International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 6, June 2014

ISSN 2250-3153

An Overview of Forging Processes with Their Defects

Mahendra G. Rathi*, Nilesh A. Jakhade**
*

HOD (Workshop), Government College of Engineering, Aurangabad,

Maharashtra, India.
**
PG Student, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Government College of Engineering, Aurangabad,
Maharashtra, India.

Abstract- The objective of this paper is to identify and

understand the various forging processes and to investigate the
various forging defects. Initially, some important forging terms
that are widely used in this field are discussed. A brief
description about classification of forging process on the basis of
temperature of work piece (hot, cold, and warm forging) and on
the basis of arrangement of dies (open, impression and closed-die
forging) is given. Die design parameters, die material
requirements and selection of proper die materials are briefly
discussed. Also, briefly described the forging equipments
(hammer and press). Factors for selection of forging machine,
characteristics and common applications of forging are given.
Forging defects those are repeatedly occurring are discussed
along with their causes and remedies. Then the fish-bone
diagram is used to explore the possible causes of defects like
unfilling, mismatch and scale pits through a brainstorming
session and to determine the causes, which may has the greatest
effect. Finally, it is concluded that the forging process gives
better quality product than the part produced by any other
processes with implementation of preventive actions to reduce
the rejection rate.
Index Terms- Forging, Billet, Flash, Forging defects,
Unfilling, Fish-bone diagram
I. INTRODUCTION

orging is defined as a metal working process in which the

useful shape of work piece is obtained in solid state by
compressive forces applied through the use of dies and tools.
Forging process is accomplished by hammering or pressing the
metal. It is one of the oldest known metalworking processes with
its origin about some thousands of years back. Traditionally,
forging was performed by a smith using hammer and anvil.
Using hammer and anvil is a crude form of forging. The smithy
or forge has evolved over centuries to become a facility with
engineered processes, production equipment, tooling, raw
materials and products to meet the demands of modern industry.
In modern times, industrial forging is done either with
presses or with hammers powered by compressed air, electricity,
hydraulics or steam. Some examples of shapes obtained now-adays by forging process are- Crane hook, connecting rod of an IC
engine, spanner, gear blanks, crown wheel, pinion etc.
Forging process produces parts of superior mechanical
properties with minimum waste of material. In this process, the
starting material has a relatively simple geometry; this material is
plastically deformed in one or more operations into a product of
relatively complex configuration. Forging usually requires
relatively expensive tooling. Thus, the process is economically

attractive when a large number of parts must be produced and/or

when the mechanical properties required in the finished product
can be obtained only by a forging process.
Though forging process gives superior quality product
compared to other manufacturing processes, there are some
defects that are lightly to come if a proper care is not taken in
forging process design. Defects can be defined as the
imperfections that exceed certain limits. There are many
imperfections that can be considered as being defects, ranging
from those traceable to the starting materials to those caused by
one of the forging processes or by post forging operations.
II. DISCUSSION
A. Some Important Forging Terms
1) Forging die: It may be defined as a complete tool consists of a
pair of mating members for producing work by hammer or press.
Die pair consists of upper and lower die halves having cavities.
2) Billet: A slug cut from rod to be heated and forged.
3) Blocker: Preform die or impression, used when part cannot be
made in a single operation.
4) Cavity: The impression in upper and lower die.
5) Draft Angle: The taper on a vertical surface to facilitate the
easy removal of the forging from the die or punch. Internal draft
angles are larger (70-100), whereas external draft angles are
smaller (30-50).
6) Fillet: It is a small radius provided at corners of die cavity to
ensure proper and smooth flow of material into die cavity. It
helps to improve die life by reducing rapid die wear.
7) Flash: The excess metal that flows out between the upper and
lower dies which is required to accomplish a desired forging
shape.
8) Gutter: A slight depression surrounding the cavity in the die to
relieve pressure and control flash flow.
9) Parting Line: The location on the forging where excess
material in the form of flash is allowed to exit from the forging
during the forging operation.
10) Shrinkage: The contraction that occurs when a forging cools.
11) Sink: To cut an impression in a die.
12) Web: The thin section of metal remaining at bottom of a
cavity or depression in a forging. The web may be removed by
piercing or machining.
13) Die Closure: Refers to the function of closing together the
upper and lower members of a forge die during the process of
actually producing a forging.
B. Classification of Forging Processes
In forging, an initially simple part- a billet, is plastically
deformed between two dies to obtain the desired final
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 6, June 2014
ISSN 2250-3153

