Unity University

Civil Engineering Department

Hydraulic Structure-I
Daniel A.
March 2016

Course Content
2. Foundation of
dams
1. Introduction
Types of dams
Characteristics of dams
Reservoir planning
Hydrology and geology
Investigation
Topography, Geology,
Sociology
Resource
Budget Inventory
Feasibility

3. Gravity Dam

4. Arch and
Buttress Dams

Definition
Forces acting on
Combination of loads on
Types and Causes of
failure
Design Principle
Principal and Shear
stresses
Elementary profile of
Stress intensities
Stability analysis
Merits and Demerits of

6. Spillways,
Energy
Dissipators,
Intake and Outlet
works
Types
Design

7. Stable channel
Design
and
Stream diversion

5. Embankment
Dams

Reference Books:
P. Novak, Hydraulic Structures
S. R. Sahasrabudhe, Irrigation Engineeering and Hydraulic Structures
S. K. Garg Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic Structures
V. T. Chow, Open Channel Hydraulics
USBR, Design of Small Dams

Learner Assessment 100%

Assignment 10 %
Project
10%
Mid Exam 30 %
Final Exam 50 %

Instructor

Daniel A.

Introduction
General
Hydraulic Structures:
are engineering constructions/structures designed and
made mechanically fit for managing and utilizing water
resources.

Dam:
is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or
retards the flow, often creating a Reservoir.

Cont`d
Reservoir:
is an artificial lake created by flooding land behind a dam

Spillway
is a section of a dam(structure by itself) designed to pass
water from the upstream side of a dam to the downstream
side

Flood
is an overflow or an expanse of water submerging land

Cont`d
Dams differ from all other major civil engineering structures in a
number of important regards:
Every dam, large or small, is quite unique;
Foundation geology
Material characteristics
Catchment flood /hydrology etc.

Are all site specific

Dams are required to function at or close to their design loading for

extended periods
Dams do not have a structural lifespan; they may, however, have a notional
life for accounting purposes, or a functional lifespan dictated by reservoir
sedimentation.

Types of dams
There are numerous types of dams and they are
classified in various ways.
Material of construction(timber,steel,concrete,earth, rockfill,
earth-rockfill)
Stability consideration
Structure Hydraulic design
Non-overflow dams

Gravity dams

Overflow dams

Non-gravity dams

Composite dams

intended purpose or

Storage dams
Flood control
Water supply
Detention storage

Stage control dams

Diversion
Navigation

Barrier dams
Levees and dykes
Coffer dams

Height(H 30m low dam, 30 H 100m , H 100m high dam)

Types of dams
Dam
Embankment

Concrete
Gravity

Arch

Arch-Gravity

Massive
buttress

Rockfill

Combination

Earth fill

Concrete Dam Types and Their Characteristics

Concrete dams are hard, non-yielding and rigid
structures
Loads are transmitted through the dam body and to the
foundation
They require strong and more or less uniform rock
foundations.

Contd
Characteristics shared by most concrete dams include
With the exception of arch and cupola, concrete dams are suitable
to wide or narrow valleys;
Not sensitive to overtopping under extreme flood
conditions(accommodate a crest spillway)
Outlet pipe works, valves and other ancillary works can be safely
provided within the body of the dam
Construction can take place irrespective of the weather condition
The inherent ability to withstand seismic disturbance without
catastrophic collapse is generally high.

Contd

Further variants of concrete dams

Contd

Further variants of concrete dams

Cont`d
Gravity Dams
designed so that its stability is entirely maintained by its own
mass
Its profile is essentially triangular, to ensure stability and to
avoid overstressing of the dam or its foundation

Cont`d
Buttress Dams
Continuous upstream face supported at regular intervals by
downstream buttresses
Concrete saving relative to the corresponding gravity dam is 30
60%, but it needs more formwork and reinforcement

Cont`d

Arch Dams
Arch dam has a considerable upstream curvature
Suitable for narrow gorges when the length of the crest is not
more 5 times the height of the dam
Loads are resisted mainly by arch action and transmitted to the
abutments
It is structurally more efficient than the gravity or buttress
dam, greatly reducing the volume of concrete required

