The relevance of geology in civil engineering can be summarized as follows:

1. Construction: Geology provides vital information about the site of construction, including the
geological composition and characteristics of the area. This information is crucial for planning,
designing, and executing construction projects such as buildings, dams, bridges, tunnels, and
highways. Geological maps help identify suitable construction materials, understand the stability
of the ground, and determine excavation methods.
2. Water Resource Development: Geology plays a significant role in the exploration and
utilization of water resources. Understanding the geological properties of rock formations and
aquifers is essential for designing water supply projects, assessing water availability, and
managing groundwater resources. Geological information helps in identifying potential sources
of water and predicting movement and yield from aquifers.
3. Town and Regional Planning: Geology contributes to town and regional planning by
providing insights into the natural environment. Understanding the geological characteristics of
an area, including rocks, soils, vegetation, and water bodies, helps planners make informed
decisions about land use, resource allocation, and environmental preservation. It allows for a
holistic approach to minimize disturbances and derive maximum benefits from the natural
environment.
•In construction jobs, geological information is crucial during the planning stage, where
topographical maps, hydrological maps, and geological maps help determine the suitability of
the site, availability of construction materials, and potential geological hazards. Geological
characteristics also influence the engineering design, including the selection of dam types,
consideration of rock properties, and assessment of seismic activity.
•Geology is also relevant in water resource development, where understanding rock properties,
aquifer characteristics, and water movement patterns is necessary for efficient utilization and
management of water resources.
•In town and regional planning, geology provides a broader perspective on the natural
environment and its evolution. It helps in assessing the impact of proposed projects, allocating
land for development, and considering the interconnectedness of geological elements with other
environmental factors.
•In summary, geology plays a vital role in various aspects of civil engineering, including site
selection, material sourcing, structural design, groundwater management, hazard assessment,
and sustainable development. By incorporating geological knowledge into civil engineering
practices,professionals can ensure safe and environmentally responsible infrastructure projects.
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
• Weathering is a natural process of in-situ mechanical disintegration and/or chemical
decomposition of the rocks by certain physical and chemical agencies of the atmosphere
• The weathered product remains lying over and above or near to the parent rock unless it is
removed from there by some other agency of the nature.
• Weathering can be classified mainly into two classes
1. Mechanical (physical) weathering 2. Chemical Weathering
1. MECHANICAL/PHYSICAL WEATHERING
• Disintegration of rocks into smaller fragments and particles through physical processes without
a change in their chemical composition
• The end products (fragments and particles) have the same chemical composition as the parent
rock • One of the most common geological processes of slow natural rock disintegration in all
parts of the world. • The variations in temperature and organic activity are the two important
factors that bring about this change under specific conditions • Temperature variations
cause extensive mechanical weathering of rocks exposed on the surface. This occurs mainly by
two ways viz. frost action in cold regions and thermal effects (insolation) in hot arid regions.
a) Frost Action
• Occurs in areas of cold and humid climates, where temperature often falls below the freezing
point of water repeatedly during winter • Water on freezing undergoes an increase in its
volume by about 10 % • A freezing cycle is often followed by a thawing cycle (melting of ice
within cavities). • The repetition of freezing and thawing cycles over many years, results in the
exertion of internal stresses within the cavities leading to gradual disintegration of rocks.
• The frost formed fragments are angular, sub angular and irregular in outline • Fragments
remain spread over the parent rock having flat surface • If the parent rock forms a significant
slope, the fragments roll down under the influence of gravity
• The fragments accumulate at the base as heap scree deposits • When the slopes are
stabilized and the pull of gravity is weaker, the fragments remains over the slopes
• Slopes covered by frost formed scree talus slopes
b) Exudation
• A process similar to frost action • But in this case disintegration takes place due to formation
of crystals of salts like sodium chloride etc. within the cavities.
• The process is seen in rocks near shores.
c) Thermal Effects (Insolation)
• Occur in arid, desert and semi-arid regions where summer and winter temperatures differ
considerably • Rocks, like many other solids, expand on heating and contract on cooling
• Such repeated variations in temperatures develops tensile stresses due to alternate
expansion and contraction. • Hence the body of rock gradually breaks into smaller pieces.
d) Exfoliation
• This type of weathering is found in deserts and other areas of temperature extremes.
• The process of peeling off of curved shells from rocks under the influence of thermal effects in
association with chemical weathering is called exfoliation.
d) Unloading
• Large scale development of fractures in confined rock masses due to removal of the overlying
rock cover due to prolonged erosional work of other agencies.
2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING
• Process of alteration of rocks of the crust by chemical decomposition by atmospheric gases
and moisture. • The processes of chemical reactions between the surfaces of rocks and
atmospheric gases take place till a chemical equilibrium is established • The end product has a
different chemical composition and poorer physical constitution as compared to the parent rock
• Chemical weathering depends upon the mineralogical composition of rocks and the nature of
chemical environment surrounding them.
•Main processes of chemical weathering
1. Solution 2. Hydration and hydrolysis 3. Oxidation and reduction
4. Carbonation 5. Colloid formation
a) Solution
• It is the process by which rock is dissolved in water • Some rocks contain one or minerals
that are soluble in water to some extent, e.g.Rock salt, gypsum and calcite.
• Some minerals are not soluble in water. The solvent action of water for many common
minerals is enhanced when carbonated. Eg: Limestone
• Strongly influenced by pH and temperature
b) Hydration and Hydrolysis
• These two processes indicate the direct attack of atmospheric moisture on individual minerals
of a rock that affect its structural make up.• When the surfaces of many crystals come in contact
with polarized water molecules, any one of the following reactions can occur:
Hydration:
• The ions tend to hold the polarized side of water molecule and form a hydrate.
• This process of addition of the water molecule is called hydration.
• For example: CaSO4 + 2H2O —-->CaSO42H2O (Anhydrite) (Water) (Gypsum)
• Anhydrite gets slowly converted to gypsum by hydration as shown above.
Hydrolysis:
• Process in which exchange of ions occur whereby water enters into the crystal lattice of
mineral, KAlSi3O8 + H+ —----->H Al Si3 O8 + K+
(Orthoclase) + (Ion from water) Silicic acid like structure + Potassium ion
c) Oxidation and Reduction
Oxidation- gaining of oxygen / losing of hydrogen
Reduction- loss of oxygen / gaining of oxygen
• Iron bearing minerals in the rocks are prone to oxidation and reduction.• When exposed to air
rich in moisture Ferrous iron (Fe2+) —--->(oxidized) Ferric Iron (Fe3+)
4Fe + 3O2—-> 2Fe2O3
Fe2O3 + H2O—--> Fe2O3.H2O
• The effects of oxidation are observed from colour changes produced in iron bearing rocks.
Ferric state- brown colour
Ferrous state- shades of green, blue and grey
• Iron oxide in rocks and minerals may undergo a reduction of the oxides to elemental iron in
presence of decaying vegetation, which supplies carbonaceous content causing reduction.
d) Carbonation
• It is the process of weathering of rocks under the combined action of atmospheric CO2 and
moisture.
• The carbonic acid formed corrodes silicate bearing rocks. For example:
2KAlSi3O8 + 2H2O+ CO2 —-->Al2Si2O5
(OH) 4 + K2CO3+ 4SiO2
(Orthoclase) + Carbonic acid (Kaolinite) + (Pot. Carbonate) + Silica
• Many igneous rocks like granites, basalts and porphyries suffer this type of weathering on a
massive scale
e) Colloid formation
• The process of hydration, hydrolysis and oxidation(and reduction) acting on rocks and
minerals under various atmospheric conditions may not always end in the formation of stable
end products
• Often they result in splitting of particles into still smaller particles – the colloids –characterized
by atoms with only partially satisfied electrical charges. • Formation of colloidal particles is
especially common in the weathering of clay minerals, silica and iron oxides.
3.SPHEROIDAL WEATHERING
• As the name indicates, the breaking of original rock mass into spheroidal blocks is called
spheroidal weathering. • It is caused by the combined action of mechanical and chemical
weathering. • The original rock mass is split into small blocks by development of parallel joints
due to thermal effects. Simultaneously, chemical weathering corrodes the border and surfaces
of blocks causing their shapes roughly into spheroidal contours.
4.ORGANIC WEATHERING (ROLE OF PLANTS AND ORGANISMS)
• The decay and disintegration of rocks by living things is called organic weathering.
• Hydrogen ions (H+) are released at the roots of plants during their growth and metabolism.
•These ions replace K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ ions etc. from the rocks surrounding the root system. Thus
these rocks and minerals undergo decomposition. • Root systems of big plants and trees creep
into the pre-existing cracks in the nearby rocks. Thus the cracks widen and the rocks break into
fragments. • Action of rodents on rocks will also cause the disintegration of rocks.
SOIL PROFILE
• In mature soil, the stages of transformation appear as a series of horizons or layers with
contrasting properties • Such horizons, when arranged in descending order, are collectively
said to form a soil profile for that particular area.
The A-Horizon
• Characterized by finely divided particles • Extends from few centimetres to as much as a
meter or more • May contain loose leaves, incompletely decomposed organic matter and
good amount of humus
The B-Horizon
• Often free from the staining of particles by humus • May contain nodules of calcium
carbonate or gypsum • Colloid accumulation is maximum.
The C-Horizon
• More a zone of weathered rock than a true soil • Course grained and pebbly, in texture
• Retains all the evidences of parent rock, in composition
The D-Horizon
• Layer of parent rock • Starts from the base of C Zone and extends downwards infinitely.
