)cos(mEBS-mCBS)
EC2 = 1222 + 842 - 2(84)(122)cos(66-50)
mCEB from Law of Cosines:
And since
842 = 1222 + 472 - 2(122)(47)cos(mCEB)
So EC = 47 Mkm.
so mCEB = 29 degrees
mAES = 180 - mASE - mEAS = 180 - 54 - 63 = 63 degrees

so mSEC = mAEB - mAES - mCEB = 129 - 63 - 29 = 37 degrees
So, the two satellites are able to determine that the CME is 49 million kilometers from Earth and
approaching at an angle of 37 degrees from the sun.
Problem 2 - If the CME was traveling at 2 million km/hour, how long did it take to reach the distance
indicated by the length of segment SC?
Answer: 115 million kilometers / 2 million km/hr = 58 hours or 2.4 days.

Space Math
Functions and their Graphs: Sunspot numbers

The sun goes through a
periodic cycle of sunspots being
common on its surface, then
absent. Sunspot counts during
the last 200 years have
uncovered
many
interesting
phenomena in the sun that can
lead to hazardous 'solar storms'
here on Earth.
During the most recent sunspot cycle, Number 23, the average annual number of
spots, N, discovered each year, Y, was given by the table below:
Y
N
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
9
21
64
93
120 111 104 64
40
30
15
Problem 1 - Graph this data for N(Y).
Problem 2 - How do you know that the data represents a function rather than
merely a relation?
Problem 3 - What is the domain and range of the sunspot data?
Problem 4 - When did the maximum and minimum occur, and what values did
N(Y) attain? Express your answers in functional notation.
Problem 5 - Over what domain was the range below 50% of the maximum?
Space Math
90
90
Answer Key
Problem 1 - During the most recent sunspot cycle, Number 23, the average annual
number of spots, N, counted each year, Y, was given by the table below:
Y
N
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
9
21
64
93
120 111 104 64
40
30
15
Write this information in functional notation so that it is easier to refer to this

information. Answer: N(Y)
Problem 1 - Graph this data.
140
120
Number N(Y)
100
80
60
40
20
0
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
Year (Y)
Problem 2 - How do you know that the data represents a function rather than merely a
relation? Answer: From the vertical line test, every Y only touches one value of
N(Y).
Problem 3 - What is the domain and range of the sunspot data?

Answer: Domain [1996, 2006] Range [9,120]
Problem 4 - When did the maximum and minimum occur, and what values did N(Y)
attain? Express your answers in functional notation.
Answer: The maximum occurred for Y=2000 with a value of N(2000)=120 sunspots;
the minimum occurred for Y=1996 with a value N(1996) = 9 sunspots.
Problem 5 - Over what domain was the range below 50% of the maximum?
Answer: The maximum was 120 so 1/2 the maximum is 60. N(Y) < 60 occurred for
[1996,1997] and [2004,2006].
Space Math
Matrix operations
91
Sunspots come and go

in a roughly 11-year cycle.
Astronomers measure the
symmetry of these cycles by
comparing the first 4 years
with the last 4 years. If the
cycles are exactly symmetric,
the corresponding differences
will be exactly zero.
Matrix A
Sunspot
numbers at
start of cycle.
Matrix B
Sunspot
numbers at
end of cycle
Cycle 23
Cycle 22
Cycle 21
Cycle 20
Year 1
21
13
12
15
Year 2
64
29
27
47
Year 3
93
100
92
93
Year 4
119
157
155
106
Cycle 23
Cycle 22
Cycle 21
Cycle 20
Year 11
8
8
15
10
Year 10
15
17
34
28
Year 9
29
30
38
38
Year 8
40
54
64
54
Problem 1 - Compute the average of the sunspot numbers for each cycle
according to C = (A + B)/2.
Problem 2 - Compute the average difference of the sunspot numbers for