Cont`d

Dam terminologies

Cont`d

Cont`d

Cont`d

Cont`d

Embankment Dams and Their General

Characteristics
The embankment dam can be defined as a dam constructed from
natural materials excavated or obtained close by.
The natural fill materials are placed and compacted without the
addition of any binding agent, using high-capacity mechanical plant
The foundation requirements are lower compared to concrete dams
Embankment dams can be classified in broad terms as being earthfill
or rockfill dams

Cont`d

Earthfills and rockfills in dam construction

Cont`d
Embankment dams possess the following advantages
Suitability to wide valley and relatively steep-sided gorges alike
Adaptability to a broad range of foundation conditions
The use of natural materials, minimizing the need to transport
large quantities of processed materials to the site
If properly designed, the embankment can safely accommodate
an appreciable degree of settlement deformation without risk
of serious cracking and possible failure;

Cont`d
Embankment dams possess the following advantages
The construction process is highly mechanized and effectively
continuous
The embankment design is extremely flexible in its ability to
accommodate different fill materials, e.g. earthfills and /or
rockfills, if suitably zoned internally
The unit costs of earthfill and rockfill have risen much more slowly
in real terms than those for mass concrete

Cont`d
The relative disadvantages of the embankment dam are:
Greater susceptibility to damage or destruction by overtopping,
with a consequent need to ensure adequate flood relief and a
separate spillway
Vulnerability to concealed leakage and internal erosion in dam or
foundation;
Erosion danger on the downstream slopes unless properly
protected
Construction materials and construction processes are affected by
weather.

Cont`d
Earthfill Embankments Dams

If the compacted soil account for over 50% of the placed volume
of material, then an embankment may be categorized as an
earthfill dam

An earthfill dam is constructed primarily of selected engineering

soils compacted uniformly and intensively in relatively thin
layers and at a controlled moisture content

Cont`d

Principal variants of earthfill and earthfillrockfill embankment

dams (values of m are indicative only)

Cont`d
Rockfill Embankment Dams
The designation rockfill embankment is appropriate where over
50% of the fill material may be classified as rockfill (coarsegrained frictional material)

The term zoned rockfill dam or earthfill-rockfill dam are used to

describe rockfill embankments incorporating relatively wide
impervious zones of compacted earthfill.
Rockfill embankment dams employing a thin upstream membrane
of asphaltic concrete, reinforced concrete or other non-natural
material are referred to as decked rockfill dams

Cont`d

Principal variants of rockfill embankment dams (values of m are indicative only)

Cont`d
Comparison of the general characteristics of concrete dams
with those of the embankment dam:
Concrete dams are relatively demanding with respect to
foundation conditions, requiring sound and stable rock.
Concrete dams require processed natural materials of suitable
quality and quantity for aggregate, and the importation to site and
storage of bulk cement and other materials.
Traditional mass concrete construction is relatively slow being
labour intensive and discontinuous, and requires certain skills,
e.g. for formwork, concreting, etc.

Cont`d
Comparison of the general characteristics of concrete dams
with those of the embankment dam:
Completed unit costs for mass concrete, i.e. cost per cubic meter,
are very much higher than for embankment fills, This is seldom
counterbalanced by the much lower volumes of concrete required
in a dam of given height.

Reservoir Planning
A reservoir is a large, artificial lake created by constructing a dam
across a river
An impounding reservoir can be constructed in the valley to store
excess water which will meet the demand in dry periods.