SOIL EROSION The removal of soil particles by the natural agents of transport like wind water
and ice is called soil erosion.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
1. Sheet erosion
• When water flows as a sheet down a slope and as a result, the top part of the land is washed
away, such an erosion is called sheet erosion • Due to the rainfall on an artificially prepared soil
especially on gently sloping fields • Many soil grains are pounded loose and made free to float
away during the initial stages of rainfall. • This process starts simultaneously over a large area
so that after some time during the rains, a huge thick sheet of water flows down the slope and
hence it cause erosion of the top soil i.e. uniform skimming of the top soil. • Sheet erosion has
been described as dangerous because this erosion cannot recognized easily and thus it may
continue for years without being realized.
2. Gully erosion
• The removal of soil along drainage lines by surface water runoff • Gullying is a consequence
of sheet erosion • Uniform sheet erosion over any surface for longer periods is impossible,
because • the flow velocities over the entire surface cannot be uniform • the surface cannot
be 'absolutely' perfect. • Hence, rate of erosion along different paths would be different
• These paths of excessive erosion eventually develop into gulleys with the passage of time
GEOLOGICAL WORK OF RIVERS
• During its life while flowing from head to mouth, the rivers are capable of exerting greatly
modifying influence over the topography of the region through which they flow
• The modifying influence over the topography of the region by any natural agent is called its
geological work
• The geological work of streams may be broadly divided into three well-defined phases
• Erosion • Transportation • Deposition
Methods of river erosion
• Hydraulic action – mechanical loosening and removal of the material from the rocks due to
pressure exerted by the running water
• Abrasion - the mechanical wear caused by the impact of rock particles carried in the current
striking against the rock exposed at the channel surface
• Attrition - the disintegration by the collision of the particles that are suspended in water
• Corrosion - the process of dissolving the materials that remain with the water of the river
Features of stream erosion Some of land form features developed due to river erosion are:
• Potholes:
– Variously shaped depressions of different dimensions developed in the river bed
– Generally cylindrical or bowl shaped in outline – Formation process is initiated by a simple
plucking out of a protruding rock projection at the riverbed.
River valleys:
– Valley may be defined as low land surrounded on sides by inclined hill slopes and mountains
– Every major river is associated with a valley of its own.
Gorges and canyons:
– Process of valley deepening gives rise to magnificent surface features known as gorges and
canyons – Gorges are very deep and narrow valleys with very steep and high walls on either
side – Their length varies from few metres to several kilometres at a stretch
– Canyon is a specific type of gorge where the layers cut down by a river are essentially
stratified and horizontal in attitude – a canyon is often wider compared to a gorge.
Water falls:
– Magnificent jumps made by stream or river water at certain specific parts of their course where
there is a sudden and considerable drop in the gradient of the channel.
Stream terraces:
– Bench like ledges or flat surfaces that occur on the sides of many river valleys
– May be made up of hard rock or soft rock, look like steps.
LANDSLIDE
• Land slide may be defined as geological phenomena in which there is gradual or sudden
movement of soil and rock mass under gravity.
• They may occur when the driving forces tending to pull soil and rock downhill equal or exceed
the resisting forces holding it in place. • The driving forces for landslides may be that part of the
weight of the soil and rock acting either parallel to the slope, or that part of the weight that tries
to rotate the material out of the slope, or seismic shaking. • These forces increase with slope
steepness and rock density, and, in the case of rotational failures, with increasing slope height.
• The resisting forces to prevent landslides are the strength of the slope materials, strength
added by roots of trees and vegetation, and buttressing of the lower part of the slope by
stronger materials that have to be pushed or rotated out of the way before the upper part of the
slope can move. • Obviously, landslides may occur either due to an increase in driving force
or/and a reduction in the resisting force.
TYPES OF LANDSLIDES
1. Slides
• A type of mass failure in which a superficial mass fails by moving as a whole along a definite
surface of failure • The two major types of slides are
i. Rotational slides - the surface of rupture is curved concavely upwards and the slide
movement is roughly rotational about an axis
ii. Translational slides - When the landslide mass moves along a roughly planar surface with
little rotation or backward tilting
2. Falls
• It is an abrupt movement of masses of geologic materials such as rocks and boulders that are
detached from steep slopes or cliffs. • It is characterized by extremely rapid speed and with
slope of 45–90° with the surface of rupture.
3. Topples
• Toppling is characterized by the forward rotation of a unit or units about some pivotal point and
has intermittent contact with the surface of detachment. • It is characterized by slow to high
speed and without contact of slope. These phenomena take place under the actions of gravity
and other forces exerted by adjacent units or by fluids in cracks
4. Flows
• Flows of fine-grained materials are characterized by slow movement and low angle of contact
surface with dominant constituents. • It is characterized by slow speed (< 5 m/s) and with a
slope of 45–90° with the surface of rupture. • Types of flows are related to the nature of
materials and agencies involved for the development of landslides.
• These different flows are explained below:
o Debris flow - Down slope movement of collapsed, unconsolidated material typically along a
stream channel
o Debris Avalanche - This is a variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow generated by
glaciers
o Earthflow - Earth flows have a characteristic bowl-shape. The slope material liquefies and
runs out, forming a bowl or depression at the head
o Mudflow - A mudflow is an earthflow consisting of material that is wet enough to flow rapidly
and that contains at least fifty per cent sand-, silt and clay-sized particles.
5. Lateral spreading
• Occurs when the soil mass spreads laterally and this spreading comes with tensional cracks in
the soil mass.
CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES
•Since landslide is a sudden or gradual movement along gravity, it is triggered by a number of
factors like precipitation, lithology, geological structures and human intervention. The conditions
and possible
•causes of landslides are morphological, geological, physical (intense or prolonged rainfall, rapid
snowmelt or sharp fluctuations in groundwater levels) and human activities. All soil types can be
affected by natural landslide-triggering conditions. These are briefly described below:
1. Morphological Causes
• The morphological causes constitute slope angle and erosion of the existing soils and rocks.
• The steeper slopes can be at an increased risk for landslides • Topography of a slope its
shape, size, degree of slope and drainage in the area contribute significantly to landslides
2. Geological Causes
• Geological causes comprise of earthquakes, volcanism and change in groundwater.
• Seismic tremors can trigger landslides on slopes historically known to have landslide
movement. •Earthquakes can also cause additional failure (lateral spreading) that can occur on
gentle slopes above steep stream and river banks. • Volcanism is responsible as one of the
geological causes and it dislocates the existing rock mass and accelerates soil and rocks
erosion. • Erosion by rivers, glaciers, or ocean waves that create over-steepened slopes is
also responsible for landslides.
3. Groundwater
• Water flowing below the ground is often the factor that finally triggers many landslides
• Groundwater acts as a lubricant to the landslide • Groundwater occurs in the form of
seepage, shallow groundwater and deeper groundwater levels in different rocks and regions
• Seepage which cuts the ground surface is quite vulnerable for landslides.
•While the shallow water level accelerates the rate of landslides, the deeper water level doesnot
4. Physical Causes
• Physical causes encompass rainfall and snowmelt. The rate of precipitation is one of the most
significant causes for landslides. • Of the natural processes the rainfall and the earthquake,
rainfall-initiated landslides tend to be smaller, while earthquake-induced landslides may be very
large, but less frequent. • It is well known that most of the landslides occur during rainy season
only. • Rainfall/ snowmelt triggers the disintegration of rock mass and results in its
transportation from the original place.
5. Human Causes
• Landslides may result directly or indirectly from the activities of people.
• There are several manmade reasons for creating landslides and their movement. These
include excavation, loading, deforestation and mining and are described as follows.
Excavation - The digging of land surface and excavation of massive rocks certainly weakens
the massiveness or strength of rocks. Since the strength of rocks is affected, the landslides are
triggered, and that too at enhanced rate.
Loading - Rocks or soil has its own bearing capacity. Different types of overburden accelerate
the landslides. The weight of excavated material and some of the other types of loads, e.g.,
construction of buildings on the outcrop of landslide prone areas fall in this category. Excess
weight from accumulation of rain or snow, from stockpiling of rock or ore, from waste piles, or
from human made structures, may cause weak slopes susceptible to failure. This is so because
the loading on upper slopes results in an additional load to be carried by the slope which could
result in its failure.
Deforestation - It is one of the most important causes under human activity resulting in
landslides. Plants or trees hold the soil firmly and prevent the soil erosion reducing the intensity
of landslides. Therefore, deforestation results in an increased probability of landslide and its
intensity. As an example, in the Himalayan region, deforestation has intensified the frequency
and area coverage of landslides
control measures used to mitigate the risks of landslides:
1. Slope stabilization: Techniques such as soil nailing, anchoring, and retaining walls are
employed to stabilize slopes and prevent soil or rock mass movement.
2. Grading and terracing: Modifying the slope geometry through terracing and grading can
reduce the angle of inclination and redistribute the forces acting on the slope, making it more
stable.
3. Surface water management: Proper drainage systems, including surface and subsurface
drainage, are implemented to control the flow of water and prevent excessive water infiltration
that can weaken slopes.
4. Erosion control: Implementing erosion control measures, such as revegetation, erosion
control blankets, and retaining vegetation, helps to stabilize the soil and prevent
erosion-induced landslides.
5. Rockfall protection: Installation of rockfall barriers, fences, or catchment systems can
intercept falling rocks and prevent them from reaching vulnerable areas.
6. Retaining structures: Construction of retaining walls or other structural supports can provide
stability to slopes and prevent mass movement.
7. Ground improvement: Techniques like grouting, soil compaction, and soil reinforcement using
geosynthetic materials can improve the strength and stability of soil or rock masses.
8. Land use planning and zoning: Implementing appropriate land use planning and zoning
regulations helps restrict construction in high-risk landslide areas and ensures that vulnerable
zones are used for low-impact activities.
