Running Head: PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLS

A Closer Look at the Effects and Relevance of Parental Involvement in Schools

Sacha Baikie-Pedneault
McGill University

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLS

Introduction
School life and home life are often two separate entities for children, and this can be a
difficult gap to bridge. Bringing the two together can be touchy, particularly because teachers
have mixed views about parent participation in school. Some teachers believe that parents
should stay out of school life that this is the teachers domain while others consider parental
involvement to be very valuable to student achievement (Epstein, 1986). However, many
teachers also feel that it is difficult, if not impossible, to personalize learning for their students, as
there are too many students and there is too much material to cover (Schrick, 1992). While this
is the case, research shows that getting parents involved in their childrens school life can
significantly improve attitudes towards school as well as academic achievement (Avvisati,
Gurgand, Guyon & Maurin, 2013; Ballantine, 1999; Schrick, 1992). Therefore is important that
educators and school officials better understand the role that parental involvement can play and
how parental involvement can best be structured and facilitated.
Because students spend such an large amount of their time in school, it is important to be
aware of the factors that can improve their experience and that can help to maximize their
learning. It is also important to be aware of factors that can hinder a students learning, and to
find solutions to these problems. Knowledge of the benefits associated with parental
involvement can be a key aspect in motivating teachers and parents to instill change if it is
deemed necessary. The idea behind this research is to learn the best ways to allow children to
benefit as much as possible from their school experiences by being aware of ways in which we
can do this, and of the resources most easily available to us that may help to make it happen. An
important observation to make when considering a North American student experience is that
racialized students are likely to be particularly affected by a lack of communication between

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLS

parents and teachers due to cultural differences and dominant narratives that often govern our
classrooms. These students are more likely to be alienated from classroom content and to suffer
from the lack of personalized curriculum mentioned above. As such, this research will put a
particular focus on issues of race and culture, and will apply a Critical Race Theory lens to
consider how collaboration between teachers and parents can both serve to legitimize diverse
experiences, and create a more inclusive school environment for families of different racial or
cultural backgrounds.
The purpose of this literature review is to explore the existing knowledge about the
effects of parental involvement in school on student grades, behaviours and attitudes, as well as
the effects on the parents themselves. For this study, I will be drawing upon academic studies
and articles and I will search Google Scholar as well as the McGill University Library database
to locate documents on this topic. To analyze and organize my findings, I will use constant
comparison analysis (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994).

My research questions will consist of the following:

1. What are the effects of parental involvement on students? (Focus on results concerning
academic achievement, attitudes, and behaviours).
2. What are the effects of parental involvement on parents?
3. If these effects are positive, how can we get parents more involved in school?
4. What are the best practices of parental involvement? What are some of the pitfalls to
avoid?
5. How can teacher-training programs better prepare teachers to facilitate parental
involvement?

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLS

6. What type of support would be needed in schools for parental support to be best
implemented?
7. How can collaboration between teachers and parents in schools aid to legitimize diverse
experiences and create a more inclusive school environment?

Situating the Researcher

In order to clearly establish my voice and place in this research, here I provide a narrative
of my background and experiences as they relate to my research topic.
When I applied to the Master of Arts of Teaching and Learning at McGill, I wrote a letter
of intent explaining my motivations for wanting to become a teacher. Mostly, I was (and still
am) interested in helping children to learn life lessons and values and to develop skills that will
be helpful to them throughout their lives. While I have an interest in my teachable subject
English I am more concerned with the idea that as a teacher, I will be preparing my students for
their future. Young minds are incredibly malleable, and I believe that it is a teachers
responsibility to not only educate their students on a specific, assigned subject, but also on
matters of life and social aptitude. Teachers play a key part in the formation of our future adult
population, and are, in many ways, some of the main adult role models in their students lives,
since children spend so much of their time in school. This can be complicated as it encompasses
many different facets of teaching: educational, social, political, communicative, etc., all the while
demanding that a teacher live by their own set principles. I find this to be one of the more
important aspects of being a teacher.

