The Journey of Advaita: From the Rgveda to Sri Aurobindo

The Journey of Advaita

Contemporary Researches in

Hindu Philosophy & Religion

(ISSN 0971-9628)

1. Idealistic Thought in Indian Philosophy; by Shuchita C. Divatia (ISBN 978-81-246-0021-4)

2. Karma and Reincarnation: The Vedāntic Perspective; by Muni Narayana Prasad (ISBN 978-81-246-0022-1)

3. Stonemill and Bhakti: From the Devotion of Peasant Women to the Philosophy of Swamies; by Guy Poitevin and Hema Rairkar (ISBN 978-81-246-0059-7)

4. Śaivism: Some Glimpses; by G.V. Tagare (ISBN 978-81-246-0076-4)

5. Advaita: A Conceptual Analysis; by A. Ramamurty (ISBN 978-81-246-0067-2)

6. Mind–Body Dualism: A Philosophic Investigation; by Alpana Chakraborty (ISBN 978-81-246-0071-9)

7. Hinduism and Scientific Quest; by T.R.R. Iyengar (ISBN 978-81-246-0077-1)

8. Indra and Other Vedic Deities: A Euhemeristic Study; by Uma Chakravarty (ISBN 978-81-246-0080-1)

9. Brahma-Vāda: Doctrine of Śrī Vallabhācārya; by G.V. Tagare (ISBN 978-81-246-0112-9)

10. The Science of Enlightenment: Enlightenment, Liberation and God: A Scientific Explanation; by Nitin Trasi (ISBN 978-81-246-0130-3)

11. Retrieving Sāṁkhya History: An Ascent from Dawn to Meridian; by Lallanji Gopal (ISBN 978-81-246-0143-3)

12. The Philosophical Foundations of Hinduism; by A. Ramamurty (ISBN 978-81-246-0163-1)

13. The Eternal Hinduism; by Baidyanath Saraswati (ISBN 978-81-246-0249-2)

14. Vedānta and its Philosophical Development; by A. Ramamurty (ISBN 978-81-246-0347-5)

15. Sāṁkhya-Yoga Epistemology; by Mukta Biswas (ISBN 978-81-246-0371-0)

16. A Sourcebook of Classical Hindu Thought; by Arvind Sharma (ISBN 978-81-246-0643-8)

17. A Treatise on Advaita Vedānta; by S. Bhuvaneshwari (ISBN 13: 978-81-246-0707-7)

18. Advaita Metaphysics: A Contemporary Perspective; by Tapti Maitra (ISBN 13: 978-81-246-0747-3)

Contemporary Researches in Hindu Philosophy and Religion, no. 19

The Journey of Advaita

From the R̥gveda to Sri Aurobindo

Priti Sinha

Cataloging in Publication Data — DK

[Courtesy: D.K. Agencies (P) Ltd. ]

Sinha, Priti, author

The journey of Advaita : from the R̥gveda to

Sri Aurobindo / Priti Sinha.

pages cm (Contemporary researches in Hindu philosophy and religion; no. 19).

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Advaita – History. 2. Śaṅkarācārya. 3. Ghose,

Aurobindo, 1872-1950. I. Title. II. Series: Contemporary

researches in Hindu philosophy and religion; no. 19.

LCC B132.A3S56 2017 | DDC 181.482 23

ISBN: 978-81-246-0989-7

First published in India, 2019

© Author

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission of both the copyright owner, indicated above, and the publisher.

Printed and published by:

D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.

Regd. Office : VedaœrÁ, F-395, Sudarshan Park

(Metro Station : ESI Hospital), New Delhi - 110 015

Phones : (011) 2545 3975, 2546 6019

e-mail : [email protected]

Web : www.dkprintworld.com

to my husband

Shri Ashok Kumar Varma

a companion, an anchor, an inspiration

who stood firm with me at trying times,

encouraging me to strive for the best

Preface

The present work, The Journey of Advaita, intends to elucidate the profundity of Advaitic philosophy which is but the most exquisite philosophical tradition of India. Vedāntists by their significant contribution have enriched the area of Indian philosophy with their understanding of the mystery of human life, the dimension of human existence and its destiny.