9. Early warning systems: Monitoring systems, including geotechnical instruments, remote
sensing technologies, and GIS, are used to detect early warning signs of slope instability and
trigger timely evacuation or precautionary measures.
•It's important to note that the selection and combination of control measures depend on
site-specific conditions, including the geological and geotechnical characteristics of the area, the
severity of the landslide hazard, and available resources.
—---#-------#--------#-------#-------#-------#--------MOD 2
EARTHQUAKES
• Seismology – the science dealing with the study of earthquakes in all their aspects
• Focus – the place or point of origin of an earthquake below the surface of the Earth. Also
known as hypocentre
• Epicentre – the point or place on the surface vertically above the focus of a particular
earthquake
• Focal Depth - The depth of focus from the epicenter
• Epicentral distance - Distance from epicenter to any point of interest
• Seismic waves – the elastic waves generated at the focus during an earthquake.
SEISMIC WAVES
• Recorded by mean of instruments known as seismometer, hydrophone, or accelerometer.
• The propagation velocity of the waves depends on density and elasticity of the medium
through which they travel. • Various types of waves with different velocities; when reaching
seismic observatories, their different travel times help to locate the source of the earthquake
• The two main types of waves are
– body waves – surface waves
BODY WAVES
– Travel deep into the body of the Earth before emerging on the Earth’s surface
– The examples are P- and S-waves
P-waves
– Also called primary waves, push and pull waves
– These are the fastest waves in which the particles vibrate in the direction of propagation.
– The velocity of P - wave is related to the rigidity of the medium and its density.
S-waves
– Also called secondary waves.
– In these waves particles vibrate right angles to the direction of propagation of the wave.
SURFACE WAVES
– Travel along the Earth’s surface – The examples are L-waves and Rayleigh waves.
– slower than body waves
– Because of their low frequency, long duration, and large amplitude, they can be the most
destructive type of seismic wave – They diminish as they get further from the surface.
L-waves
– Also called love waves
– The displacement of particles in L-waves is horizontal, in the direction of propagation
– Usually travel slightly faster than Rayleigh waves and have the largest amplitude.
Rayleigh waves
– The displacement of particles is of complex nature, partly being in the direction of propagation
and partly at right angles to it.
ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY
• Most of the elastic energy stored during stressing is released at focus in the form of seismic
waves • EQ mechanism can be explained in three phases
– First – the preparatory process – its duration define the size of actual EQ – A number of
foreshocks are often recorded during this phase
– Second – the rupture phase – rupture takes place along the fault and all or part of stored
elastic energy is released – main shock is in this phase
– Third - the post failure adjustment – the medium is restored to a state of equilibrium involving
series of aftershocks.
PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
• In recent times, the concept of plate tectonics has been made use of in explaining the origin of
tectonic earthquakes • German scientist Alfred Wegener, in 1915 proposed that, 200 million
years ago the earth had only one continent called Pangaea. • Pangaea broke into pieces that
slowly drifted into the present configuration of continents.
• This sliding of Earth’s mass takes place in pieces called Tectonic Plates
• The surface of the Earth consists of seven major tectonic plates and many smaller ones.
Major Tectonic Plates
• Eurasian Plate. • Indo – Australian plate. • Pacific plate • North – American Plate.
• South – American Plate • African Plate •Antarctic Plate.
• These plates move in different directions and at different speeds from those of the
neighbouring ones.
• Convergent Boundaries: Sometimes, the plate in the front is slower; then, the plate behind it
comes and collides (and mountains are formed).
• Divergent Boundaries: sometimes two plates move away from one another (and rifts are
created).
• Transform Boundaries: Two plates move side-by-side, along the same direction or in
opposite directions.
RECORDING OF EARTHQUAKES
• The instrument used to record the motion of seismic waves is called seismograph
• The record produced by the instrument is called Seismogram • A seismograph is designed for
recording either the horizontal or the vertical component of ground motion.
• A seismograph, has three components – the sensor, the recorder and the timer.
• The Sensor: The pendulum mass, string,magnet and support
• The Recorder: The drum, pen and chart paper constitute the recorder; and
• The Timer: the motor that rotates the drum at constant speed forms the timer.
– Pendulum type seismographs are generally used.
MAGNITUDE OF EARTHQUAKE
• Magnitude is a measure of the energy released by the earthquake, which defines its size of the
actual Size of the earthquake. • Because earthquakes vary a lot in size, earthquake magnitude
scales are logarithmic. • Professor Charles Richter in 1935 devised a logarithmic scale - Richter
scale - the first earthquake magnitude scale. The scale is a base-10 logarithmic scale.
• It is obtained from the seismograms and accounts • This scale is also called Local Magnitude
scale. • Earthquakes are classified based on magnitude as
Group Magnitude

Great 8 and higher

Major 7 – 7.9

Strong 6 – 6.6

Moderate 5 – 5.9

Light 4 – 4.9

Minor 3 – 3.9

Very Minor < 3.0

INTENSITY OF EARTHQUAKE
• An indicator of the severity of shaking generated at a given location • Intensity is a qualitative
measure of the actual shaking at a location during an earthquake, and is assigned as Roman
Capital Numerals • There are many intensity scales. Two commonly used ones are the Modified
Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale and the Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik (MSK) Scale
• Both scales are quite similar and range from I (least perceptive) to XII (most severe)
• The intensity scales are based on three features of shaking,
– Perception by people and animals, – performance of buildings,
– Changes to natural surroundings.
•The distribution of intensity at different places during an earthquake is shown graphically using
isoseismals, lines joining places with equal seismic intensity
SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA
• The Indian subcontinent has a history of devastating earthquakes. • The major reason for the
high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that the Indian plate is driving into Eurasian
plate at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year. • Geographical statistics of India show that almost
54% of the land is vulnerable to earthquakes. • The first zoning map of India was prepared in
1962 • The latest version of seismic zoning map of India given in the earthquake resistant
design code [IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002] assigns four levels of seismicity for India in terms of zone
factors. • In other words, the earthquake zoning map of India divides the country into 4 seismic
zones (Zone II, III, IV and V), unlike its previous version which consisted of five zones.
Zone V
• Covers areas with the highest level of risk that is expected of earthquakes of intensity MMI IX
or greater. • It is referred to as the very high-damage risk zone. • IS code assigns zone factor
of 0.36 to the areas situated in this zone. • Designers use this value for earthquake resistant
design of structures in Zone V. • The state of Kashmir, the western and central Himalayas, the
North-East Indian region and the Rann of Kutch fall in this zone.
Zone IV
• This zone is referred to the as high-damage risk zone and covers areas liable to earthquake
intensity levels of MMI VIII. • The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.24 for this zone.
• The Indo-Gangetic basin, the capital of the country (Delhi), and some parts of Jammu and
Kashmir fall in Zone IV. • In Maharashtra, Patan area (Koyananager) also lies in Zone IV.
Zone III
• Moderate-damage risk zone • Liable to earthquake intensity level of MMI VII, and of
magnitude 7.8. • IS code assigns zone factor of 0.16 for Zone III. • Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, some parts of Kashmir, and Western Himalayas fall under this zone.
Zone II
• Low damage risk zone • Liable to earthquake intensity level of MMI VI or less.
• IS code assigns zone factor of 0.10 for Zone II.
• Parts of U.P, Bihar and West Bengal fall under this category.
CODES FOR DESIGN OF EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
• Seismic codes are prepared as guidelines for design of earthquake-resistant structures.
• When an earthquake occurs, the ground moves in lateral sides and also in the upward and
downward directions. • The forces that cause the movement of the ground can be resisted by
the structure if it is constructed following the guidelines provided in the seismic codes.
• The codes are based on the probable maximum shocks that a structure may experience
during its lifetime. • The probable maximum intensity of earthquake of an area is considered
from the seismic zoning map, which has been prepared from the past earthquake records of the
area. • In 1962, BIS published the code IS 1893 for earthquake-resistant structures, which
include structures such as buildings, dams, and retaining walls.
• In the latest revision of BIS in 2002, this code has been separated into five parts:
(i) part I for retaining tanks, (ii) part II for buildings, (iii) part III for buildings and retaining walls,
(iv) part IV for industrial structures, and (v) part V for dams and embankments.
• The codes take care of the following criteria in the design:
i. The structure can resist the lateral forces so as to prevent the collapse of structures.
ii. The load-bearing capacity (size, shape, and structural system) of the structure is kept in such
a way that the flow of inertia to the ground takes place smoothly.
iii. The lateral load-resistant system is made in such a way that under low-to-intermediate
earthquake shocks, there will be no damage to structures.
iv. During high-intensity earthquakes, the structure will be saved by providing ductility.
The Mohorovicic Discontinuity
• The first major discontinuity in the seismic record for the earthquakes and is named after its
discoverer A.Mohorovicic • It occurs in the seismic records at depths of 30-40 km below the
continents, 5-6 km below the oceans and 60-70 km below the mountains. • It is observed that
both P and S waves on reaching these depths undergo sharp increase in their velocity
• The P-waves attain a velocity of 7.75 km/sec from an original velocity of 5.4 km/sec in the
immediately overlying layer. • Similarly, the S waves traveling at 3.3km/sec attain velocity of 4.35
km/sec at this junction. • Thus the Mohorovicic discontinuity marks the lower limits of the skin
of the earth commonly known as the Crust. • The crust is merely 35 km thick (on an average)
below the continental surfaces and about 5-6 km thick under the oceans.
• Comparison of the earth with a large old apple will help in clarifying the concept of crust.
• The crust is to the earth what skin is to an old apple: a very thin, hard and wrinkled sheet of
rock covering.