Cont`d
Reservoir Types:
Depending upon the purpose served, the reservoirs may be
broadly classified into five types:
1. Storage (or conservation) reservoirs
2. Flood control reservoirs
3. Multipurpose reservoirs
4. Distribution reservoirs(usually used for municipal water supply)
5. Balancing reservoirs (small reservoir constructed d/s of the main
reservoir for holding water released from the main reservoir)

Cont`d
Site Selection for Reservoir
Site where the width of river is narrow but rapidly widening
upstream
Site where sufficient quantity of water is available(intensity of
rainfall, run-off and catchment area)
As much as possible, site should be such that water can flow
under gravity from reservoir to demand points
The geological conditions at the site should permit minimum
percolation losses, with maximum run-off

Cont`d

Site Selection for Reservoir

Site must be close to useful construction materials

The topography should be favorable for site for spillway
Site should be such that the run-off water has minimum
percentage of sediment
Site must be free from such minerals and salts, which may make
the water unfit for the purpose, for which the dam built.
Small submerged area- The site should be such that the
submerged area is a minimum and deep reservoir

Cont`d
Investigation for Reservoir planning:
The following investigations are usually conducted for reservoir
planning.
1. Engineering surveys(topographic survey and contour map)
-Dam site: Scale of 1/250 or 1/500, 1-2m CI, 200m U/S and
400m D/S
-Reservoir: Scale of 1/15,000, 2m-3m CI-Area-Storage Capacity
2. Geological investigation(Suitable dam foundation, reservoir
water tightness and location of quarry sites)
3. Hydrologic investigations(runoff pattern and to estimate
yield, determine the Q max )

Cont`d
Basic Terms and Definitions

Cont`d

Full reservoir level (FRL): Full Tank Level, Normal pool level
is the highest water level to which the water surface will rise
during normal operating conditions.
The effective storage of the reservoir is computed up to the full
reservoir level
is the highest level at which water is intended to be held for
various uses without any passage of water through the spillway
In case of dams without spillway gates, the FRL is equal to the
crest level of the spillway(gated spillway ,FRL = top of the gate
level)

Cont`d

Maximum Water level (MWL)

is the maximum level to which the water surface will rise when
the design flood passes over the spillway
higher than the full reservoir level so that some surcharge storage
is available between the two levels to absorb flood
The maximum water level is also called the maximum pool level
(MPL) or maximum flood level (MFL).

Cont`d

Useful storage
volume of water stored between the full reservoir level (FRL) and
the minimum pool level(MPL) is called the useful storage
The minimum pool level generally corresponds to the elevation of
the lowest outlet (or sluiceway) of the dam

Live storage = Flood

Control + Conserved
water for other
purpose for
Multipurpose
reservoirs

Cont`d
Surcharge storage (storage is available only for the absorption of
flood and it cannot be used for other purposes)

Dead storage(volume of water held below the minimum pool

level)

Cont`d
Bank storage
If the banks of the reservoir are porous, some water is
temporarily stored by them when the reservoir is full
The stored water in banks later drains into the reservoir when
the water level in the reservoir falls
in most of the reservoirs, the bank storage is small because the
banks are usually impervious.

Cont`d
Valley storage
The volume of water held by the natural river channel in its
valley up to the top of its banks before the construction of a
reservoir is called the valley storage
The valley storage depends upon the cross section of the river,
the length of the river and its water level.

Cont`d
Yield from a reservoir:
Yield is the volume of water which can be withdrawn from a
reservoir in a specified period of time
The time period for the estimation of yield is selected according
to the size of the reservoir.

It may be a day for a small reservoir and a month or a

year for a large reservoir

The yield is usually expressed as Mha-m/year or Mm3/year for

large reservoirs

Cont`d
Safe Yield

Maximum quantity of water which can be supplied from a reservoir in a

specified period of time during a critical dry year
The lowest recorded natural flow of the river for a number of years is
taken as the critical dry period for determining the safe yield

Secondary yield

The quantity of water which is available during the period of high flow
in the rivers when the yield is more than the safe yield

Average yield

The arithmetic average of the firm yield and the secondary yield over a
long period of time.

Design yield

Usually fixed after considering the urgency of the water needs and the
amount of risk involved
The design yield should be such that the demands of the consumers are
reasonably met with, and at the same time, the storage required is not
unduly large
A reservoir for the domestic water supply is planned on the basis of firm
yield.