configuration. For understanding and optimization of forging

operations, it is useful to classify this process in a systematic
way. There are a large number of forging processes that can be
classified as follows:
1) Classification based on Temperature of the work piece
a) Hot forging (most widely used): Forging is carried out at a
temperature above the recrystallization temperature of the metal.
The recrystallization temperature is defined as the temperature at
which the new grains are formed in the metal. This kind of
extreme heat is necessary in avoiding strain hardening of the
metal during deformation.
Advantages: High strain rates and hence easy flow of the metal,
Recrystallization and recovery are possible, Forces required are
less.
Disadvantages: Lubrication is difficult at high temperatures,
Oxidation and scaling occur on the work piece, Poor surface
finish, Less precise tolerances, Possible warping of the material
during the cooling process.

to anneal prior to forging, and favorable as-forged properties that

can eliminate heat treatment. In warm forging, the billet is heated
below the recrystallization temperature, up to 700 to 800 0C for
steels, in order to lower the flow stress and the forging pressures.
Advantages: High production rates, Excellent dimensional
tolerances and surface finish for forged parts, Significant savings
in material and machining, Favorable grain flow to improve
strength, Greater toughness of the forged part.
2) Classification based on Arrangements of Dies
a) Open-die forging: Forging in which the flat dies of simple
shape are used to allow the material to freely deform in lateral
directions of applied load. Figure 1 shows open-die forging
operation.

Table- 1: Hot forging temperature range for different metals and

alloys [1].

Figure 1: Open-die forging

Features: Less dimensional accuracy, Suitable only for simple
shapes of work, Requires more skill of the operator, Usually used
for a work before subjecting it to closed-die forging (to give
approximate shape), Dies are simple and less expensive, It is
simplest of all the forging operations.

b) Cold forging: Forging is carried out at or near room

temperature (below the recrystallization temp.) of the metal.
Carbon and standard alloy steels are most commonly coldforged. Cold forging is generally preferred when the metal is
already a soft, like aluminum. This process is usually less
expensive than hot forging and the end product requires little or
no finishing work. Cold forging is also less susceptible to
contamination problems, and the final component features a
better overall surface finish.
Advantages: Production rates are very high with exceptional die
life, Improves mechanical properties, Less friction between die
surface and work piece, Lubrication is easy, No oxidation or
scaling on the work.
Disadvantages: Residual stress may occur, Heavier and more
powerful equipment is needed, Stronger tooling is required, Tool
design and manufacturing are critical.

b) Impression-die forging: Forging in which the material is

shaped to fill out a die cavity created by the upper and lower die
halves. The dies are not fully closed and allow some material to
escape as Flash. Flash formation builds pressure inside the bulk
of the work piece, aiding material flow into unfilled impressions.
Requires more complex (and more expensive) dies. Figure 2
shows impression-die forging operation.
Significance of Flash: Excess metal is taken initially to ensure
that die is completely filled with metal to avoid any voids.
Excess metal is squeezed out of the die cavity as a thin strip of
metal, called Flash. A flash gutter is provided to reduce the area
of flash. Thin flash increases the flow resistance of the system
and builds up the pressure to high values which ensures that all
intricate shapes of cavity are filled. Flash design is very critical
and important step. Extremely thin flash results in very high
pressure build up which may lead to breaking of the dies.

