La Légende Des Siècles by Hugo, Victor, 1802-1885
La Légende Des Siècles by Hugo, Victor, 1802-1885
La Légende Des Siècles by Hugo, Victor, 1802-1885
BY
VICTOR HUGO
EDITED BY
G. F. BRIDGE, M.A.
GENERAL PREFACE
Encouraged by the favourable reception accorded to the 'Oxford Modern French Series,' the Delegates of the
Clarendon Press determined, some time since, to issue a 'Higher Series' of French works intended for Upper
Forms of Public Schools and for University and Private Students, and have entrusted me with the task of
selecting and editing the various volumes that will be issued in due course.
The titles of the works selected will at once make it clear that this series is a new departure, and that an
attempt is made to provide annotated editions of books which have hitherto been obtainable only in the
original French texts. That Madame de Staël, Madame de Girardin, Daniel Stern, Victor Hugo, Lamartine,
Flaubert, Gautier are among the authors whose works have been selected will leave no doubt as to the literary
excellence of the texts included in this series. Works of such quality, intended only for advanced scholars,
could not be annotated in the way hitherto usual, since those for whom they have been prepared are familiar
with many things and many events of which younger students have no knowledge. Geographical and
mythological notes have therefore been generally omitted, as also historical events either too well known to
require elucidation or easily found in the ordinary books of reference.
By such omissions a considerable amount of space has been saved which has allowed of the extension of the
texts, and of their equipment with notes less elementary than usual, and at the same time brighter and more
interesting, whilst great care has been taken to adapt them to the special character of each volume.
The Introductions are also a novel feature of the present series. Originally they were to be exclusively written
in English, but as it was desired that they should be as characteristic as possible, and not merely extracted
from reference books, but real studies of the various authors and their works, it was decided that the editors
should write them in their own native language.
Whenever it has been possible each volume has been adorned with a portrait of the author at the time he wrote
his book.
In conclusion, I wish to repeat here what I have said in the General Preface to the 'Oxford Modern French
Series,' that 'those who speak a modern language best invariably possess a good literary knowledge of it.' This
has been endorsed by the best teachers in this and other countries, and is a generally admitted fact. The
present series by providing works of high literary merit will certainly facilitate the acquisition of the French
language—a tongue which perhaps more than any other offers a variety of literary specimens which, for
beauty of style, depth of sentiment, accuracy and neatness of expression, may be equalled but not surpassed.
LEON DELBOS.
OXFORD, December, 1905.
INTRODUCTION
Victor Hugo's conception of the scheme of the series of poems to which he gave the title of La Légende des
Siècles is thus described in the preface to the first scenes: 'Exprimer l'humanité dans une espèce d'oeuvre
cyclique; la peindre successivement et simultanément sous tous ses aspects, histoire, fable, philosophie,
religion, science, lesquels se résument en un seul et immense mouvement d'ascension vers la lumière; faire
apparaître, dans une sorte de miroir sombre et clair—que l'interruption naturelle de travaux terrestres brisera
probablement avant qu'il ait la dimension rêvée par l'auteur—cette grande figure une et multiple, lugubre et
rayonnante, faible et sacrée, L'Homme.' The poet thus dreamt of a vast epic, of which the central figure should
be no mythical or legendary hero, but Man himself, conceived as struggling upwards from the darkness of
barbarism to the light of a visionary golden age. Every epoch was to be painted in its dominant characteristic,
every aspect of human thought was to find its fitting expression. The first series could pretend to no such
completeness, but the poet promised that the gaps should be filled up in succeeding volumes. It cannot be said
that this stupendous design was ever carried out. The first volumes, which were published in 1859, and from
which the poems contained in this selection are taken, left great spaces vacant in the ground-plan of the work,
and little attempt was made in the subsequent series, which appeared in 1877 and 1883, to fill up those spaces.
In fact, Hugo has left large tracts of human history untrod. He has scarcely touched the civilization of the East,
he has given us no adequate picture of ancient Greece. L'Aide offerte à Majorien can hardly be regarded as a
sufficient picture of the wanderings of the nations, nor Le Régiment du Baron Madruce as an adequate
embodiment of the spirit of the eighteenth century. The Reformation, and, what is stranger still, the French
Revolution, are not handled at all, though the heroism of the Napoleonic era finds fitting description in Le
Cimetière d'Eylau. The truth is that Hugo set himself a task which was perhaps beyond the power of any
single poet to accomplish, and was certainly one for which he was not altogether well fitted. He did not
possess that capacity for taking a broad and impartial view of history which was needed in the author of such
an epic as he designed. His strong predilections on the one hand, and his violent antipathies on the other,
swayed his choice of subjects, narrowed his field of vision, and influenced his manner of presentment. The
series cannot therefore pretend to philosophic completeness. It is a gallery of pictures painted by a
master-hand, and pervaded by a certain spirit of unity, yet devoid of any strict arrangement, and formed on no
carefully maintained principle. It is a set of cameos, loosely strung upon a thread, a structure with countless
beautiful parts, which do not however cohere into any symmetrical whole. The poems are cast in many forms;
allegory, narrative, vision, didactic poetry, lyric poetry, all find a place. There is little history, but much
legend, some fiction, and a good deal of mythology. The series was not designed as a whole. La Chanson des
Aventuriers de la Mer was written in or before 1840, Le Mariage de Roland, Aymerillot, and La Conscience in
or about 1846, and other pieces at intervals between 1849 and 1858, the date at which the poet appears to have
begun the task of building these fragments into an epic structure. Nor is there in these poems any
dispassionate attempt to portray the character of the successive ages in the life of the race. For Hugo there was
no 'émancipation du moi.' The Légende is less a revelation of history than it is a revelation of the poet. His
GENERAL PREFACE 2
The book
choice of themes was dictated less by a careful search after what was most characteristic of each epoch than
by his own strong predilections. He loved the picturesque, the heroic, the enormous, the barbarous, the
grotesque. Hence Éviradnus, Ratbert, Le Mariage de Roland. He loved also the weak, the poor, the
defenceless, the old man and the little child. Hence Les Pauvres Gens, Booz endormi, Petit Paul. He delighted
in the monstrous, he revelled in extremes, and he had little perception of the lights and shades which make up
ordinary human character. Neither his poems nor his romances show much trace of that psychological analysis
which is the peculiar feature of so much modern literature. Child of the nineteenth century, as he was in so
many respects, in many of the features of his art he belongs to no era, and conforms to no tendency, except
that of his own Titanic genius. He could see white and he could see black, but he could not see grey, and
never tried to paint it. He does not allow Philip II even his redeeming virtues of indefatigable industry and
unceasing devotion to duty, while in his Rome of the decadence would assuredly be found scarce five good
men. His vision is curiously limited to the darker side of history; he hears humanity uttering in all ages a cry
of suffering, and but rarely a shout of laughter. He sees the oppression of the tyrant more vividly than the
heroism of the oppressed. Has he to write of the power of Spain? It is in the portrayal of the tyrant of Spain
rather than the men who overcame Spain that his genius finds scope. Does he wish to paint the era of religious
persecution? It is the horror of the Inquisition rather than the heroism of its victims that is pictured on his
canvas. Delineations of heroic virtue there are indeed in the Légende, but it is noteworthy that they occur
usually in fictions such as Éviradnus, Le Petit Roi de Galice, and La Confiance du Marquis Fabrice.1 He has
given us no historical portraits of noble characters which can be put side by side with those of Philip II and
Sultan Mourad. As in his dramas, his kings and rulers are always drawn in dark colours. His heroes belong to
the classes that he loved, poor people, common soldiers, old men, children, and, be it added, animals. He is
always the man of great heart and strong prejudices, never the dramatist or the philosopher.
Footnote 1: (return) It is interesting to observe how frequently his heroes are old men, as Éviradnus, Booz,
Fabrice.
Hugo himself says sadly in his Preface, 'Les tableaux riants sont rares dans ce livre; cela tient à ce qu'ils ne
sont pas fréquents dans l'histoire,' but in truth the tinge of gloom which lies upon the Légende is rather the
impress upon the volume of history of the poet's own puissant individuality. He was no scientist and no
savant, he had none of that spirit of imperturbable calm with which Shakespeare surveyed all mankind, none
of that impartial sympathy with which Browning investigated the psychology of saints and sinners alike. He
loved deeply and he hated fiercely, and his poetry was the voice of his love and his hate. The intensity of his
own poetic vision made the past stand before him as clearly as the present; the note of personal feeling is as
clear and strong in Sultan Mourad and Bivar as in Les Châtiments or Le Retour de l'Empereur. His great
qualities of heart and mind and his singular defects are written large upon every page of the Légende. His
passionate hatred of injustice and his passionate love of liberty, his reverence for the virtues of the home, and
especially for filial obedience and respect, his love for little children, his antagonism to war and his
admiration for what is great in war which was ever struggling with that antagonism, his patriotic feeling for
the triumphs of the Napoleonic era, to him the heroic age of French history, his exaggerated belief in the
wickedness of kings and the innocence of poor people, the exaltation of pity into the greatest of all
virtues—these and many other characteristic traits find ample illustration in his legend of the centuries. It is
ever Hugo that is speaking to us, however many be the masks that he wears.
Yet it would be a mistake to suppose that no general conception of the history and destiny of mankind is to be
found in the work, or that the author had no sense of an increasing purpose running through the ages. The
conception is no doubt that of a poet and a seer, not of a historian or a philosopher, but it is clear and vivid,
and is expressed with Titanic force. Hugo pictured the history of mankind as a long struggle upwards towards
the light. Man has in all ages been oppressed by many evils—by war, by tyranny, by materiality, by mental
and moral darkness. He has sinned greatly, he has suffered greatly; he has been burdened with toil and
surrounded by shadow, tormented by his rulers and misled by his priests. Paganism was merely material;
Rome was strong, cruel, and repressive; 'a winding-sheet of the nations,' he calls her in Changement
INTRODUCTION 3
The book
d'Horizon2; Judaism, his view of which must be sought rather in Dieu than in the Légende, cold and harsh,
could influence man only by keeping him within the strait-waistcoat of a narrow law; the life of the founder of
Christianity was only a momentary gleam of light in the darkness; the Middle Age was a confused turmoil of
rude heroism and cunning savagery; the Renaissance a relapse into heathenism and the worship of nature. Yet
with the modern ages comes a rift in the blackness; the poets reveal a new spirit; their songs are the songs of
peace and not of war:
(Changement d'Horizon.)
Footnote 2: (return) For a fuller development of this view see La Fin de Satan: Le Gibet, I, i.
Gentleness and humanity are the characteristic virtues of the later age. It is a mistake to suppose, as some have
done, that such pieces as Le Crapaud, Après la Bataille, and Les Pauvres Gens have no connexion with any
epoch. In Hugo's view, that tenderness for the weak and the defenceless which is their keynote was the
peculiar mark of the age in which he lived, and a foretaste of the glory that was to come. For the great purpose
which his reading of human history reveals to him is the increase of the love of man to man, the widening of
the bounds of liberty, the growth of brotherly feeling. Suffering and oppression behind, freedom and joy in
front, so does Hugo's imagination picture world-history, and his love of violent antitheses made him paint the
past in the darkest colours in order that his vision of the future might shine with the greater radiance. Troubled
as he was, no doubt, by the sombre events of 1850-1, and by the slow progress that the principles of peace
seemed to be making in the world, yet the inspiration of that vision was never lost, and in the apocalyptic
vision of the poem Plein Ciel he gave superb lyrical expression to the thought that man will find his heaven,
not above the clouds, but in a regenerated earth, penetrated with the spirit of light and love.
This underlying conception was expressed again in the poem entitled La Vision d'où est sorti ce livre, which
was written at Guernsey in 1857, but published only in 1877. In this vision the history of man appears to the
poet in the form of a gigantic wall, on which are seen the crimes and sufferings of all the ages. Two spirits
pass by, the spirit of Fate (Fatalité), which is the enemy of man, and the spirit of God (Dieu), which is the
friend of man. This wall is shivered into fragments, by which the seer understands the destruction of pain and
evil, and the closing of the long volume of human history. That volume, the end of which the dreamer
foresees, the poet proposes to write:
INTRODUCTION 4
The book
The poet's view of the problem of evil and the destiny of humanity becomes clearer if the Légende is read in
connexion with the two poems mentioned in the Preface to the volume of 1859, as designed to form with it an
immense trilogy: Dieu and La Fin de Satan. Neither was published till after the poet's death, and the latter was
left in an unfinished condition. But they were both planned in the days when, isolated on his rock and severed
from active life, the poet meditated on the deep questions of life and death. They were meant to be, the one the
prelude, and the other the sequel of his poem of humanity. The leading thought of Dieu is the falseness of all
the positive systems of religion which have burdened or inspired humanity, and the truth that
The theme of La Fin de Satan is the final reconciliation of good and evil. As Satan falls from heaven, a
feather drops from his wing, and from that feather the Almighty creates the angel Liberty, who is thus the
child equally of the spirit of Good and the spirit of Evil; that angel finally brings about the pardon of Satan,
when the demon finds that it is impossible for him to live without the presence of the Almighty. Man is
endowed with liberty, this child of good and ill, and his spirit hovers therefore ever between the exalted and
the mean. So humanity appears to the seer in Dieu:
INTRODUCTION 5
The book
To Hugo, therefore, evil is not an equal force with good, nor is it eternal. It was created in time, it will end in
time. It is a mistake to suppose that he accepted any kind of Manichaeism as his solution of the problem of the
universe. In reality his thought is much more permeated with Christian feeling than with Manichaeism.