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLS

If a students home life does not employ the same values as school does, it may create
confusion for children, who might dismiss the rules that they do not wish to follow, since they
are not deemed important or valid in other areas of their lives. This is why I believe that working
together with parents in order to communicate classroom values and to know their own home
values can help make school more relevant for students, as well as decreasing disciplinary issues.
When I was younger, I was a nanny to several families that were close with mine. I took
the kids to swimming lessons, helped them with their homework, played games, watched
movies, etc. But I was also in charge of discipline and meals and ensuring that these children
understood the importance of balanced meals and being kind to one another. This led me to
discover that my job was much less difficult if the childrens parents were in agreement with me,
and supportive of the values that I was trying to instill in them, and vice-versa. If parents let
their kids eat candy for breakfast and hit their siblings (two things I did not allow when I was in
charge, regardless of whose children I was responsible for) while I was away, it was much more
difficult for me to get them to cooperate and to follow my rules than if the same rules applied
when I was gone. This seems to be equally relevant in schools, with teachers who may have
disciplinary issues. I believe that if parents and teachers cooperate and (most importantly)
communicate openly, there can be a significant increase in motivation and cooperation from
students.

Literature Review
Most parents have positive attitudes towards schools, and towards their children attending
school (Epstein, 1986). We can deduce from this that the current lack of parental involvement in
schools does not stem from a lack of interest, or from resentful feelings towards school; parents

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLS

generally want their children to attend school and to succeed. There is no evidence that parents
are unsupportive of their children attending school, or that they discourage their children from
learning. However, much research points towards a general need for an increase in parental
involvement; despite parents being in agreement with their child attending school, they are not
generally involved in the schooling process.
Epstein (1986) points out that as children get older and attend higher grade levels,
teachers make significantly fewer efforts to keep or to get parents involved, which limits what
parents think they can do to help their child. As children attend higher grades, the material they
are learning becomes increasingly complex and requires a certain amount of expertise from the
student. Parents may feel that they are not up to date with what their children are learning, which
makes getting involved more difficult, especially for less educated parents. Often times, a
parents feeling of competency to help his or her child is based on his or her own education
background (Epstein, 1986). This can significantly put a child who comes from a family with
little-to-no formal education at a disadvantage, as they may not receive as much support as a
child whose parents have achieved a higher level of education and therefore feel more confident
in playing an active role in their childs school involvement.
Avvisati, Gurgand, Guyon & Maurin (2013) conducted a study wherein parents were
enrolled in a participation program at their childs school, in order to evaluate the effects on inclass behaviour and student academic achievement. Among the guidelines for this program, was
for facilitators to stress the importance that
All parents can help their child, no matter what their own school
record was and how familiar they are with the institution: what
matters most is that children feel that their parents are interested

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLS

in their school experience, and feel encouraged to talk often

about it. (p. 61)

Interestingly, Epstein (1986) points out that parental education does not influence actual
parental involvement; it influences feelings of competency to be involved. What does influence
parental involvement is the invitation for such engagement: most research suggests that it is up
to teachers to initiate parental involvement; teachers need to do more to get parents involved in
the classroom and in their students learning and school experience (Epstein, 1986; Epstein &
Dauber, 1991).
These kinds of findings really put the onus on schools and teachers to get in touch with
parents and to make an effort to get them interested and participating. According to Epstein &
Dauber (1991), there are five types of involvement: basic obligation of families (fulfilling all
needs and providing positive home conditions that encourage learning); basic obligation of
schools (communication with families about school life and student progress ); involvement at
school (parents and volunteer TAs; parents who attend school events); involvement in learning
activities at home (assisting childrens learning process schools should help to provide parents
with skills and tools to do this); and involvement in decision making, governance and advocacy
(parents involved in participatory roles, i.e. organizations, schools help by training parents to
become leaders and to develop necessary skills). These levels of involvement are quite complex.
However, the different categories or types of involvement do clarify the issue of active parental
participation at school: many parents do not necessarily have the time assist school field trips or
to plan school activities, however, as Epstein and Daubers involvement categories point out, this
is not the only way to invest in a childs learning process. Encouraging learning through