the beginning and end of each cycle according to D = (A - B)/2.
Problem 3 Are the cycles symmetric?
Space Math
91
Answer Key
Problem 1 - Compute the average of the sunspot numbers for each cycle according
to C = (A + B)/2. Answer:
21
1 13
C=
2 12
15
64 93 119
8
29 100 157 1 8
+
27 92 155 2 15
47 93 106
10
14.5
10.5
C =
13.5
12.5
39.5
23.0
30.5
37.5
15
17
34
28
29
30
38
38
40
54
64
54
61.0 79.5
65.0 105.5
65.0 219.0
65.5 80.0
Problem 2 - Compute the average difference of the sunspot numbers for the
beginning and end of each cycle according to D = (A - B)/2.
21
1 13
D=
2 12
15
64 93 119
8
29 100 157 1 8
27 92 155 2 15
47 93 106
10
+6.5 +24.5
+2.5 +6.0
D=
1.5 3.5
+2.5 +9.5
+32.0
+35.0
+27.0
+27.5
15
17
34
28
29
30
38
38
40
54
64
54
+39.5
+66.5
+45.5
+26.0
Problem 3 Are the cycles symmetric?

Answer: From the values in D we can conclude that the cycles are not symmetric, and
from the large number of positive differences, that the start of each cycle has more
spots than the corresponding end of each cycle.
Space Math
Algebraic Expressions and Models

Detailed mathematical models of the
interior of the sun are based on astronomical
observations and our knowledge of the physics
of stars. These models allow us to explore
many aspects of how the sun 'works' that are
permanently hidden from view.
The Standard Model of the sun, created
by astrophysicists during the last 50 years,
allows us to investigate many separate
properties. One of these is the density of the
heated gas throughout the interior. The
function below gives a best-fit formula, D(x) for
3
the density (in grams/cm ) from the core (x=0)
to the surface (x=1) and points in-between.
D( x) = 519 x 4 1630 x3 + 1844 x 2 889 x + 155
For example, at a radius 30% of the way to the surface, x = 0.3 and so
3
D(x=0.3) = 14.5 grams/cm .
Problem 1 - What is the estimated core density of the sun?
Problem 2 - To the nearest 1% of the radius of the sun, at what radius does the
density of the sun fall to 50% of its core density at x=0? (Hint: Use a graphing
calculator and estimate x to 0.01)
Problem 3 - To three significant figures, what is the estimated density of the sun
near its surface at x=0.9 using this polynomial approximation?
Space Math
92
92
Answer Key
Problem 1 - Answer; At the core, x=0, do D(0) = 155 grams/cm3.
Problem 2 - Answer: We want D(x) = 155/2 = 77.5 gm/cm . Use a graphing calculator, or an
Excell spreadsheet, to plot D(x) and slide the cursor along the curve until D(x) = 77.5, then
read out the value of x. The relevant portion of D(x) is shown in the table below:
X
0.08
0.09
0.1
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.14
D(x)
94.87
88.77
82.96
77.43
72.16
67.16
62.41
Problem 3 - Answer: At x=0.9 (i.e., a distance of 90% of the radius of the sun from the
center).
D(0.9) = 519(0.9)4 - 1630(0.9)3 + 1844(0.9)2 -889(0.9) + 155
D(0.9) = 340.516 - 1188.27 + 1493.64 - 800.10 + 155.00
D(0.9) = 0.786 gm/cm3.
Note: The density of water id 1.0 gm/cm3 so this solar material would 'float' on water!
Space Math
93
Polynomial Modeling with Technology
The sun is an active star. Matter

erupts from its surface and flows into
space under the tremendous magnetic
forces at play on its surface.
Among
the
most
dramatic
phenomena
are
the
eruptive
prominences, which eject billions of tons
of matter into space, and travel at
thousands of kilometers per minute.
This image from the Solar and
Heliophysics
Observatory
(SOHO)
satellite taken on September 23, 1999
and shows a giant prominence being
launched from the sun.
Problem 1 The table below shows the height versus time data for an eruptive
prominence seen on August 6, 1931. Graph the data, and find a polynomial, h(t), that
fits this data.
t
h
15
50
15.5
60
16
70
16.5
100
17
130
17.5
150
18
350
18.5
550
19
700
Problem 2 The data give the height, h, of the eruptive prominence in multiples of
1,000 kilometers from the solar surface, for various times, t, given in hours. For example,
at a time of 17 hours, the prominence was 130,000 kilometers above the solar surface.
To two significant figures, how high was the prominence at a time of 19.5 hours?
Space Math
93
Answer Key
Problem 1 The table below shows the height versus time data for an eruptive
prominence seen on August 6, 1931. Graph the data, and find a polynomial, h(t), that
fits this data.
15
50
t
h
15.5
60
16
70
16.5
100
17
130
17.5
150
18
350
18.5
550
19
700
Answer: The best fit degree-2 polynomial is
h(t)= 65.195t2 2060 t +16321