c) Warm forging: The temperature range for the warm forging of

steel runs from above room temperature to below the
recrystallization temperature. Compared with cold forging, warm
forging has the potential advantages of: Reduced tooling loads,
reduced press loads, increased steel ductility, elimination of need
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 6, June 2014
ISSN 2250-3153

Figure 2: Impression-die forging

c) Closed-die forging: Forging in which the material is fully
constrained in the cavity created by the upper and lower die
halves. It allows more accurately shaped parts to be formed, No
flash is formed in this process therefore no waste of material,
Higher interface pressures required, Requires very accurate
control of material volume and proper die design. Closed-die
forging is a form of impression-die forging, which does not
depend on flash formation to achieve complete filling of the die.
Material is deformed in a cavity that allows little or no escape of
excess material, thus placing greater demands on die design.
Features: Work is rough forged close to final shape by blocking
die, Work is forged to final shape and dimensions by Finishing
die, Both blocking die and finishing die are machined into the
same die block, More number of dies are required depending on
the complexity of the job, Two die halves close-in and work is
deformed under high pressure, High dimensional accuracy/close
control on tolerances, Suitable for complex shapes, Dies are
complex and more expensive, Large production rates are
necessary to justify high costs.
C. Die design parameters Die design depends on the knowledge
of strength and ductility of work piece material, sensitivity of
material to the rate of deformation and temperature, frictional
characteristics, shape and complexity of work piece, die
distortion under high forging loads.
Die material requirements: Strength and toughness at elevated
temperature, Hardenability and ability to harden uniformly,
Resistance to mechanical and thermal shocks, Wear resistanceto resist abrasion wear due to scales present on work piece.
Selection of proper die material depends on: Die size,
Composition and properties of work piece, Complexity of shapeNo. of performing steps, Forging temperature, Type of forging
operation, Cost of die material, No. of forgings required, Heat
transfer from work piece to dies, etc.
Die materials used: Tool and die steels with Cr, Ni, Mo, Va.
D. Forging equipments
Forged components are shaped either by a hammer or press.
Forging on the hammer is carried out in a succession of die
impressions using repeated blows. The quality of the forging, and
the economy and productivity of the hammer process depend
upon the tooling and the skill of the operator. In press forging,
the stock is usually hit only once in each die impression and the
design of each impression becomes more important while
operator skill is less critical. The continuous development of
forging technology requires a sound and fundamental
understanding of equipment capabilities and characteristics. The
equipment i.e. presses and hammers used in forging, influences
the forging process, since it affects the deformation rate and
temperature conditions, and it determines the rate of production.
The requirements of a given forging process must be compatible
with the load, energy, time, and accuracy characteristics of a
given forging machine [1].
1) Forging Hammer: The most common type of forging
equipment is the hammer and anvil. The hammer is the least

expensive and most versatile type of equipment for generating

load and energy to carry out a forging process. This technology is
characterized by multiple impact blows between contoured dies.
Hammers are primarily used for hot forging. There are basically
two types of anvil hammers: Gravity-drop hammers and Powerdrop hammers. In a simple gravity-drop hammer, the upper ram
is connected to a board (board-drop hammer), a belt (belt-drop
hammer), a chain (chain-drop hammer), or a piston (oil-, air-, or
steam-lift drop hammer). The ram is lifted to a certain height and
then dropped on the stock placed on the anvil. During the down
stroke, the ram is accelerated by gravity and builds up the blow
energy. The upstroke takes place immediately after the blow. The
operation principle of a power-drop hammer is similar to that of
an air-drop hammer. In the down stroke, in addition to gravity,
the ram is accelerated by steam, cold air, or hot air pressure. In
the power-drop hammer, the acceleration of the ram is enhanced
with air pressure applied on the top side of the ram cylinder [1].
Figure 3 shows mechanical board hammer- It is a stroke
restricted machine. Repeatedly the board (weight) is raised by
friction rolls and is dropped on the die. Its rating is in the terms
of weight of the ram and energy delivered. Figure 4 shows steam
hammer- It uses steam in a piston and cylinder arrangement. It
has greater forging capacity. It can produce forgings ranging
from a few kgs to several tones. It is preferred in closed-die
forging.