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conversations about school is a way of being involved in a childs school life without even
having to step foot in the school. Technology is also facilitating the involvement of busy parents
by allowing for easy communication and assignment tracking, in some cases.
Programs such as those suggested by the Ombudsman, WA gorvernors office (n.d.),
including ideas such as [encouraging] teachers to assign homework that requires talking with
someone at home[;] [involving] parents in goal-setting for their children[;] [helping] all school
staff understand their role in building parent support etc. can be incredibly useful in increasing
student success. Moreover, involving the entire school staff in bringing parents and schools
closer together is essential in ensuring that these kinds of projects are victorious. While much
of the responsibility to bridge the gap between home and school lands on teachers, there should
be a great deal of support coming from other school staff so that these projects go smoothly and
communication is clear and accessible. Schrick (1992) points out that there is a correlation
between parental involvement and the quality of the school in question. This implies that
involving parents is a practice embedded in school operation, and that it is not solely brought in
by individual teachers. It may be that teachers who individually engage parents and involve
them in their class have success in doing this, but that if it does not go further than individual
teachers, increased success is limited to that one particular class. Individual teachers may also
struggle to communicate with certain parents, and school support can diminish this difficulty.
The Ombudsman, WA gorvernors office (n.d.) also encourages communications to be
accessible for parents who do not speak English or may have other issues communicating.
Ideas such as [using] various communication avenues to ensure that family members of all
education levels understand school materials, [and providing] parents who dont read or speak
English with picture books can help avoid feelings of helplessness from parents. It is likely

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLS

that several parents within a school fall into the classification of not speaking English or that
many vary in their levels of education. Schools can instill programs such as those mentioned
above to provide teachers with resources and to reduce the level of pressure for being
responsible for both student and parent understanding.
The above suggestions are not necessarily onerous, and they can be incredibly beneficial.
Getting parents involved does not have to be difficult or burdensome; it may even reduce
classroom issues for teachers: when parents are more involved, very bad behaviour is less
frequent and very good one more frequent (Avvisati, Gurgand, Guyon & Maurin, 2013 p.69).
Moreover, policies concerning parental involvement have a potential for reducing disciplinary
problems in young teenagers (Avvisati, Gurgand, Guyon & Maurin, 2013 p.58). Not only, then,
is behaviour improved in school, but also outside of school. As Ballantine (1999) points out,
teachers often appreciate parents who help them do their job, and who work with them as a team;
the effects of these practices seem to be beneficial for all parties involved. Perhaps, then, getting
teachers to realize the benefits of these practices and learn how to best bring parents into the fold
is the first step to achieving these goals. In my opinion, an ideal step in the right directions
would be for schools to offer workshops and support for teachers and staff, in order to educate
them on importance and relevance of the matter and to facilitate the involvement of parents.

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10

A look at student and parent experience in school through a Critical Race Theory lens
As mentioned earlier in this paper, teachers are some of the main adult role models in
their students lives, as they spend so much time together. In analyzing the importance of this
statement and the importance of parent-teacher complicity, I came to realize that cultural
differences are a significant barrier to North American school experiences. Because North
American nations are so culturally diverse, I believe this is an important issue to explore. As
such, I have focused part of my research on exploring the student and parent high school
experience through Critical Race Theory, in order to consider how the parent-teacher interactions
discussed above can bridge cultural gaps which affect students (academic and nonacademic)
experience in school.

Introduction to issues of cultural alienation in schools

School is a place where children begin both their formal education, and their journey
towards their own future; it is a place where students knowledge grows, increasing their
potential to follow their dreams and to find a guiding passion within themselves. However, the
reality is that this statement does not stand true for every student. Many students are alienated by
their school experience, being caught in a bind and having to decide whether they value their
own education more than their home culture and family life. Articles by Gloria Ladson-Billings
(1997) and Tara J. Yosso (2005) explain this reality with relation to Students of Colour using a
Critical Race Theory (CRT) lens, and they examine related issues such as oppression the
systematic dismissal of cultures other than dominant White, Eurocentric culture - and low
academic success rates. Both articles offer solutions based in the guiding principles of Critical
Race Theory, which involve educators and schools legitimizing experiences of People of Colour.