The Mantle-Core Discontinuity
• The seismic waves that cross the mohorovicic discontinuity continue to travel downwards with
almost a uniform increase in their velocities.• Another major discontinuity at a depth of 2,900 km
below the surface • The P waves become very sluggish and suffer a decrease in velocity from
13.64 km/sec to as low as 8.1 km/sec. • Also the S-waves are practically stopped from going
deeper into the earth at this depth (of 2,900 km) • The zone of the earth lying between these two
discontinuities, the M-Discontinuity and the Mantle-Core Discontinuity, is called MANTLE.
• The second discontinuity, recorded at depth of 2,900 km, while demarcating the end of Mantle
also marks the beginning of the third major zone of the Earth that is named as CORE.
• This discontinuity is, therefore, aptly known as mantle-core discontinuity. • It was first
discovered from the seismic records by B.Gutenberg in 1918 and subsequently confirmed by
Jefferys in 1939. • The behaviour of P and S waves below the depth of 2,900 km throws
sufficient light on the existence of the third major shell, the Core.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH
• The final picture developed from the study of seismic waves, divides Earth into 3 well defined
shells or zones • Crust • Mantle • Core
1. THE CRUST • Uppermost shell of earth
• Study of seismic waves reveals following details about thickness of the crust:
Mountain areas – Under the Himalayas, the crust is believed to be 70 – 75 km thick
– Under Hindukush Mountains it is 60 km thick – Under the Andes it is 75 km thick
Continental Areas – The thickness varies from 30 – 40km
– Along the continental slopes thickness if the crust shows considerable variation
Oceanic Areas
– The thickness varies from a maximum of 19 to low value of 5 km in deep oceans
The Continental Crust
• It is further distinguished into 3 layers : A, B and C
1. The A or the upper Layer – Thickness: 2 – 10 km – Low density : 2.2 g/cc – Mostly
made up of sedimentary rocks – P wave velocity ranges from 1.8 to 5 km/sec
2. The B or Middle layer
- Thickness: 20km or more - Relatively dense : 2.4 to 2.6 g/cc - Sometimes also called granite
layer - Made up mostly of granites and other igneous and metamorphic rocks
- In most places, this layer is exposed on the surface because the overlying A layer has already
been removed due to prolonged erosion by weathering agents - Sometimes named as SIAL
3. The C or lowermost layer
– Thickness : 25 – 40 km – Density : 2.8 to 3.3 g/cc – Also referred as Basaltic layer
– Made predominantly of basic minerals (rich in magnesium silicates)
– Sometimes named as SIMA (Si – Silica, Ma – Magnesium)
The Oceanic Crust
– It is generally extension of C layer – A & B layers of continental crust are absent from here
– Estimated to have a volume of 2.54 x 10^9 cc – Average density of 3.00 g/cc
2. THE MANTLE – Second concentric shell of the Earth – Lies beneath the crust – Extends
up to a depth 2900 km – Nature of mantle is incompletely understood
– Sub-divided into : Upper & Lower mantle – The upper mantle is further divided into 2 layers
of 400 & 600 km thickness respectively – Density ranges from : 3.3 g/cc – just below the crust
5.7 g/cc – at the base of mantle – A part of upper mantle (100 – 500 km depth) is in plastic state
– Asthenosphere (Source of volcanic activity)
3. THE CORE
– Innermost concentric shell of the Earth – The core boundary begins at depth of 2,900 km
from the surface and extends to center of earth at 6,371 km – Sub-divided into : Outer Core &
Inner Core – Density : 5.7 g/cc = at the base of mantle 9.9 g/cc = at top of the mantle12.7 g/cc
= at boundary of inner core 13.0 g/cc = at the center of earth
– Inner core is made up of iron and nickel
—----#--------#-------#-------#-------#--------#-------#------#-----MOD 3
ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF SUBSURFACE WATER
• The water that goes below the surface of land may be found to exist in two main zones,vadose
water and phreatic water (ground water). • The vadose zone ("vadose" is from the Latin for
"shallow"), also termed the unsaturated zone,is the part of Earth between the land surface and
the top of the phreatic zone, the position at which the groundwater is at atmospheric pressure.
• The vadose zone extends from the top of the ground surface to the water table.
• Water in the vadose zone has a pressure head less than atmospheric pressure, and is
retained by a combination of adhesion and capillary action.
• Vadose water is distinguished into three different types,
(a) Soil Water :
- It forms a thin layer confined to near surface of the land. - It may occur at depths between 1
to 9 meters - It is held up by root zone of vegetation and soil - This water is very important for
the life and growth of vegetation - It is lost to atmosphere through transpiration & evaporation
(b) Intermediate vadose zone
- It occurs immediately below soil water. - Water in this zone is moving downwards under the
influence of gravity. - It is generally of small thickness and may be absent in some cases
(c) Capillary water
- The zone of capillary water called capillary fringe is present only in soils and rocks of fine
particle size underlying the vadose zone - It is absent in the coarse sediments
- In fine particle size zone, groundwater is drawn upwards by capillary action above saturated
zone lying underneath.
• The Phreatic water zone, also called as zone of saturation lies below the capillary fringe
• The water held in this zone is called groundwater • The upper surface of this zone is called
water table. In this zone, the layers or rocks which are porous and permeable have their open
spaces filled with groundwater. • The predominant movement in this zone is lateral flow
controlled by head of flow (flowing from higher head to lower head).
OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER
• There are three sources of groundwater:
1. Meteoric water
• Water derived from precipitation (rain and snow). • It is a reliable source of water.
• It is dependent on duration of rain, porosity of ground and nature of ground during rain.
2. Connate water
– It is the water that were trapped in the pores of sedimentary rocks as they were deposited.
– When the sedimentary rocks form in lake, sea or river, deposition is followed by compaction,
which squeezes out water between the sediments
– However, incomplete compaction causes retention of water by these rocks
– Commonly saline in nature – Of no importance as a source of exploitable groundwater.
3. Juvenile water
• Water that exists within a magma or water-rich volatile fluids that are derived from a magma
• This magmatic water is released to the atmosphere during a volcanic eruption
• Some hot springs and geysers are derived from magmatic water.
∆Based on water bearing capacity, rocks can be further classified into
a. Aquifer
• An aquifer (from Latin aqua-water, ferre-to bear) is a water-bearing geological formation.
• Not only stores the water but also yields it in adequate quantity. • Water can be economically
tapped from an aquifer • Quality of an aquifer depend on how much quantity of water a rock
formation can hold per unit volume and at what rate it can yield water when tapped for supplies
• Gravels, limestone and sandstones generally form good aquifers when occurring in suitable
geological conditions and geographic situations.
b. Aquiclude
• A rock body or formation which may be porous enough to hold enough quantity of water.
• Not capable of transmitting water through it (practically impermeable rock mass)
• It contains a large amount of water in it but it does not permit water through it and also does
not yield water • Compacted clay formations are the best examples.
c. Aquifuge
• An impermeable geological formation which is neither porous nor permeable - which means it
cannot store water in it and at the same time it cannot permit water through it.
• It does not have any pores and interstices
• Compact interlocking granites and quartzite are examples.
d. Aquitard
• A saturated formation that has low permeability and yields water slowly in comparison to the
adjoining aquifers • Capable of storing groundwater but does not yield in significant quantities
• An Aquitard transmits water at a low rate compared to an aquifer.
• It is an Aquifuge or Aquiclude that has become locally leaky due to development of partial
perviousness caused by excessive jointing or cracks.
TYPES OF AQUIFERS
• Based on their occurrence, these are divided into two:
– Unconfined aquifers – Confined aquifers
a. Unconfined aquifers.
• Also called water table aquifer or free aquifer or phreatic aquifer • The most common type
• The upper surface of an unconfined aquifer is defined by the water table and it is in direct
contact with the atmosphere. • Water in an unconfined aquifer is under atmospheric pressure
and therefore does not rise above the water table. • When tapped through a well, the free water
will rise to a level in the well equivalent to the water table of the area. • The water table in
unconfined aquifers is free to rise and fall. • Rise and fall in the unconfined aquifer correspond
to changes in the volume of water in storage within aquifer. • Water occurring in this type of
aquifer is called Free Groundwater. • The water table depth ranges from 1m to 100m or more.
b. Confined aquifers.
• An aquifer that is confined from above and below by an aquiclude or an impervious bed rock
• Water held in such aquifers is under a greater pressure due to the confining medium.
• If a well taps the aquifer, the water level will rise above the top of the aquifer, i.e. above the
base of the overlying confining bed • The imaginary surface, conforming to the elevations to
which water will rise in wells penetrating confined aquifers is known as the piezometric surface
or potentiometric surface. • If this elevation is greater than that of the land surface at the well,
the water will flow from the well and such wells are termed artesian or flowing wells.
• An artesian aquifer is a confined aquifer in which piezometric surface is always above the
ground level at many places when projected in elevation.
• When a well is drilled in a confined aquifer, the ground water in it rises towards the surface of
such a well is called artesian well. There is no need of pumping in these.
PROPERTIES OF AQUIFER
1.Porosity
• Porosity is a measure of the capacity of a rock or soil mass to store fluid in it
• Defined as the percentage of the voids present in a given volume of soil
{Porosity, n =(Volume of voids/Total volume of rock) × 100}
• Pores may be left in between individual grains and particles during the process of
deposition in rocks. • Sedimentary rocks are relatively highly porous.
• Only porous rocks can be aquifer, but high porosity itself is not sufficient to ensure water
yielding capacity of a rock • Effective porosity, is the volume of pores which is effective in the
release of water from an aquifer. • Factors that adversely affect the porosity of rock are,
– Adhesion to Grains – Unconnected Pores
2.Specific Yield
• The water released by aquifer depends on quantity and quality of the pores and other
openings present in the rock
• Specific yield, is defined as the quantity of water that a unit volume of aquifer drains by gravity.