Advaita Vedānta is not a later development of thought as one of the six systems of Indian philosophy. Right from the Vedic period Indian philosophical thought has exhibited its Advaitic strand. The general belief is that there is polytheism and not monism in Veda as Vedic r̥ṣis worshipped different gods and goddesses in anticipation to get their prayer rewarded in the form of material benefits, but in the Vedic dictum, ekam sad viprā bahudhā vadanti, we can find a spiritual prevision of Advaita philosophy too. There is incessant flow of Advaitic thought right from the dawn of civilization. Yes, sometimes it is in disguised form.

There was echo of unity in some of the hymns of Vedas, Upaniṣads picked up this echo and sought to realize this unity amidst diversity by meditation and spiritual experiences; hence in Upaniṣads there is shifting of this centre from the outer to the inner. Since the world is an emanation and not creation of God there is no duality between the creator and the creation. The identity of Brahman with the universe resolves all duality. In Upaniṣads ātman too is Brahman in the sense of identity and not in the sense of community. In the journey from Vedic philosophy to Upaniṣadic philosophy there is a distinct sign of transformation from God to self, from prayer to philosophy, from polytheism to monotheistic mysticism which worked as foundation of later Advaita. In Upaniṣadic philosophy we find a first sketch of Advaita philosophy, Śaṅkara’s Advaita is only a growth of the Advaitic strands found in Upaniṣads in a very logical and systematic way.

Śaṅkara, the most precious gem of Indian philosophical thought, illumined with his logical acumen the firmament of Advaita which lulled the erudite scholars for centuries to come. The galaxy of Advaitic authors like Sureśvarācārya, Vācaspati Miśra and Citsukhācārya contributed immensely to make the roots of Advaita strong but it could not serve as a solace for those who had a tender heart and not a strong rational mind. They looked for emotional appeasement where bhakti was more acceptable than jñāna. Rāmānuja’s Viśiṣṭādvaita, Madhva’s Dvaita, Nimbārka’s Dvaitādvaita and Śuddhādvaita of Vallabhācārya sought to satisfy the aspirant religious soul which aspires loving communion with God. As a result Bhakti-Vedānta came into existence which served as a transitional link between Kevalādvaita of Śaṅkara and Integral Advaitism of Sri Aurobindo which is said to be the Vedānta of tomorrow. Bhakti-Vedānta does not cancel the world as māyā as it is creation of God. His creatorship is not incompatible with His Absoluteness. Sri Aurobindo goes even further; he presents an integral approach, a dynamic truth vision. His Integral Advaita reconciles the becoming of the world with the being of God. As the manifestation of Brahman the world is divine in nature. Both being and becoming are real. In onward march of evolution, the lower is not to be rejected as Śaṅkara thinks, but to be uplifted. Sri Aurobindo thinks for the salvation of the whole universe and not only of human being. What the ancient seers said in mystic way is being accepted by the modern scientists also. Modern physics has not refuted Advaita philosophy rather it has revitalized it. It is also taking Advaitic stand when it accepts that matter is a kind of non-material energy. The fact of matter is that it is no longer a fact. Modern science believes that the Universe is a field of energy, any material cannot be the cause of the Universe and the input of human consciousness cannot any longer be ignored. It is consciousness and not matter which is the building block of the Universe, the ground of all beings. All things – mass and energy – are no longer antithetical. Like Śaṅkara they too accept that the spatio-temporal world can never be final. There is something ineffable about the real, which is to be explored by intuition and not by reason. Albert Einstein says: I can never like a work if it cannot be intuitively grasped. There is no ontological absolute reality in quantum particles. The rhythm of the world consists in the unity of unity and diversity. Quantum physics has allowed us to enter into the era where metaphysics and philosophy are no longer antithetical. It can be happily said: The earliest formula of wisdom promises to be the last.

My book is an effort to elucidate the journey of Advaita philosophy right from the Vedas, Upaniṣads, Bhakti-Vedānta to that of Integral Advaitism of Sri Aurobindo, and that it doesn’t end here but its philosophy is being increasingly advocated and explored by modern science too.

This book will be incomplete without recording my gratitude to my mentor late Dr K.N. Mishra who finetuned my understanding of Advaita philosophy. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Dr Vashishtha Narain Tripathi (Former HOD, Kashi Vidyapeeth) for his relentless encouragement and help. My heartfelt appreciation and thanks to Dr Ashish Pandey for his constant support without which this book wouldn’t have seen the light of day. In the last to my daughters Shriti, Shriya and Saumya, whose love and support ensured me enough time to indulge in my writing.

With my limited knowledge, this effort of mine is like an oblation in the jñāna yajña. I request all the enlightened scholars to overlook the shortcomings if any.