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
15
16
17
y = 65.195x 2 - 2060.6x + 16321
18
19
Problem 2 The data give the height, h, of the eruptive prominence in multiples of
1,000 kilometers from the solar surface, for various times, t, given in hours. For
example, at a time of 17 hours, the prominence was 130,000 kilometers above the
solar surface. To two significant figures, how high was the prominence at a time of
19.5 hours?
2
Answer: h = 16.195(19.5) 2060.6 (19.5) + 16321

= 941.398
= 940 to two significant figures
Since h is in multiples of 1,000 km, the answer will be 940,000 kilometers.
Space Math
Graphing Simple Rational Functions

When a source of light moves
relative to an observer, the frequency of
the light waves will be increased if the
movement is towards the observer, or
decreased if the motion is away from the
observer. This phenomenon is called the
Doppler Effect, and it is given by the
formula:
f = fs
The rotating sun causes a Doppler Effect.

Atoms emitting light on the left half of the
sun (east) are blue-shifted as the sun
rotates from east to west. (Courtesy NASA
/SOHO/ GONG)
c
c +V
where V is the speed of the source, fs is

the normal frequency of the light seen by
the observer when V=0, and f is the
shifted frequency of the light from the
moving source as seen by the observer. C
8
= 3.0x10 meters/sec is the speed of light.
Problem 1 The Sun rotates at a speed of 2 kilometers/sec at the equator. If you

14
are observing the light from hydrogen atoms at a frequency of fs=4.57108 x 10
Hertz, A) About what would be the frequency, f, of the blue-shifted eastern edge of
the sun? B) What would be the difference in megaHertz between f and fs?
Problem 2 In 2005, astronomers completed a study of the pulsar B1508+55 which

is a rapidly spinning neutron star left over from a supernova explosion. They
measured a speed for this dead star of 1,080 km/sec. If they had been observing a
9
spectral line at a frequency of fs=1.4x10 Hertz, what would the frequency of this line
have been if the neutron star were moving directly away from Earth?
Problem 3 An astronomer is using a radio telescope to determine the Doppler

speed of several interstellar clouds. He uses the light from the J=2-1 transition of the
carbon monoxide molecule at a known frequency of fs=230 gigaHertz, and by
measuring the same molecule line in a distant cloud he wants to calculate its speed
v. A) What is the function f(v)? B) Graph g(v)=f(v)-fs in megaHertz over the interval
10 km/sec < v < 200 km/sec. C) A cloud is measured with a Doppler shift of g(v) =
80.0 megaHertz, what is the speed of the cloud in kilometers/sec?
Space Math
94
94
Answer Key
14
Problem 1 Answer: A) f = 4.57108 x 10
Hertz (3.0x10 ) / (2.0 + 3.0x10 )
14
f = 4.57108 x 10 (0.999999993)
14
f = 4.57107997 x 10
14
B) F-Fs = 4.57107997 x 10
Hertz
14
- 4.57108 x 10
= 3,048,000 Hertz.
So the frequency of the hydrogen light would appear at 3.048 megaHertz higher than
the normal frequency for this light.
9
Problem 2 Answer: f = 1.4x10 Hertz x (1 + 1,080/3.0x10 ) = 1.405 x 10 Hertz.

Problem 3 A) What is the function f(v)?
9
Answer: f(v) = 2.3x10 ( 1 + v/300000)
B) Graph g(v)=f(v)-fs in megaHertz over the interval 10 km/sec < v < 1,000 km/sec.
Answer: g(v) = 230 (v/300) megaHertz. or g(v) = 0.767 v megaHertz
180
frequency Shift (MHz)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Speed (km/s)
C) A cloud is measured with g(v) = 80.0 megaHertz, what is the speed of the cloud in
kilometers/sec?
Answer: From the graph, g(80) = 104 km/sec and by calculation, 80 = 0.767v so v =
80/.767 = 104 km/sec.
Space Math
95
Hot Gas and Cold Gas
The Hinode Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging