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11

I am interested in ways in which collaboration between teachers and parents in schools can both
aid to legitimize diverse experiences, and create a more inclusive school environment wherein
students of colour are empowered rather than oppressed, ultimately leading to more relevant and
positive school experiences.

Overview of CRT
Critical Race Theory begins with the premise that race is permanently entrenched in
society, and that the rhetorical strategies used today to discuss race as if it is in the past are
problematic because they assume that this is not a current issue. CRT deals with the reality of
racism being systemically pervasive, and aims to confront structural arrangements that maintain
racial hierarchy. CRT in education requires teachers to acknowledge racial differences in their
classrooms and to address and include those differences rather than ignoring them, or using a
colour-blind approach.

How CRT addresses race-based oppression in the classroom

An important fact to acknowledge when evaluating ways to improve student success is
pointed out by Yosso (2005) in Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of
community cultural wealth. Yosso writes: [e]ducators most often assume that schools work and
that students, parents and community need to change to conform to this already effective and
equitable system (p. 75). However, as critical race theorists point out, schools teach to the
dominant (white, Eurocentric) culture. By valuing one culture over others, teachers are
inherently valuing some of their students over others, putting those who belong to the dominant
culture at an academic and social advantage in the classroom. This practice alienates Students of

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12

Colour who may already be at a disadvantage, financially or socially because the dominant
culture does not only monopolize the classroom, it is a leader in many aspects of North American
life - further impeding their chances of success, all the while reinforcing the idea that their own
culture is not valuable.
Looking at this assumption through a CRT lens, we can realize that it is not the case that
school works and that people should change in order to make it work for them. It is rather the
case that school works for one specific subgroup of students (White, middle-to-upper-class
students), and that it does not cater to Students of Colour. Yossos (2005) article addresses
struggles associated with favouring the dominant culture, specifically when this is enforced by
educators. I believe that a teachers job should be to help their students succeed and get ahead in
life, regardless of the direction in which they are headed; by CRT standards, it is not appropriate
for educators to decide what life paths - and cultures that lead down those paths are better
suited for whom. I believe that working with students parents can help teachers better
understand their students lives in order to help increase their chances of success.

Assumptions about race-based oppression in the classroom

Yosso (2005) identifies deficit thinking about people of colour as another significant
disadvantage faced by Students of Colour in schools. She writes, Deficit thinking takes the
position that minority students and families are at fault for poor academic performances because:
(a) students enter school without the normative cultural knowledge and skills; and (b) parents
neither value nor support their childs education (p.75). These kinds of assumptions are
accepting problems by pointing a blaming finger without offering any solutions: who decides
what normative cultural knowledge and skills are? How can we expect all students to enter

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13

school with the same subset of skills and knowledge? These assumptions blame non-white
parents for their childrens poor success, when there is no reasonable way we can expect
different outcomes without changing their entire culture. Moreover, research shows that it is
untrue that parents do not value or support their childrens education. The literature review
above highlights Epsteins (1986) research findings that most parents, regardless of race, have
positive attitudes towards schools, and towards their children attending school, and that often, a
parents feeling of competency to help his or her child is based on his or her own educational
background. We can deduce from this information, that given the opportunity and the necessary
tools, parents would like to be more involved in their childs schooling. However, schools
should and could be making a much grander effort to invite parents to get more involved. The
fact that parents are not being called upon to participate in their childrens schooling is enlarging
the gap between home and school-life for students, and especially for racialized students, making
their chances of success more limited than those of White children. In order to get parents
feeling like they can participate in their childs school experience, we need to stop blaming them
for their childrens poor results, and start making them feel like they, too, are a part of their
childs education. Feeling as though their participation is important and helpful, which it is, is
what will increase parents willingness to be involved. Research also shows that getting parents
involved in their childrens school life can significantly improve both parents and students
attitudes towards school, as well as students academic achievement (Avvisati, Gurgand, Guyon
& Maurin, 2014; Ballantine, 1999; Schrick, 1992). These effects of parental involvement then
point towards a logical need for more parent-teacher cooperation, if the desired end result is truly
student success. Looking at this issue through the lens of Critical Race Theory, it seems
appropriate to employ some of this theorys principles in order to attempt to bridge the gap

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between home and school lives of Children of Colour specifically. One way to attempt this is by
including their parents in school life. It is important to specify here that parental involvement
does not necessarily mean active participation at school; it rather means being interested and
invested in children attending school and in what they are learning being a part of a childs
school life rather than the actual school.