Figure 3: Mechanical board hammer

Figure 4: Steam hammer

2) Forging Press: In press forging, the metal is shaped not by
means of a series of blows as in hammer forging, but by means
of a single continuous squeezing action. There are two main
types: mechanical and hydraulic presses. Mechanical presses
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 6, June 2014
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function by using cams, cranks and/or toggles to produce a preset

(a predetermined force at a certain location in the stroke) and
reproducible stroke. Due to the nature of this type of system,
different forces are available at different stroke positions.
Mechanical presses are faster than their hydraulic counterparts
(up to 50 strokes per minute). Their capacities range from 3 to
160 MN (300 to 18,000 short tons-force). Hydraulic presses use
fluid pressure and a piston to generate force. Figure 5 shows
hydraulic press. It is a load restricted machine. It has more of
squeezing action than hammering action. Hence dies can be
smaller and have longer life than with a hammer.
Features of Hydraulic Press: Full press load is available during
the full stroke of the ram, Ram velocity can be controlled and
varied during the stroke, It is a slow speed machine and hence
has longer contact time and hence higher die temperatures, The
slow squeezing action gives close tolerance on forgings, Initial
cost is higher compared to hammers. The advantages of a
hydraulic press over a mechanical press are its flexibility and
greater capacity. The disadvantages include a slower, larger, and
costlier machine to operate [1].

Figure 5: Hydraulic press

E. Selection of Forging machine

Selection of forging machine depends upon force and energy
requirements, Material to be forged (soft material- use press,
hard material- use hammers), Size-shape and complexity of
forging, Strength of the work piece material, Sensitivity of
material to rate of deformation, Production rate, Dimensional
accuracy, Maintenance, Operating skill level required, Noise
level, Cost.
Characteristics of Forging- Usually involves discrete parts, May
be done on hot or cold materials, Often requires additional
finishing processes such as heat treating, machining, or cleaning,
May be done at fast or slow deformation rates, May be used for
very small or very large parts, Improves the physical properties
of a part by controlling and refining the flow or grain of the
material.
Common Applications of Forging- Automotive passenger cars,
trucks, buses, trailers, motorcycles and bicycles. Bearings, ball
and roller. Electric power generation/transmission. Industrial and
commercial machinery and equipments. Hand tools. Industrial
tools. Mechanical power transmission equipments. Internal
combustion engines. Oil field machinery and equipments. Offhighway, equipment (construction, mining and materials
handling). Pipeline fittings. Plumbing fixtures, valves and
fittings. Pumps and compressors. Railroad equipments and

spikes. Metalworking and special industry machinery. Steam

engines and turbines. Steel works, rolling and finishing mills.
Ship and boat building and repairs. Aerospace aircraft engines.
Guided missiles and space vehicles, etc.
III. Forging Defects
When a forge shop begins to experience defects in their process,
they should try to find the root cause of the problem, initiate
corrective action and implement procedures to prevent its
recurrence. A brief description of defects and their remedial
methods is given below:
1) Incomplete forging penetration:
Dendritic ingot structure at the interior of forging is not broken.
Actual forging takes place only at the surface.
Cause- Use of light rapid hammer blows
Remedy- To use forging press for full penetration.
2) Surface cracking:
Cause- Excessive working on the surface and too low
temperature.
Remedy- To increase the work temperature
3) Cracking at the flash:
This crack penetrates into the interior after flash is trimmed off.
Cause- Very thin flash
Remedy- Increasing flash thickness, relocating the flash to a less
critical region of the forging, hot trimming and stress relieving.
4) Cold shut (Fold):
Two surfaces of metal fold against each other without welding
completely.
Cause- Sharp corner (less fillet), excessive chilling, high friction
Remedy- Increase fillet radius on the die.
5) Unfilled Section (Unfilling/Underfilling):
Some section of die cavity not completely filled by the flowing
metal.
Cause- Improper design of the forging die or using forging
techniques, less raw material, poor heating.
Remedy- Proper die design, Proper raw material and Proper
heating. Figure 6- Shows the fish-bone diagram for root-cause
analysis of underfilling defect.
6) Die shift (Mismatch): Misalignment of forging at flash line.
Cause- Misalignment of the die halves.
Remedy- Proper alignment of die halves. Make mistake proofing
for proper alignment for eg. provide half notch on upper and
lower die so that at the time of alignment notch will match each
other. Figure 7- Shows the fish-bone diagram for root-cause
analysis of mismatch defect.
7) Scale Pits (Pit marks):
Irregular depurations on the surface of forging.
Cause- Improper cleaning of the stock used for forging. The
oxide and scale gets embedded into the finish forging surface.
Remedy- Proper cleaning of the stock prior to forging.
Figure 8- Shows the fish-bone diagram for root-cause analysis of
Scale Pits defect.
8) Flakes:
These are basically internal ruptures.
Cause- Improper cooling of forging. Rapid cooling causes the
exterior to cool quickly causing internal fractures.
Remedy- Follow proper cooling practices.