Though he rejected dogmatic Catholicism, and indeed assailed it with Voltairian mockery, yet his vision of
the Eternal as the embodiment of that mercy and goodness which is greater than justice is in its essence a
Christian conception. Inspired, in part at least, by Christian thought seems also to be his conception of the
eventual reconciliation of good and evil, and that belief in the restoration of all things which finds expression
in the concluding lines of L'Âne:
Hope is indeed the keynote of Hugo's poetry. In the darkest days of 1871, when France was tearing out her
own vitals and Paris was destroying itself, he could write thus:
(L'Année Terrible.)
INTRODUCTION 6
The book
See too the beautiful lines written when to public disaster was added private grief for the loss of his son
Charles, especially the passage, too long to quote here, in L'Enterrement, beginning 'Quand le jeune lutteur....'
If, passing from the underlying conception to the actual material of the Légende, we ask to what extent the
poems can be regarded as history, the answer must be that they are not history at all in the ordinary sense of
the word. In his Préface Hugo remarks: 'C'est l'aspect légendaire qui prévaut dans ces deux volumes.' As a
matter of fact, there is not a single poem in any of the series which is a narrative based upon actual fact. Of the
pieces in the present volume, Le Mariage de Roland, Aymerillot, and Bivar are founded on legends. Éviradnus
and La Confiance du Marquis Fabrice are inventions, and the others are mostly embroideries woven upon
ancient themes rather than historical or even legendary pictures. These latter, of which La Conscience is the
best instance in this volume, suggest De Vigny's conception: 'Une pensée philosophique, mise en scène sous
une forme épique ou dramatique.' Of accuracy in detail and local colour, Hugo was utterly careless. He
possessed a capacious, but not an exact, memory, and, provided the general impression produced by a
description was the true one, he did not stop to inquire whether every detail was correct. Nor did he always
enjoy an extensive knowledge of the epoch which he delineated. But he possessed to the full the poet's faculty
of building the whole form and feature of a past age out of a few stray fragments of information. The
historical colour of Ruy Blas is said to be based on two French books, carelessly consulted, yet of Ruy Blas M.
Paul de Saint-Victor, after making a close study of the period, wrote: 'Ce fragment de siècle que je venais
d'exhumer de tant de recherches, je le retrouvais, vivant et mouvant, dans l'harmonie d'un drame admirable.
Le souffle d'un grand poète ressuscitait subitement l'ossuaire des faits et des choses que j'avais péniblement
rajusté.'3
Moreover, inaccurate as Hugo often is, it is never the inaccuracy that falsifies. He has been severely criticized
for having in Au Lion d'Androclès assigned to a single epoch events and personages which are really separated
by centuries. But all the facts are typical of the spirit which dominated Imperial Rome, and combine therefore
to form a description which has poetic and imaginative, if not historical, truth. And if, with greater licence, he
has accumulated upon the head of a single Mourad all the crimes of a long line of Sultans it is because in
drawing Mourad he is drawing the Turkish nation. Mourad is to him the typical Turk, the embodiment of
Oriental cruelty and lust. If again, to pass to a larger subject, he has chosen legend rather than history as the
basis of many of his poems, it is not only because of his own innate love of the marvellous and romantic, but
because he cared for the truth embodied in legend more than the truth embodied in chronicle. If he mingled
fiction with his history, it was because he conceived of the fiction as being as true a representation of the facts
of an era as annals and records. It may be true that Hugo made imagination do duty for study, but it is also
true that an imagination, such as Hugo's, may be as sure an instrument as study in reconstructing the past. He
may have mistaken the date of Crassus by several centuries, but readers of Suetonius will hardly deny the
faithfulness of his delineation of at least one side of the civilization of ancient Rome; he may have invented a
Spanish princess, but his carefully stippled portrait of Philip II is true to the life, even if it be Philip in his
darkest moods. His inaccuracies are in truth of small account. Who that reads Le Cimetière d'Eylau cares
whether there was a place of burial in the battlefield or not? or what lover of Booz endormi seeks to know how
closely the flora of Palestine has been studied? A more serious criticism than the charge of inaccuracy is that
of partial vision, and from this Hugo cannot be entirely exculpated. He saw with his heart, and seeing with the
heart must always mean partial vision. For at the root of Hugo's nature lay an immense pity, pity not merely
for the suffering, but for what is base or criminal, or what is ugly or degraded. It was this pity which is the
keynote of Notre-Dame de Paris and Les Misérables; it is this pity which inspired much of the Légende des
Siècles.
The defence of the weak by the strong is one of his constant themes, as witness Éviradnus, Le Petit Roi de
Galice, Les Pauvres Gens. The contrast of the weak and the strong is one of his favourite artistic effects, as
witness Booz endormi, La Confiance du Marquis Falrice. An act of pity redeemed Sultan Mourad, an act of
INTRODUCTION 7
The book
pity made the poor ass greater than all the philosophers. It was this absorbing pity for the defenceless that
made Hugo so merciless to the oppressor and so incapable of seeing anything but the deepest black in the
picture of the tyrant. One-sided the poet may be, but it is the one-sidedness of a generous nature; he may err,
but his errors at least lean to the side of virtue.
It would be impossible in the brief space of an introduction such as this to discuss at any length the
characteristics of Hugo as a literary artist, but a few remarks may be made on some of the features of his art
which are most conspicuous in the poems selected for this volume. It is scarcely necessary to dwell upon the
poet's extraordinary fecundity of words and images. Occasionally, especially in his later works, this
degenerates into diffuseness, and he exhibits a tendency to repetition and a fondness for long enumeration of
names and details. On the other hand, he constantly shows how well he understood the power of brevity and
compression. There is not a superfluous word nor a poetic image in La Conscience, the severe and simple
style of which is well suited to the sternness of the subject. The story of Après la Bataille is related with
telling conciseness, while in the highly finished work of Booz endormi there are no redundant phrases. The
many variations on the same theme in Aymerillot may be criticized as tedious, but there underlies them the
artistic purpose of intensifying the reader's sense of the cowardice of the nobles by an accumulation of
examples. A like criticism and a like defence may be made of the long list of the crimes of Sultan Mourad,
though here perhaps the poet's torrent of facts goes beyond the point at which the amassing of details is
effective. On the other hand, the swiftness of the narrative of the Mariage de Roland, and the soldierly brevity
of the Cimetière d'Eylau, a piece not included in this volume, are alike admirable, and show Hugo at his best
as a story-teller.
One of the most marked features of Hugo's poetry is his custom of attributing human desires and volition to
inanimate objects. To Hugo, the whole universe seemed to be alive, both as a whole and in each of its separate
parts, and his way of humanizing the inanimate is not so much a conscious literary artifice as the natural habit
of his imagination. The tendency is not confined to his poetry; readers of his romances will remember the
gargoyles of Notre-Dame and the cannon which got loose in the hold of the Claymore and became 'une bête
surnaturelle.' But the instances in his romantic poetry are naturally more numerous and more vivid. The
swords of the heroes are always alive; in the duel between Roland and Olivier:
In the combat between Roland and his enemies in the Petit Roi de Galice, the hero staggers and Froïla leaps
forward to crush him:
The statues in the hall at Final are moved at the gentle tread of Fabrice and his little ward, and seem to bow to
them as they pass.
But the most striking instance of this tendency occurs in Éviradnus, where, from beginning to end, all that
surrounds the actors in the story lives with a passionate life. The trees that overhear the plot of Sigismond and
Ladislas tremble and moan, and the words that issue from the lips of the miscreants are dark with shadow or
INTRODUCTION 8
The book
red with blood. The half-ruined castle of Corbus fights with the winter, like a strong man with his enemies;
the gargoyles on its towers bark at the winds, the graven monsters on the ramparts snarl and snort, the
sculptured lions claw and bite the wind and rain4. In the gloomy halls the griffins seize with their teeth the
great beams of the roofs, and the door is afraid of the noise of its own opening. The very shadows feel fear
and the pillars are chilled with terror. The armour of the horses and the men is terribly alive, and charger and
knight make but one monster, clothed in scales of steel.
Footnote 4: (return) With this picture in verse of the fight between the castle and the storm should be compared
the prose picture of the fight between the fire and the water in Le Rhin (Lettre xix).
Hugo loves especially to endow with life objects that suggest a struggle. It is the wrecked and broken ship of
Pleine Mer rather than the triumphant vessel of Plein Ciel that is animate.
******************
******************
Allied with this habit of vivifying the inanimate is the more subtle artifice of transfiguring or magnifying
concrete objects, so that they become symbolic without ceasing to be real. This blending of the actual and the
figurative is seen in the description of the King and Emperor in Éviradnus:
******************
In La Confiance du Marquis Fabrice the reality of the wine and the suggestion of the blood are very artfully
mingled
INTRODUCTION 9
The book
Another remarkable feature of Hugo's literary art is the feeling for light and shade which it displays. He likes
to wrap his poems in a physical atmosphere of brightness or gloom, corresponding to the sentiment which
pervades them. How, for instance, in Les Orientales, that exquisite little gem, Sarah la Baigneuse, flashes and
sparkles with light! How striking in La Fin de Satan is the contrast between the murky atmosphere in which
the maker of crosses works and the bright sunshine in which Christ's triumphant entry into Jerusalem is
bathed! With what consummate art the darkness of the Crucifixion is made to accentuate the horror of the
event!
Contrast the radiance of the dawn in which the Satyr, the emblem of strong and joyous Nature, is first seen:
******************
INTRODUCTION 10
The book
In La Confiance du Marquis Fabrice light and shadow are very skilfully managed. We see the little princess
Isora making her toilet in the early morning, when everything is fresh and bright. It is in the dawn that she
loves to play. But the banquet of death takes place at night in a dimly lighted hall, when the lack of clear light
adds to the horror of the scene. Note the Rembrandtesque effects in such phrases: 'aux tremblantes clartés,'
'l'ombre indistincte,' 'à travers l'ombre, on voit toutes les soifs infâmes,' and it ends in 'le triomphe de l'ombre,'
a phrase in which the literal and the figurative are subtly blended together. On the other hand, how everything
sparkles and gleams in Le Mariage de Roland! Olivier's sword-point glitters like the eye of a demon, while
Durandal shines as he falls on his foeman's head; the sunshine is all round them in the day, and the night
passes quickly; sparks fly from the weapons as they strike one another, and light up the very shadows with a
dull flash. Take again La Rose de l'Infante. Everything round the little princess is bright: 'le profond jardin
rayonnant et fleuri,' 'un grand palais comme au fond d'une gloire,' 'de clairs viviers,' 'des paons étoilés.' The
very grass, too, seems to sparkle with diamonds and rubies. But Philip is a dark shadow, half hidden in mist:
His eye shines, it is true, but it is a gleam that suggests a darkness beneath:
Sa prunelle
Note again the oppressive darkness of the opening lines of Pleine Mer, in which the only touch of light is the
winding-sheet of the waves, and contrast it with the atmosphere of light which surrounds the ship in Plein
Ciel, where even the night is bright:
INTRODUCTION 11
The book
******************
And this because sunset is the hour for gentle thoughts and quiet feeling:
So strong is Hugo's feeling for light and shadow that he often seems to solidify them, as it were, into concrete
objects. When the trap-door in the hall of Corbus is opened
In Fabrice
And in Au Lion d'Androclès it is the fitting emblem of the human race in a degenerate age:
Very curious is the connexion between the legends of a countryside and the smoke of its cottages in the lines:
INTRODUCTION 12
The book
L'âtre enfante le rêve, et l'on voit ondoyer
Of the infinite variety of Hugo's poetic gifts such a selection as is contained in this volume can of course give
but a very inadequate idea. The extraordinary versatility and fecundity of his genius can be appreciated only
by those who have read all, or at least much, of his output. But the first series of the Légende is perhaps that
part of the poet's work in which substance and beauty, original thought and vivid expression, are found in the
most perfect combination. Written in middle life, it stands midway between his earlier poetry with its more
lyric note and his later work with its deeper and more prophetic tones. In point of expression the poet's powers
had attained their full development; he has perfect command of rime; the versification is free and shows no
trace of the stilted style of his first volumes; the language is copious and eloquent, but exhibits few signs of
that verbosity and tendency to vain repetition which, as has been already remarked, marred some of his later
poetry. In the Légende, no doubt, are a thousand extravagances, bizarreries, anachronisms, and negligences.