Spectrometer (EIS) sorts the light from the Sun
into a spectrum. It works in a part of the
spectrum far beyond the visible light we see, and
which can only be studied from space. The
atmosphere of Earth absorbs this light, so
satellite telescopes have to be placed in orbit to
study this light.
Very hot gas near the sun produces this
light, and by carefully measuring it, scientists can
deduce the exact temperature, density and
speed of motion of the gas that produces it.
When atoms are heated, they produce specific
wavelengths of light, called spectral lines.
The two pictures were taken of the same
active region (AR-10940) over a sunspot on
February 2, 2007, and are exactly overlapping
images. The size of each square image is about
200,000 km on a side.
The top picture is produced by ionized
iron atoms (Fe X) in which 9 of the 26 iron
electrons have been removed. The light is from a
single line at a wavelength of 184.54 Angstroms.
The bottom picture is from ionized iron atoms (Fe
XVI) in the same region, which have lost 15 of
their 26 electrons, and is from the light from a
single line at 262.98 Angstroms.
The Fe X emission is produced in
plasma with a temperature of 950,000 K. The Fe
XVI emission is produced in plasma with a
temperature
of
2,600,000
K.
Problem 1 - From the information, what is the scale of the images in kilometers per millimeter?
Problem 2 - Of the two gas temperatures, at which gas temperature do you find the smallest clumps,
and about how big are they?
Problem 3 - At which temperature do you think the gas is more easily confined by the magnetic fields
near this sunspot?
Space Math
95
Answer Key:
Problem 1 - From the information, what is the scale of the images in kilometers per millimeter?
Answer: The images are 74 millimeters on a side, which corresponds to 200,000 km, so the scale is
200,000 kilometers/74 mm= 2,700 km/mm
Problem 2: At what gas temperature do you find the smallest clumps, and how big are they?
Answer: The cold gas revealed by the Fe X light and at a temperature of 950,000 K has the smallest
clumps, which can be about 2 millimeters across or 5,400 kilometers in physical size.
Problem 3: At which temperature do you think the gas is more easily confined by the magnetic fields
near this sunspot?
Answer: Because the cooler gas has the most clumps, and the smallest ones, compared to the hotter
gas, it is easier to confine the cooler gas.
Space Math
Using the Doppler Shift to Study Gas
96
When a fire truck races towards you, the

siren sounds at a higher pitch than when it races
away. This is called the Doppler Shift, and it can
also be used to measure the speed of a gas
cloud near the sun.
The Hinode Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging
Spectrometer (EIS) sorts the light from the sun
into a spectrum. When atoms are heated, they
produce specific wavelengths of light, called
spectral lines. The wavelengths of some of these
lines, such as the one produced by iron atoms,
are known precisely. By measuring the
wavelengths shift of one of these iron lines, solar
physicists can use the Doppler Shift to measure
how fast the gas was moving on the sun. Here's
how they do it!
The figure to the left shows the intensity
of the light produced by a particular iron atom in
the sun's spectrum. The top panel shows the
light produced by a cloud that was at rest near
the solar surface at a wavelength of 195.13
Angstroms. The bottom panel shows the light
from a similar plasma cloud that was in motion
during a solar flare on December 13, 2006.
Notice that the wavelength of the light in the
moving cloud is 195.09 Angstroms.
The plots were published by Dr.
Shinsuke Imada and his co-investigators in the
Publications of the Astronomical Society of
Japan (v. 59, pp. 759).
Problem 1 - What is the wavelength for the FeXII emission line for: A) the gas at rest: (rest)? B)
What is the wavelength for the gas in motion: (moving)?
Problem 2 - The Doppler Formula relates the amount of wavelength shift to the speed of the gas
according to
V = 300,000 km/sec x
(rest) - (moving)
------------------------- (rest)
From the information in the two panels, what was the speed of the plasma during the solar flare event?
Problem 3 - From the location of the peak of the moving gas, is the gas moving towards the observer
(shifted to shorter wavelengths), or away from the observer (shifted to longer wavelengths)?
Problem 4 - From your answer to Problem 3, during a flare, is the heated plasma flowing upwards from
the solar surface, or downwards to the solar surface? Explain your answer by using a diagram.
Space Math
96
Answer Key:
Problem 1 - What is the wavelength of the FeXII emission line for: A) the gas at rest: (rest)? B)
the gas in motion: (moving)?
Answer: A) (rest) = 195.13 angstroms. B) The peak in Panel D is at (moving) = 195.09 Angstroms.
Problem 2 - The Doppler Formula relates the amount of shift to the speed of the gas according to
V = 300,000 km/sec x
(rest) - (moving)
------------------------- (rest)
From the information in the two panels, what was the speed of the plasma during the solar flare
event?
Answer: (rest) = 195.13 Angstroms, (moving) = 195.09 Angstroms. So
V = 300,000 x ( 195.13 - 195.09)/195.13
= 61 kilometers/sec
Problem 3 - From the location of the peak of the moving gas, is the gas moving towards the
observer (shifted to shorter wavelengths), or away from the observer (shifted to longer wavelengths)?
Answer: The peak in panel B is shifted towards smaller, shorter, wavelengths so the gas is 'blueshifted' and moving towards the observer.
Problem 4 - From your answer to Problem 3, during a flare, is the heated plasma flowing upwards
from the solar surface, or downwards to the solar surface? Explain your answer by using a diagram.
Answer: The FeXII measurement showed plasma flowing towards the observer. Because the gas was
located between the solar surface and the observer, it must have been flowing upwards from the
surface.
Space Math
Spectroscopy and Gas Density - Elementary
Density (billion partlces/cc)
18.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
1
1.5
Line Ratio
2.5
97
The Hinode EIS instrument can