Principles of CRT applied to the classroom setting

The principles of Critical Race Theory are outlined in both Yossos (2005) article and
Ladson-Billings (1997) I know why this doesnt feel empowering: A critical race analysis of
critical pedagogy. They include ideas such as acknowledging and challenging the dominant
ideology, commitment to social justice, and centralizing experiential knowledge. This last point
is elaborated by Yosso (2005), who points out that CRT recognizes that the experiential
knowledge of People of Color is legitimate, appropriate, and critical to understanding, analyzing
and teaching about racial subordination (p. 74). Teaching about racial subordination is an
important way of legitimizing Students of Colours experiences, and it is also an important way
of bringing a very real issue to the forefront of a class, in order to ensure that students are aware
of the world around them. However, I would argue that recognizing the experiential knowledge
of People of Colour is also a way of teaching any other subject in an inclusive and holistic way.
By acknowledging only one peoples experiences, teachers are inevitably alienating several of
their students, especially Students of Colour, and they are doing a disservice to all of their
students by not giving them the tools to live in a world where several experiences shape every
persons existence. However, in order for this to change, it is my belief that teachers must
personally adhere to these CRT principles if they wish to successfully bring them into their

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15

classrooms. It is my belief that by communicating openly and often with parents, teachers can
gain insight into the different experiences that make up their classrooms, allowing their practice
to become more inclusive and conscientious.
Ladson-Billings (1997) writes of African-American students that they lag behind their
White counterparts on every standard measure of school achievement (p. 132) and that Black
youths who reject their parents have greater chances of success (p.133). These statements
imply that Black students are expected to embrace their teachers over their parents if they wish to
succeed in school and thereafter. This is nothing short of tragic; parents from the dominant
culture would likely never stand for a model that promotes this kind of situation, and I do not
think that any family should have to accept such a situation, regardless of their culture. Finding
a way to harmonize family and school life would likely take away a great deal of stress from
these students, who are struggling to balance their home life and culture with their desires to
succeed and to follow their dreams and ambitions. Trying to make every students culture and
home life more relevant in the classroom can be achieved by being in touch with students
parents and investing time in getting to know those issues that are important and relevant for
students outside of school.

Effects of parental involvement

Voluntary involvement of parents in school has many benefits, including higher academic
achievement and fewer behavioural problems (Avvisati, Gurgand, Guyon & Maurin, 2014;
Schrick, 1992). This should be considered a motivating factor for teachers to team up with
parents in educating their students, as this type of partnership has the potential to reduce
classroom issues related to poor academic achievement and/or poor behaviour. However, many

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16

teachers do not believe in the blending of school- and home-lives, and therefore probably tend to
teach in ways that alienate those of their students who do not identify with the valuable culture
being taught in school. Yosso (2005) explains that schools today are contradictory in that they
most often oppress and marginalize while they maintain the potential to emancipate and
empower (p. 74). By adapting principles of CRT outlined above into their pedagogical
practices, teachers can create more inclusive environments where students feel more in touch
with the material that they are learning, and where parents feel less alienated and can be more
involved in their childrens academic lives. This, hopefully, can be a step towards eliminating
the contradiction that exists in schools, and towards increasing knowledge retention and
enthusiasm for school amongst both students and parents.