• It is a function of grain size, shape and continuity of pore • Specific retention, is the term used
to express the amount of water retained by a unit volume of aquifer after allowing gravity
drainage through it • Specific yield & Specific retention together sum up the total porosity of an
aquifer • Coarse grained rocks have higher specific yields compared to fine grained rocks.
Darcy’s law
Darcy's law is an equation that describes the flow of a fluid through a porous medium. The law
was formulated by Henry Darcy based on the results of experiments on the flow of water
through beds of sand, forming the basis of hydrogeology
•According to Darcy‘s law, the rate of flow of groundwater (Specific Discharge, V) through a
column of saturated sand is:
i. Directly proportional to the difference in hydraulic head at the ends of the column (𝑽 ∝ (𝒉1
−𝒉2)
ii. Inversely proportional to the length of the column. (𝑽 ∝1⁄𝑳)
[𝑽 = 𝑲(𝒉𝟏−𝒉𝟐)/𝑳]
Where, V = Flux velocity K = Hydraulic Conductivity
(h1 – h2)= Difference in hydraulic head L = Length of column
•Hydraulic gradient is the difference in hydraulic head at two points (h1 – h2) divided by the
length (L). It is represented as ‘i’. The above equation may be re-written as, 𝑽 = 𝑲𝒊
•It is known that in a pipe flow condition which is analogous to flow in porous medium, the
discharge Q is given by, 𝑸 = 𝑽.𝑨
Where, A = cross sectional Area V = Specific Discharge
•From the above equation, the relationship of discharge to hydraulic conductivity is easily
established, 𝑸 = 𝑲𝒊𝑨
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD
• Electrical resistivity method, also referred to as galvanic electrical method, measures Earth
resistivity (the inverse of conductivity). • The electrical resistivity is a function of porosity,
permeability, water saturation and the concentration of dissolved solids in pore fluids within the
subsurface • Dry rocks and sediments, dense compact and pore-less rocks will offer a greater
resistance to the electric current compared to loose, porous and wet, saturated samples of
these very materials • There are two variations of the resistivity method
Electrical sounding – To determine variation in the nature of the subsurface materials with
increasing depths
Electrical profiling - To determine the areal extent of various formations upto the same depth
• The Wenner configuration • Consists of inserting two electrodes into the ground at a specific
distance from each other • Direct current is to be introduced through these electrodes - current
electrodes. • Distance between the electrodes varies from 10 meters to 100 meters, depending
on the depth to be probed. • Usually, the depth of investigation is less than the spacing between
electrodes. • The current will meet resistance from the material and there will be a drop in its
potential • The resulting potential difference is measured with two more electrodes called
potential electrodes, located symmetrically in a straight line between the two current electrodes.
• The resistivity measured by these potential electrodes is recorded as ―apparent resistivity(ρ)
ρ = 2πa (ΔV/I)
Where, a-spacing constant ΔV -potential difference I -current
Advantages
• Quantitative modeling is possible using either computer software or published master curves.
• The resulting models can provide accurate estimates of depth, thickness and electrical
resistivity of subsurface layers.
• The method is useful for groundwater exploration and determination of overburden thickness
Limitations
• Electrodes must be in direct contact with soil; if concrete or asphalt is present, holes must be
drilled for inserting the electrodes and then refilled when the survey is complete.
• For deep investigations, electrode arrays can be quite long. • Measurements may be limited
by highly conductive or highly resistive surface soils. If shallow clays and extremely shallow
groundwater are present, most of the current may concentrate at the surface. • Electrical
resistivity surveys require a fairly large area, far away from power lines and grounded metallic
structures such as metal fences, pipelines and railroad tracks. • The fieldwork is labour
intensive as a minimum of three crew members are required for the fieldwork.
SEA WATER INTRUSION
• Also called saltwater intrusion • The movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers, which
can lead to groundwater quality degradation, including drinking water sources, and other
consequences.• Naturally occur in coastal aquifers, owing to the hydraulic connection between
groundwater and seawater. • The fresh groundwater flows from inland areas towards the coast
where elevation and groundwater levels are lower. • Because saltwater has a higher content of
dissolved salts and minerals, it is denser than freshwater, causing it to have higher hydraulic
head than freshwater. • Hydraulic head refers to the liquid pressure exerted by a water column
• A water column with higher hydraulic head will move into a water column with lower hydraulic
head, if the columns are connected • The higher pressure and density of saltwater causes it to
move into coastal aquifers in a wedge shape under the freshwater. • The saltwater and fresh
water meet in a transition zone where mixing occurs through dispersion and diffusion.
• Ordinarily the inland extent of the saltwater wedge is limited because fresh groundwater levels,
or the height of the freshwater column, increases as land elevation gets higher.
CAUSES
Groundwater extraction
– The primary cause – Groundwater is the main source of drinking water and extraction has
increased over time. – Under baseline conditions, the inland extent of saltwater is limited by
higher pressure exerted by the freshwater column, owing to its higher elevation.
– Groundwater extraction can lower the level of the freshwater table, reducing the pressure
exerted by the freshwater column and allowing the denser saltwater to move inland laterally
– Groundwater extraction can also lead to well contamination by causing upwelling, or
upcoming, of saltwater from the depths of the aquifer.
– Water supply wells located over or near the saltwater wedge can draw the saltwater upward,
creating a saltwater cone that might reach and contaminate the well.
Canals and drainage networks
– Canals provide conduits for saltwater to be carried inland, as does the deepening of existing
channels for navigation purposes.
– Drainage networks constructed to drain flat coastal areas can lead to intrusion by lowering the
freshwater table, reducing the water pressure exerted by the freshwater column.
• Saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers is also influenced by factors such as:
– Tidal fluctuations – Long-term climate and sea level changes – Fractures in coastal rock
formations – Seasonal changes in evaporation and recharge rates – Recharge rates can also
be lowered in areas with increased urbanization and thus impervious surfaces.
ILL-EFFECTS
Deterioration of Water quality
– Salt-water intrusion from rising sea levels will reduce the quality and quantity of freshwater
supplies as it is happening along Atlantic and Gulf coasts.
– This is a major concern, since billions of people already lack access to freshwater.
– Salt water intrusion leads to the loss of fresh water vegetation
Effect on ecological health of streams
– Salt interacts with in-stream biota (animals and plants), changing the ecological health of
streams and estuaries.
– The greatest threat to biodiversity is from the loss of habitat—both on land and in water.
Decrease in agricultural production
– Water moves into plant roots by a process known as osmosis, which is controlled by the level
of salts in the soil water and in the water contained in the plant. – If the level of salts in the soil
water is too high, water may flow from the plant roots back into the soil.
– This results in dehydration of the plant, causing yield decline or even death of the plant.
REMEDIAL MEASURES TO CONTROL SEA WATER INTRUSION
To maintain the proper balance between water being pumped from an aquifer and the amount of
water recharging it: • Efforts towards the promotion of water conservation, and restricting
withdrawals from coastal aquifers have been the focus in many areas. • Using alternative
freshwater sources has also been encouraged. Ocean water desalination plants are showing up
in coastal regions around the world. • Where there are no other options for fresh water, efforts to
maintain groundwater levels by ponding surface water and storm water runoff, or using river
water to recharge the groundwater table have been successfully implemented. • In some
instances, barrier wells have been set up near the shore to pump out salt water and recharge a
fresh water gradient toward the sea. • Physical separation by barriers – construction of artificial
subsurface barriers. • Ground water recharge methods
GHYBEN-HERZBERG RELATION
• In the equation, The thickness of the freshwater zone above sea level is represented as h and
that below sea level is represented as z [ z=ρf/(ρs-ρf) × h ]
• The two thicknesses h and z, are related by ρf and ρs where ρf is the density of freshwater
and ρs is the density of saltwater
• Freshwater has a density of about 1g/cm3 at 20°C, whereas that of seawater is about 1.025
g/cm3.
• The equation can be simplified to z = 40 h
• The Ghyben-Herzberg ratio states, for every foot of fresh water in an unconfined aquifer above
sea level, there will be forty feet of fresh water in the aquifer below sea level.
PROBLEMS CREATED BY GROUND WATER TO CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
1. Tunnel and other underground structures:
- Collapses can occur when tunnels pass through water-bearing zones, as saturation weakens
the shear strength of the rock.
- Sudden inflow of water and loose materials can pose significant challenges and safety risks.
2. Dams and Reservoirs:
- Excavation for dam foundations encounters inflow of water, hindering construction activities.
- Leakage from reservoirs through joints, bedding planes, and porous rocks can be a
considerable concern.
3. Building Foundations:
- Subsurface water can reduce the bearing capacity of soils, leading to settlement or upheaval
of structures. - Expansive soils affected by groundwater can cause cracks in walls and floors
and potential structural failure.
4. Pavements:
- Water infiltration through cracks and capillary action can weaken the subgrade soil beneath
pavements. - Accumulated water reduces the bearing capacity, resulting in pavement
subsidence or deformation.
5. Stability conditions of slopes:
- Groundwater increases soil mass and weight, negatively affecting slope stability.
- Subsurface water reduces shear strength, generates pore water pressure, and contributes to
slope failures, particularly during the rainy season.
6. Irrigation Projects:
- Rising water tables in irrigation projects can cause waterlogging, leading to root system
decomposition and soil salinity, making the soil unsuitable for cultivation.
•These problems emphasize the significance of understanding and managing the groundwater
regime when designing and constructing civil engineering structures. Engineers need to gather
comprehensive information about groundwater conditions and employ appropriate strategies to
mitigate the potential adverse effects.
METHODS TO CONTROL GROUND WATER PROBLEMS
1. Groundwater Pumping (Dewatering):
- Sump pumping: Collect groundwater in sumps and pump it away.