detect the individual 'fingerprint' lines
from dozens of elements. Each line has
its own unique wavelength. The intensity
of an atomic line can be used to learn
about the properties of the gas near the
solar surface.
Two particular atomic lines
produced by the element iron appear at
wavelengths of 203.8 and 202.0
Angstroms. The ratio of the intensities of
these two lines can be converted into a
measurement of the density of the gas
producing them, as shown in the figure
to the left.
For example, if the intensity of
the Fe XII line at 203.8 Angstroms were
measured to be 300 units, and the line at
202.0 Angstroms were measured to be
150 units, the ratio yields 300/150 = 2.0.
From the figure, a value of '2.0' on the
horizontal axis, corresponds to a density
of about 4.0 billion atoms per cubic
centimeter on the horizontal axis.
Problem 1 - The figures (above) were adapted from an article by Dr. Peter Young at the Rutherford
Appleton Laboratory in England. The photograph shows an active region on the sun spotted by
Hinode. The graph is the density measured by the EIS instrument near the center of the active region
during 60 minutes. A) To the nearest integer, what is the average density of the region during the last
20 minutes of the study? B) About what is the average line ratio that corresponds to the average
density?
Problem 2 A) To the nearest integer, what is the maximum density that was recorded during the
60-minute time period? B) About how many minutes was this plasma density maintained above 4
billion atoms/cc during the flare event?
Space Math
97
Answer Key:
Problem 1 - A) To the nearest integer, what is the average density of the region
during the last 20 minutes of the study? B) About what is the average line ratio that
corresponds to the average density?
Answer: A) About 3 billion atoms/cm3
B) The average line ratio can be found by drawing a line from the 3.0 on the vertical
axis, across to its intersection with the curve, and then drawing a second vertical line
down from the intersection point to the horizontal axis. The ratio is about 1.6.
Problem 2 A) To the nearest integer, what is the maximum density that was
recorded during this time period? B) About how many minutes was this plasma
density maintained above 4 billion atoms/cc during the flare event?
Answer: A) About 5.0 billion atoms/cm3. Students estimates may vary.
B) The density was higher than 4 billion particles/cc between about 20-28 minutes or
a duration of 8 minutes. Students estimates may vary.
Space Math
Density Structure of an Active Region
98
The Hinode EIS instrument has been used to study many active regions in order to
determine how the density of the plasma varies through each region. One of these studies was
reported by solar physicist Dr. Peter Young from the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in
England in August 2007. Below-left is an image of a coronal loop with the X and Y axes
indicating the pixel number in each direction. The white line is a slice through the data at an Xpixel value of 26, and reveals the density variation in the vertical Y direction shown in the
graph on the right. The density is rendered on the vertical axis in terms of the base-10
3
logarithm of the density value so that '10' means 1010 particles/cm
The gas densities are found
by observing the same region of the
sun at two different wavelengths
emitted by the iron atom at a
temperature near 1.5 million degrees
K. The ratio of the light intensity
emitted at these two wavelengths is
directly related to the density of the
gas producing the light. This shows
how spectroscopy can provide vastly
more information about the sun and
solar activity, than what you would
get from a single image alone.
Problem 1 - About what is the average density of the gas in the dark regions covered by
the pixels in the range from Y=10 to Y=30? Convert answers to normal decimal units of
density in scientific notation.
Problem 2 - About what is the average density of the gas in the dark regions covered by
the pixels in the range from Y=140 to Y=170? Convert answers to normal decimal units
of density in scientific notation.
Problem 3 - The dark regions not involved with bright coronal loop are glimpses of the
surface of the sun. If higher gas densities tend to be found closer to the solar surface, in
which part of the image not including the bright coronal loop may we be looking at a
deeper layer of the solar atmosphere?
Problem 4 - About what is the density of the three ribbon-like features at Y= 70, Y=90
and Y=100? Convert answers to normal decimal units of density in scientific notation.
Space Math
98
Answer Key:
Problem 1 - About what is the average density of the gas in the dark regions covered
by the pixels in the range from Y=10 to Y=30? Convert answers to normal decimal units
of density in scientific notation.
Answer: About Log D = 9.4 or D = 10
9.4
= 2.5 x 10
particles/cm
Problem 2 - About what is the average density of the gas in the dark regions covered
by the pixels in the range from Y=140 to Y=170? Convert answers to normal decimal
units of density in scientific notation.
Answer: About Log D = 9.6 or D = 10
9.6
= 4.0 x 10
particles/cm
Problem 3 - The dark regions not involved with bright coronal loop are glimpses of the
surface of the sun. If higher gas densities tend to be found closer to the solar surface, in
which part of the image not including the bright coronal loop may we be looking at a
deeper layer of the solar atmosphere?
9.4
Answer: The density of the region at Y=0-39 is about 10 = 2.5 x 10 particles/cm .