But the greatest poet is not, like the greatest general, he who makes fewest mistakes, but he who expresses the
noblest and truest feeling in the noblest and truest language. So judged, the Légende will take its place
amongst the best that the nineteenth century produced in poetry.
G. F. BRIDGE.
LONDON,
March, 1907.
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Victor-Marie Hugo, son of an officer in Napoleon's army, was born at Besançon on February 26, 1802. He
spent a roving and unsettled childhood, for wherever the father was sent the mother and children followed.
The first three years of his life were spent in Elba, where he learnt to speak the Italian dialect spoken in the
island in addition to his mother tongue. Then for three years the family was in Paris and Victor got a little
education in a small school. But in 1805 the father was appointed to a post in the army of Naples, and in the
autumn of 1807 his wife and children joined him at Avellino. Two years later General Hugo was invited by
Joseph Bonaparte to fill an important position in the kingdom of Spain, and, desirous that his sons should
receive a good education, he sent his family to Paris, where his wife chose for their home the house in the Rue
des Feuillantines which has been so charmingly described by the poet in the lines Ce qui se passait aux
Feuillantines. There he learnt much from an old soldier, General Lahorie, who, obnoxious to Napoleon for the
share he had taken in Moreau's plot, lived secretly in the house, and from an old priest named Larivière, who
came every day to teach the three brothers. There too he played in the garden with the little Adèle Foucher,
who afterwards became his wife. But this quiet home life did not last long. In 1811 Madame Hugo set off to
join her husband at Madrid, and the boys went with her. At Madrid they were sent to a school kept by Priests
where Victor was not very happy, and from which he got small profit. Next year the whole family returned to
Paris, and in 1815, at the age of thirteen, he was definitely sent to a boarding-school to prepare for the École
Polytechnique. But his was a precocious genius, and he devoted himself, even at school, to verse-writing with
greater ardour than to study. He wrote in early youth more than one poem for a prize competition, composed a
romance which some years later he elaborated into the story Bug-Jargal, and in 1820, when only eighteen,
joined his two brothers, Abel and Eugène, in publishing a literary journal called Le Conservateur Littéraire.
About the same time he became engaged to Adèle Foucher, and wrote for her the romance of Han d'Islande,
which, however, was not published till later. In 1822 he and Adèle were married, and in the same year he
published his first volume of Odes. He was now fully launched on a literary career, and for twenty years or
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 13
The book
more the story of his life is mainly the story of his literary output. In 1827 he published his drama of
Cromwell, the preface to which, with its note of defiance to literary convention, caused him to be definitely
accepted as the head of the Romantic School of poetry. Les Orientales, Le dernier jour d'un condamné,
Marion de Lorme, and Hernani followed in quick succession. The revolution of 1830 disturbed for a moment
his literary activity, but as soon as things were quiet again he shut himself in his study with a bottle of ink, a
pen, and an immense pile of paper. For six weeks he was never seen, except at dinner-time, and the result was
Notre-Dame de Paris. During the next ten years four volumes of poetry and four dramas were published; in
1841 came his election to the Academy, and in 1843 he published Les Burgraves, a drama which was less
successful than his former plays, and which marks the close of his career as a dramatist. In the same year there
came to him the greatest sorrow of his life. His daughter Léopoldine, to whom he was deeply attached, was
drowned with her husband during a pleasure excursion on the Seine only a few months after their marriage.
In 1845 Hugo began to take an active part in politics. Son of a Vendean mother, he had been in early life a
fervent royalist, and even in 1830 he could write of the fallen royal family with respectful sympathy. Yet by
that time his democratic leanings had declared themselves, and he accepted the constitutional monarchy of
Louis Philippe only as a step towards a republic, for which he considered France was not yet ripe. In 1845 the
king made him a peer of France, but this did not prevent him from throwing himself with all the ardour of his
nature into the revolution of 1848. Divining the ambition of Louis Napoleon, he resisted his growing power,
and when the Second Empire was established the poet was among the first who were exiled from France. He
took refuge first in Jersey, and afterwards in Guernsey, where he lived in a house near the coast, from the
upper balcony of which the cliffs of Normandy could sometimes be discerned. Thence he launched against the
usurper a bitter prose satire, Napoléon le Petit, and a still bitterer satire in verse, Les Châtiments, and there he
wrote two of his greatest novels, Les Travailleurs de la Mer and Les Misérables, two of his finest volumes of
poetry, Les Contemplations, the greater part of the first series of La Légende des Siècles, and the two
remarkable religious poems, Dieu and La Fin de Satan. He returned to France on the fall of Napoleon in 1870,
to be for fifteen years the idol of the people, who regarded him as the incarnation of the spirit of liberty.
Several volumes of poetry were issued during those fifteen years, notably L'Année Terrible, Les Quatre Vents
de l'Esprit, and a second series of La Légende des Siècles, none perhaps equal as a whole to the best of his
earlier volumes, but all, especially the second-named, abounding in beautiful and striking poetry. He died in
1885, and was buried in a manner befitting one who had filled Europe with his fame, and had been for so
many years the 'stormy voice of France.'
PRÉFACE
DE LA PREMIÈRE SÉRIE
Hauteville-House, Septembre 1857,
Les personnes qui voudront bien jeter un coup d'oeil sur ce livre ne s'en feraient pas une idée précise, si elles y
voyaient autre chose qu'un commencement.
Ce livre est-il donc un fragment? Non. Il existe à part. Il a, comme on le verra, son exposition, son milieu et sa
fin.
Mais, en même temps, il est, pour ainsi dire, la première page d'un autre livre.
L'arbre, commencement de la forêt, est un tout. Il appartient à la vie isolée, par la racine, et à la vie en
commun, par la sève. A lui seul, il ne prouve que l'arbre, mais il annonce la forêt.
Ce livre, s'il n'y avait pas quelque affectation dans des comparaisons de cette nature, aurait, lui aussi, ce
double caractère. Il existe solitairement et forme un tout; il existe solidairement et fait partie d'un ensemble.
Exprimer l'humanité dans une espèce d'oeuvre cyclique; la peindre successivement et simultanément sous tous
ses aspects, histoire, fable, philosophie, religion, science, lesquels se résument en un seul et immense
mouvement d'ascension vers la lumière; faire apparaître dans une sorte de miroir sombre et clair—que
l'interruption naturelle des travaux terrestres brisera probablement avant qu'il ait la dimension rêvée par
l'auteur— cette grande figure une et multiple, lugubre et rayonnante, fatale et sacrée, l'Homme; voilà de quelle
pensée, de quelle ambition, si l'on veut, est sortie La Légende des Siècles.
Le volume qu'on va lire n'en contient que la première partie, la première série, comme dit le titre.
Les poèmes qui composent ce volume ne sont donc autre chose que des empreintes successives du profil
humain, de date en date, depuis Ève, mère des hommes, jusqu'à la Révolution, mère des peuples; empreintes
prises, tantôt sur la barbarie, tantôt sur la civilisation, presque toujours sur le vif de l'histoire; empreintes
moulées sur le masque des siècles.
Quand d'autres volumes se seront joints à celui-ci, de façon à rendre l'oeuvre un peu moins incomplète, cette
série d'empreintes, vaguement disposées dans un certain ordre chronologique, pourra former une sorte de
galerie de la médaille humaine.
Pour le poète comme pour l'historien, pour l'archéologue comme pour le philosophe, chaque siècle est un
changement de physionomie de l'humanité. On trouvera dans ce volume, qui, nous le répétons, sera continué
et complété, le reflet de quelques-uns de ces changements de physionomie.
On y trouvera quelque chose du passé, quelque chose du présent et comme un vague mirage de l'avenir. Du
reste, ces poèmes, divers par le sujet, mais inspirés par la même pensée, n'ont entre eux d'autre noeud qu'un
fil, ce fil qui s'atténue quelquefois au point de devenir invisible, mais qui ne casse jamais, le grand fil
mystérieux du labyrinthe humain, le Progrès.
Comme dans une mosaïque, chaque pierre a sa couleur et sa forme propre; l'ensemble donne une figure. La
figure de ce livre, on l'a dit plus haut, c'est l'Homme.
Ce volume d'ailleurs, qu'on veuille bien ne pas l'oublier, est à l'ouvrage dont il fait partie, et qui sera mis au
jour plus tard, ce que serait à une symphonie l'ouverture. Il n'en peut donner l'idée exacte et complète, mais il
contient une lueur de l'oeuvre entière.
Quant à ce volume pris en lui-même, l'auteur n'a qu'un mot à en dire. Le genre humain, considéré comme un
grand individu collectif accomplissant d'époque en époque une série d'actes sur la terre, a deux aspects,
l'aspect historique et l'aspect légendaire. Le second n'est pas moins vrai que le premier; le premier n'est pas
moins conjectural que le second.
C'est l'aspect légendaire qui prévaut dans ce volume et qui en colore les poèmes. Ces poèmes se passent l'un à
l'autre le flambeau de la tradition humaine. Quasi cursores. C'est ce flambeau, dont la flamme est le vrai, qui
fait l'unité de ce livre. Tous ces poèmes, ceux du moins qui résument le passé, sont de la réalité historique
condensée ou de la réalité historique devinée. La fiction parfois, la falsification jamais; aucun grossissement
de lignes; fidélité absolue à la couleur des temps et à l'esprit des civilisations diverses. Pour citer des
exemples, la Décadence romaine n'a pas un détail qui ne soit rigoureusement exact; la barbarie mahométane
ressort de Cantemir, à travers l'enthousiasme de l'historiographe turc, telle qu'elle est exposée dans les
premières pages de Zim-Zizimi et de Sultan Mourad.
Du reste, les personnes auxquelles l'étude du passé est familière reconnaîtront, l'auteur n'en doute pas, l'accent
réel et sincère de tout ce livre. Un de ces poèmes (Première rencontre du Christ avec le tombeau) est tiré,
l'auteur pourrait dire traduit, de l'évangile. Deux autres (Le Mariage de Roland, Aymerillot) sont des feuillets
détachés de la colossale épopée du moyen âge (Charlemagne, emperor à la barbe florie). Ces deux poèmes
jaillissent directement des livres de geste de la chevalerie. C'est de l'histoire écoutée aux portes de la légende.
Quant au mode de formation de plusieurs des autres poèmes dans la pensée de l'auteur, on pourra s'en faire
une idée en lisant les quelques lignes placées en note avant la pièce intitulée Les Raisons du Momotombo;
lignes d'où cette pièce est sortie. L'auteur en convient, un rudiment imperceptible, perdu dans la chronique ou
dans la tradition, à peine visible à l'oeil nu, lui a souvent suffi. Il n'est pas défendu au poète et au philosophe
d'essayer sur les faits sociaux ce que le naturaliste essaie sur les faits zoologiques, la reconstruction du
monstre d'après l'empreinte de l'ongle ou l'alvéole de la dent.
Ici lacune, là étude complaisante et approfondie d'un détail, tel est l'inconvénient de toute publication
fractionnée. Ces défauts de proportion peuvent n'être qu'apparents. Le lecteur trouvera certainement juste
d'attendre, pour les apprécier définitivement, que La Légende des Siècles ait paru en entier. Les usurpations,
par exemple, jouent un tel rôle dans la construction des royautés au moyen âge et mêlent tant de crimes à la
complication des investitures, que l'auteur a cru devoir les présenter sous leurs trois principaux aspects dans
les trois drames, Le Petit Roi de Galice, Éviradnus, La Confiance du Marquis Fabrice. Ce qui peut sembler
aujourd'hui un développement excessif s'ajustera plus tard à l'ensemble.
Les tableaux riants sont rares dans ce livre; cela tient à ce qu'ils ne sont pas fréquents dans l'histoire.
Comme on le verra, l'auteur, en racontant le genre humain, ne l'isole pas de son entourage terrestre. Il mêle
quelquefois à l'homme, il heurte à l'âme humaine, afin de lui faire rendre son véritable son, ces êtres différents
de l'homme que nous nommons bêtes, choses, nature morte, et qui remplissent on ne sait quelles fonctions
fatales dans l'équilibre vertigineux de la création.
Tel est ce livre. L'auteur l'offre au public sans rien se dissimuler de sa profonde insuffisance. C'est une
tentative vers l'idéal. Rien de plus.
Plus tard, nous le croyons, lorsque plusieurs autres parties de ce livre auront été publiées, on apercevra le lien
qui, dans la conception de l'auteur, rattache La Légende des Siècles à deux autres poèmes, presque terminés à
cette heure, et qui en sont, l'un le dénoûment, l'autre le commencement: La Fin de Satan, Dieu.
Nul ne peut répondre d'achever ce qu'il a commencé, pas une minute de continuation certaine n'est assurée à
l'oeuvre ébauchée; la solution de continuité, hélas! c'est tout l'homme; mais il est permis, même au plus faible,
d'avoir une bonne intention et de la dire.
