CHAPTER 6 IGCSE

PLANT NUTRITION

THE EQUATION FOR

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesisis the fundamental process by which
plants manufacture food molecules (carbohydrates)
from raw materials
(CO2andH2O)usingenergyfromlight.

The raw materials are CO2, H2O and

light energy.
The products are glucose (starch) and

THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Green plants take inCO2through their leaves (bydiffusion).
H2Ois absorbed through plants roots (byosmosis), and
transported to the leaf through xylemvessels.
Chlorophylltrapslight energyand absorbs it.
This energy is used to break up H2O molecules, than to bond
hydrogen and CO2to form glucose.
Glucose is usually changed tosucrosefor transport around the
plant, or tostarchfor storage.
O2is released as a waste product, or used by plant for respiration.
In this process,lightenergyis converted tochemicalenergyfor
theformation ofglucose anditssubsequentstorage.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS INVESTIGATION
PRINCIPLE AND STARCH TEST
Experiments can be used to find out what factors (CO2,
light,cholorophyll) are needed for photosynthesis. first
the plant need tobe destarch. To be certain that the
leafs arethoroughlydestarched,testa leaf
forstarchbefore begin the investigation.

PRINCIPLE OF INVESTIGATION
1.Investigations need controls
Controlplant (or leave) has all substances it needs.
Testplant lacks one substance (light/chlorophyll/CO 2)
2.Plants must be destarched
It is very important that the leaves you are testing shouldnothave
anystarchin them at the beginning of the experiment.
So, first of all, you must destarch the plants. Leave them in
thedarkfor 48 hours. The plants use up all stores of starch in its
leaves.

3.Starch test with Iodine solution

After a few hours, carry out the starch test on both
plants:Iodine solutionis used; a blue-black colour on the
leave is positive.
Boil the leaf in waterfor 30 second.This kill the cells in the
leafbreak down the membraneiodine solution gets
through cell membrane to reachstarchinside the chloroplasts
and react with them.

 Boil the leaf in alcohol(ethanol) in a water

bath:Thegreen colourof the leaf and the brown
iodine solution can look black together, so you need to
removechlorophyllby dissolvingit out withalcohol.
Leave it until all the chlorophyll has come out of the
leaf.

 Rinse the leaf in water: Boiling the leaf in ethanol

makes it brittle, the water softens it.
Spread the leaf out on awhitetileeasy to see the
result.
Add iodine solutionto the leafblue- black colour is
positive, starch is present.

A leaf before (on the left) and after (on the right) starch test.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS INVESTIGATIONS
(CHLOROPHYLL, CO2 AND LIGHT
TESTS)

CHLOROPHYLL
Process
Take a potted plant withvariegated(green and white)
leaves.
Destarchthe plant by keeping it in complete darkness
for about 48 hours.
Expose the plant to thesunlightfor a few days.
Test one of the leaves forstarchwith iodine solution.

Observations
- Areas with previouslygreenpatches testpositive(turn
blue black).
-Areas with previously paleyellowpatches
testnegative(remain brown). Conclusion
- Photosynthesis takes place only in green
patches because of the presence
of chlorophyll.
- The pale yellow patches do not perform
photosynthesis because of the absence of
chlorophyll.

LIGHT
Process
Take a potted plant.
Destarchthe plant by keeping it in complete darkness for
about 48 hours.
Test one of it leaves for starch, to check that is does not
contain any.
Fix a leaf of this plant in between two strips of a thick paper
on leaf.
Place the plant in light for a few days.
Remove the cover from the leaf and test it for starch.

Observations
Positive starch test will be obtained only in the portion of
the leaf exposed to light and negative test in parts with
paper strip.

Conclusion
Light is necessary for
photosynthesis.

Process
CARBON DIOXIDE
Take two destarched potted plants.
Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them as A
and B.
Inside Set-up A, keepNaHCO3(sodium bicarbonate). It
producesCO2.
Inside Set-up B, keepNaOH(Sodium hydroxide). It
absorbsCO2.
Keep both the set-ups in the sunlight at least for 6
hours.
Perform the starch test on both of the plants.

Observations
Leaf from the plant in whichNaHCO3has been placed
givespositivetest.
Leaf from the plant in whichNaOHhas been kept
givenegatiftest.
Conclusion
Plant in Set up A getsCO2whereas plant in Set-up B does
not getCO2.

EFFECT OF LIGHT INTENSITY ON THE RATE OF

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Plants need light energy
to make the chemical
energy needed to create
carbohydrates.
Increasing the light
intensity will boost the
speed of photosynthesis.
However, at high light
intensities the rate
becomes constant.

Explanation
Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is converted to ATP and H+
At very low light levels the plant will be respiring only not
photosynthesizing.
As the light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis
increases.
However, the rate will not increase beyond a certain level of light
intensity.
At high light intensities the rate becomes constant, even with further
increases in light intensity, there are no increases in the rate.
The plant is unable to harvest the light at these high intensities and the
chlorophyll system can be damaged by very intense light levels.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE RATE OF

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
When the temperature
rises the rate of
photosynthesis rises
also. There is
an optimum
temperature at which
the rate of
photosynthesis is
maximum.
Beyond this temperature,
the reaction quickly
comes to a halt.

Explanation

AT LOW TEMPERATURE, the enzyme does not have enough

energy to meet many substrate molecules, so the reaction is slowed.
When the temperature rises, the particles in the reaction move
quicker and collide more, so the rate of photosynthesis rises also.

AT THE OPTIMUM TEMPERATURE, the enzyme is most

efficient and the rate if maximum.

At TEMPERATURES ABOVE 40C the rate slows

down.