- Wellpoint systems: Use small-diameter wells to draw water from shallow depths.
- Deep well systems: Extract larger quantities of water from deeper depths.
- Ejector wells: Draw water from deeper levels using jet pumps.
2. Low Permeability Cut-off Walls:
- Steel sheet piles: Drive interlocking sheet materials into the ground to retain water or soil.
- Concrete diaphragm walls: Construct structural concrete walls in deep trench excavations.
- Bored piles: Create a series of overlapping boreholes filled with cement grout or concrete.
 - Bentonite slurry walls: Excavate a trench and fill it with a bentonite-water slurry to prevent
collapsing and reduce water flow.
3. Grout Barriers:
- Inject fluid grouts into the ground to block groundwater flow paths.
- Use grouts based on cement-water suspensions to reduce permeability and create a treated
zone around the excavation.
4. Artificial Ground Freezing:
- Circulate a low-temperature refrigerant (e.g., calcium chloride brine or liquid nitrogen)
through closely-spaced boreholes.
- Chilled ground freezes, reducing permeability and limiting groundwater inflow.
•These methods help control groundwater by lowering water levels, preventing water ingress,
and reducing the permeability of surrounding soil or rock. The selection of the appropriate
method depends on site-specific conditions, project requirements, and the extent of
groundwater issues. Professional expertise and evaluation of the specific project are essential
to determine the most suitable groundwater control method.
—----#--------#---------#--------#---------#---------#---------#-------MOD 4
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
•Physical properties of minerals refer to the characteristics and attributes that can be observed
or measured without altering the chemical composition of the mineral. These properties are
used to identify and classify minerals. Some of the key physical properties of minerals include:
1. Color: The color of a mineral is determined by the presence of certain chemical elements or
impurities. However, it is important to note that color alone is not a reliable identifying factor as
minerals can occur in a variety of colors.
2. Streak: Streak refers to the color of the powdered form of a mineral. It is determined by
rubbing the mineral against a streak plate. The streak color can sometimes be different from the
color of the mineral itself.
3. Luster: Luster describes the way light is reflected from the surface of a mineral. It can be
metallic (shiny, like metal), submetallic (less shiny than metal), nonmetallic (dull or glassy), or
earthy (dull and rough).
4. Hardness: Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to being scratched. The Mohs scale is
commonly used to measure hardness, ranging from 1 (softest, talc) to 10 (hardest, diamond).
5. Cleavage: The tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weakness, resulting in flat,
smooth surfaces. Cleavage is described by the number of cleavage planes and their angles
relative to each other.
6. Parting: The tendency of a mineral to break along planes of structural weakness unrelated to
its crystal structure. Parting surfaces are generally less regular compared to cleavage surfaces.
7 Fracture: The way a mineral breaks when it lacks cleavage or parting. Fracture describes the
appearance of the broken surface, such as conchoidal (shell-like), uneven, fibrous, or splintery.
8 Tenacity: The mineral's response to stress or deformation. It describes its ability to resist
breaking, crushing, or other forms of deformation. Tenacity can be described as brittle,
malleable, sectile, flexible, elastic, or tough.
9 Structure: The arrangement of atoms or ions in a mineral's crystal lattice. The structure
determines the mineral's external crystal form and can be categorized into various crystal
systems.
10. Specific Gravity: Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a mineral to the density of
water. It provides an indication of the relative heaviness or lightness of a mineral.
11. Form: The external shape of a mineral crystal or aggregate. It refers to the overall geometry
or appearance of the mineral, such as prismatic, tabular, acicular, cubic, or octahedral.
12. Miscellaneous Properties: Additional properties that are specific to certain minerals and
may aid in their identification or characterization. These properties can include magnetism,
fluorescence, radioactivity, taste, odor, electrical conductivity, and reaction to acid, among
others.
QUARTZ (SiO2)
•Chemical composition - SiO2 •Crystal System - Hexagonal •Form - Massive, sometimes
as crystals •Colour - Colourless when pure. Also occurs in coloured varieties
•Lustre - Vitreous •Fracture - Conchoidal •Cleavage - Absent •Hardness - H = 7
•Specific Gravity - Medium – 2.65 •Streak - White in coloured varieties
•Special properties - * Horizontal striations on prismatic faces of crystal *Most resistant to
weathering
CALCITE (CaCO3)
•Chemical composition - CaCO3 •Crystal System - Hexagonal •Form - Rhombic form
•Colour - Colourless, white/pale colour •Lustre - Vitreous •Fracture - Rarely found
•Cleavage - 3 set, well developed, cleavage angle - 105⁰ •Hardness - H = 3
•Specific Gravity - Medium – 2.71 •Transparency - Transparent to Translucent
•Special properties - *Reacts with acid vigorously *Very Common rock forming carbonate
mineral
GYPSUM
•Chemical composition - CaSO4.2H2O •Crystal System - Monoclinic •Form - Platy,
fibrous, foliated •Colour - Colourless (maybe pale coloured) •Lustre - Silky
•Fracture - Conchoidal to uneven •Cleavage - 1 set (perfect) •Hardness - H = 1.5 – 2 Can
be scratched by finger nail •Specific Gravity - Low – 2.3 •Transparency - Transparent or
Translucent •Tenacity - Sectile i.e. can be cut with knife
PETROLOGY
• Rocks are defined as “natural solid massive aggregate of minerals forming the crust of the
Earth” • Petrology is branch of geology dealing with various aspects of rocks such as their
formation, classification and occurrence • A thorough grasp of petrology is most essential for a
civil engineer, as he deals with various kinds of rocks in most of his works.
• For example, rocks are involved in construction of various civil engineering projects like
building, roads, tunnels, dams etc. • On the basis of origin, rocks are divided into three groups;
• Igneous Rocks : Formed from hot molten material (magma or lava)
• Sedimentary Rocks: Formed by accumulation, compaction & consolidation of sediments.
• Metamorphic Rocks : Formed through operation of various types of metamorphic processes on
pre-existing igneous & sedimentary rocks
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks are formed from hot molten material, either magma or lava, through the process
of cooling and crystallization. Magma refers to the molten material occurring naturally below the
Earth's surface, while lava is the magma when it erupts through volcanoes. Igneous rocks can
be classified into three sub-groups: volcanic rocks, plutonic rocks, and hypabyssal rocks.
1. Volcanic Rocks: These rocks are formed on the surface of the Earth by the cooling and
crystallization of lava erupted from volcanoes. Due to the rapid cooling of lava, the crystals
formed in volcanic rocks have a very fine grain size. Volcanic rocks can cool on the Earth's
surface or even underwater in seas and oceans. An example of a volcanic rock is basalt.
2. Plutonic Rocks: These rocks are formed at considerable depths, generally between 7 to 10
kilometers below the Earth's surface. Plutonic rocks result from the slow cooling of magma,
which allows for the formation of coarse-grained crystals. Granite is a common example of a
plutonic rock.
3. Hypabyssal Rocks: Hypabyssal rocks are formed at intermediate depths, typically up to 2
kilometers below the Earth's surface. They exhibit mixed characteristics of both volcanic and
plutonic rocks. Dolerite is an example of a hypabyssal rock.
•In terms of chemical composition, igneous rocks show great variation. However, silica is the
dominant constituent in most igneous rocks.
•The mineralogical composition of igneous rocks is characterized by the abundance of a
few common minerals, such as feldspars, amphiboles, pyroxenes, and quartz.
•Structures or forms of igneous rocks can be categorized into three groups based on their
development:
1. Structures due to the mobility of magma/lava: These structures result from the flow of
magma or lava during the process of crystallization. Examples include flow structures, pillow
structures, ropy and blocky lava, spherulitic structures, and orbicular structures.
2. Structures due to the cooling of magma/lava: Cooling of magma leads to the development
of cracks or joints in the rock. Examples of structures resulting from cooling include jointing
structures, rift and grain, vesicular structures (formation of cavities due to the escape of gases),
and miarolitic structures (cavities filled with volatile components).
3. Miscellaneous structures: These structures include reaction structures, where minerals are
surrounded by alteration products due to reactions with magma, and xenolithic structures,
where foreign fragments arrange themselves in different patterns on the magma during
crystallization.
→Igneous rocks can also be classified based on chemical composition (C.I.P.W classification),
mineralogical composition (based on the color index), textural classification (based on grain
size), and mode of formation (plutonic, volcanic, or hypabyssal).
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
•Sedimentary rocks are a type of rock that forms through a process of sediment accumulation,
compaction, and consolidation. These rocks are also known as secondary rocks because they
are derived from pre-existing rocks or organic materials. Sediments, which are the particles
produced from the decay and weathering of rocks or the remains of dead organisms, are the
building blocks of sedimentary rocks.
•The formation of sedimentary rocks is an ongoing process that occurs over time. Existing
rocks are broken down by natural agents such as wind, water, and ice, resulting in the
disintegration of rocks into smaller particles called detritus. These sediments are then
transported by wind, running water, or ice and eventually deposited in settling basins such as
sea floors or continents. The deposition of sediments leads to the formation of layers or beds in
sedimentary rocks.
•The process of diagenesis plays a crucial role in the transformation of sediment deposits into
solid rock. Diagenesis occurs through two main methods: compaction and cementation.
Compaction happens when the sediments of lower layers are squeezed and compacted by the
pressure exerted by overlying layers. This process removes water from the sediments, bringing
them closer together and consolidating them into solid rock. Cementation, on the other hand,
involves the binding of sediments by a material derived from accumulated materials or
percolating fluids.
