Votive offerings

Votive objects or ex-votos are a broad category of material artifacts produced with the intention of being offered as acts of faith. Common across historical periods, religions, and cultures, they are presented as tokens of gratitude for prayers answered, as well as the physical manifestation of hopes and anxieties. Agents of Faith explores votive offerings in the context of material culture, art history, and religious studies to better understand their history and present-day importance. By looking at what humans have chosen to offer in their votive transactions, this volume uncovers their most intimate moments in life and questions the nature, role, and function of one of the most fundamental aspects of the relationship between people and things—the imbuing of objects with sentiment. Encompassing exquisite works of art as well as votives of humble origin and material, with objects dating from 2000 B.C. to the twenty-first century, the beautiful illustrations and wide-ranging text expose the global reach of votive practices and the profoundly personal nature behind their creation.

Textiles comprise a vast and wide category of material culture and constitute a crucial part of the ancient economy. Yet, studies of classical antiquity still often leave out this important category of material culture, partly due to the textiles themselves being only rarely preserved in the archaeological record. This neglect is also prevalent in scholarship on ancient Greek religion and ritual, although it is one of the most vibrant and rapidly developing branches of classical scholarship. The aim of the present enquiry is, therefore, to introduce textiles into the study of ancient Greek religion and thereby illuminate the roles textiles played in the performance of Greek ritual and their wider consequences.

Among the questions posed are how and where we can detect the use of textiles in the sanctuaries, and how they were used in rituals including their impact on the performance of these rituals and the people involved. Chapters centre on three themes: first, the dedication of textiles and clothing accessories in Greek sanctuaries is investigated through a thorough examination of the temple inventories. Second, the use of textiles to dress ancient cult images is explored. The examination of Hellenistic and Roman copies of ancient cult images from Asia Minor as well as depictions of cult images in vase-painting in collocation with written sources illustrates the existence of this particular ritual custom in ancient Greece. Third, the existence of dress codes in the Greek sanctuaries is addressed through an investigation of the existence of particular attire for ritual personnel as well as visitors to the sanctuaries with the help of iconography and written sources.

By merging the study of Greek religion and the study of textiles, the current study illustrates how textiles are, indeed, central materialisations of Greek cult, by reason of their capacity to accentuate and epitomize aspects of identity, spirituality, position in the religious system, by their forms as links between the maker, user, wearer, but also as key material agents in the performance of rituals and communication with the divine.

Impressive about the finds from ancient Erochos (mod. Polydrosso) in Phokis is the broad time-span they represent. Artistic production ranges from subtle bronze-work to terracotta figurines of rich typology and iconography. Located not far from Delphi, and likewise in the folds of Mt Parnassos, the shrine at Erochos predated the establishment of the Amphiktyony. Yet, apparently for political reasons, another sanctuary of Demeter, at Anthele, served as the alternative venue for the Amphiktyons' convention, to emphasize the Thessalian predominance among member-states of the council. Spatial arrangement and architectural layout are addressed in this paper, next to an evaluation of the sanctuary's proximity to the Great Isthmus Corridor. We explore aspects of cult, to identify the divinities worshipped at Erochos and their relation to the cult of Kephissos river, evident from the architectural remains by the river springs, close nearby. We then investigate whether this could have been the Thesmophorion (sanctuary of Demeter Lawgiver) referred to by Pausanias. In parallel, we examine epigraphic evidence while trying to explain the scarce reference to this site in ancient sources and its longevity as a religious centre, despite the (likely) assimilation of the settlement of Erochos by the neighbouring Lilaea. By employing a number of comparanda, some conclusions can be reached regarding the local pantheon and the nature of the sanctuary at Erochos, deeply rooted in the landscape, as well as its pilgrims of different origins reflected in the recovered votive offerings. A further aim of our study is to set this sanctuary against milestones in regional history, such as the devastation of Lilaea by Philip.