This is because the enzymes involved in the chemical

reactions of photosynthesis are temperature sensitive
and destroyed (denatured) at higher

Effect of Carbon Dioxide on the Rate of

Photosynthesis
When the concentration of
CO2 is low the rate of
photosynthesis is also low.
(the plant has to spend time
waiting for more CO2 to
arrive).
Increasing the concentration
of CO increases the rate of
photosynthesis.

Explanation
The rate of photosynthesis
increases linearly with
increasing CO2
concentration (from point A
to B ).
The rate falls gradually,
and at a certain CO2
concentration it stays
constant (from point B to
C).
Here a rise in CO2 levels
has no effect as the

Limiting factors in photosynthesis

Limiting factoris something present in the
environment in suchshortsupplythat it restricts life
processes.

Sunlight
Over the first part of the curve
(between A and B), light is a
limiting factor. The plant is
limited in how fast it can
photosynthesise because it
does not have enough light.
Between B and C, light is not
a limiting factor. Even if more
light is shone on the plant, it
still cannot photosynthesise
any faster.

Carbon dioxide
In photosynthesis CO2is a key
limiting factor. The usual
atmospheric level of CO2is 0.03%.
In perfect conditions of water
availability, light and temperature,
this low CO2level holds back the
photosynthetic potential.
The more CO2a plant is given, the
faster it can photosynthesise up to
a point, but then a maximum is
reach.

Temperature
The chemical reactions of photsynthesis
can only take place very slowly at low
temperature, so a plant can
photosynthesise faster on a warm day than
on a cold one.

Optimum conditions for photosynthesis in

Green house
if crops are grown in
glasshouses, it is possible
to control conditions so that
they are photosynthesising
as fast as possible.

CO2enrichment

In a closed glasshouse, it is possible to provide extra

CO2for the plants, e.g. by burning fossil fuels or
releasing pure CO2from a gas cylinder.
Optimum light

In cloudy or dark conditions, extra artificial lighting can

be provided, so that light is not limiting the rate of
photosynthesis.
Optimum temperature

The temperature can be raised by using a heating

system. If fossil fuels are burned, there is also a benefit
from the CO2produced.

Leaf structure
The leaf consist of a
broad, flat part called
thelamina, which is
joined to the rest of the
plant by a leaf stalk
orpetiole. Running
through the petiole
arevascular bundles,
which then form
theveinsin the leaf.

 Although a leaf looks thin, its is made up ofseveral

layersof cells. You can see these if you look at a
transverse section (cross-section) of a leaf under a
microscope.

#Homework
Draw cross section of leaf with 11 labels
Label with function (use NCF)
Name, Characteristic, Function.
Explain briefly the ADAPTATIONs of
internal structure of leaf for photosynthesis

Example
UPPER EPIDERMIS
thin and transparent
allowslightto pass
through
no chloroplastsare
present
act as abarrierto
disease organisms

Cuticle
Upper
epidermis

Palisade
mesophyll
Vascular
bundle

Spongy
mesophyll

Xylem
Air
space

Phloem

stoma

Lower
epidermis

CUTICLE
Features /
characteristics
Covers the
epidermis
A transparent layer
of cutin
Waxy covering,
waterproof

1.
2.
3.

Function
Protect the leaf
Allow light to enter the leaf
Prevent excessive water loss

UPPER EPIDERMIS
Features /
characteristics
A single layer of
flattened cells
Does not contain
chloroplast
Transparent

1.

Function
Allow light to penetrate the leaf and reach
the mesophyll layer

PALISADE MESOPHYLL
Features /
characteristics
One or few rows of
vertically oriented
closely packed
column-shaped
cells
Have a high
density of
chloroplast

1.

Function
Trap most of the incoming light

SPONGY MESOPHYLL
Features /
characteristics
Loosely packed
irregularly shaped
cells
Have fewer
chloroplast

1.
2.

Function
Increase the internal surface area for
gaseous exchange
Trap excessive light from palisade
mesophyll

VASCULAR BUNDLE
Features /
characteristics
Consists of xylem
and phloem

1.
2.

Function
Xylem transports mineral ions and
water to the leaf
Phloem - transport products of
photosynthesis away from the leaf

AIR SPACE
Features /
characteristics
Spaces between
spongy mesophyll

1.

Function
Allow diffusion of gases between the
atmosphere and the mesophyll.

LOWER EPIDERMIS
Features /
characteristics
Layer of epidermal
cells
Does not contain
chloroplast except
for the guard cells

1.
2.

Function
Protect the leaf
Allow gaseous exchange through
stomata

GUARD CELLS /STOMA

Features /
characteristics
Thinner outer walls
Thicker inner walls
Modified lower
epidermis
* Each stomata is
flanked by two guard
cells which regulate
the size of the pores

1.

Function
Regulate the
opening and closure
of the stomatal pore

Plant's mineral requirements and

fertilizers
Plant is in need formineral ionsto control chemical
activities, grow, and produce materials. The most
important minerals areMagnesiumions andNitrates.

1.Importance of nitrate and

magnesium ions

A. Nitrates
plants absorb nitrate ions from the
soil, through their root hairs
nitrate ions combine with glucose
-----> amino acids
amino acids bond together
-----> protein
deficiency causes poor growth,
especially of leaves. The stem
becomes weak, lower leaves become
yellow and die, while upper leaves
turn pale green

b.Magnesium
plants absorb magnesium ions
from the soil solution
used for the manufacture
of chlorophyll
each chlorophyll contains one
magnesium atom
deficiency makes leaves turn
yellow from the bottom of the stem
upwards and eventually stops
photosynthesis