9
3
9.6
The region at Y= 101-170 is about 10 = 4.0 x 10 particles/cm so the upper end
may be looking closer to the solar surface.
Problem 4 - About what is the density of the three ribbon-like features at Y= 70, Y=90
and Y=100? Convert answers to normal decimal units of density in scientific notation.
Answer: The log densities are LogD = 10.25, 10.25 and 10.4 respectively, for densities
10
3
10
3
10
of D = 1.8 x 10 particles/cm D = 1.8 x 10 particles/cm and D= 2.5 x 10
3
particles/cm
Space Math
Plasma Speeds in Active Regions
The Hinode EIS instrument

can study a single slice of an active
region and detect subtle changes in
position over time. The image above
shows an active region near a sunspot,
and reveals its 'bar magnet' magnetic
field loops.
The strip plot to the right
shows the motion of the plasma sliced
vertically along the center line of the
active region, over a span of about 200
minutes. The vertical axis gives the
location of the plasma in units of
arcseconds, where one arcsecond
equals a physical distance of 725
kilometers on the solar surface.
Individual features in the upper image appear as bands on the strip plot. The slope of the
band is a measure of the speed of motion of the gas.
Problem 1 - The scale of the vertical axis is in angular units of arcseconds. At the distance of the
sun, one arcsecond corresponds to 725 kilometers. Select the bright feature near Y=160
arcseconds. What is the change in the Y-position during the period from A) 0-50 minutes? B) 50 100 minutes? C) 100-150 minutes? (Hint: Use a millimeter to calculate the scale of the vertical axis
in kilometers/mm)
Problem 2 - From your answer to Problem 1, what is the average speed of this feature during
each 50-minute period from A to C in kilometers per second?
Problem 3 - About how soon after the start of the data did the flare occur in this feature, and how
long did it last? [The flare is the sudden brightening in the data that occurs near Y=160]
Space Math
99
99
Answer Key:
Problem 1 - The scale of the vertical axis is in angular units of arcseconds. At the distance of the
sun, one arcsecond corresponds to 725 kilometers. Select the bright feature near Y=160
arcseconds. Select the bright feature near Y=160 arcseconds. What is the change in the Y-position
during the period from A) 0-50 minutes? B) 50 - 100 minutes? C) 100-150 minutes?
Answer: Students need to use a millimeter ruler and determine the Y-axis scale of the plot. The
total height represents 300 arcseconds or a physical length of 300 x 725 km = 217,500 kilometers.
The vertical length of the figure is 116 millimeters, so the scale is 1,875 km/mm
A)
The change in the Y-axis location between the beginning and end of this segment is about 1
millimeter or 1,875 kilometers.
B) The change in the Y-axis location between the beginning and end of this segment is about 3
millimeters or 5,625 kilometers.
C) The change in the Y-axis location between the beginning and end of this segment is about 2
millimeter or 3,750 kilometers.
Problem 2 - From your answer to Problem 1, what is the average speed of this feature during
each 50-minute period from A to C?
Answer: Each segment is 50 minutes long or 3000 seconds. Dividing the distances in Problem 1 by
3000 seconds you get A) 0.625 kilometers/sec; B) 1.87 kilometers/sec and C) 1.25 kilometers/sec.
Problem 3 - How soon after the start of the data did a flare occur in this feature? How long did it
last?
Answer: The flare event is located in the strip plot between Y = 160 and 170 arcseconds. On the
horizontal axis, 50 minutes equals 18 millimeters so the scale is 2.8 minutes/mm. The flare occurred
about 7 mm or 19.6 minutes after the start of the data, and lasted 3 mm or 8.4 minutes.
Space Math
A note from the Author:

Hi again!
This booklet will introduce you to the Hinode satellite, and a few of its many
discoveries. Many of the problems involve the basic skill of measuring the size of an image,
and converting the measurement into an actual physical unit (kilometers, seconds, etc). Most
students can successfully perform this activity by grade-5 when they have become familiar
with decimal-math and division.
Calculating the scale of an image is a critical operation in just about any scientific
investigation. You know all those pretty pictures that NASA loves to show you of planets,
stars and galaxies? Well before an astronomer can make any sense of them, he has to be
able to figure out how many millimeters on the image/photograph corresponds to a meter,
kilometer or even a light-year in actual physical units. Otherwise, you have no clue how big
the object is that you are investigating! Also, it is a fun exercise to see what the smallest
detail in an image is in physical units.
The Hinode satellite creates many images of the sun at various sizes to study
phenomena as big as the sun, or as small as a micro-flare. The X-ray and optical imager are
good for establishing a size to things, and the movies give us a sense for how quickly or
slowly things occur. But the satellite can do much more than this!
The Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer dissects the ultraviolet light from the
sun, and is able to use the 'fingerprints' of various atoms producing light, to work out the
density, temperature and speed of the various phenomena being studied. You cannot get
this information by just looking at a picture of the sun. Solar scientists need this kind of
information in order to mathematically model how a phenomenon changes in time, how the
gases flow, and how magnetic energy heats the various gases found near sunspots and
other active regions on the sun.
Ironically, spectroscopy is the unsung hero of solar and astrophysics. Students that
view dazzling pictures of nebula, galaxies, planets and solar storms instinctively enjoy these
images because they represent an image, like a photograph of a house, mountain or lake. It
is very easy to explain what the image represents because we have many familiar examples
of the same kind of data in our family photo albums!
Spectroscopy is different. It is a technology that sorts the electromagnetic spectrum by
wavelength. Each atom produces its own 'fingerprint' lines of light that resemble a bar code.
Scientists can read this bar code, and even take a picture of the sun by the light from one
particular 'bar'. The relative intensities of the different spectral bars or 'lines', can be used to
calculate the density and temperature of the gas that is producing it. Some of the problems in
this book will give students a taste of how this kind of information is used to more clearly
understand how solar flares and other phenomena on the sun are 'put together'.
Enjoy!!
Sincerely,
Dr. Sten Odenwald
NASA Astronomer
Internet Resources
The Hinode Mission education page - A variety of resources that explain solar flares, space
weather, and many of the basic solar science terms encountered in this math guide.
http://solarb.msfc.nasa.gov/for_educators/index.html
Space Math @ NASA A collection of over 200 individual math problems covering nearly all
aspects of solar science, astronomy, astrophysics and engineering.
The human and technological impacts of solar storms and space weather - A guide to the
many issues that occur in studying how the sun affects the many human and technological
systems we rely upon, and how they can be disturbed or damaged by solar storms.
http://www.solarstorms.org
NOAA space weather forecasting center This website gives up to the minute forecasts of
solar storms and flares, and is used by thousands of agencies and institutions across the country
and world.
http://www.noaa.sec.gov/SWN
NASA Student Observation Network:Tracking a Solar Storm This is a hands-on