L'épanouissement du genre humain de siècle en siècle, l'homme montant des ténèbres à l'idéal, la
transfiguration paradisiaque de l'enfer terrestre, l'éclosion lente et suprême de la liberté, droit pour cette vie,
responsabilité pour l'autre; une espèce d'hymne religieux à mille strophes, ayant dans ses entrailles une foi
profonde et sur son sommet une haute prière; le drame de la création éclairé par le visage du créateur, voilà ce
que sera, terminé, ce poème dans son ensemble; si Dieu, maître des existences humaines, y consent.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
LA CONSCIENCE
BOOZ ENDORMI
AU LION D'ANDROCLÈS
LE MARIAGE DE ROLAND
AYMERILLOT
BIVAR
ÉVIRADNUS
CONTENTS 17
The book
SULTAN MOURAD
LA ROSE DE L'INFANTE
APRÈS LA BATAILLE
LE CRAPAUD
PLEINE MER
PLEIN CIEL
LA TROMPETTE DU JUGEMENT
NOTES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LA CONSCIENCE
Lorsque avec ses enfants vêtus de peaux de bêtes,
LA CONSCIENCE 19
The book
LA CONSCIENCE 20
The book
BOOZ ENDORMI
Booz s'était couché de fatigue accablé;
BOOZ ENDORMI 25
The book
BOOZ ENDORMI 26
The book
BOOZ ENDORMI 27
The book
AU LION D'ANDROCLÈS
La ville ressemblait à l'univers. C'était
AU LION D'ANDROCLÈS 28
The book
............................
...................
...................
AU LION D'ANDROCLÈS 29
The book
AU LION D'ANDROCLÈS 30
The book
AU LION D'ANDROCLÈS 31
The book
II
LE MARIAGE DE ROLAND
Ils se battent—combat terrible!—corps à corps.
II 32
The book
LE MARIAGE DE ROLAND 33
The book
—J'attends,
LE MARIAGE DE ROLAND 34
The book
—Camarade,
De repos.
LE MARIAGE DE ROLAND 35
The book
Couchez-vous et dormez.
LE MARIAGE DE ROLAND 36
The book
Acceptez-le.
S'arrête et dit:
LE MARIAGE DE ROLAND 37
The book
Épouse-la.
AYMERILLOT
Charlemagne, empereur à la barbe fleurie,
AYMERILLOT 38
The book
AYMERILLOT 39
The book
AYMERILLOT 40
The book
—C'est Narbonne.
L'assaut!
AYMERILLOT 41
The book
AYMERILLOT 42
The book
AYMERILLOT 43
The book
Il reprit:
—Un pigeon,
AYMERILLOT 44
The book
—Vaillant homme,
AYMERILLOT 45
The book
—Lâcheté!
AYMERILLOT 46
The book
AYMERILLOT 47
The book
AYMERILLOT 48
The book
S'écria:
Va, fils!
AYMERILLOT 49
The book
BIVAR
Bivar était, au fond d'un bois sombre, un manoir
BIVAR 50
The book
BIVAR 51
The book
Vous dominiez tout, grand, sans chef, sans joug, sans digue,
Rodrigue
BIVAR 52
The book
EVIRADNUS
EVIRADNUS 53
The book
II
ÉVIRADNUS
Éviradnus,
Que les hommes sont bas et que les lits sont courts;
ÉVIRADNUS 55
The book
III
DANS LA FORÊT
III 56
The book
L'herbe verte,
DANS LA FORÊT 57
The book
DANS LA FORÊT 58
The book
DANS LA FORÊT 59
The book
IV
LA COUTUME DE L'USAGE
IV 60
The book
LA COUTUME DE L'USAGE 61
The book
LA COUTUME DE L'USAGE 62
The book
LA MARQUISE MAHAUD
V 63
The book
VI
Ils n'en passent pas moins pour avoir fait tous deux
LA MARQUISE MAHAUD 64
The book
Que le peuple ait des jougs et que l'homme ait des rois?
VII
LA SALLE À MANGER
VII 67
The book
LA SALLE À MANGER 68
The book
LA SALLE À MANGER 69
The book
VIII
VIII 70
The book
N'ont pas leurs ais hideux mieux joints que ces jambières;
Chose affreuse!
IX
IX 76
The book
Viens. Tu vois mieux que moi, qui n'ai plus de bons yeux,
Va.
ÉVIRADNUS IMMOBILE
X 78
The book
XI
UN PEU DE MUSIQUE
Tu m'emmènes, je t'enlève.
XI 79
The book
UN PEU DE MUSIQUE 80
The book
XII
XII 81
The book
Mahaud frémit.
—J'en réponds,
XIII
ILS SOUPENT
XIII 84
The book
ILS SOUPENT 85
The book
XIV
APRÈS SOUPER
—Elle dort!
XIV 86
The book
—J'en ai.
—Bien
—J'entends du bruit
As-tu peur?
APRÈS SOUPER 87
The book
—Quatre.
—Pardieu!
—Un cadavre.
Et Zéno reprend:
—En vérité,
APRÈS SOUPER 88
The book
APRÈS SOUPER 89
The book
Zéno
Joss marche vers la trappe, et, les yeux dans les yeux,
XV
LES OUBLIETTES
XV 90
The book
—Dans l'ombre.
Au néant; finissons.
—Allons!
LES OUBLIETTES 91
The book
Est là béant.
XVI
XVI 92
The book
Es-tu Satan?
—Le juge.
—Grâce!
La voix reprend:
Atterrés,
Ils s'agenouillent.
Grâce!
Spectre!
Je suis Éviradnus.
XVII
LA MASSUE
XVII 98
The book
LA MASSUE 99
The book
Il expire.
LA MASSUE 100
The book
XVIII
LE JOUR REPARAÎT
C'est mieux.
XVIII 101
The book
SULTAN MOURAD
I 103
The book
I 104
The book
Laissant des trous par où l'on voit leurs yeux dans l'ombre,
II
II 105
The book
III
III 106
The book
Il expira.
III 107
The book
IV
IV 108
The book
C'était là.
Dieu méditait.
IV 109
The book
Pendant aux pals, cloués aux croix, nus sur les claies,
Criaient, montrant leurs fers, leur sang, leurs maux, leurs plaies:
IV 110
The book
IV 111
The book
V 112
The book
V 113
The book
.......................
.......................
II
LE DÉFAUT DE LA CUIRASSE
II 116
The book
III
AÏEUL MATERNEL
III 118
The book
IV
IV 120
The book
LE CORBEAU
VI
LE PÉRE ET LA MÈRE
LE CORBEAU 122
The book
VII
JOIE AU CHÂTEAU
VIII
LA TOILETTE D'ISORA
Vois tous les beaux cadeaux qu'il nous fait! Quel bonheur!
IX
IX 128
The book
SUITE DE LA JOIE
......................
XI
XI 132
The book
Et, quant aux plus mutins, c'est ainsi que les nomme
XII
XII 134
The book
XIII
SILENCE
C'est Fabrice.
Et se tait.
Et l'aïeul
SILENCE 136
The book
Et, reprenant:
—Tu me braves!
XIV
XIV 137
The book
Mais l'enfant! O mon Dieu! c'est donc vrai qu'elle est morte!
Les pas que font tes pieds, les jours que tes yeux voient,
XV
L'aïeul pleurait.
Mon enfant! Tous les jours nous allions dans les lierres.
Est-ce que tu m'en veux? C'est moi qui suis là! Dis,
XV 142
The book
Elle saigne.
XVI
XVI 144
The book
LA ROSE DE L'INFANTE
Elle est toute petite, une duègne la garde.
Ses yeux bleus sont plus beaux sous son pur sourcil brun.
Car les enfants des rois sont ainsi; leurs fronts blancs
De rencontrer Michellema;
Le mariage la ferma.
A Notre-Dame de la Garde,
APRÈS LA BATAILLE
Mon père, ce héros au sourire si doux,
LE CRAPAUD
Que savons-nous? qui donc connaît le fond des choses?
LE CRAPAUD 162
The book
LE CRAPAUD 163
The book
LE CRAPAUD 164
The book
LE CRAPAUD 165
The book
Tous regardaient.
LE CRAPAUD 166
The book
LE CRAPAUD 167
The book
LE CRAPAUD 168
The book
II
Dur labeur! tout est noir, tout est froid; rien ne luit.
III
II 170
The book
III 171
The book
IV
O pauvres femmes
Ciel! être en proie aux flots, c'est être en proie aux bêtes.
Jeannie est bien plus triste encor. Son homme est seul!
IV 172
The book
V 173
The book
VI
VI 174
The book
VII
VII 175
The book
VIII
IX
VIII 176
The book
IX 177
The book
X 178
The book
PLEINE MER
L'abîme; on ne sait quoi de terrible qui gronde;
I 179
The book
Tout fuit.
Horreur.
Mais les heures, les jours, les mois, les ans, ces ondes,
Les rois étaient des tours; les dieux étaient des murs;
Regardez là-haut.
II
PLEIN CIEL
Loin dans les profondeurs, hors des nuits, hors du flot,
II 188
The book
A la poursuite de l'aurore!
Sont heureux, l'homme est bon, et sont fiers, l'homme est juste.
La perversité lamentable,
Et de l'athée et de l'augure,
De la Vénus prostituée;
LA TROMPETTE DU JUGEMENT
Je vis dans la nuée un clairon monstrueux.
Il vivait.
Une voix
FIN
NOTES
LA CONSCIENCE.
It has been thought that the subject of this poem was suggested to Victor Hugo by a passage in Les tragiques,
a satirical poem in seven books, depicting the misfortunes and vices of France, written by Théodore Agrippa
D'Aubigné (1551-1630), whom Sainte-Beuve calls the Juvenal of the sixteenth century. The passage relating
to Cain occurs in the sixth book, called Les Vengeances. The following extracts indicate the spirit in which the
author dealt with his theme.
.......
.......
NOTES 215
The book
It is clear that if the poem suggested the subject to Hugo it suggested nothing else.
With Caïn may be compared Le Parricide, one of the 1859 series, which is also inspired by the theme of the
guilty conscience pursuing the murderer. In this case remorse is symbolized by a drop of blood which falls
upon the head of the criminal wherever he goes.
Assur, English Asshur; the name occurs in the marginal rendering of Gen. x. II (Revised Version).
The names of persons and their descriptions are taken from the account of Cain's descendants in Gen. iv.
17-23.
Jabel, English Jabal, son of Lamech, a descendant of Cain and Adah. 'He was the father of such as dwell in
tents and have cattle.'
Jubal, the brother of Jabal. 'He was the father of all such as handle the harp and pipe.'
Tubalcaïn, English Tubal-cain, the son of Lamech and his wife Zillah. He was 'the forger of every cutting
instrument of brass and iron.'
Iblis, one of the names used in the Koran for the Spirit of Evil. He was a spirit who refused to prostrate
himself before Adam at the command of the Almighty, and was therefore expelled from Eden. Instead of
being immediately destroyed, however, he was given a respite till the Day of Judgement. The word is derived
from the Arabic balas, wicked.
Another tradition, not found in the Koran, is that Iblis was a warrior angel whom the Almighty sent to
exterminate the Djinns, the beings, half men, half angels, who inhabited the country of the Genii. Instead of
performing this command, the spirit rebelled and was cast down into hell. It is hardly necessary to add that
Hugo's story is of his own invention.
Bonté (see heading), one of Hugo's favourite words for expressing the moral attributes of the Almighty power.
The theme that God is goodness, which is more than justice, is developed in Dieu: La Lumière.
NOTES 216
The book
Est la bonté.
The word has no exact equivalent in English. It comprehends kindness, tenderness, and gentleness.
It may be interesting to note that Hugo was fond of comparing an object composed of a centre and rays to a
spider. Edmond Huguet (Les Sens de la Forme dans les Métaphores de Victor Hugo) gives the following
examples:
(Alpes et Pyrénées.)
(Les Misérables.)
Hugo appears to have had a feeling of antipathy for the spider and frequently chose it as the symbol of evil. In
Dieu: Le Corbeau, the spirits of good and evil are thus described:—
NOTES 217
The book
Compare also:—
See also the passage from La Bouche d'Ombre, quoted in the notes to Le Crapaud.
BOOZ ENDORMI.
The subject of this exquisite little idyll is taken from the Book of Ruth, chapter iii, in which Ruth the
Moabitess is described as lying at the feet of Boaz, the kinsman of her dead husband, Mahlon the Hebrew, in
order that she might claim from him that he should marry her and continue the family of Mahlon, as provided
by the law of Moses.
Judith. There was a Judith, daughter of Beer the Hittite, one of the wives of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 34). Hugo may
or may not have had this personage in his mind.
asphodèle. Hugo is not always accurate in his local colouring. Asphodels are not found in Palestine.
Galgala, the form found in the Septuagint and Vulgate of the place-name Gilgal.
Les grelots des troupeaux. Here, again, Hugo is inaccurate. Sheep in Palestine do not have bells attached to
them.
NOTES 218
The book
Jérimadeth. The name seems to be of Hugo's own invention. It was a trick of the poet's to make proper names
suit the exigencies of rime, as in this instance, in which 'Jérimadeth rimes with' demandait.
