GENERAL GEOLOGY

Unit - I
Geological Agencies
External agencies
Weathering
Wind
River
Sea
Landslide
Internal agencies
Earthquakes
Plate tectonics
Groundwater
Geological Agencies
Exposed rocks on the earth subjected to
direct of indirect attack of Natural /
Geological agencies
Atmospheric gases
Heat
Moisture
Surface and subsurface water
Wind
Sea water
Ice etc.,
They act alternatively season by season /
year by year.
Geological Agencies
Thus, responsible for modifying the Physical
features.
Example: River (carries millions of tons of
sediments to sea)
Where from the sediments derived???
Valley slopes
Basement
Side of the channel
Modifiying the existing river valley and
drainage basin
Work of geological agencies
Either Constructive or Destructive in nature
in relation to the existing landform at any
given point of time
Example to explain this aspect: River
Rivers carve out valleys
Valleys are enlarged
Valleys are deepened
Alluvial plains
Flood plains
Deltas
Destructive work
Constructive work
Weathering
Weathering
The disintegration, or breakdown of
rock material
Types of weathering
Physical (Mechanical)
Chemical (reactions)
Biological (Bio organism)
Physical weathering
No change in chemical composition--just
disintegration into smaller pieces
Physical Breakup/Weathering
a) Frost action
b) Exudation
c) Thermal Effects - Thermal expansion and contraction
d) Unloading
All this increases the total surface area exposed
to weathering processes.
a) Frost Action
Water on freezing undergoes an increase in
its volume by about ten percent.
b)Exudation
It is a process similar to frost action but in this
case disintegration takes place due to
formation of crystals of salts like sodium
chloride etc. within the cavities.
The process is seen in rocks near shores.
b) Thermal Effects
Direct slow heating (followed by cooling) of
the exposed rocks by the blazing sun.
This phenomenon is especially of great
significance in arid, desert, and semi arid
regions.
Rocks, like many other solids, expand on
heating and contract on cooling
Exfoliation
The sheets of rock split off by change due to
expansion & contraction, heating & cooling
of temperature.
d) Unloading
Large scale development of fracturing in
confined rock masses--- removal of
overlying rocks due to erosional work of
other agencies.
Results in Sheet weathering
Decay along the joint planes
Joints in a rock are a pathway
for water they can enhance
mechanical weathering
Rates of weathering
Chemical Weathering
breakdown as a result of chemical
reactions
CaCO
3
+CO
2
+H
2
O ---> Ca
2+
+ 2HCO
3-
Chief processes of chemical weathering
a) Solution,
b) Hydration and hydrolysis,
c) Oxidation and reduction,
d) Carbonation
e) Colloid formation
Solution: process by which rock is
dissolved in water
Is strongly influenced by pH and temperature
When water becomes saturated, chemicals may
precipitate out forming evaporite deposits.
Calcium carbonate (calcite, limestone), sodium
chloride (salt), and calcium sulfate (gypsum) are
particularly vulnerable to solution weathering.
Hydration: attachment of water
molecules to crystalline structure of a
rock, causing expansion and weakness
CaSO
4
or anhydrite, gets slowly converted to gypsum by hydration :
CaSO4 + 2H2O CaSO4 . 2H2O
Anyhydrite Water Gypsum
Hydrolysis: the process of exchange of
ions.
combination of hydrogen and oxygen
in water with rock to form new
substances
Oxidation
Oxygen dissolved in water promotes
oxidation of sulfides, ferrous oxides,
native metals
4 Fe + 3O
2
2Fe
2
O
2
Iron + Oxygen Ferric oxide
Fe
2
O
3
+ H
2
O Fe
2
O
3
.H
2
O
2 Fe S2 + 7O2 + 2H2O 2FeSO4 + 2H2 SO4
Pyrite + Oxygen + Water Ferrous Sulphate + Sulphuric acid
Carbonation:
It is the process of weathering of rocks
under the combined action of atmospheric
carbon dioxide and moisture.
Colloid formation:
The process of hydration, hydrolysis and oxidation (and
reduction) acting on rocks and minerals under various
atmospheric conditions may not always end in the
formation of stable end products.
Often they result in splitting of particles into still smaller
particles the colloids characterized by atoms with only
partially satisfied electrical charges.
Formation of colloidal particles is especially common in
the weathering of clay minerals, silica and iron oxides.
Spheroidal Weatering
It is a complex type of weathering observed in
jointed hard rocks and breaking of the original rock
into spheroidal blocks.
Both chemical and physical processes operate in
spheroidal weathering.
Creates domed monoliths
iii) Biological Weathering
Role of plants and organisms
Can be both chemical and mechanical
in nature.
roots split rocks apart
roots produce acids (H+)
that dissolve rocks.
tree throw
burrowing animals
Factors Affecting Weathering
Nature of the Rock
(Chemical composition stability)
Sandstone
Granite
Fractured? / Massive??
Climate
Same rock type exposed to different climate
leads to different trend of weathering
Physical Environment
Topography
Vegetation Cover
Mineral constituents
Early formed minerals easily get weathered
compared to minerals formed late.
Eg:
Feldspar, pyroxenes, ultra basic rocks-early formed
Quartz- formed later
Resistance to Weathering
Dark Colored Minerals: Olivin, Augite, Hornblende; Biotite
Light Colored Minerals: Feldspars, Quartz
Weathering increases in the following order
Bowens
Reaction
Series
Goldrich
Stability
Series
First to
Crystallize
Last to
Crystallize
Slow
Weathering
Fast
Weathering
Resistance to Weathering
Products of Weathering
Elluvium :
end product of weathering lie over the parent
rock
Delluvium :
end product of weathering, that has been moved
to some distance
Regolith :
Express all the weathered material, elluvium or
Delluvium that covers the parent rock.
Weathering of rocks become slow after the
formation of weathered layers at the top.
Soil Profile
The record of behavior of the materials with
depth below the surface up to which the effect of
weathering can be easily established.
Soil Profile Four Weathering Zones
Zone A
Completely weathered soil
supporting veg cover
May or may not contain humus
Zone B
Zone of mixed composition
Partly soil and partly weathered rock
Zone C
Soil free zone
Under attack by weathering
Zone D
Zone of the so far in tact rock (parent
rock)
Starts from the base of C Zone and
extends downwards infinitely
A
B
C
D
Minerals and Rock formation
Clay minerals
Montmorrolonite
Kaolinite
Illite
Ores of Aluminium
Bauxite
Laterite
Advanced stages of weathering of Clay rocks
weathering of pre-existing silicate rocks
Engineering Consideration
Engineering projects are built either on soil
or on rocks.
Soil, as we know, is the ultimate end product
of weathering of rocks.
As such, for a better understanding of the
engineering properties of soils
the engineer will benefit a great deal if he has an
understanding of the genetic background of the soils.
Similarly, when foundations are to be carried
down to the bed rock,
the depth of the weathered cover,
degree of weathering and
trend of weathering - safety of the project.
For the construction Engineers
The extent of operational process of weathering
in the area
Likely effect of weathering on construction
material to assess the durability
Engineering Consideration
It is now well established that weathering is
the main cause of instability of slopes in
many areas
Slope rocks lose shearing strength and
become prone to failure ensure protection
of slope rocks.
Recommending special stones (Marbles,
Limestone, Granites) in major construction
towards chemical environment of the area
Engineering Consideration