Priti Sinha

Contents

Preface

Abbreviations

Introduction

1. Traces of Advaita in R̥gveda

2. Advaita in Upaniṣads

Advaita Vedānta as Independent School

3. Kevalādvaita of Śaṅkara

Meaning of the Word Brahman

Saguṇa and Nirguṇa-Brahman

Sat (Existence)

Brahman as Consciousness

Brahman as Bliss

Saguṇa Brahman or Īśvara

Proofs for the Existence of God

Śaṅkara’s Conception of Man and His Bondage

Jīva and Ātman

Jīva and Sākṣin

Īśvara and Jīva

Tat Tvam Asi

Three States of Jīva

The Doctrine of Māyā

Māyā and Avidyā

Adhyāsa

Is Avidyā One or Many?

World

Triple Reality

Śaṅkara’s Conception of Liberation

The Way to Liberation

Karma and Jñāna

Bhakti and Jñāna

Jīvanmukti and Videhamukti

4. Schools of Theistic Vedānta

Viśiṣṭādvaita of Rāmānuja

The Nature of Ultimate Reality

Para Manifestation

Antaryāmī Manifestation

Arcā Manifestation

The Human Soul and Its Bondage

Destiny of Man and the Ways to Attaint It

Dvaita Vedānta of Madhvācārya

Concept of Ultimate Reality

Brahman

The Concept of Jīva and His Bondage

The Reality of World

The Concept of Mokṣa

Dvaitādvaita Vedānta of Nimbārka

The Nature of Reality

The Nature of Jīva

The Nature of The World

The Concept of Salvation and Ways to Attain It

Śuddhādvaita of Vallabhācārya

The Nature of Soul And Its Bondage

The Nature of The World

Liberation

Divine Grace of Puṣṭi Mārga

5. The Integral Advaitism of Sri Aurobindo

Existence (Sat)