AU LION D'ANDROCLÈS.
It is impossible to name the period to which Hugo is referring in this poem more precisely than by saying that
it is the age of Rome under the Empire. As will be seen from the notes, the personages and events alluded to
are not all contemporaneous. It was enough for Hugo that they were typical of the Roman decadence.
Trimalcion. The festival of Trimalcion is an episode in the Satyricon of Petronius Arbiter, the poem in which
are described all the excesses of Roman luxury and debauchery. Petronius Arbiter lived in the time of
Claudius.
Lesbie. Hugo is guilty of one of his inaccuracies here. Lesbia was the lady to whom the poems of Catullus
(87-47 B.C.?) were addressed, while Delia, who is mentioned below in connexion with Catullus, was in
reality the mistress of Tibullus (54 B.C.-19 A.D.).
Crassus. Hugo no doubt refers to M. Licinius Crassus (died 53 B.C.), the Triumvir, who, when praetor, led an
army against the revolted gladiators under Spartacus. He twice defeated them and subsequently crucified or
hung, along the road from Capua to Rome, six thousand slaves who had been taken prisoners.
Épaphrodite. Epaphroditus, a freedman and favourite of the Emperor Nero, was the master of Epictetus, the
lame slave and Stoic philosopher, who was amongst the greatest of pagan moralists. Epaphroditus, who
treated his slave with great cruelty, is said to have been one day twisting his leg for amusement. Epictetus
said, 'If you continue, you will break my leg.' Epaphroditus went on, the leg was broken, and Epictetus only
said, 'Did I not tell you that you would break it?'
Hugo seems to have in mind the short reigns of Galba (r. A.D. 68-9), Otho (r. A.D. 69), and Vitellius (r. A.D.
69), all of whom perished by violence.
Vitellius was famous even among the later Romans for his gluttony and voracious appetite. During the four
months of his reign he is said to have spent seven millions sterling on the pleasures of his table. When at last
the people rose against him, and the soldiers proclaimed another emperor, Vitellius was found hiding in his
palace. He was dragged out into the Forum and killed on the Gemoniae (les Gémonies), a staircase which
went up the Capitoline Hill and on which the corpses of criminals were exposed before being thrown into the
Tiber. This is the Escalier referred to in the next line.
L. 57. These tortures were not known in Rome. They suggest rather the Middle Ages.
le cirque. The circus where chariot-races took place. Hugo seems to be confusing it with the Colosseum,
where the gladiatorial combats were fought.
Le noir gouffre cloaque. The Cloaca Maxima was the great sewer of Rome. It is still in existence and in use.
Hugo here first makes it the symbol of the destruction towards which the Roman Empire was tending, and
then treats it half as a concrete reality, half as a figure for some underworld in which dethroned but living
emperors meet. This blending of the symbol and the thing symbolized is characteristic of the poet.
NOTES 219
The book
chiffres du fatal nombre: the figures or digits that stand for the doomed number, i.e. the number with which a
doomed man is marked.
Attila, the famous king of the Huns, 'the Scourge of God' as he was called, reigned A.D. 434-53.
LE MARIAGE DE ROLAND.
The poem is founded on the 'Chanson de Girart de Viane,' one of the Carolingian cycles of epic poems,
written by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube, a poet of Champagne who lived in the first half of the thirteenth
century.
Girard, or Girart, the son of Garin of Montglave, a poor nobleman, goes with his brother Renier to the court of
Charlemagne to seek his fortune. After being at court for some time he quarrelled with the Emperor, owing to
the latter marrying the widow of Aubery, duc de Bourgogne, who was pledged to Girart. As a compensation
for the loss of his bride, he was given the Comté of Vienne, in Dauphiné. When he presented himself before
Charlemagne to do homage, the queen, whose affection for her old lover had changed to contempt, forced him
by a trick to kiss her foot instead of that of her husband. Some time after, Girart learnt the truth, and, furious at
the insult placed upon him, he rebelled against his sovereign. Renier, who had been made duke of Genoa, with
his son Olivier and his daughter 'la belle Aude,' came to help him. Charlemagne besieged Vienne with a great
army, and amongst his warriors was his nephew Roland, who was his principal champion, just as Olivier was
that of Girart. A siege, like that of Troy, ensued, many doughty deeds being done by the two heroes. In the
course of the fighting Roland sees Aude and falls in love with her. He takes her prisoner, and almost succeeds
in carrying her off to his tent, but Olivier rescues her. Finally, it is agreed that the quarrel between the
monarch and his vassal shall be settled by a duel between the two champions. Needless to say, the latter fall in
readily with the proposal. Olivier is armed by an aged Jew, Joachim, who with others of his nation had fled to
Vienne with Pontius Pilate after the Crucifixion, and had not yet succeeded in dying. The combat takes place
in an island in the Rhone, and la Belle Aude, with mingled feelings, watches from a window her brother and
her lover contending for victory. The struggle is full of tremendous incident. At the outset each of the
champions cuts the horse of the other in two and the fight is continued on foot. Olivier's sword is broken, and
Roland invites him to send for another and take a little rest and refreshment. A boatman goes to Vienne and
procures from the old Jew a famous sword, called Hauteclere, and some wine. The fight is renewed and lasts
till nightfall, when an angel descends from heaven, and orders the two heroes to be reconciled and to fight
together against the Saracens. The warriors embrace and Olivier promises Roland the hand of his sister. Such
was the beginning of the friendship of the two mighty champions of Christendom.
Hugo's poem, however, is not based directly on the story, but on a modern prose adaptation by Achille Jubinal
which appeared in Le Journal du Dimanche in 1846. Léon Gautier indeed, in Les Épopées françaises, says:
`Victor Hugo s'est proposé de traduire notre vieux poème, dont il avait sans doute quelque texte sous les
yeux.' But it is clear from the mistake about the word Closamont and other details that Gautier was mistaken
and that the source from which Hugo drew was Jubinal's reproduction.
Hugo omitted from his adaptation two incidents of great poetic interest, namely, the picture of Aude watching
the fight, and the miraculous intervention of the angel. He has, on the other hand, inserted the barbaric
incident of the fight with trees. He has eliminated, that is to say, the tender and the religious elements from the
story and made it simply the narrative of a Homeric combat, with more than a touch of the grotesque.
Nevertheless, he has retained the characteristic incident of the chivalrous behaviour of Roland in sending for a
NOTES 220
The book
new sword for his enemy and in giving him time for rest, a trait which finds a parallel in many other
Chansons, notably in the story of the battle of Roland with Ferragus, a Saracen giant. When Ferragus is worn
out with fighting, Roland watches over him while he sleeps, and on his awakening enters into a theological
discussion with him in the hope of converting him to Christianity. When this pious desire fails, the combat is
renewed.
Saint Michael is described in Rev. xii. 7-9 as fighting against Satan and casting him out of heaven.
Hugo is mistaken in his description of Olivier, who was not lord of Vienne and a sovereign count, but only the
son of Renier, duke of Genoa. The only statement in these two lines which is correct is that his grandfather
was Garin.
L. 27. As already noted, in the original story it is an aged Jew who arms Olivier for the fight.
Rollon (English Rollo) was the Norse pirate who invaded France in A.D. 912 and founded the Duchy of
Normandy. The reference to him is of course an anachronism.
cimier (from Latin cyma, the young sprout of a cabbage), the crest on the helmet.
Roland's sword, Durandal, which was given him by Charlemagne, plays the same part in the French
Chansons as Siegfried's sword Balmung in the Nibelunglied, or Excalibur in the Arthurian cycle. Other forms
of the name are Durendas, Durrenda, Durandarda.
Tournon, a town situated on the right bank of the Rhone, in the department of Ardèche. It still produces a
well-known wine, called Vins de l'Ermitage.
1. 70. Here is a curious mistake, which Jubinal originated and Hugo copied. Closamont was the original
possessor of the sword, not another name for the weapon. The lines in the 'Chanson de Girart de Viane'
are:—
Sinnagog or Sinnagos was the Saracen king of Alexandria with whose attack on the castle of Garin, Olivier's
grandfather, the story of 'Girart de Viane' begins.
1. 144. This is another deviation from tradition, as we have it in the Carolingian cycle. Roland never married
Aude. He was still betrothed to her when he fell at Roncesvalles.
NOTES 221
The book
AYMERILLOT.
The poem on part of which this is based is an anonymous Chanson written in the thirteenth century and
belonging to the cycle known as the cycle of Guillaume.
The story is as follows. Charlemagne is returning from Spain, after the defeat at Roncesvalles, his army
discouraged, his knights exhausted, and wishing only to be at home and in comfort. Suddenly he catches sight
of a city, surrounded by a crenelated wall, splendid within, with a palace the roofs of which shine in the sun,
its feet bathed in the sea, which is covered by the ships of its commerce. Charlemagne wishes to attack it, but
the duke of Bavaria advises him to let it alone; it is garrisoned by thousands of pagans and his men are
exhausted. The Emperor addresses several of his barons in turn, offering to each the city if he will take it. One
and all refuse: Charlemagne upbraids them for their cowardice, bids them go home, and declares he will take
the town by himself. Then Hernaut de Beaulande brings forward his son Aimeri, who volunteers to undertake
the task. With the aid of one hundred barons he captures the city and is made Count of Narbonne. Hugo has
selected the first and the best part of the Chanson for modernization. Léon Gautier (Les Épopeés françaises)
says: 'Rien n'égale en majesté le début de ce poème, dont le dénoûment est presque trivial... Rien de plus
ennuyeux que le récit de tant de combats contre les Sarrasins; rien de plus attachant que le tableau de ce grand
désespoir de Charlemagne à la vue de Narbonne, dont aucun de ses Barons ne veut entreprendre la conquête.
Il n'y a peut-être dans aucune poésie aucun épisode comparable à ce discours de l'Empereur, lorsqu'il crie à
tous ses chevaliers: "Ralés vos en, Bourguignon et François...je remenrai ici, à Narbonois." C'est ce qu'a bien
compris Victor Hugo, qui a si fidèlement traduit et surpassé encore les beautés du texte original.'
Hugo's poem, however, is not based directly on the Chanson, but on two prose adaptations written by Achille
Jubinal, and published respectively in the Musée des Familles (1843) and the Journal du Dimanche (1846).
Yet these stories did little more than furnish the framework for the poem, by far the greater part of which is
the original work of Hugo.
à la barbe fleurie, white-bearded. Expression taken from the Chanson. In mediaeval poetry Charlemagne is
always described as an old man.
Roncevaux, which we call by the Spanish name Roncesvalles, is the valley in the Pyrenees where
Charlemagne's rearguard was attacked and cut to pieces by the Moors during his retreat from Spain.
Ganelon, the knight through whose treachery the defeat of Charlemagne at Roncesvalles was brought about.
les douze pairs. The twelve Paladins of tradition, who formed Charlemagne's Round Table.
L. 6-10. These words are taken almost verbatim from Jubinal's adaptation of the story in the Musée des
Familles. Jubinal's words are:
'L'etcheco-sauna (le laboureur des montagnes) est rentré chez lui avec son chien; il a embrassé sa femme et
ses enfants. Il a nettoyé ses flèches ainsi que sa corne de boeuf, et les ossements des héros qui ne sont plus
blanchissent déjà pour l'éternité.'
In a note Jubinal says: 'Ces paroles sont empruntées au chant basque d'Altabicar.'
Son cheval syrien. In the Chanson Charlemagne rides on a mulet de Sulie (Syrie). Jubinal changed the mule
into a horse. This is one of the points of detail which show that Hugo followed the modern author.
L. 25. The city, as we learn subsequently, was Narbonne. Narbonne is on the west coast of the Gulf of Lyons,
near the eastern end of the Pyrenees. Originally a Roman colony, it was one of the chief seats of the Visigoths,
NOTES 222
The book
from whom it was taken by the Saracens, when they overran Southern France. Charlemagne took it from the
latter in 759. Till the fourteenth century it was a port, but the sand has blocked up the harbour and the town is
now some distance from the sea.
mâchicoulis, battlements; or, more exactly, a gallery round the tower with openings in it from which
projectiles could be hurled upon an enemy below.
vermeil. The word is one of Hugo's favourite adjectives, and is used to suggest a bright vivid red, and almost
invariably in connexion with objects that have pleasurable associations.
'Les cônes vermeils' (du palais dans les nuages). (Ibid.: Soleils Couchants.)
'Et, vermeille,
The word seems to be used without any definite suggestion of colour in such phrases as 'des espaces vermeils'
(Plein Ciel), 'quand le satyre fut sur la cime vermeille' (Le Satyre), 'des arbres vermeils' (of trees lit up by the
setting sun) (Le Crapaud).
The word is used with a bold extension of meaning in Les Voix Intérieures: A Eugène, where the appetite of
boyhood is called 'l'appétit vermeil.'
dromon, mediaeval warship, worked by oars and sail, the ancestor of the galley. The word is also used, as
apparently here, for merchantmen.