Available Storage Capacity of a Reservoir

To determine the available storage capacity of a reservoir up to a
certain level of water, engineering surveys are usually conducted
Area-Elevation Curve
The water spread area of the reservoir at any elevation is
determined by measuring the area enclosed by the corresponding
contour
A planimeter is used for measuring
the area

Cont`d
Elevation-Capacity Curve
The storage capacity of the reservoir at any elevation is
determined from the water spread area at various elevations
Trapezoidal formula: According to the trapezoidal formula, the
storage volume between two successive contours of areas A1,
and A2 is given b

where h is the contour interval

Cont`d
Therefore, the total volume V of the storage is given by

where n is the total number of areas

Cont`d
-Cone formula
According to the cone formula, the storage volume between
two successive contours of areas A1 and A2 is given by

The total volume V is given by

Cont`d
-Prismoidal formula
According to the Prismoidal formula, the storage volume
between two successive contours of areas A1 and A2 is given by

The total volume V is given by

Where
A3, A5, etc are the areas with odd numbers :
A2, A4, A6, etc are the areas with even numbers
A1 and An are respectively, the first and the last area.

Cont`d
The prismoidal formula is applicable only when there are odd
numbers of areas ( i.e. n should be an odd number).

In the case of even number of areas, the volume up to the last

but one area is determined by the prismoidal formula, and that
of the last segment is determined by the trapezoidal formula.

Cont`d
Storage Volume from cross-sectional areas
- In the absence of adequate contour maps the storage volume
can be computed from the cross-sectional areas of the river
Cross-sectional areas are obtained from the cross-sections of
the river taken U/S of the dam up to the U/S end of the
reservoir
The volume is determined from the prismoidal formula,

Cont`d

where
A1, A2 etc. are the area of the cross-section of the river up to
the full reservoir level and
d is the distance between the sections. The formula is
applicable for odd number of sections

Cont`d
- An elevation-storage volume is plotted between the storage
volume as abscissa and the elevations as ordinate

Volume is calculated in Mm3 or M ha-m

Cont`d
Combined Diagram
It is the usual practice to plot both the elevation-area curve and
the elevation-storage curve on the same paper

Cont`d
Example
#A reservoir has the following areas enclosed by contours at various
elevations. Determine the capacity of the reservoir between
elevations of 200.00 to 300.00.

Use
(a) trapezoidal formula,
(b) prismoidal formula

Cont`d
Solution

Cont`d
Solution
(b)
In this case, there are even number of areas. The prismoidal
formula is applied to first 5 areas

Cont`d
Solution
(b)

In this case, the computed volumes from both the methods are equal.
In general, it is not always the case.

Determination of the Required Capacity

The capacity required for a reservoir depends upon the inflow
available and demand
If the available inflow in the river is always greater than the
demand, there is no storage required.
If the inflow in the river is small but the demand is high, a large
reservoir capacity is required

Cont`d
The required capacity for a reservoir can be determined by the
following methods:

1. Graphical method, using mass curves.

2. Analytical method
3. Flow-duration curves method

Cont`d
Graphical method
(Case-a) Storage required for uniform demand.
The following procedure is used when the mass demand curve is a
straight line.
1. Prepare a mass inflow curve from the flow hydrograph of the
site for a number of consecutive years including the most
critical years (or the driest years) when the discharge is low

Cont`d
2. Prepare the mass demand curve corresponding to the given
rate of demand.

If the rate of demand is constant, the mass demand curve is

a straight line
The scale of the mass demand curve should be the same as
that of the mass inflow curve.

Cont`d

Cont`d
3. Draw the lines AB, FG, etc. such that
(i) They are parallel to the mass demand curve, and
(ii) They are tangential to the crests A, F, etc. of the mass curve.
The points A, F. etc. indicate the beginning of the dry periods
marked by the depressions.

Cont`d
4. Determine the vertical intercepts CD. HJ, etc. between the
tangential lines and the mass inflow curve.
The intercepts(CD. HJ) indicate the volumes by which the
inflow volumes fall short of demand

Cont`d
Assuming that the reservoir is full at point A,
o the inflow volume during the period AE is equal to ordinate DE
o the demand is equal to ordinate CE. Thus the storage required
is equal to the volume indicated by the intercept CD.

Cont`d
5. Determine the largest of the vertical intercepts found in Step
(4). The largest vertical intercept represents the storage capacity
required.