•Sedimentary rocks can be classified into two main groups based on their mode of formation:
clastic rocks and non-clastic rocks. Clastic rocks, also known as mechanically formed or detrital
rocks, are formed from the mechanical breakdown and transportation of pre-existing rocks. They
are further classified based on the grain size of the sediments, including gravels, sands, silts,
and clays.
•Non-clastic rocks, on the other hand, are formed through chemical processes or the
accumulation and compaction of organic remains. Chemically formed rocks are created through
processes such as evaporation, precipitation, and crystallization of dissolved salts in water
bodies. They can include siliceous deposits, carbonate deposits, ferruginous deposits,
phosphatic deposits, and evaporites.
•Organically formed rocks are sedimentary deposits that primarily consist of the remains of
organisms, both plants and animals. Examples of organically formed rocks include carbonate
rocks, which form from the accumulation and compaction of shells and skeletal bones of sea
organisms, carbonaceous rocks formed from the accumulation of plant material, phosphatic
deposits derived from the excreta of birds, and ferruginous deposits rich in iron carbonate.
•Sedimentary rocks exhibit various structures that develop during their formation.
Mechanical structures, such as stratification (layered arrangement), lamination (thin layers),
cross bedding (inclined layers), graded bedding (sorted layers), mud cracks, rain prints, and
ripple marks, are common in clastic rocks. Chemical structures include concretionary structures
(concretions of various shapes and dimensions), nodular structures (irregularly shaped
nodules), and geode structures (hollow shells with crystallized inner walls). Organic structures,
such as fossiliferous structures (presence of fossils) and stromatolitic structures (formed by
microbial mats), are formed due to the accumulation and compaction of organic sources.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• Defined as those rocks which have formed through the operation of various types of
metamorphic processes on the pre-existing igneous and sedimentary rocks involving changes in
the textures, structures and mineralogical composition.
METAMORPHISM
• The term used to express the process responsible for all the changes that take place in an
original rock under the influence of changes in the surrounding conditions of temperature,
pressure and chemically active fluids
Factors affectingMetamorphism
3 agents of metamorphism:Heat (temperature), pressure, chemical environment
• Temperature
• When the temperature around rocks changes, the mineral composition of the rocks undergoes
some changes in orderto adjust the temperature changes.
• Pressure
• In many cases pressure is the dominantfactor for metamorphic changes • Rock is subjected
to pressure from two sources • Overburden (i.e. weight of soil and other materials on the top of
it) • Crustal movements during the convergence of the tectonic plates(i.e., earthquakes)
• Chemical environment
• Presence or absence of chemically active fluids within the body of the rocks (pore fluids) or
around themplays very important role in the process of all types of metamorphism.
STRUCTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• Cataclastic structure
• It is characterized by the development of extremely fine rock mass under the influence of
severe crushing and shearing effects of stresses operating during metamorphism
• Effect may be spread over wide areas
• Schistose structure
• The rock with the structure is made up of broadly parallel or sub-parallel layers or bands of
flaky, platy or rod-like minerals making it weak in the direction of parallelism
• Gneissose structure
• This structure contains, bands of platy and flaky minerals alternate with those of
equidimensional and granular minerals
• These bands are generally of contrasting colors, composition and textures
• Maculose structure
• It is characterized by a spotted appearance of the rock that may be caused due to the
formation of large sized crystals within a fine grained rock
• Granulose structure
• Structure of metamorphic rock like marble and quartzite and is characterized by an essentially
granular character of constituent minerals.
• The individual grains may be irregular in outline but are interlocking
LIMESTONES
• Definition – These are most common sedimentary rocks composed of carbonate of calcium
with subordinate proportions of carbonate of magnesium.
• Composition – Limestones are chiefly made of CaO and CO2.Magnesium oxide is a common
impurity in most limestones. Pure limestone is invariably made up of calcite mineral (CaCO3)
• Texture – Most important textural feature of limestones is their fossiliferous nature (it contains
fossil). Fossils in all stages of preservation may be found occurring in limestones. Limestone
show dense and compact texture.
• Formation of limestone – Three Different environments of formation of limestones are:
• Biohermal Limestones: It occur in the form of reefs or mounds and are actually transformed
deposits of corals and similar sea organisms.
• Biostromal Limestones: These are sheet like accumulations of biogenic deposit that may be
have single or complex types of organisms involved in their formation.
• Pelagic limestones:These are formed from the accumulation of floating type sea organisms.
• Uses
• Manufacture of cement • In metallurgical industries as a flux
• As building stone and road stone • Chemical industries
• Occurrence – It is the most common rock found in several 100 kms in many regions of the
world
GNEISS
• Gneiss is medium-to coarse-grained banded high-grade granular metamorphic rocks in which
granular and elongated minerals predominate
• Mineral Composition The most common minerals in gneiss are quartz, potash feldspar, and
sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar
• Texture and Structure - When struck with a rock hammer, gneiss generally fractures across
the layers, or planes of foliation, where micas are abundant, it can break along the foliation.
• Origin - Most gneisses have a felsic composition and are often derived from granite or its
equivalent, rhyolite.
DOLERITES
• Igneous rocks of typically hypabyssal origin. • It may be regarded as an equivalent of
gabbro of hypabysal origin and basalt of volcanic origin. • Also called diabase
Composition
• Predominantly made up of calcic plagioclase (e.g. anorthite and labradorite).
• Dark minerals like augite, olivine and iron oxide, etc., are also present in good proportions
along with the plagioclase minerals.
Texture • Ophitic texture is very common in which augite mineral enclosesthe plasoclase.
Megasopic Identification
Dolerite may be identified in hand specimens by their
i. Dark-coloured appearance, such as dark grey and dark brown. Some of the shades may take
a brilliant polish to make it eminently suitable as a decorative building stone,
ii. Medium grained, and
iii. Abundance of labradorite plagioclase and olivine/augite as essential minerals and quartz or
biotite as accessory mineral.
BASALTS
• These are igneous volcanic rocks formed by rapid cooling from lava flows from volcanoes
either over the surface or underwater on oceanic floors.
• They are basic in nature
Composition: Commonly made up of Calcic Plagioclase Feldspar and Ferro-Magnesian
minerals
Occurrence • Found on the continent and on the ocean floors in almost all the regions of the
world • In India it is found in Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh
Megasopic Identification
Basalt may be identified in hand specimens by their
i. Dark-coloured (melanocratic) appearance, such as dark grey and black appearance,
ii. Fine grained, and
iii. Abundance of labradorite plagioclase and olivine/augite as essential minerals and quartz or
hornblende as an accessory mineral. Zeolite mineral is also generally associated with basalt
after solidification.
GRANITES
• It is the most common igneous rock
• Light colored igneous rock
• Composition: Quartz and Felspar are most essential mineral constituents.
• Texture: Generally coarse to medium grained, holocrystalline and equigranular
• Different variety of granite shows different textures like Granitic, graphic, porphyritic, and
intergrowth texture.
• Structure: Occur as large massive bodies, often as batholiths, stocks, bosses, sills, dikes
• Occurrence: • It is widely distributed on the earth • They occur as deep-seated intrusive
bodies like sills, bosses, stocks and batholiths • Its occurrence on the surface of the earth
depend upon the weathering and erosion of the overlying strata
• Identification: • Light colored appearance- E.g.: Grey, pink, brownish, and yellowish
• Coarse grained to medium grained texture • Abundance of quartz and Felspar
Use: • Architectural and massive construction • Used in monuments and memorials
• Used in column, steps and as flooring in building
• Origin • Granites occurring as sills are of plutonic origin • Formed from pre-existing rocks by
Granitisation i.e. in-situ conversion of rocks into masses of granites
ROCK CYCLE
• The Rock Cycle is a group of changes. • The phenomenon of the transformation of igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks from one type to another is known as rock cycle.
• Igneous rock can change into sedimentary rock or into metamorphic rock.
• Sedimentary rock can change into metamorphic rock or into igneous rock.
• Metamorphic rock can change into igneous or sedimentary rock.
—---#-------#-------#-------#-------#-------#-------#--------#--------#---------MOD 5
DIP
• Maximum angle of inclination of a layer of rock with the horizontal. • It is expressed in terms of
degree of inclination (angle of inclination) and direction of inclination (layers maybe directed in
any direction) • Degree of inclination may be from zero degree (horizontal) to 90 degree
(vertical). • Disposition of rocks in space or the way in which they are exposed at a place is
called the attitude of rocks. • The direction is determined with a simple compass whereas the
angle of dip is determined with an instrument called clinometer.
• Dip & Strike are two basic terms used to express the attitude of any rock body.
STRIKE
• It is a geographic direction given by the line of intersection of a horizontal plane with a bedding
plane of a layer of rock • In which direction, the bedding plane is inclined with the horizontal is
called strike. • It is measured with the help of a compass.
APPARENT AND TRUE DIP
• If the dip of a layer is measured along a direction which is perpendicular to the strike of that
layer then, the measured dip is true dip. • But if the dip of a layer is measured along a direction
which is not perpendicular to the strike of that layer then, the measured dip is apparent dip.
TYPES OF DIP
1. Primary dip • If the original slope of the basin of deposition is anything between 5-10
degrees, the sedimentary formations accumulating over there in the period of time will also have
same disposition.
2. Secondary Dip • It is the inclination induced in the strata after its deposition due to the
tectonic forces to which such strata have been subsequently subjected.
3. Local and Regional dip • Local dips are inclinations of the rocks exposed in a limited area
of observation. • Regional dip is an averaged general inclination of a series of formations
exposed over a wide area.
FOLDS & FOLDINGS
PARTS OF FOLD
1. Limbs: Sides of a fold
2. Hinges The maximum curvature point (where one limb ends and other limb starts) of fold is
called as hinge • When rocks occur in a sequence and their all hinge points are joined together,
they make a line, called the hinge line.