Béarnais, inhabitant of Béarn, the province in the Pyrenees from which Henri IV came.
Turcs. This is of course a mistake for Saracens or Moors. The word occurs in the original poem, Jubinal
copied it, and Hugo copied Jubinal. The original, it maybe noted, had 'trente mille Turcs,' Jubinal cut them
down to 'vingt mille.' Hugo's 'vingt mille' is another detail which shows that his poem is based on Jubinal's
adaptation.
preux. The Old French adjective meant 'valiant.' At the present time the word is only used in the phrase preux
chevalier. Preux as a noun is rare, but de Vigny has 'Charlemagne et ses preux.'
je ne farde guère: I speak without affectation. Farder used absolutely in this way is rare.
NOTES 223
The book
arbalètes, crossbows.
L. 80, For the metaphor compare the Chanson in Les Châtiments, Livre VII
Il les forçait,
Par le corset;
Qu'il investit.—
Petit, petit.
These two passages are good specimens of what Brunetière called Hugo's barbarous and Merovingian
humour, a species of humour which suits well the reproduction of a mediaeval Chanson, even if it offends the
critical in a modern satire.
maillot, Old French form of maillet, a mace or club. salade, head-piece worn by knights, a word used in the
fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries.
estramaçon, a long, straight, two-edged sword. The word is of Italian origin and first came into use in the
sixteenth century. In an adaptation of a thirteenth-century Chanson it is out of place, as is salade above.
l 193. The reference to the Sorbonne, which was founded in 1252, is of course an anachronism.
bachelier. In the Middle Ages the word was used of a young man of good birth who, being too poor to raise
his own standard, fought under the banner of a knight, but not as a squire. The juxtaposition of Je suis
bachelier with Je sais lire en latin has given rise to the suspicion that Hugo, who found the word in one of
Jubinal's articles, understood it in the modern sense. In the absence of further evidence, however, the poet may
be considered entitled to a verdict of 'not proven'.
NOTES 224
The book
BIVAR.
Bivar, in Spanish Vivar, was the name of the ancestral home of the Cid. It is a castle near Burgos, in which the
Cid was born in 1040.
patio (Spanish), a court or open space in front of a house. The ti is pronounced as in French question.
l 18. The full name of the Cid was Rodrigue Ruy Diaz de Bivar, or in Spanish Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar.
campéador. The Spanish word campeador, derived from campear, to be eminent in the field, signifies
excellent, pre-eminent, and was the title given to their champion by the Spaniards, The Moors called him the
Cid, i.e. Seid, an Arabic word for chief.
pavois, an old word for a large shield, which protected the whole body, and on which the Franks raised the
king whom they had elected.
richomme, from the Spanish ricohombre, a title given to the Barons of Aragon.
EVIRADNUS.
As far as is known, the story is of Hugo's own invention. The epoch may be supposed to be the later Middle
Ages, the place anywhere in Teuton lands. The proper names are mostly of Hugo's own invention; some are,
however, echoes from German mediaeval history. The poem and another called Le Petit Roi de Galice form a
section of the Légende called Les Chevaliers Errants.
l 1. There was a Ladislaus, King of Poland, in the fourteenth, and a Sigismund, Emperor of Germany, in the
fifteenth century. But the personages of the poem are in reality wholly imaginary.
stryge (written also strige), a vampire or demon that wanders about at night. Derived from Latin striga, a bird
of night, or a witch.
lémure: Lémures (the singular is very rare) is the Latin lemures, the disembodied spirits which haunted houses
and caused terror to the living.
val, valley, The word is now little used and only in poetry, except in the phrase par monts et par vaux.
NOTES 225
The book
Amadis, commonly called Amadis of Gaul, the hero of a celebrated mediaeval poem, written originally in
Spanish, which recounts his heroism in war and constancy in love. He is the typical knight-errant and true
lover.
Baudoin. This is Baldwin, brother of Godfrey of Bouillon. He became King of Jerusalem and died in 1118.
During the Crusade he went on a pilgrimage to the Holy City.
Sir G.Young in his Poems from Victor Hugo suggests that Corbus may stand for Cottbus, the capital of Old or
Lower Lusatia.
le Grand Dormant: Frederick Barbarossa, who, tradition says, never died, but is still sleeping in a cave.
roture, i.e. his position as a peasant. Roture is derived from the Latin ruptura, the action of breaking the earth,
and is the base of the common word roturier.
relève, used in its feudal sense of 'to hold of'; the castle was not feudally dependent on the city.
L. 214, i.e. the castle reflects the history of the ancient kings.
les deux haches de pierre. This is said figuratively and alludes to the deeds of Attila, who ravaged the Eastern
Empire and extended his dominions almost to the Ural Mountains, whilst later on, crossing the Rhine, he
attacked the Goths of Southern France and Spain.
Lusace, Latin Lusatia, German Lausitz, was a district between the Elbe and the Oder, in what is now the
kingdom of Saxony. But the name has no significance. The personages and places in the poem are in reality
all imaginary.
la griffe is the claw of a beast or bird of prey; la serre is the foot of a bird of prey.
Sortent de leur tenaille. A somewhat obscure expression. Apparently tenaille is used in the sense of 'vice', and
the words mean 'are of their manufacture or moulding.'
l'ordre teutonique, the Order of Teutonic Knights. Originally founded to protect the Christians in Palestine,
the Teutonic Knights received domains in Italy and Germany from the Pope and Emperor, conquered Prussia
(1228), and established there a military power which lasted four centuries.
hydre. In Greek legend the hydra was a serpent with seven heads, and, when one of them was cut off, two
grew in its place. It is Hugo's favourite figure for cruelty or tyranny.
NOTES 226
The book
elle a peur du fleuron, i.e. she is afraid to be marchioness. The flower-shaped ornaments in a crown are called
fleurons. A marquis's coronet was adorned with 'fleurons' alternating with pearls and the contrast between the
pointed 'fleuron' and the round pearl suggests the figure employed in the next line.
tribunaux d'amour, or cours d'amour, were the celebrated courts of the Middle Ages, presided over by ladies
of high rank, which gave judgement in cases of love and gallantry and laid down laws for lovers. They existed
principally in France, especially in Southern France.
L. 369. The Wends were a Slav people who lived in Lusatia, but the name Thassilo is Bavarian.
Fenris: the great wolf of Scandinavian mythology whose growth was such that the gods in fear chained him to
a rock. Some day his upper jaw will touch the sky, while his lower still rests on earth, and then Odin will
tremble for his throne.
le serpent Asgar. This serpent is probably of Hugo's invention and its name taken from the mythical city of
the Scandinavians, Asgard, built by the gods and in which they often resided.
l'archange Attila. This is not the king of the Huns, nor is he one of the known archangels. However, as the
Scriptures mention only three archangels, Gabriel, Michael, and Raphael, out of the seven, Hugo may or may
not be right in speaking of an archangel of the name of Attila. Le grand chandelier brought from the lower
regions by the archangel is merely a poetic fancy and a reminiscence of the seven-branched candlestick of the
tabernacle (Exod. XXV. 31-7).
Actéon. Actaeon in Greek mythology was a hunter who saw Diana bathing, and was in consequence changed
by the goddess into a stag.
L. 437. chanfrein, the piece of armour which covered the head of the horse.
Les chatons des cuissards sont barris de leurs clés. A difficult line. The chatons were the studs or screws
which held the thigh-piece (cuissard) in its place, and the instrument which worked them was called la clé.
Barrés appears to mean simply 'fastened'. Sir G. Young translates:—
crible. The word refers to the visor with seven bars, which was one of the marks of a marquis's rank.
mortier. The round cap which was the ancient emblem of sovereignty in France. It was worn by barons who
possessed full powers of administering justice in their domains, also by the presidents of the 'parlements', and
by the chancellors. A modified form is still part of the official dress of some of the judges of the highest
courts.
It will be noted that the antiquities in this passage are French, not German.
tortil, a ribbon twisted round a crown, the special ornament of a baron, not of a duke. It also signifies in
heraldry a circular band or pad to which heraldic negroes' heads were attached.
NOTES 227
The book
L. 492. The reference is to the coronet of a French marquis, which bore eight jewelled ornaments, four of
which consisted each of three great pearls arranged as a trefoil, while the other four were 'feuilles d'ache,' the
heraldic representation of the leaf of the wild parsley.
timbre, in heraldry, signifies anything placed above the escutcheon to mark the rank of the person to whom it
belonged. Here Hugo seems to use it of the shield, perhaps because the triangular shield was a mark of
knightly rank.
A chapter might be written on Hugo's bold and occasionally strange uses of this word. Its primary meaning is
either 'dull red' or 'tawny', but in Hugo's poetry it is used rather as a somewhat vague epithet to suggest
darkness, gloom, cruelty, savagery, or oppressive power. It never denotes merely a physical quality; in such
expressions as 'leur fauve volée', speaking of the ravens in La Fin de Satan, 'le désert fauve' (Androclès), 'son
bec fauve', of the vulture (Sultan Mourad), the suggestion of wildness or ruthlessness predominates. Usually
the word is used in a wholly figurative sense. Thus in La Fin de Satan the fallen archangel, flying from
Jehovah, is 'fauve et hagard', Barabbas stumbling against the Cross is 'fauve', and of the lunatic in the tombs it
is said: 'fauve il mordait'. In all these cases the meaning is 'wild','savage '. In Dieu we have `Vénus, fauve et
fatale' ('cruel'), in L'Ane les canons dont les fauves gueulées' ('terrible'), in L'Année Terrible'un hallier fauve
où des sabres fourmillent' (' wild'), and France is called upon to be 'franchement fauve et sombre' ('fierce'). In
the following passages we have bolder uses still:
Of war,
(Changement d'Horizon.)
It is applied even to sound. 'Le fauve bruit' is used in L'Ane of the battles of primeval monsters, and more
mystically in La Vision d'où sortit le livre of the passing of the Spirit of Fatality.
Also of smell
NOTES 228
The book
(Religions et Religion.)
Fauve is always used of what is dark and gloomy, just as vermeil is always applied to what is bright and
pleasant.
mélusine. A heraldic figure, half woman, half serpent, bathing in a basin. Taken from the name of a fairy,
celebrated in the folklore of Poitou.
bourguignotte, a small helmet without throat-piece, so called because it was first used by the Burgundians.
Diane éblouissait le pâtre: a reference to the `old sweet mythos,' as Browning calls it, of Diana, the goddess
of the Moon, stooping from heaven to kiss the shepherd Endymion, as he lay asleep on Mount Latmos.
Rhodope, the wife of Haemus, king of Thrace, who was changed into a mountain because she thought herself
more beautiful than Hera.
1. 839. The allusions are to the quarrels between the Greek and Roman Churches.
galoubet. A little wind instrument in shape like a flageolet, with three holes. It was played with the left hand,
while the right beat a tambourine. It was peculiar to Languedoc and Provence.
Josaphat. The valley of Josaphat or Jehosaphat is between Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives, and according
to both Jewish and Moslem tradition is to be the place of the Last Judgment. This tradition may be based on
Joel iii. 12, or on the meaning of the word Josaphat, which is, 'Jehovah will judge,' or on both.
goules, from Arabic ghul. English ghoul. The creatures who, according to Eastern superstition, devour dead
bodies.
lamies, from Lat. lamia, a fabulous being possessing the head of a woman and the body of a sea-serpent,
which was supposed to devour children.
en rupture de ban. Rompre le ban is to set at defiance a decree of banishment, the punishment for which was
death.
NOTES 229
The book
un dogue en arrêt. The name dogue is given to a kind of large dog, akin to a bloodhound, but the term is not
correctly used here, as en arrêt means pointing.
SULTAN MOURAD.
In his preface to the volume of 1859 Hugo appeals to the history of the Turks by Cantemir as a justification
for his picture of Sultan Mourad. This was Demetrius Cantemir (1673-1723), who had a remarkable history,
and wrote a valuable book. Though not a Turk, he attached himself to the Turks, and fought under the banner
of the Crescent during his early life. In 1710 he was made Waiwode, or Governor, of Moldavia, Then,
deserting the setting for the rising sun, he allied himself with Czar Peter the Great, then at war with Turkey.
But the campaign was unsuccessful, and Cantemir, flying from Moldavia, took refuge in the Ukraine. For the
rest of his life he divided his time between study and instructing the Moldavians who had accompanied him.
He is said to have spoken Persian, Turkish, Arabic, modern Greek, Russian, Moldavian, and Italian. The work
to which Hugo refers was a history of the aggrandizement and decadence of the Ottoman Empire. Written in
Latin, and translated subsequently into English, French, and German, it was long the standard work on the
subject.
It does not seem probable that Hugo had any particular Sultan in mind when he delineated Sultan Mourad.
Indeed the geography of the poem suggests that he is depicting an idealized Oriental tyrant.