Conscious-Force

Bliss

Integral Advaitism

The Concept of Supermind

The Supermind As Creator

Supermind as Truth-Consciuosness

The Absolute and The Supermind

The Triple Status of Supermind

Supermind and Overmind

Sri Aurobindo’s Conception of Man and His Bondage

The Concept of the Individual Self

The Double Soul

Evolution

Spiritual Evolution

Triple Character of the Process of Evolution

The Triple Transformation

Psychic Transformation

Spiritual Transformation

Higher Mind

Illumined Mind

Intuitive Mind

Overmind

Supramental Transformation

The Destiny of Man

Gnostic Being

Place of Personality In the Gnostic Being

Divine Life

6. A Summing up of the Journey of Advaita from Śaṅkara to Sri Aurobindo

7. Advaita and Modern Science

Bibliography

Index

Abbreviations

Ai.U.- Aitareyopaniṣad

Apa.- Aparokṣānubhūti

B.G.- Bhagavadgītā

B.G.R.B.- Bhagavadgītā Rāmānuja Bhāṣya

B.G.Ś.B.- Bhagavadgītā Śāṅkara-Bhāṣya

B.S.- Brahmasūtra

B.S.M.B.- Brahmasūtra Madhvācārya-Bhāṣya

B.S.S.B.- Brahmasūtra Śāṅkara-Bhāṣya

Br̥.U.- Br̥hadāraṇyakopaniṣad

Br̥.U.Ś.B.- Br̥hadāraṇyakopaniṣad Śāṅkara-Bhāṣya

C.I.P.- Contemporary Indian Philosophy

Chā.U.- Chāndogya Upaniṣad

Chā.U.Ś.B.- Chāndogyopaniṣad Śāṅkara-Bhāṣya

G.K.- Gauḍapāda Kārikā

G.K.Ś.B.- Gauḍapāda Kārikā Śāṅkara-Bhāṣya

H.I.P.- History of Indian Philosophy by S.N. Dasgupta

Īśa.U.- Īśopanisad

K.U.- Kaṭhopaniṣad

K.U.Ś.B.- Kaṭhopaniṣad Śāṅkara-Bhāṣya

Ke.U.- Kenopaniṣad

Ke.U.Ś.B.- Kenopaniṣad Śāṅkara-Bhāṣya

M.U.- Muṇḍakopaniṣad

M.U.Ś.B.- Muṇdakopaniṣad Śāṅkara-Bhāṣya

Māṇḍ.K.- Māṇḍūkya Kārikā

Māṇḍ.U.- Māṇḍūkyopaniṣad

Naiṣ.- Naiṣkarmyasiddhiḥ

P.I.- The Philosophy of Integralism by Haridas Chaudhary

P.R.- Prameya-ratnārṇava

Pra.U.- Praśnopaniṣad

Pra.U.Ś.B.- Praśnopaniṣad Śāṅkara-Bhāṣya

S.D.S.- Sarva-Darśana Saṁgraha by Mādhavācārya

Śaṁ.Śā.- Saṁkṣepa Śārīraka

Sū.Mā.- Śuddhādvaita-Mārtaṇḍa

Sve.U.- Śvetāśvataropaniṣad

Sve.U.S.B.- Śvetāśvataropaniṣad Śāṅkara-Bhāṣya

T.D.N- Tattvārtha-dīpa-nibandha

T.U.- Taittirīyopaniṣad

T.U.Ś.B.- Taittirīyopaniṣad Śāṅkara-Bhāṣya

Up.Sā.- Upadeśasāhasrī by Śaṅkara (tr. Swami Jagadananda)

V.C.- Vivekacūdāmaṇi

V.E.- Vedānta Explained by V.H. Date

V.K.- Vedānta Kaustubha by Roma Bose

V.P.- Vedānta Paribhāṣā by Dharmaraja Dhvarindra

V.P.S.- Vedānta Pārijāta Saurabha by Roma Bose

Viv.- Vivekacūḍāmaṇi

Y.A.- The Yoga of Sri Aurobindo by Nolini Kanta Gupta

Introduction

Advaita is not only a philosophical discourse but a vision: a vision of spiritual experience which takes into its fold philosophical illumination as well as moral exaltation. Reality is not only to be thought of but to be lived, a person has to become one with it. The focus of Advaita is on immanent potency and infinite possibility of human soul. There is no numerological calculation in its domain. The reality is one and only one. It includes both matter and spirit, both being and becoming.

Many persons generally believe that Vedic philosophy is mainly polytheistic in character. They ignore the fact that different gods and goddesses in R̥gveda are worshipped not only in their individual capacity but as manifestations of the ultimate Reality; that behind gods and goddesses there is a pronounced unity. Even monotheism failed to satisfy their inquisitive mind. Their questioning mind started thinking in terms of kasmai devāya haviṣā vidhema. And in their search they came to the neutral term which exceeds all monotheism. In Nāsadīya hymns we get the picture of speculative monism of highest order, tad ekam. In later period all divinities were conglomerated in one supreme reality. Thus the urge to visualize the Ultimate God is distinctly perceptible in Vedas. It is said that R̥gveda is the original storehouse of Indian Idealism where there is substantial message of unity in germinal form.

In the journey from Vedic philosophy to Upaniṣadic philosophy, there is a transfer of interest from God to self, from prayer to philosophy. There is continuity of thought running from God to self, from Saṁhitās, Brāhmaṇas and Āraṇyakas to Upaniṣads. The more they walked, the more they realized the unity of self with Brahman. Upaniṣadic seers picked up monistic suggestions from Vedic hymns and strengthened them into the philosophy of Advaita. The interest was transformed from the outer to the inner. God is to be realized in the inner recesses of one’s heart, one has not to seek God but to see Him. The ultimate question for the Upaniṣadic seers was, what is that by knowing which everything is known, and their search for reality endlessly goes till they come to the ultimate conclusion tat tvam asi which assures us that we have the capacity to become Divine. The reality is both the essence of cosmic phenomena as well as psychological self. It is not to be rationally understood but intuitively realized, they realize the truth by direct awareness.

Although all the later systems of philosophy derive their thought also from Upaniṣads, Advaita Vedānta is entirely based on them. The concept of self is the special legacy of Upaniṣad to later systems. ekam sad gets proper explanation in bequeathed Upaniṣadic philosophy. Upaniṣads were never compiled as treaty, they are only records of the inner experience of the seers received by intuition. They are the first recorded experience of the seers at a systematic and rational philosophizing. Bādarāyaṇa, Śaṅkara and later Vedāntists introduced an order by giving them a more systematic shape. Upaniṣads adhered to this continuity but at the same time they gave fillip to new schools of thought. The mystic hedges of Upaniṣads give rise to different suggestions taken by later systems but Vedānta is entirely based on them where unity is more important than duality.

In this way the caravan of Advaita Vedānta went incessantly flowing through different schools of Bhakti-Vedānta setting its full height in Integral Advaitism of Sri Aurobindo.