Cont`d
The following points should be noted
The capacity obtained is the net storage capacity which must
be available to meet the demand.
The gross capacity of the reservoir will be more than the net
storage capacity.

Gross Capacity = evaporation + seepage losses

+ net storage capacity

Cont`d
The tangential lines AB, FG; etc. when extended forward must
intersect the curve. This is necessary for the reservoir to
become full again
If these lines(AB, FG) do not intersect the mass curve, the
reservoir will not be filled again. However, very large reservoirs
sometimes do not get refilled every year. In that case, they may
become full after 2-3 years.
-The vertical distance such as
FL between the successive
tangents represents the
volume of water spilled
over the spillway of the dam.

Cont`d
(Case b) Storage required for Non-uniform Demand (Variable
demand)
If the demand rate is not uniform, the mass demand curve is a
curve instead of a straight line
The required storage capacity is equal to the maximum of the
vertical intercepts so obtained.

Cont`d
(Case-c) Storage required when the demand is equal to the
average discharge of the river
If the reservoir is to be designed such that its yield is equal to the
average value of the discharge of the river for the entire period,
available storage will be:

Cont`d
i.

Join the end points of the mass inflow curve by a straight line A B
to determine the average discharge of the river over the entire
period of the curve

ii. Draw two line A B and A B such that they are parallel to the
line AB and also tangential to the mass curve at the lowest point C
and the highest point D respectively.

Cont`d
i.

Join the end points of the mass inflow curve by a straight line A B
to determine the average discharge of the river over the entire
period of the curve

ii. Draw two line A B and A B such that they are parallel to the
line AB and also tangential to the mass curve at the lowest point C
and the highest point D respectively.

iii. Determine the vertical intercept

between the two tangents. The
required capacity is equal to this
vertical intercept.

Determination of Yield of a Reservoir

The yield from a reservoir of a given capacity can be determined by
the use of the mass inflow curve.
1. Prepare the mass inflow curve from the flow hydrograph of the
river

Cont`d
2. Draw tangents AB, FG, etc. at the crests A, F, etc. of the mass inflow
curve in such a way that the maximum departure (intercept) of these
tangents from the mass inflow curve is equal to the given reservoir
capacity.

Cont`d
3. Measure the slopes of all the tangents drawn in Step 2.
4. Determine the slope of the flattest tangent.
5. Draw the mass demand curve from the slope of the flattest tangent .
The yield is equal to the slope of this line

Cont`d
Example
#The average annual discharge of a river for 11 years is as follows:

Cont`d
Solution

Contd
The tangents are drawn at the crests at the slope of 6.31 Mha-m per
year. The maximum intercept is 7.7 Mha-m. Storage capacity = 7.7
Mha-m.

Analytical Method for Determination of Storage Capacity

The following procedure is used for the determination of. storage
capacity.
1. Collect the stream flow data at the reservoir site during the critical
dry period.
Monthly inflow rates are required. For very large
reservoirs, the annual inflow rates may be used.
2. Ascertain the discharge to be released downstream to satisfy water
rights or to honour the agreement between the states or the cities

Contd
3. Determine the direct precipitation volume falling on the reservoir
during the month
4. Estimate the evaporation losses which would occur from the
reservoir .The pan-evaporation data are normally used for the
estimation of evaporation losses during the month.
5. Ascertain the demand during various months.
6. Determine the adjusted inflow during different months as follows:
Adjusted inflow = Stream inflow + Precipitation - Evaporation
Downstream Discharge

Contd
7. Compute the storage capacity for each months.
Storage required = Adjusted inflow Demand
The storage would be required only in those months in which the
demand is greater than the adjusted inflow.

8. Determine the total storage capacity of the reservoir by adding the

storages required found in Step 7.

Contd
Example
#The monthly inflow and monthly pan-evaporation during a critical dry
year at the site of a proposed reservoir are given below.

Contd
#The net increase in pool area is 500 ha and the prior rights require
the release of the full stream flow or 10 ha-m, whichever is less.
Assume that 40% of the precipitation that has fallen on the
submerged area reached the stream earlier and 60% of that
directly falls on the reservoir. Determine the storage capacity. Take
pan coefficient as0.80.