educational resource and tool that allows students to monitor space weather and make their own
forecasts.
http://son.nasa.gov/tass/index.htm
Elementary Space Mathematics Primer This is a short math guide that covers workin g with
positive and negative numbers, scientific notation, graph analysis, and simple algebra, in the
context of authentic astronomy mathematics problems.
http://image.gsfc.nasa.gov/poetry/MathDocs/spacemath.html
National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Space Math @ NASA
Goddard Spaceflight Center
Greenbelt, Maryland 20771
www.nasa.gov

Solar Mathematica

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Solar Mathematica

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Solar Mathematica

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Solar Math

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

This collection of activities is based on a weekly series of space

Table of Contents (contd)

General Angles and Radian Measure

Table of Contents (contd)

The Flow of Light Energy: Power

Mathematics Topic Matrix

Mathematics Topic Matrix (cont'd)

Mathematics Topic Matrix (cont'd)

Mathematics Topic Matrix (cont'd)

How to use this book

Solar Math can be used as a classroom challenge activity, assessment tool,

Alignment with Standards

AAAS: Project:2061 Benchmarks

Principles and Standards for School Mathematics

work flexibly with fractions, decimals, and percents to solve problems;

understand and use ratios and proportions to represent quantitative relationships;

develop an understanding of large numbers and recognize and appropriately use

model and solve contextualized problems using various representations, such as

use graphs to analyze the nature of changes in quantities in linear relationships.

understand both metric and customary systems of measurement;

judge the reasonableness of numerical computations and their results.

generalize patterns using explicitly defined and recursively defined functions;

analyze functions of one variable by investigating rates of change, intercepts, zeros,

understand and compare the properties of classes of functions, including exponential,

draw reasonable conclusions about a situation being modeled.

The relative sizes of the sun and stars

Problem 1 - The sun's diameter if 10 times the diameter of Jupiter. If Jupiter is

Problem 7 - Antares is half the size of Mu Cephi. If Mu Cephi is 28 times as

Problem 1 - Sun/Jupiter = 10, Jupiter/Earth = 11 so Sun/Earth = 10 x 11 = 110 times.

Problem 4 - Nunki/Rigel = 1/10

Vega/Polaris = 3/2 x 1/12 =

Rigel/Deneb = 1/5 so Nunki/Deneb = 1/10 x 1/5 =

Problem 5 - Deneb/VY = 1/8 and VY/Regulus = 504 so Deneb/Regulus = 1/8 x 504 =

Problem 7 - Antares/Mu Cep = 1/2 Mu Cep/Rigel = 28

Rigel/Alpha Can = 50, then

Problem 8 - Regulus/Sun = 4 but VY CMA/Regulus = 504 so VY Canis Majoris/Sun

Top is the sunspot drawn by Richard

Sunspot seen on April 8, 1947 reproduced at a scale of

The sunspot drawn by Richard Carrington on August 28, 1859 at a scale of

A photograph of a sunspot seen on March 29, 2000 at a scale of 23,500

Solar Surface Details with the Swedish Vacuum Telescope

Problem 1 - What is the scale

Granulation Region Size of a large US

Close-up of a Sunspot by Hinode

An Extreme Ultraviolet Image of the Sun

False-color image taken by the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOH))

Radio Image of the Sun

High resolution false-color image obtained at a frequency of 4.7 GHz (0.06

The brightness of the sun at this wavelength varies from

A Gamma-Ray Image of the Sun

The brightness of the sun at gamma-ray energies is generally

X-Ray Image of the Sun

Hinode Sees Mysterious Solar Micro-flares

by 4 R , so the surface area of the sun is 4 x 3.141 x (696,000 km) = 6.1 x 10

300 pixels x 773 km/pixel = 232,000 km on a side. The

area covered is about (232,000 km x 232,000 km) = 5.4 x 10 km . Note, this is an

km = 113 times larger than the

X-Ray Image of the Sun