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 6, June 2014
ISSN 2250-3153

9) Improper grain flow:

Cause- Improper die design, which makes the metal not flowing
in final interred direction.
Remedy- Proper die design.
10) Residual stresses in forging:
Cause- Inhomogeneous deformation and improper cooling
(quenching) of forging.
Remedy- Slow cooling of the forging in a furnace or under ash
cover over a period of time.

Second Author - Nilesh A. Jakhade, PG Student, Dept.

of Mechanical Engineering, Government College of
Engineering, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India.
[email protected], + 91-9850869781

IV. CONCLUSION
Forging is an experience oriented process. Throughout
the years, a great deal of know-how and experience has been
accumulated in this field, largely by trial-and-error methods.
Forging process produces final products in very short time with
little or no scrap. Thus there is saving in energy and material.
Forgings sometimes cost more than parts produced by other
processes like- casting or machining, but it gives more reliable
parts with better mechanical and metallurgical properties.
Since defects causes high rejection rates, it is important
to move any process in the direction of eliminating all
imperfections as part of an effective continuous improvement
program. A good quality program begins with an attitude of
making it right the first time. Forging processes are no exception
to this. Economically, as well as from a quality perspective, it is
better to understand and control the process so as to avoid defects
rather than scrapping the defective parts during final inspection.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank following persons for
their continuous support and guidance throughout the work. Mr.
S. B. Save (D.G.M.), Bombay Forgings Ltd., E14 /51, MIDC
Chikalthana, Aurangabad. Dr. R. K. Shrivastava (HOD) Dept. of
Mechanical Engg., Govt. College of Engg. Aurangabad. Mr. J.
M. Kshirsagar (Asso. Prof.), Dept. of Mechanical Engg., MIT,
Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India.
REFERENCES
[1]

[2]
[3]
[4]

Taylan Altan, Gracious Ngaile, Gangshu Shen- Cold and

Hot Forging- Fundamentals and Applications, Handbook
by ASM International- February 2005
C.J. Van Tyne and J. Walters- Understanding geometrical
forging defects- April 1, 2007
H. James Henning- Defects in Hot Forging- May/June
2007
Course Material by Arkey Technical Training and Research
Institute, Pune, Maharashtra, India- Defect analysis and
Productivity improvement in forging industries- October
2007
AUTHORS
First Author - Mahendra G. Rathi, HOD (Workshop),
Government College of Engineering, Aurangabad,
Maharashtra, India.
[email protected], +91-9049504930

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 6, June 2014
ISSN 2250-3153

Figure 6: Fish-bone diagram for root-cause analysis of underfilling defect.

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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 6, June 2014
ISSN 2250-3153

Figure 7: Fish-bone diagram for root-cause analysis of mismatch defect.

Figure 8: Fish-bone diagram for root-cause analysis of scale pits defect.

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