The nearest approximation to the monster to be found in the pages of Cantemir is Ammath IV (r. 1623-40), of
whose cruelty and bloodthirstiness the historian gives a vivid account. His principal exploit was the taking of
Bagdad from the Persians, on which occasion he slaughtered 1,000 of the citizens in cold blood.
For Hugo's conception of the power and influence of the Turkish Empire when at its zenith, see Le Rhin:
Conclusion, II, III.
Liban is Lebanon.
I. 19. The so-called Temple of Theseus (its real dedication is doubtful) stands on a low hill just outside
Athens. It is in a state of almost perfect preservation. The nails which crowded its woodwork were doubtless
those on which the heads of slaughtered Greeks were fastened. Of course in the Greek temple there was no
woodwork, except possibly in the roof.
cangiar, a short Turkish sword, with an almost straight blade, having a single edge.
Naxos is an island in the South Aegean Sea; Ancyra, a town in Asia Minor.
épiques. A curious use of the word. It appears to mean `worthy of epic poetry,' i.e. the spectres were those of
great heroic men. In Les Chants du Crépuscule Hugo has 'des grenadiers épiques' (Napoléon II).
NOTES 230
The book
Agrigentum was a well-known Greek colony in Sicily; Fiume, at the head of the Adriatic Sea, is now an
Austrian port.
Damas, Damascus.
boyard. The boyards were the feudal nobles of Roumania and other Balkan countries.
Rhamséion, a sepulchral monument built by Ramses III, king of Egypt, in the fourteenth century B.C.
Généralife, the palace of the Moorish kings at Granada in Spain. It is scarcely necessary to say that no Turkish
Sultan ever held any part of Spain.
échouait. The word is here used transitively (a rare use) in the sense of 'drove against.'
soudan, a word of Arabic origin, was a mediaeval name for certain Mahometan princes in Egypt and Asia
Minor. The word seems here loosely to designate the Turkish sultans.
turbé, a kind of small round chapel, usually attached to a mosque, in which the tombs of Sultans and other
great persons are placed.
This is the third section of a poem called L'Italie: Ratbert. The story is of Hugo's own invention, and is
intended to delineate on the one hand the savagery, and on the other the knight-errantry, of the Middle Ages.
Final. The name, alone or in composition, is borne by three small towns or villages on or near the Genoese
coast. There was a marquisate of Final in the Middle Ages.
Witikind. Hugo possibly had in mind the Saxon chief of this name (A.D. 750-807) who for five years
successfully resisted the power of Charlemagne, and finally made an honourable peace with him. It does not
appear that he ever bore the title of king. His country was the ancient Saxony, that is the country between the
lower Rhine and the lower Elbe. He had no connexion with Genoa, whither Hugo has dragged the Saxons
without justification.
Albenga: the name is taken from a small town on the Genoese coast, not far from Final.
abbé du peuple, a name of a popularly elected magistrate at Genoa. The office was in existence from 1270 to
1339.
NOTES 231
The book
tribun militaire de Rome: Latin, tribunus militaris; the officers of the legion, six in number, who in republican
times commanded in turn, six months at a time.
architrave, the lower part of the entablature, that which rests immediately on the column. To understand the
line, it must be remembered that the tower is conceived as a ruin.
alleux, a feudal term, signifying hereditary property. The word is misused here in the sense of feudal dues.
censive. Another feudal term, meaning the dues owed by an estate to the lord of whom it was held.
balistes (from Latin ballista), mediaeval machines for hurling stones and darts.
le puits d'une sachette, a hole in which a recluse lived. Sachette (masc. sachet) was the name given to certain
nuns of the Augustinian order who wore a loose woollen garment (sac), whence the name was derived. It
afterwards became used of any recluse. In Notre-Dame de Paris Hugo applies it to the half-crazy inhabitant of
the Tour-Roland.
cruzade, an old Portuguese coin, so called because it was marked with a cross. There was an old cruzade
worth about 3 fr. 30, and a new cruzade worth not quite 3 fr.
Tigrane, the name of an Armenian, not a Persian dynasty. There were seven kings of this name, and they
occupied the Armenian throne from 565 to 161 B.C.
nonce. This word is in strictness used only of the emissaries of the Pope. Its use in any sense is an
anachronism, as it was not introduced till the sixteenth century.
Arles, which Hugo spells with or without the s according to the exigencies of the metre, was the capital of the
kingdom of Provence, one of the kingdoms formed out of the fragments of Charlemagne's empire. It
embraced most of S.E. France, and lasted from A.D. 855 to 1032. This kingdom was frequently called le
royaume d'Arle. Roy d'Arle is therefore a historical title, but the names Ratbert and Rodolphe, as grandson and
son respectively of Charlemagne, are imaginary.
Macchabée. Judas Maccabaeus, the Jewish hero, who freed his country from the tyranny of Antiochus
Epiphanes.
Aétius, a Roman general who lived in the fifth century A.D. One of the last heroes and defenders of ancient
Rome, he fought Franks, Burgundians, Huns, and succeeded in uniting the German kings of Gaul against
Attila, and inflicting a crushing defeat upon him (A. D. 451).
latobrige. The Latobriges were an ancient German tribe who lived in what is now Wurtemberg and Baden.
NOTES 232
The book
Platon: the Athenian philosopher Plato, justly placed amongst the poets.
Plaute: Plautus, the Roman writer of comedies, who lived in the second century B.C.
Scaeva Memor, a Roman poet and tragedian of the first century A.D., rescued from oblivion by this line. The
three make a bizarre trio; see note on BOOZ ENDORMI.
Sicambre. The Sicambres were the German tribe who in Roman times lived on the Rhine.
bailli, i. e. governor.
reître, an old word, derived from the German Reiter, used of the German knights.
buccin, properly a whelk, is a name given to a musical instrument very similar to a trombone.
brassière, a little jacket or vest worn close round the body. The word is usually used in the plural. Likely
enough Hugo intends simply the corset.
au penchant des mers, i. e. where the land slopes to the sea. A peculiar expression; au penchant de la terre
would be more usual.
L. 353. The antecedent of que is vautours. The reference is to gladiatorial combats in the Roman Circus, and
the louve d'airain is the famous bronze wolf of the Capitol, a statue representing a wolf suckling two children.
cru, i. e. unashamed.
faîte vermeil. See note on AYMERILLOT. where the same phrase occurs.
figurant, 'suggesting the form of". A highly characteritic touch. Hugo possessed a faculty of poetic vision
which changed the shapes of things so as to bring them into harmony with the dominant ideas of the moment.
Cf. LA ROSE DE L'INFANTE, and LA CONFIANCE.
Héliogabales. Heliogabalus was a Roman Emperor (r. 217-222) noted for his sensuality and his caprices.
un Louvre: the Louvre is the well-known palace in Paris where many kings of France resided. Note the
antithesis in the same line, antre de rois, Louvre de voleurs.
les ors, various kinds of gold. Sixte Malaspina, introduced as one of the counsellors of Ratbert in a poem
entitled 'Ratbert' not given here.
chape is the Picard form of 'cape' (see note on LES PAUVRES GENS). It is the name for a long cloak,
fastened in front, and worn by clergy and choristers when performing Divine Service. Formerly any long
loose cloak was called a charpe. As is still the custom in the Greek Church, images of the Virgin or saints are
NOTES 233
The book
largely used, and they are found as ornaments on pieces of furniture and sacerdotal vestments.
L. 455. A peacock roasted whole and served up ornamented with its feathers was a favourite dish at the
banquets of the fifteenth century.
hypocras, an infusion of cinnamon, sweet almonds, amber, and musk in sweetened wine.
vair (English vair), the fur of the squirrel, a highly esteemed and costly material for dress in the later Middle
Ages.
chevalier haubert, i. e. a knight who has the right to wear the haubert or cuirass.
Urbain quatre, Pope (1261-. 1264). He is rightly described as the son of a cobbler.
Afranus, introduced as the bishop of Fréjus, and one of Ratbert's evil counsellors, in the poem of 'Ratbert'. See
note on L. 435 supra.
L. 721. For the element of supernatural vengeance on cruelty compare L'Aigle du casque, published in the
1877 series.
LA ROSE DE L'INFANTE.
A French critic has said happily of this poem: '"La Rose de l'Infante" est un chef-d'oeuvre, digne d'être illustré
par Vélasquez.' (Gaston Deschamps in Petit de Julleville's Histoire de la langue et de la littérature
françaises.)
The little princess, of whom such an enchanting picture is given in this poem, is an imaginary figure. There
was no Infanta of five years of age at the epoch of the Armada.
point de Gênes, Genoese lace, which at one time rivalled that of Venice.
Duc de Brabant was one of the many titles of the King of Spain.
NOTES 234
The book
Escurial. The vast and gloomy palace near Madrid built by Philip II in the form of a gridiron in memory of St.
Laurence, on whose feast-day he won the battle of St. Quentin.
L'Inde. The inclusion of India in Philip's dominions can hardly be justified. As King of Spain he possessed
nothing in India, and as King of Portugal only a few trading stations and fortresses.
For Hugo's conception of the power and position of Spain at this epoch, see Le Rhin: Conclusion, II, III.
L. 130. Prescott describes Philip as being habitually grave in manner, unsocial and sombre, and always
dressed in black. The Order of the Golden Fleece was the only jewel he ever wore.
L. 137. 'Better a ruined kingdom, true to itself and its king, than one left unharmed to the profit of the Devil
and the heretics.'—Correspondence of Philip, quoted by Prescott in the History of Philip II.
Burgos, the ancient capital of Old Castile. Aranjuez, a town in the province of Toledo, where Philip had a
summer residence.
la toison d'or, the Golden Fleece, an order of knighthood founded by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, in
1420.
grincer un sourire: a bold and vivid expression, grincer meaning 'to gnash the teeth.'
l'Escaut, the Scheldt. The Adour is a river in Southern France, but no ships for the Armada came from France.
One suspects the influence of gastadour in the line above.
L. 182. There were no German vessels in the Armada. ourque, more usually written bourque, is a small Dutch
or Flemish cargo-boat with two masts. It is something between the modern ketch and the old Flemish
'bilander'.
Placed by itself under the heading L'Inquisition in the series of 1859, and preceded by the following
note:—'Le baptême des volcans est un ancien usage qui remonte aux premiers temps de la conquête.
Tous les cratères du Nicaragua furent alors sanctifiés, à l'exception du Momotombo, d'où l'on ne vit jamais
revenir les religieux qui s'étaient chargés d'aller y planter la croix.' (SQUIER, Voyage dans l'Amérique du
Sud.)
NOTES 235
The book
Momotombo is a volcano in the state of Nicaragua. E.G.Squier was an American antiquarian and author who
was appointed chargé d'affaires to all the Central American States in 1849. He does not appear to have
written any work with the title quoted by Hugo. The passage quoted occurs in his Nicaragua, its people,
scenery, and monuments, published in 1852. He relates in this book an instance of a bishop being asked to
baptize a volcanic vent which had suddenly opened in a mountain!
Torquemada (1420-1489) was the notorious inquisitor-general of Castile and Aragon, whose name has
become a by-word for relentless persecution and cruelty.
Gaëte, English Gaeta, a bay and town on the west coast of Italy, north of Naples.
L. 47. The historical allusion here is not clear. Prince Eugene of Savoy, Marlborough's colleague, and
Cardinal Mazarin were not contemporaries.
Livourne, Leghorn. Spinola: the reference may or may not be to the famous Imperialist general in the Thirty
Years War.
prames, big flat-bottomed boats, capable of carrying cannon, and used for coast defence.
APRÈS LA BATAILLE.
Victor Hugo's father was an officer in the army of the great Napoleon and fought in Spain as a general, but
nothing is known of this incident except what is here told.
LE CRAPAUD.
To Hugo ugliness was as much a subject for pity as degradation or misery. Compare the following passage
from Les Contemplations: Ce que dit la Bouche d'Ombre:—
NOTES 236
The book
For Hugo's feeling for the brute creation, see Dieu: L'Ange.
Augustules. The last Emperor of Rome, Romulus, was given by the people the derisive nickname of
Augustulus, or 'the little Augustus'. The capture of Ravenna in his reign by Odoacer marks the end of the
Western Empire.
L. 103. A difficult expression. Apparently it refers to the harsh grating of the wheel against the side of the rut.
connivence: the complicity of the burden upon his back with his master in keeping the ass in a straight course.
I. 134. i.e. the sad and melancholy, such as the ass, are equal to the angels, if they feel pity.
vertes couleuvres. The serpent appealed to Hugo's poetic instinct, and he saw its shape and its glitter in many
natural objects. Compare the following passages, for most of which I am indebted to Edmond Huguet's
Métaphores et comparaisons dans l'oeuvre de Victor Hugo:
NOTES 237
The book
(Pleine Mer.)
(Ibid..)
(Dernière gerbe.)
(Les Misérables.)
France et Belgique.
(Souvenirs d'Enfance.)
cape, a cloak with hood, with which women protect their head and shoulders. Used in Modern French only in
a few provinces, except in certain phrases such as sous cape, 'secretly'. The word is the same as the English
'cape'.