Contd
Solution

Reservoir Sedimentation
Sediment moves in the stream as suspended load (fine particles)
in the flowing water and as bed load (large particles), which slides
or rolls along the channel bottom
The suspended sediment load of streams is measured by sampling
the water, filtering to remove the sediment, drying and weighing
the filtered material.

Suspended sediment sampler

Contd

The relation between the suspended-sediment transport Qs and

stream flow Q is given by

often represented by a logarithmic plot of Qs vs. Q ;

Qs = K when Q = 1, and n is the slope of the straight line plot

Contd

Sediment rating curve

The sediment rating curve from a continuous record of stream

flow provides a rough estimate of sediment inflow to reservoirs
The total sediment transport may be estimated by adding 10-20%
to the suspended sediment transport to allow for the bed load
contribution.

Contd

Sediment accumulation in a reservoir

Deposited Sediment
In estimating the useful life of a reservoir, the correct prediction of
the density of the deposited sediment is an important factor.
Miller [28] developed an approximation of the integral for
determining the average density of all sediment deposited in T years
of operation as follows:

Contd

Contd

Contd
The following data are known for a proposed reservoir:
Reservoir operation: 1
Size analysis: 23 percent clay, 40 percent silt, and 37 percent
sand

Contd

Typical sediment deposition

profile

Site Investigation and Selection of Dam Types

Site Investigation
Dam site investigation for a dam structure are:
General planning and preparation of location maps
Likely dam and spillway site
Proposed relocation of approach roads
Quarry sites for construction material
Stream gauging stations

Contd

Hydrologic investigation
Collection and analysis of stream flow and precipitation
records
Assessment of available yield, estimation of flood peaks
Determination of spillway capacity and
Ground water studies

Contd

Topographic survey
Detailed survey for the dam site covering sufficient area on the
U/S and D/S
Detailed survey for areas proposed for constructing spillway,
diversion tunnels, outlets, power houses etc

Contd

Surface geologic investigation:

Identification of boundary and nature of deposits and
overburden
The characteristic, structure, strike of rock beds
Shape and magnitude of folds and fault zones.

Contd

Subsurface or foundation exploration

Drilling holes
Driving shafts and drifts
Geophysical prospecting using latest techniques

Contd

Subsurface or foundation exploration

Drilling holes
Driving shafts and drifts
Geophysical prospecting using latest techniques
Seismic surveys

Contd

Subsurface or foundation exploration

Drilling holes
Driving shafts and drifts
Geophysical prospecting using latest techniques
Seismic surveys
Construction material survey

Contd
Collection of data
Physical and Topographic Data
Geotechnical and Geological Data
Water Resources Data
Project Development Data
Data such as irrigation requirement, hydropower, water
supply and other relevant data to the project purpose
Miscellaneous Data
Materials data
Erosion in the catchment area identify sources of
erosion
Transport existing facilities and rates
Local labour availability and rate

Contd
Location and Selection of Dam Type
Influencing factors for location of dam:
Plan for the use of water,
Width and shape of the valley,
Load carrying capacity and impermeability of the
foundation,
Seepage loss in the reservoir area,
Quantity, quality and transport distance of the
construction materials,
Suitability for appurtenant structures (bottom outlets,
intakes, spillways, powerhouses),

Contd
Selection of Dam Type
Influencing factors:
-Topography (valley form),
-Foundation (suitability, impermeability),
-Geology (layers, fishers),
-Required height,
-Purpose of the dam,
-Climate,
-Flood spillway,

Contd
Selection of Dam Type
Influencing factors:
-Topography (valley form)
-Foundation (suitability, impermeability)
-Geology (layers, fishers)
-Required height
-Purpose of the dam
-Climate
-Flood spillway
-Cost (economy)
-Availability, quality (nature, state) of construction materials

Cont`d

Fig. Stages in dam site appraisal and project development

Cont`d

Dam selection: type characteristics

Cont`d

Fig. Illustrative examples of dam type in relation to valley profile