ABSTRACT: This lecture, which forms part-1 of two parts, includes a discussion and illustration of the following topics: (1) How the Ancient Egyptians conceived of the tomb and its component parts; (2) How a typical middle-upper class family prepared their tomb; (3) What problems emerged regarding mortuary cults (e.g., continuity of offerings; security; etc.) and how they they resolved them (in part); (4) Ancient Egyptian beliefs about communicating with dead (including how they communicated); (5) Egyptian views upon reusing earlier tomb materials and actual practices (i.e., Did they still do it? Discourage it?); (6) Some of the Ancient Egyptian private (and royal) mortuary/funerary beliefs; (7) Some of the mummification practices during the Old Kingdom; (8) Old Kingdom (and later) Egyptians beliefs and approaches to death, mourning, and funerals; (9) Further discussion on private/elite afterlife beliefs (i.e., what happened after death?); (10) How the surviving family initiated and maintained a funerary cult for relatives; (11) Some of the ideal types of mortuary offerings (i.e., by the living …); (12) The various types of “back-up,” permanent offerings for the deceased; (13) Evidence for some historical autobiographical texts and other data (and their types); (14) Some doubts are sometimes implied (especially later) regarding the afterlife; and (15) The "typical" elite mastaba tomb layout/components (e.g., Burial; False door; Serdab). UPDATED: Extensive editing, formatting, and some additions on March 12, 2023.

The paper discusses the relationship between votive coroplastic and ritual systems, through the analysis of Late Classic and Hellenistic terracottas from Metaponto representing a Nymph with Pan or Silenos. A functional approach to the problem, based on the examination of numerous and different archaeological contexts, allows us to understand the original aspect of rituals and how the worshippers participated in the sacred ceremonies. It also lets us understand the possible internal transformation of the devotional forms in an evolving society.

Udgravning ved en helligkilde, der har været i anvendelse fra middelalderen og op til nyere tid. Herved fundet mønter, lerkarskår, glasskår, knapper m.v., der vidner om aktiviteter i tilknytning til kilden. Fundene er først og fremmest efterreformatoriske.

Das Thema Gesundheit und Krankheit hat durch die COVID19-Pandemie noch einmal mehr Bedeutung gewonnen, als wir es uns zu Beginn des Jahres hätten vorstellen können. Plötzlich müssen wir uns mit mikroskopisch kleinen Erregern, mit einer potentiell gefährlich verlaufenden Erkrankung, mit einem globalen Infektionsgeschehen auseinandersetzen. Das ist auf persönlicher wie auch gesellschaftlicher Ebene eine Herausforderung. Wie gingen vergangene Gesellschaften mit dem Thema Gesundheit und Krankheit um? In einer Welt "ohne Narkose und Aspirin", wie der Archäologe und Medizinhistoriker Ernst Künzl es nannte, in der jede Verletzung und jede Entbindung zu einer tödlich verlaufenden Infektion führen konnte?

Ein kurzer Einblick in griechische Heilkulte und die Neu-Untersuchung italischer Körperteilweihungen.

From workshop to sanctuary and grave. New trends in the study of Greek terracottas. Research on Greek terracottas has been considered for a long time as a minor field of Art History. Things are now changing with new approaches. The accurate restitution of technical mass-production processes reveals a handicraft to some extent comparable with modern industry, which was capable of spreading its products very quickly through the whole Mediterranean (e.g. the so called “rhodo-ionian” koine during the Archaic period, or the famous Tanagra style during the Hellenistic period). This phenomenon puts the question of the signification of the most widely received terracotta types, specially when offered in sanctuaries or placed in graves: in this field new answers – more mortals, lesser divinities! – shed new light on votive and funerary practices and more generally ancient Greek religion. [Original French text of the paper published in Hungarian : Okor 8, 2009, vol. 2, pp. 62-69]

This paper revisits some of the Roman-period discoveries made on Bullock Down, near Eastbourne, East Sussex. It aims to re-assess some of these discoveries and to update interpretations made in the past. As an example, this paper considers the unexpected signs of wealth  recovered from one of the two farmstead sites.

Version française de l'article publié Archaeological Reports 64 (2017-2018), p. 153-169. 
À travers 30 ans de bibliographie, état de la recherche sur la coroplathie grecque, qui s’est constituée en domaine de recherche autonome. Les principales nouveautés concernent d'abord l'examen des modalités de fabrication (généralisation de l'étude des séries, recherches sur la polychromie) et de diffusion (formation de koinès), qui font de la coroplathie un artisanat étonnamment moderne, ainsi que l’approche spatiale des ateliers et celle des artisans par l’épigraphie. Quant à la fonction des figurines dans les contextes votifs et funéraires, elle est désormais éclairée par l'approche anthropologique : naguère encore considérées comme de simples bibelots, les figurines de terre cuite deviennent aujourd'hui un élément incontournable de l'archéologie de la religion grecque.