NOTES 238
The book
C'est la marine! Marine is often used as a nickname, as we say in English 'Jack'. On the French coast the word
is often familiarly used in speaking to a man who is or has been a sailor, e.g. Dis-donc, la marine! Tiens, voilá
la marine! In this case it means 'Here am I!'
PLEINE MER.
Analysis. The vision of a gigantic derelict vessel on a boundless sea. This is the old world, the past of
grandeur and horror.
In the nineteenth century a monster warship was built on the Thames, type of the spirit of that age. It carried
two thousand guns; its topmast was higher than St. Paul's; now it has become this derelict.
The old world was subject to many plagues and scourges. Its moving spirit was Hatred, its characteristic,
Division. Race strove with race; vice, ignorance, superstition, cruelty prevailed.
Now the old world has vanished, the ship is deserted. What has become of man? Look upwards!
cachalot. The cachalot or sperm-whale is one of the largest cetaceans, often attaining a length of more than 80
ft.
L.53. The vessel pitches as she meets the waves (le tangage qui brave); the rolling throws up most foam (le
roulis qui fume).
éclat, splinter.
Le dernier siècle. "Pleine Mer" and "Plein Ciel" form a section of the Légende, entitled Vingtiérne Siècle.
sur la Tamise. Hugo was hostile to England. He regarded the British Empire as one of the two great
dominions the shadow of which was oppressing the world in the middle of the nineteenth century, the other
being Russia. England embodied "l'esprit de commerce, de ruse et d'aventure". He developed this theme with
a nervous and forcible eloquence, if not with great political insight, in Le Rhin: Conclusion (published in
1842).
NOTES 239
The book
amure, rope by means of which the lower corners of a sail are held, 'tack.'
Nemrod. Nimrod is in Hugo the incarnation of the spirit of war. Cf. especially La Fin de Satan: Le Glaive.
L. 191 refers to the texts in the Koran which order the death of those who do not accept Mahometanism.
PLEIN CIEL.
Analysis.
The vision of a ship in the sky. What is it? It is man, who has burst the bonds that held him to earth and risen
into the clouds. It is matter soaring through the heavens.
First lyrical passage. The passage of the ship through the sky.
Description of the life in the ship; the absence of arms; the feeling of power and joy. Description of the ship's
movement.
Whither will man go? He has thrown off his oid nature, his past history is buried, he aspires to immortality.
No, man must remain man, but the weight has been taken from his feet. War has vanished; man is good and
just.
Fourth lyrical passage. The ship is moving towards Virtue, Knowledge, Right, Reason, Brotherhood, Justice
and Love, and is carrying with it man, who will find liberty and unity in the light.
NOTES 240
The book
Eole. Aeolus was the god of the Winds, which he kept fastened up in a bag.
Nadir is the point in the heavens which would be reached if a line were drawn through the centre of the earth
and carried on till it reached the sky. But here it seems to be used loosely for any distant point in the heavens.
The meaning is that from a remote distance the round earth, as it came into view beneath the ship, would have
the appearance of a dusky comet.
aéroscaphe. A word once proposed, but never widely accepted, as a designation for an airship. It is derived
from the Greek aer (air) and skaphe (a vessel).
treuil, 'windlass.'
moufle, 'block.'
L. 171. i.e. by mathematics and poetry, that is by reason and imagination combined..
Euler was a Swiss geometrician (1707-83) who made great contributions to mathematics and mechanics.
Délos. Tradition says that Delos in the Aegean Sea was once a wandering island, and that Zeus fastened it
down that it might be a home for Latona, who was about to give birth to Apollo and Diana.
Leibniz (English Leibnitz), the German mathematician, chemist, and philosopher (1646-1716).
Fulton, the American inventor (1765-1815), who was one of the first mechanicians to construct a steamboat.
Képler. The German Kepler (1571-1630) was one of the founders of modern astronomy.
These three men are chosen as typical embodiments of the spirit of progress.
Sous le renversement de l'urne. The urn is the symbol of that 'Fatalité' which to Hugo was the dark shadow
over human life. Cf. LA TROMPETTE,
Andromeda, Orion, and the Pleiades are well-known constellations. Arcturus is a star of the first magnitude in
Bootes.
The Scorpion and the Archer are next each other in the heavens. The lines express in a somewhat bizarre
manner the effect of the outpouring of life on the stars.
NOTES 241
The book
L. 232. Zoroastre. Zoroaster was the founder of the Persian religion. He was a great observer of the stars.
L. 245. Fatalité. In Victor Hugo the word denotes, not so much destiny, as the feeling or the doctrine that man
is the helpless victim of an unseen and cruel power. It is a gloom which overhangs human life, from which in
the progress of the ages man will be delivered. Compare La Vision d'où sortit ce livre, where the spirit of
'Fatalité' is associated with paganism and contrasted with the spirit of religion. In Dieu again 'Fatalité' is one
of the three sombre deities of paganism, the other two being Venus, the goddess of pleasure, and Hecate, the
goddess of death. Cf. also the following lines from La Fin de Satan, put into the mouth of man's evil
angel:—
C'est moi.
Notre-Dame de Paris is based upon this theme. See especially Livre VII. iv.
L. 255. For the metaphor compare 'la fausse clef du fatal gouffre bleu', and the following passage in L'Ane
about the prison of life:—
L. 273. Cf. the well-known line in Les Contemplations: Ce que dit la Bouche d'Ombre:—
Man is likened to a convict, in that he is undergoing punishment, not in that he deserves it.
NOTES 242
The book
la pesanteur. Gravity symbolizes the forces which keep man down. Cf..
guèbres, fire-worshippers, i.e. the Persians, who still adhere to the ancient religion of Zoroaster. The word
itself is Persian.
L. 317. An allusion to the well-known doctrine of the music of the spheres, enunciated by Plato.
chouette. The owl, as a bird of darkness, was to Hugo suggestive of evil things. Cf. La Confiance.
Spinosa (English Spinoza) (1632-77), the Jewish philosopher, whose rationalistic views would be evidence to
Hugo of his need of faith.
Hobbe. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), the famous English philosopher, is best known by his defence of
absolute monarchy. In ethics he held that man is swayed only by the desire for pleasure and the fear of pain.
Either of these views would be to Hugo a system of despair.
Erèbe (Erebus) was originally one of the Titans who was cast by Zeus into Tartarus. The word is thus used as
a synonym for the lower world, especially those regions where evil deeds are expiated.
géhenne. Gehenna was the valley near Jerusalem where crimmals were executed. In the New Testament it is
used as a synonym for hell.
Nimrod is again the embodiment of the spirit of war. Aaron typifies ecclesiastical resistance to progress.
Beccaria was an Italian publicist (1738-94) who worked for the reform of the penal law. His principal work
was a small volume called Treatise on Crime and Punishment, which was translated into nearly every
language in Europe. His opposition to the use of torture, to the infliction of the death penalty, and to arbitrary
arrest no doubt appealed specially to Hugo.
Dracon, i.e. Draco, the Athenian legislator, the memory of the excessive severity of whose laws lingers in our
adjective draconian.
Empédocle. Empedocles was a Greek philosopher who was born in Sicily about 450 B.C. He is best
remembered from the tradition that he threw himself down Etna in despair at his incapacity to solve the
problem of its action.
Prométhée. Prometheus was the Titan who stole fire from heaven and gave it to men, for which Zeus chained
him to a rock in the Caucasus. In legend and poetry he figures as the benefactor and civilizer of mankind.
pesanteur. See note on L. 305. l'antique idéal, the ancient visions, as for instance those of Isaiah and Virgil, of
a golden age.
NOTES 243
The book
LA TROMPETTE DU JUGEMENT.
gehennam, another form of géhenne, closer to the Hebrew geia Hinnom, the valley of Hinnom. See note on
PLEIN CIEL.
avernes. Avernus was a lake in Campania, which the popular Roman belief held to be an entrance to the lower
regions. Hence comes averne, used as a synonvm for hell.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I.
Odes et Poésies diverses. Paris, 1822. The volume contains several poems not found in subsequent editions.
Han d'lslande, novel. Paris, 1823.
La Muse française, begun in 1823, ended in July, 1824. It contains several articles by Hugo.
Odes et Ballades, 2nd volume. Paris, 1824.
Relation d'un voyage au Mont Blanc. Paris, 1825. The MS. was sold to a publisher, but never published.
Bug-Jargal, novel. Paris, 1826.
Odes, 3rd volume. Paris, 1826.
Cromwell, drama. Paris, 1827.
Les Orientales. Paris, 1828 (December).
Le Dernier Jour d'un condamné. Paris, 1829 (January).
Marion Delormé. Paris, 1829. Not acted until 1830.
Hernani, ou l'honneur castillan, drama. Paris, 1829. Acted for the first time on February 26, 1830.
Notre-Dame de Paris. Paris, 1831 (March 15).
Les Feuilles d'automne. Paris, 1831.
Le Roi s'amuse, drama. Paris, 1832.
Lucrèce Borgia, drama. Paris, 1833.
Marie Tudor, drama. Paris, 1833.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 244
The book
Les Chants du crépuscule. Paris, 1835.
Angelo, drama. Paris, 1835.
Les Voix intérieures. Paris, 1837.
Ruy Blas, drama. Paris, 1838.
Les Rayons et les Ombres. Paris, 1840.
Le Rhin. Paris, 1842. It is divided into three parts: Les Lettres, La Légende du beau Pécopin et de la belle
Bauldour, Conclusion politique.
Les Burgraves, trilogy. Paris, 1843.
Napoléon le Petit. Brussels, 1852.
Les Chátiments. Geneva, 1853.
Les Contemplations. Paris, 1856.
La Légende des siécles. First Series. Paris, 1859.
Les Misérables. Paris, 1862.
William Shakespeare. Paris, 1864.
Les Chansons des rues et des bois. Paris, 1865.
Les Travailleurs de la mer. Paris, 1866.
L'Homme qui rit, novel. Paris, 1869.
L'Année terrible. Paris, 1872.
Quatre-vingt-treize, novel. Paris, 1873.
La Légende des siécles. Second Series. Paris, 1877.
L'Art d'être grand-père. Paris, 1877.
L'Histoire d'un crime. Paris, 1877. It was written at Brussels soon after the coup d'état of 1851, but not
published until 1877, when the Republic was in danger.
Le Pape. Paris, 1878.
La Pitié suprême. Paris, 1879.
L'Ane. Paris, 1880.
Religions et Religion, poems. Paris, 1880.
Les Quatre Vents de l'Esprit. Paris, 1881.
Torquemada. Paris, 1882.
La Légende des siècles. Third Series. Paris, 1883.
II
POSTHUMOUS WORKS.
III
Besides these works Hugo wrote many articles, some of which appeared subsequently in complete editions of
his works. The most remarkable of these are Journal des idées, des opinions et des lectures dun jeune
Jacobite. 1819.
IV
The studies and criticisms on Hugo form a large and ever-increasing library. The most remarkable among
them are the following:
And a host of articles by such critics as Émile Montégut, Émile Augier, Edmond Scherer, without speaking of
the innumerable notes and criticisms which have appeared on Hugo and his work in daily papers and
periodicals both in France and in foreign countries.
V.
PORTRAITS.
These are extremely numerous, but previously to 1851, that is, before Hugo left France, they all represent him
as a clean-shaven man. After his exile Hugo grew a beard, hence the alteration so noticeable in the portraits
subsequent to 1851.
The portrait chosen (top of the document) represents Hugo in his youth, at the time of the first appearance of
Notre-Dame de Paris.
III 246
The book
End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of La Légende des Siècles, by Victor Hugo
*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LA LÉGENDE DES SIÈCLES ***
Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules,
set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you
do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is
subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
redistribution.
PORTRAITS. 247
The book
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in
a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check
the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning
the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
States.
PORTRAITS. 248
The book
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or
distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.net),
you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
PORTRAITS. 249
The book
form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is
owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments
must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg-tm works.
- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
1.F.
PORTRAITS. 250
The book
public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
your equipment.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
PORTRAITS. 251
The book
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
PORTRAITS. 252
The book
Chief Executive and Director
[email protected]
Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
PORTRAITS. 253
The book
Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks replace the old file and take over
the old filename and etext number. The replaced older file is renamed.
VERSIONS based on separate sources are treated as new eBooks receiving
new filenames and etext numbers.
Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
http://www.gutenberg.net
EBooks posted prior to November 2003, with eBook numbers BELOW #10000,
are filed in directories based on their release date. If you want to
download any of these eBooks directly, rather than using the regular
search system you may utilize the following addresses and just
download by the etext year.
http://www.gutenberg.net/etext06
EBooks posted since November 2003, with etext numbers OVER #10000, are
filed in a different way. The year of a release date is no longer part
of the directory path. The path is based on the etext number (which is
identical to the filename). The path to the file is made up of single
digits corresponding to all but the last digit in the filename. For
example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at:
http://www.gutenberg.net/1/0/2/3/10234
PORTRAITS. 254