For Śaṅkara, the real is one and indubitable. By real he means that which is present in all times, kālatraya-sattāvat. The empirical world is not trikāla satya as its reality will be sublated by the knowledge of unity. As only gold is real and not the ornament, only Brahman is real. Moreover, an eternal thing cannot have a beginning.¹ For him granting reality to the world will mean to accept fundamental dualism which is a false metaphysics. He sticks to Advaitism and follows it in every sphere.

Ātman is verily Brahman. Brahman realization means self-realization. Śaṅkara stands pledged to the doctrine of oneness. Liberation is another name of cosmic expansion of self (sarvātma bhāva). The identity of self is not only bare identity, it is identical with Brahman in all its fullness (pūrṇatva) and in all its richness of contents. "It is perception by ātman, in ātman and of ātman, ātmanā ātmani, ātmānam." Śaṅkara never promises liberation on the other side of the grave. It can be realized here and now, the only need is to see him but not to seek him.

He built Advaita doctrine on the firm foundation of śrutis.He accepts that brahman can be realized through revelation but intellect is not looked down upon; rather it is kept as an ancillary to revelation on vital metaphysical principle. When he asserts that intellect is insecure it is kutarka he is condemning. Reasoning for him was both offence and defence against his opponents and at the same time it was helpful in interpreting the scriptures which was his great passion. He constantly defends śruti with reason. He provides a rational foundation to the great doctrine of Vedānta. The genius of Śaṅkara gave final shape to Advaita though the background was created long ago. After Śaṅkara, the great theistic Vedāntists, Rāmānuja, Madhva, Nimbārka and Vallabha rose against the concept of Nirguṇa-Brahman. Rather they attempt a harmonious synthesis of Absolutism with personal theism as what they want is a personal relation with saguṇa Brahman. Since bhakti for them is the chief source of mukti, they need personal relationship with God. The world as a creation of God can’t be rejected.

In the Viśiṣṭādvaita of Rāmānuja, unity is qualified by diversity. Soul and matter are His attributes, Cidācidviśiṣṭa Brahman is the absolute Supreme Reality while the world is His viśeṣaṇa. He accepts the world as anitya and not false. Dependence does not mean the unreality. Brahman manifests himself both in cit and acit. For Him the world is too great and meaningful to be lightly dismissed as product of avidyā. There is inseparable relation (apr̥thak siddhi) between Brahman and soul. He believes not in self-effacement but in self-surrender to personal god. He has emphasized the religious side but not at the cost of philosophical wisdom.

Madhva, the champion of dvaita Vedānta, is the born foe of Śaṅkara’s Absolutism. His conception of God emphasizes two aspects of divinity: the perfection of being (sarva guṇa pūrṇatva) and freedom from all defects and limitation (sarva doṣa gandha vivarjita). Nirguṇa texts cannot nullify the qualities which śrutis themselves describe: His activity is the consequence of his overflowing perfection. Madhva identifies God with Viṣṇu. Lakṣmī is His consort as eternal as Lord Himself. She is personification of God’s creative energy. Creation is a metaphysical fact. Nānātva is real and is dependent on God. He condemns all the three reasons of Śaṅkara to prove the falsity of the world in cognizability (dr̥śyatva), materiality (jaḍatva) and the fact of being a part (aṁśatva). God is both inherent (samavāyī) and efficient (nimitta) cause of the world. His view neither is vivartavāda nor pariṇāmavāda, it is avikr̥ta pariṇāmavāda. The word of Śruti that by knowing one you know all does not propound the falsity of the world, rather it advocates the cause–effect relation between God and the world (nahi satya-jñānena mithyā jñānam sambhavati). Tat tvam asi does not advocate identity. Madhva interprets sa ātmā tat tvam asi, as sa ātmā atat tvam asi (na dvaitvam bhrānti-kalpitam).² Creation is a reality though it is dependent on God. The soul is real, Brahman is real; the difference between them too is real. In liberation the soul lives in harmony with God but it is not completely merged there.