3. Axial surface • When hinge line is traced throughout the depth of the folded sequence a
surface is obtained which may be planar or non- planar. It is referred to as axial surface.
4. Axial Plane • It is the imaginary plane containing all the hinges of a fold
5. Axis of fold • It is defined as a line drawn parallel to the hinge line of a fold or it is the line
representing the intersection of axial plane of a fold with any bed of the fold.
6. Plunge of a fold • The angle of inclination of the fold axis with the horizontal as measured in
a vertical plane is termed as the plunge of the fold
7. Crest and trough • The line running through the highest points in an up arched fold defines
its crest.• Line running through the lowest points in a down arched fold makes its trough..

GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DAM CONSTRUCTION

• A dam may be defined as a solid barrier constructed at suitable location across a river valley
• Decision regarding constructing a dam across a river and creating a reservoir is always based
on socio-economic considerations • Whereas its design and construction is strictly based on
geological investigations along the river valley • Topographically, a place which is most
suitable for the purpose is selected. • Ideally it would be a narrow gorge or small valley with
enough catchment area in order to store calculated volume of water. • Site should be selected
such that, it shall not be involving uprooting of population, loss of cultivable land, minimum
damage to public during its failure or destruction. • Technically, the site should be as sound as
possible: strong, impermeable and stable. • Construction wise, the site should not be far off
from deposits of construction materials • Economically, the benefits of a new dam should be
realistic and justified in terms of land irrigated,power generated etc.
• Environmentally, the site chosen for dam construction should not involve ecological
disorder,especially in the life cycles of animals and vegetation.
GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERS FOR INVESTIGATION
Geology of the area Following factors are considered:
•Main topographic features (slope of the area) •Natural drainage patterns (i.e. rivers)
•General characters and structures of rock formations such as their stratification, folding, faulting
and igneous intrusions •The trend and rate of weathering and erosion in the area.
Geology of the site
Lithology • Lithology means the types of the rocks that make the area. The studies may would
reveal the type,the composition and textures of the rocks.
Structures • The structural features of rocks of the site are also thoroughly investigated.
• Weak regions needs treatment
• Dip and strike -There are 2 forces acting on the Dam: Self weight of Dam and thrust of
impounded water. -The Resultant of these forces may be inclined. This resultant determines
the safe and unsafe condition of the dam construction.
• Faults -The faulted rocks are generally shatter along the rupture surfaces.
-Sites with fault planes require great caution in calculating the design strength in various
sections of the dam. In case some fault surface or zone gets ignored or overlooked, the stability
of dam gets endangered.
• Folds The most notable effects of folds on rocks are:
-Shattering and jointing along the axial planes and stressing of limbs. -Consequently, dams
aligned along axial regions of folds would be resting on most unsound rocks (i.e. weaker rocks)
in terms of strength.
• Joints -The geometry of joints, their intensity, nature and continuity with depth, all must be
thoroughly established and their effects on the site rocks evaluated and remedial measures
taken in advance. -Occurrence of micro-joints has to be established with still greater care as
such joint systems, if left untreated, could be source of many risks for dam foundations.
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR RESERVOIRS
• Reservoirs may broadly be defined as artificially created water storage basins
• The area should possess geological characters that favors holding of water in the basin so
created.Such characters are: topographic suitability, ground water conditions, permeability and
structural stability.
a) Topographically, the area should be a broad natural valley preferably ending in a narrow
gorge where a barrier could be placed.
• The valley could be a U-shaped valley, or V-shaped river valley because water will be stored
on those regions. • Flatlands and plains cannot make convenient places for reservoirs.
b) Groundwater conditions in the proposed reservoir area must be thoroughly established for
an approximately accurate evaluation of storage capacity of the reservoir. Any one of the three
possibilities could be there:
• The general water table is much above the top reservoir level (TRL) in the proposed reservoir.
• The general water table is much below the minimum water level in the reservoir.
• General water table of the area and the top water level of the proposed reservoir are most the
same.
c) Permeability is a critical property in reservoir area studies, especially in those areas where
groundwater table is below the minimum water level of the reservoir. If the proposed reservoir
site is highly permeable there may be no storage. So it should be taken care of.
d) Structural constitution of the area of the reservoir is important to identify those zones along
the flanks which are liable to failure by sliding, creep or subsidence.
e) Trend and rate of weathering in catchment area is of considerable importance in
determining the age of the reservoir;
• If the catchment area of reservoir is subjected to severe weathering and soil erosion then the
reservoir will subject to sedimentation.
• This would obviously decrease the effective storage capacity of the reservoir on the one hand
and its total life on the other hand. Stable rock slopes covered with thick forests and vegetation
would make ideal catchment areas for reservoirs.
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
• Tunnels may be defined as underground routes driven through the ground without disturbing
the overlying soil or rock cover • Tunnel design, method of its excavation and stability are greatly
influenced by following geological conditions: lithology, geologicalstructures and groundwater
conditions.
a) Lithology • The information regarding mineralogical composition, textures and structures of
the rocks through which the proposed tunnel is to pass is of great importance in deciding:
• The method of tunneling, • The strength and extent of lining and, thus • The cost of the project.
b) GeologicalStructures • The design, stability and cost of tunnel depend not only on the type
of rock but also on the structures developed in these rocks. • Followingmain structuralfeatures of
rocks have to be fully determined along the proposed tunnelroute.
Dip and Strike • These two quantitative properties of rocks determine the attitude (dip and
strike) of the rocks and hence influence the design of excavation (tunnel)to a great extent.
• Three general cases may be considered. The rock layers may be horizontal, moderately
inclined or steeply inclined.
• Horizontal Strata • Horizontally layered rocks might be considered quite favorable.
• Moderately Inclined Strata • Layers that are dipping at angles up to 45° may be said as
moderately inclined strata. • When the tunnel axis is parallel to the dip direction, the layers offer
a uniformly distributed load on the excavation. This creates safe condition. • When tunnel is
driven parallel to strike of the beds, the pressure distributed to the exposed layers is
unsymmetrical along the periphery of the tunnel opening. It creates unsafe condition.
• One half would have bedding planes opening into the tunnel and hence offer potential planes
and conditions for sliding into the opening.
• When the tunnel axis is inclined to both the dip direction and the strike direction, weak points
of both the above situations would be encountered and have to take care of.
• Steeply inclined strata • Rock layers that dipping at angles above 45 degree is called steeply
inclined strata. It is the worst situation. • When the tunnel axis is parallel to dip direction, the
formations stand along the sides and on the roof of the tunnel as massive girders. It is safe.
• When tunnels running parallel to strike of vertical beds, it is more than likely that a number of
bedding planes (which are planes of weakness) are intersected at the roof and along arch so
that natural beam action or arch action gets considerably weakened. This condition is unsafe.
Folding • Folding of rocks introduces considerable variation and uncertainty in a sequence of
rocks so that entirely unexpected rocks might be encountered along any given direction.
• Folding of rocks introduces peculiar rock pressures. In anticlinal fold, loads of rocks at the
crest are transferred by arch action to a great extent on to the limbs which may be highly
strained. Axial regions have low pressure.
• In synclinal types, rocks of core regions are greatly strained. • When excavations are made in
folded rocks, the strain energy is likely to be released immediately, soon after or quite late to
tunneling operations, very often causing the rock bursts. • Very slow release of small amounts
of strain energy might cause bulging of walls or caving in of roofs or popping up of floors of
tunnels. • Folded rocks are often best storehouses for water. So effective drainage measures
are often required when excavations are to pass through folded zones.
Faulting • Faults are surfaces along which rock movement has occurred in the past; these are
also potential surfaces for future movements of the rocks. • Fault zones and shear zones are
highly permeable zones, likely to form easy ways for ground water passage.
Joint Systems • Joints are planes of weakness and must always be suspected when the
rocks are folded and faulted. • Even originally closed joints may become reactive and open up
in the immediate vicinity of tunnel excavation. • Jointed rocks cannot be considered as
self-supporting • In many cases problems created by jointing in such rocks can be rectified by
grouting. • Lining of the tunnel in the fractured zones might have to be applied to avoid joint.
Ground Water Conditions
Groundwater conditions effect the tunnel rocks in two ways: • Firstly, through its physic-chemical
action, it erodes and corrodes (dissolves) the susceptible constituents from the rocks and
thereby alters their original properties. • Secondly, it effects the rock strength parameters by its
static and dynamic water heads. A sudden release of pressure in the direction of excavation
could create worst disaster for the tunneling
CLINOMETER-COMPASS
• The dip and strike of an exposed bed in the field can be measured in degrees by an
instrument,known as a clinometer, which consists of a pendulum with a graduated arc.
• A compass can measure the directions of the dip and strike similarly.
• A clinometer as well as a compass - both combined together to form an instrument known as
Clinometer-Compass. • The clinometer of this instrument will help in measuring the amount of
the dip and the strike, while the compass will help in measuring their directions with respect to
north, south, east and west.
BRUNTON COMPASS
• A compass needle, clinometers and hand level are combined to make a Brunton compass.
• This instrument can be carried on tripods, plane table and in hand. • Various parts of the
instrument are shown. • The compass is made of brass and aluminum because these
materials are not affected by the magnetization.
Measuring strike: • Place the bottom EDGE of the compass flat against the plane of interest.
• Adjust the compass orientation, making sure the bottom edge is always flat against the
plane,until the air bubble in the "Bull's eye level" is centered.
• Read either end of the compass needle to obtain the value of strike.
Measuring Dip: • AFTER you determine strike, rotate the compass 90° • Place the SIDE of the
compass flat against the plane. • Adjust the lever on the back of the compass until the air bubble
in the "Clinometer level" is centered. • Read the dip directly from the scale in the compass.