In some Funen cemeteries from the Roman Iron Age weapons, personal equipment and tools have been
buried without connection to specific graves. In many cases the objects have been burnt and/or destroyed
before the deposition. At several cemeteries deposits of clay pots and in one case parts of a Roman bronze
cauldron have also been uncovered. These different types of deposits from the cemeteries are often published
as cenotaphs or badly preserved graves. However, the handling of the objects and the circumstances
of the deposits have close parallels in sacrifices from settlements and wetlands. Therefore, it is tempting
to interprete at least some of the deposits from cemeteries as sacrifices, while others can be understood
as the burial of objects which were considered "contaminated" or taboo. Seen in connection with other
structures in the Roman period cemeteries (funeral pyres, mortuary houses, roads, cooking pits, etc.) the
deposits reflect that burial sites were not used for funerals exclusively. They were central sites or scenes
where a diversity of activities related to burial rituals and ancestor cult were exercised.

Redazione: Maurizio Caperna (coordinatore), Flavia Colonna, Andreina Palombi GraJca e impaginazione: Roberto steve Gobesso Per la corrispondenza: Dipartimento di Storia dell'hchitettura e Conservazione dei Beni Architettonici, piazza Borghese, 9 -00186 Romatel. 06 49918825fax 06 6878169 Autorizzazione del Tribunale di Roma n. 131187 del 06/03/1987 I1 presente volume è stampato con il parziale contributo dell'università di Roma "La Sapienza" Informazioni su abbonamenti e distribu,' 710ne: Bonsignori Editore, viale dei Quattro Venti, 47 -Romatel. 06 5882839fax 06 5881496 Finito di stampare nel mese di gennaio 2002

Mainly we study the Iberian phase (fourth century BC) of one of the caves in the Sierra de los Hermanillos, identified as a sanctuary-cave, which is a new thing in Murcia, although these caves are well known in the surrounding areas of Alicante and Valencia.

A previous use of the cave is represented by Chalcolithic multiple burials, with objects such as fragments of plaster vessels.

Principalmente se estudia la fase ibérica (s. IV a.C.) de una de las cuevas de la Sierra de los Hermanillos, que se identifica como una cueva-santuario, lo que resulta novedoso en Murcia, aunque estas cuevas son bien conocidas en las zonas limítrofes de Alicante y Valencia.

Un uso previo de la cueva corresponde a enterramientos múltiples del Calcolítico, con objetos como fragmentos de vasos de yeso.

Mainly we study the Iberian phase (fourth century BC) of one of the caves in the Sierra de los Hermanillos, identified as a sanctuary-cave, which is a new thing in Murcia, although these caves are well known in the surrounding areas of Alicante and Valencia.

A previous use of the cave is represented by Chalcolithic multiple burials, with objects such as fragments of plaster vessels.

Principalmente se estudia la fase ibérica (s. IV a.C.) de una de las cuevas de la Sierra de los Hermanillos, que se identifica como una cueva-santuario, lo que resulta novedoso en Murcia, aunque estas cuevas son bien conocidas en las zonas limítrofes de Alicante y Valencia.

Un uso previo de la cueva corresponde a enterramientos múltiples del Calcolítico, con objetos como fragmentos de vasos de yeso.

Grâce à des exemples empruntés à l'Antiquité (Grèce) puis à l'époque contemporaine (Espagne, Wallonie, Grèce), on s'est attaché à comprendre comment le rite votif a pu évoluer au sein des manifestations de piété populaire.
En Grèce antique, le fonctionnement cultuel d’un sanctuaire a souvent été étudié dans son ensemble en tenant compte au mieux des divinités concernées et du personnel fonctionnaire, mais plus rarement des grands types de donateurs. Jamais néanmoins, on n'a observé de façon systématique ce qui fait le fondement même de la piété, c'est-à-dire les ex-voto. Quel type d'offrande donnait-on ? Pour quel motif ? Autant de questions auxquelles il a fallu tenter de répondre pour dégager les grands traits de ce rite de dédicace.
En passant ensuite à une étude diachronique comparatiste, il s'est agi de souligner combien la coutume de l'offrande est encore prégnante aujourd'hui : du Nord de la Grèce à l'Espagne en passant par la Wallonie ou Chypre, si les ex-voto changent parfois, la démarche, les motivations et les lieux de dépôt demeurent les mêmes. On note d'ailleurs que la frange entre la superstition, la magie et la religion est toujours aussi mince aujourd'hui que dans l'Antiquité.
C'est donc une pérennité de la démarche cultuelle qu'il est intéressant de démontrer  ici, au travers des textes antiques mentionnant les realia, et des objets votifs déposés actuellement dans les lieux de culte.