Nimbārka advocates the doctrine of bhedābhedavāda (the doctrine of difference and non-difference). God possesses innumerable qualities which can be virtually classified as attributes of majesty and attributes of sweetness. Lord is both transcendental and immanent, all powerful as well as merciful. His might and majesty are as important as his love and sweetness. Some of his qualities are sauśīlya (to meet all without considering his status and position) and vātsalya (not to pay heed to devotee’s mistakes). Brahman, world and soul – all the three principles – are real; creation is His sport. He creates out of fullness of his nature and abundance of bliss. He asserts the relation of identity and difference between world and Brahman and again between soul and Brahman (ubhaya vidhivākyānām tulya balatvāt). Brahman, world and soul are neither absolutely identical nor absolutely distinct. Like Rāmānuja, Nimbārka too emphasizes identity as well as difference, but while Rāmānuja emphasizes identity more than difference, for Nimbārka both are equally important.

Vallabha’s advaita is śuddhādvaita, pure non-dualism. There is only one Brahman who is Kr̥ṣṇa who is both the inherent (samavāyī) and efficient (nimitta) causes of the universe. Māyā is not a principle of creation but a power of God which is one with Him. He is warp and woof of all that exist. Neither is his view vivartavāda nor pariṇāmavāda but avikr̥ta pariṇāmavāda. A desire for self-expression is innate in Brahman. The world springs out of God, as spark springs out of fire, lustre from jewels, rays from lamp. As cotton spreads itself as thread, God spreads Himself as the world.

In liberation, soul enjoys affinity with God but it does not lose its identity in Him as Śaṅkara thinks. He gives creative freedom to them to do right or wrong action for his own sport. He is merciful to let his devotee enjoy supreme bliss and to attain affinity with Him. He stresses a life of unqualified love for God. For liberated soul there is no difference among world, soul and God. Tat tvam asi is literally true not figuratively. He emphasizes identity and subordinates difference.

The school of Bengal Vaiṣṇavism of Caitanya is known as Acintya-bhedābheda-vāda. Madhva was his spiritual guru and Caitanya himself thought that he was preaching Madhva’s dualism, but in fact there is his close affinity with Nimbārka as what he practised actually was difference in non-difference. Hari, the personal god of love and grace, is the Ultimate Reality. He reverses Śaṅkara’s position. Brahman as the creator, the Lord is the complete truth. He is necessarily Saccidānanda. His inner power which forms this essence is manifested as threefold power: as sandhinī (which is existence), as saṁvit (which is consciousness) and as āhlādinī (which is bliss). Through His higher energy, He becomes the efficient cause of the world and through His lower energy, He becomes the material cause of the world. He assumes many forms of which the chief is Lord Kr̥ṣṇa. Rādhā is the essence of delight-giving power. The souls are infinite and remain distinct even in liberation. They are manifestation of God’s energy. If the lots of jīvas would have been decided by the work done by them, God would have lost His sovereignty. He gives creative freedom to them to do right or wrong action for his own spirit.

In liberation the soul is not submerged into Brahman; only the wrong notion of soul vanishes. World too, like jīva, comes out of God through His power of being. They are dependent on God but they are separate and distinct from Him. Bhakti is the sole means of liberation which means the eternal enjoyment of this blissful love for Kr̥ṣṇa in His nitya vr̥ndāvana dhāma.

Theistic Vedānta accepts the reality of experience at all levels. They do not differentiate Brahman of logic from the God of religion and reconcile the demand of logic with the needs of religious feelings. Their concept of bhakti rūpa jñāna meets both ends, the demand of metaphysics and supreme call of love. Śāṇḍilya thinks that the cause of repeated transmigration of soul is not ignorance but lack of devotion.

Sri Aurobindo

Theistic Vedānta served as the transitionary link between Śaṅkara and Sri Aurobindo. They accept the reality of the world but not of indeterminate Absolute. Sri Aurobindo accepts both. He builds advaitic edifice in new texture of modern age. He comprehends new values and opens up new vistas of human progress. Śaṅkara denies the multiplicity, Rāmānuja denies unqualified oneness, Madhva fails to recognize unity in multiplicity but Sri Aurobindo says: "Real monism accepts all things as one Brahman, it does not bisect it into two incompatible realities as self and not self, as Brahman and not Brahman." If it is true that the self alone exists it must also be true that all is self. In spite of major difference with Advaitic Vedānta, it is vivid that Advaitic Vedānta created background for Sri Aurobindo’s dynamic philosophy. Identifying with the divine within is not enough. One has to achieve identity with the divine without. The Divine which manifests in the individual is manifested in the universe also. Not only the individual is to be spiritualized but the whole cosmos. Salvation means perfection of man as well as the whole universe. Kaṭhopaniṣad too says: "Brahman is attained here in this world (atra brahma samaśnute)." The world is not a product of māyā to be sublated by real knowledge, it has the potency to be divinized.