Initiating the change

A good place to initiate changes that lead to parental involvement can be for teachers to
consider different values and standards that parents and students may have. Teachers are not
necessarily aware of all the different cultures that exist within their classroom, and this can limit
what they might consider valuable work produced by their students. In order to locate
teachers whom parents believed were successful teachers of African-American students (p.
133), Ladson-Billings asked the parents for their own definitions of success. This researcher
points out that, [s]everal researchers have indicated that academic success for students of color
often correlates with cultural failure (p. 133). Because succeeding in school usually means
adhering to dominant culture, students who do not belong to this culture must reject their own
culture in order to achieve success. In this sense, they are not developing their own cultural
knowledge and skills, and are therefore failing their own culture, or culturally failing. These

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17

students are achieving success as dominant White, Eurocentric culture defines it, but this does
not necessarily coincide with their own cultures definition of the word.
Working together with parents in order to synthesize different definitions of success can
allow teachers to better understand ways in which to teach their students more effectively; if
schoolwork is not relevant for students in their out-of-school life, it will be that much more
difficult for them to learn and retain new knowledge. Moreover, if parents do not value the
information being taught in school, they will probably be less likely to become involved in their
childs school-life, even casually. By working with parents to identify the different values and
cultures that make up their classrooms, teachers can engage all parties involved and have higher
success rates, provided that definitions of success are adapted accordingly. Teachers can also
adapt their grading methods if necessary, in order to ensure that Students of Colour (and other
students) are graded equally.
Yosso (2005) identifies different forms of cultural capital that Students of Colour tend to
bring into the classroom. These include aspirational , linguistic, familial, social, navigational,
and resistant capital. These forms of cultural wealth foster important life lessons and values that
can be relevant for any child. For example, aspirational capital refers to the ability to maintain
hopes and dreams for the future, even in the face of real and perceived barriers (Yosso, 2005, p.
77). This type of perseverance can be taught to everybody, and can be relevant to many, all the
while being rooted in those values held by Communities of Colour (Yosso, 2005). Social capital,
which puts importance on social networks and available community wealth , and navigational
capital, which values skills related to steering through social institutions, can both be
incorporated into classrooms in a way that students of all cultures can learn and benefit from.
These forms of capital that Communities of Colour nurture are examples of cultural norms that

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18

do not belong to the dominant culture, but that teachers can think about and incorporate into their
classrooms, and that can potentially benefit all of their students. It is important to recognize the
important value in cultures that we may not identify with. This is a key way to keep an open
mind and to create an open classroom atmosphere that encourages learning of all types, for every
person in the room, including teachers themselves.
Ladson-Billings provides examples in her article of teachers who work with their students
in order to fight issues of race that may arise in their lives both in and outside of school settings.
She writes of these teachers that they refused to employ a race neutral or color-blind
approach to teaching (p. 136). By addressing and embracing differences in the challenges faced
by White children and Children of Colour, we can better cater to our students specific interests
and needs and allow everybody to learn and to be empowered by their own education. LadsonBillings asks: [w]hat are the potentials for struggling together around issues of race that
ultimately will empower us to teach and learn in ways that are empowering, not alienating? (p.
137). This question is extremely relevant, especially if we want there to exist kinds of teachers
who empower students rather than oppressing them. I would argue that this question can be
applied to issues related to socioeconomic status, religious beliefs, political views, etc. in order to
create an inclusive learning environment that empowers every learner in a classroom, and that
every student can feel that school enriches his or her life rather than complicating or adding
conflict to it.

Conclusion
Following this discussion, it seems a natural change to create an environment where
material taught in school is relevant for students present and future selves, even if they are not

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19

part of the dominant culture. Schools aim to educate, and directing its content towards personal
relevance appears to be a logical starting point. Schools such as the Mississippi Freedom
Schools (Levine, 2004), or Paideia, Escuela Libre (Fremeaux & Jordan, 2012) can stand as
examples that when class content is relevant to students lives, it instills motivation to learn, and
increases retention. Students who attended those schools were truly empowered by their school
experiences and were inspired to apply their knowledge and to gain more of it. When we
compare this type of enthusiasm for school to feelings of resentment or boredom expressed by
many students of typical government-run schools, we can truly recognize the need for change.
Initiating this change in collaboration with students parents and encouraging them to help
teachers and school staff understand what it is that will help students want to be in school is an
accessible and relatively simple first step to creating an educational system that will truly
empower students, no matter where they come from.

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20

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