Roman helmets with face-masks constitute a category of military equipment that is rare and at the same time spectacular. They imitate human heads, bare or helmeted; rich decorations include mythological motives and apotropaic elements. Moreover, they are often made of precious bronze and sometimes even silvered. Those qualities make them focus the attention both of specialists working on Roman military equipment and the wide public.
Several such masks were found on the territory of Roman Dacia. Two were found in the river Olt and are believed to have been washed away from military sites. Another comes from a ditch of the Roman fort Gilău and has been interpreted as having been lost by its owner. All are believed to have been used as parade equipment by Roman cavalrymen. All belong to a rare category of helmets representing female heads.
However, it seems improbable that the loss of an item of that size and value would have remained unnoticed, and that it could be easily washed away by the river - remembering also the scarcity of such finds both within the province and the whole Empire. A study of religious practices of Roman military allows us to propose a re-interpretation of these artifacts. Rather then lost pieces of parade equipment we should probably view them as offerings deposited by members of the military or whole units to ensure the success of their various undertakings. This not only matches their findspots well, but also finds several analogies in the context of finds outside of Dacia.

Traendo ispirazione dalla pubblicazione del motuproprio di papa Francesco «Maiorem hac dilectionem sull’offerta della vita» con cui viene aperta una nuova via di santità, il saggio tenta di delineare la forma di spiritualità coinvolta dal ricorrere a tale locuzione («offerta della vita»), sia nel suo aspetto più specifico (gli “atti di offerta della vita”) sia nel suo aspetto più generale (fondamenti biblici, spiritualità martiriale, di riparazione, vittimale), giovandosi di approfondimenti specifici su alcune figure carmelitane e paradigmatiche di offerta della vita: Teresa di Gesù, Teresa di Gesù Bambino, Teresa Benedetta della Croce, Kinga della Trasfigurazione.

La nuova via di canonizzazione inaugurata da Maiorem hac dilectionem, oltre che riconoscere nuove fattispecie canoniche di santi, dischiuderà nuovi orizzonti di crescita spirituale per la chiamata universale alla santità nel mondo contemporaneo (non a caso papa Francesco cita il suddetto motuproprio in apertura della recente esortazione apostolica Gaudete et exsultate); orizzonti che, nelle loro potenzialità, ancora devono essere contemplati e scrutati nell’indagine teologica e nella prassi pastorale, tramite la possibile messa a fuoco di una spiritualità dell’offerta della vita. Su questo tema sono scarsi, se non assenti, studi approfonditi e aggiornati: lacuna colmata dalla presente pubblicazione grazie alla spiritualità esemplare del Carmelo.

Recensione su "L'Osservatore Romano": https://www.osservatoreromano.va/it/news/2021-12/quo-289/l-amore-piu-grande.html

Recensione su "Teresianum":
https://www.edizioniocd.it/cm-files/2021/12/23/maria-manuela-romano_ter-72_2021-2_605-607.pdf

The Parthenon has long been seen as the crowning glory of the classical Athenian acropolis. In antiquity, as now, it stood out above the city in all it's splendour for all to see. However, there have been many questions posed about its purpose and function. Was it a true temple? If not, what was it for? What did the frieze depict, and why? One major theory suggests that the structure could have been built very much for propaganda purposes, and, as the Greeks had only recently achieved peace with the Persians, it could be, in particular, anti-Persian propaganda.

Gaul’s annexation into the Roman Empire in the mid-first century BCE caused the development of new religious practices, including the practice of offering votive objects representing either parts of the body or the entire body at healing sanctuaries. This practice was not simply a Roman import; healing votives of this type had all but disappeared in Italy at the time of Roman annexation of Gaul. Because dedicants offered representations of themselves, analysis of this assemblage provides insight into the demographics of worshippers and offers a unique way to study the choices of women, especially non-elite women who are often archaeologically invisible. Differences between male- and female-gendered votives, especially when compared with the much more Roman practice of offering written dedications, provides a means to study colonialism as a gendered experience.