In the onward march the lower is not rejected but uplifted. Involution of spirit precedes the evolution. Ātman is verily Saccidānanda. Thus Sri Aurobindo envisages the possibility of the salvation of the human race as a whole and not only of the individual. This seems to be a significant contribution of Sri Aurobindo to the ancient and traditional Hindu concept of liberation.

Even today, Advaita philosophy is acceptable equally to science and philosophy both. With dauntless logical acumen and spiritual insight, Śaṅkara propounded the theory of Advaita Vedānta which is fully acceptable to modern scientists also. During the period of classical physics, philosophy and science were two different disciplines. The scientists believed that they cannot incorporate philosophy into their domain which is not subjectively verifiable; but with the appearance of quantum physics their field of research widened. They are no more confined to the formalistic view of reality. The classical physics was deterministic and mechanical. Isaac Newton gave a static model of the world which was deterministic, but by reducing the physical world to a dynamic unitary substratum, modern physics opened an understanding of the mystic view of the world. They started thinking that we cannot know anything unless we know everything, and that knowledge can be gained through intuition only. This gives the grasp of the world as a whole and not in fragmentation of mind and matter, within and without. Modern physicists are realizing that their knowledge is not a catalogue of properties of nature only. Max Planck, the father of quantum physics, felt that science is progressing towards the aim which is to be perceived intuitively and not rationally. They are realizing the basic oneness of the universe. They are getting at the point that consciousness is more fundamental than matter. Erwin Schrödinger’s world view has affinity with Vedānta when it says that there is only a single consciousness of which we are only different parts. Like Advaita Vedānta he accepts that we cannot find consciousness in plural. What Vedānta says in mystic way has started drawing attention of the scientific genius of today. Modern science is taking a quantum jump from wisdom to intuition. The scientists are going back to the philosophy of unity. The whole universe is one is not only the belief of Vedānta, it can be scientifically demonstrated now. It is said that in this materialistic world, the scientific workers are only profoundly religious people.

What we need today is a dynamic interplay between mystical intuition, which studies the roots, and scientific attitude, which understands the branches.

¹ na hi nityaṁ kenacid ārabhyate loke yad ārabdhaṁ tadnityaṁ iti̇A — T.U.Ś.B. 1.1.

² Sarva-Darśana Saṁgraha, p. 269.

1

Traces of Advaita in R̥gveda

Indian philosophy is a perennial river flowing incessantly down the ages. Philosophy here is a spiritual way of life; even the universe is also supposed to be spiritual in its intrinsic nature. The Indian tradition draws its inspiration, both spiritual as well as moral, from the very fountain source of all inspirations, i.e. Śruti. The unique character of Indian philosophical systems is that they are not isolated systems claiming their independent origin; instead they are only different stages in the development of thought. The scholars humbly accept that they are only the authorized successive exponents and outstanding spokesmen of their respective systems which have been traditionally handed down to them from time immemorial. They are simply their best codifier. A.E. Gough (1903: 258) comments:

The philosophy has had its virtual pre-existence in each previous stage. What has been more implicit becomes more explicit, but has been no addition from without, no interpolation from foreign elements.

The spiritual temper that had set in under the unbridled spirit of inquiry in R̥gveda crystallized in different currents of Indian thought. Vedas are the ultimate source of inspiration in all fields of life but this faith is not mere hypnosis induced by undiluted veneration, not mere blind faith but a tentative belief terminating in an assured conviction begotten by logical ratiocination.

Usually we conceive polytheism or henotheism, a term coined by Max Müller, to express the manyness of gods and goddesses in R̥gveda but the fact is that like other Indian philosophical schools the keynote of Vedic hymns too is spiritual monism. To perceive different isms – anthropomorphism, polytheism, henotheism and monotheism – in the Vedas is like, to borrow a phrase from Gauḍapāda, to see the footprint of a bird in the sky (Sharma 1952: 16). The Vedic seers worshipped naturalistic and anthropomorphic Gods in the hope that they would listen to their prayers, accept the sacrifices and after being appeased, they would bestow their blessings. But soon they realized the inadequacy of their thought. The crowd of gods and goddesses proved weariness for them. They started realizing through the veil of manyness the unity which was underlying it.

The scattered rays dispersed among the crowd of deities are collected together in the intolerable splendour of the One nameless God who alone could satisfy the restless craving of the human heart and the sceptic mind.

– Radhakrishnan 1966, vol. I: 98

The R̥gvedic growth of thought, embodied in different concepts of gods, can be tentatively put in the following hierarchical order:

(a) Dyaus, the god of natural worship.

(b) Varuṇa, the moral god.

(c) Indra, the jealous conqueror who wanted to dominate.

(d) Prajāpati, the god of monotheists.

(e) Brahman, the one maximized essence of each of the gods of the preceding stages.

This has not been arranged in the chronological as well as the logical order of gods. In fact when the texts of R̥gveda were written, these stages had already passed away. After exploring all possible metaphysical aspects – materialistic, atheistic, nihilistic, theistic and idealistic – the monistic view was approved. They started believing that polytheistic beliefs are only different expressions of one all-comprehending unitary power. When the idea of creator God appeared, He was recognized as the One of speculative monism. In this way from the pluralistic view of the origin of the world, the monistic view arrived. There is only One being, the wise call it by various names: ekam sad viprā bahudhā vadanti (R̥V I.164.46). It is again said ekam vai idaṁ vivabhūvasarvam, santam bahudhā kalpayanti

(R̥V X.114.5).

In the texts of R̥gveda there are innumerable references dissimilated in hymns, advocating philosophical monism. For example, each of the twenty-two hymns of Sūkta 55 of Maṇḍala 3 says that the great divinity of the gods is One. The generic feature common to all these texts is "a pronounced unity (ekatvam) coupled with Omniformity (viśvarūpam), i.e. unity in variety". Vivekananda also feels that ekaṁ sad viprā bahudhā vadanti is the ground explanation that is given to all subsequent thoughts of India, the one that will be the theme of the whole world of religions. He further says that here lies the secret not only of Vedic hymns, but of all religious life of Indian thoughts.

The gods were never worshipped in R̥gveda in their individual capacities, but as the divine manifestations of that Ultimate God. "Hence, there is no development from polytheism through monotheism to monism, but only of monism from the first mantra portion to the last Upaniṣadic portion" (Sharma 1952: 16). The prayers were not offered separately to different gods, but to all of them. Their address name might have been different like Agni, Varuṇa and Mātariśva, but they are the expressions of the same God. Later on they were comprehended by one name as Viśvadeva which may be said to be an anticipation of later Vedānta. To quote T.M.P. Mahadevan (1957: 173):

It was rather by way of harmonization, by discovering the underlying unity of the different conception of godhead that the Vedic sect arrived at the idea of one God.

The later religious and philosophical thought developed out of crude ideology and suggestion of early thinkers. Brahman is the sole reality, and yet a place is found for the multitudes of gods as the manifestation of Brahman. The gods are praised only as manifestation of the Supreme, and not as individual identities different from the Supreme.

The hymns in R̥gveda are not addressed to these natural forces like sun, moon and sky independently. Kokileshwar Sastri (1931: 200) comments:

It is remarkably strange to imagine that the intelligent race of people like the Hindus should exhibit such a lamentable lack of even common sense in allowing the hymns and mantras addressed to inert, non-intelligent natural phenomena to form an essential part of their religion.

He further says that if R̥gvedic hymns contained nothing but prayers for the fascinating objects of the nature only to inspire awe and admiration, then its value is surely diminished (ibid.). He is of the firm belief that the importance of R̥gveda lies in the fact that it is the original storehouse of the Indian idealism which subsequently gave rise to Vedānta. He further feels that like the description of Brahman in the Upaniṣads as prāṇasya prāṇah, as manaso manaḥ, as sūryyasya sūryyaḥ, in Vedas too there is an invisible form of gods as personification of the forces of nature. There is at the same time growing a tendency for a monistic interpretation of the universe. From the babbling of the child-humanity, they pass on to the utterances of the truth of highest order. Monotheism, which was still a matter of faith in many quarters, failed to satisfy the later Vedic seers. Monotheistic belief had to answer to the queries like whether God had created the world on his own, or had applied His creative skills on some pre-existent matter. Undoubtedly the R̥gvedic thought started with infinite wonder, but soon ensued the reflective thought which introduced an order in the lawless mythologizing and God-making, leading to monism. All the crowding of gods and goddesses began to cause weariness to the intellect, so a tendency was soon shown to identify one God with another. We see in the hymns the practice of combining gods possessing similar characteristics such as Indra–Soma,