Research questions:
-Were representational healing votives more accessible to/popular among women than written dedications?
-In what ways did women and men dedicate healing votives differently?
-What may these differences suggest about gendered agency in this colonial context?

Attending, as a student, the excavation of the ancient Gymnasium at Delphi by Vangelis Pendazos in 1992, I was particularly impressed by the palaestra, which, from a wrestling bout for the physical encounter of athletes, was gradually converted into a venue for intellectual discourse among sophists, poets and erudite people . Its chambers sheltered lectures by orators and philosophers invited from afar . Yet, the inter-cultural relations and communication at Delphi had started much earlier and been cultivated by people engaged in art and technological know-how .

A large scale research project Celtic Coin Finds from Switzerland has recently been published. The assessment shows numerous aspects of the diverse coin use in regional, chronological and functional respect. Some of the results are presented here.

Les fouilles extensives menées dans l’aire maya ont mis au jour tout un ensemble de dépôts rituels associés aux édifices. Cette connexion entre dépôts et architecture est soulignée par le caractère intentionnel de leur placement au sein des structures. L’Acropole Nord de Tikal a révélé de nombreuses étapes de construction et dépôts rituels depuis le Préclassique moyen (800 av. J.-C.), jusqu’au Classique terminal (950 apr. J.-C.). La succession d’offrandes dans l’espace comme dans le temps peut donc être lue sous la forme d’une séquence.
Une relecture des anciennes fouilles conduites de 1958 à 1966 par le Projet Tikal sous la direction de W. Coe, a permis d’établir un corpus de 298 dépôts rituels et 125 traces de feux. Après une superposition des séquences architecturales et de déposition, les offrandes sont caractérisées en fonction de leur position stratigraphique (période de construction, d’occupation et d’abandon). Regroupées en « assemblages d’offrandes », elles sont ensuite observées selon des critères spatiaux, typologiques et statistiques.
Les autres catégories de dépôts, feux et sépultures, sont également analysées en regard de l’histoire architecturale. Enfin, ces témoins rituels sont interrogés sur une base plus émique, à la recherche d’indices concernant le sens que leurs accordaient les Mayas. En définitive, certains types d’offrandes récurrentes et de feux rituels font certainement partie de cérémonies liées au bâti, lors de l’inauguration puis de l’occupation d’un espace ou dans un but apotropaïque. D’autres ont probablement une agentivité propre, peut-être comme média vers l’inframonde, ou portent des pétitions différentes aux entités non-humaines.

Gaul’s annexation into the Roman Empire in the mid-first century B.C.E. caused the development of new religious practices, including the practice of offering votive objects representing either parts of the body or the entire body at healing sanctuaries. This practice was not simply a Roman import; healing votives of this type had all but disappeared in Italy at the time of Roman annexation of Gaul. Because dedicants offered representations of themselves, analysis of this assemblage provides insight into the demographics of worshippers and offers a unique way to study the choices of women, especially non-elite women who are often archaeologically invisible. Representational healing votives are a highly appropriate medium through which to study gendered experiences of colonialism in Roman Gaul because women and men have differential access to power in colonial environments; colonial self-representations inevitably reflect colonial power dynamics. Analysis of differences between male- and female-gendered votives provides a means to study colonialism as a gendered experience. Analysis reveals gendered differences in several dimensions of this votive practice including body parts represented, materials most commonly used, and preferred artistic style. Differences in votive practice between urban and rural sanctuaries are also addressed. The results of this analysis provide insight into how women and men responded differently to the colonial power dynamic in Roman Gaul.

This paper presents on going research, and is a work in progress. It was presented at the Spartan Austerity panel at the Celtic Conference in Classics, 21.7.2017, Montreal.

"My argument is that the lead votives, as tempting as it is, should not be seen as symbols for an austere sixth century Spartan culture, but as evidence for wider Spartan individuality. This is not a new argument in itself, but the reasons for thinking so, I think, are, and are supported by the interpretation of the initial findings of material analysis conducted at the University of Reading with lead figurines from the Ure Museum of Greek Archaeology. The material evidence suggests a widespread and frequent creation of figurines, an environment where individual commissions and ‘special orders’ separated the individual from the masses. I also suggest that the lead used to make the lead votives came not just from Laurion, but also East Lakonia, and perhaps other locations too."